C++

C++ is a middle-level programming language developed by Bjarne Stroustrup

starting in 1979 at Bell Labs. C++ runs on a variety of platforms, such as Windows,
Mac OS, and the various versions of UNIX. This C++ tutorial adopts a simple and
practical approach to describe the concepts of C++ for beginners to advanded
software engineers.

Why to Learn C++

C++ is a MUST for students and working professionals to become a great Software
Engineer. I will list down some of the key advantages of learning C++:
 C++ is very close to hardware, so you get a chance to work at a low level which gives
you lot of control in terms of memory management, better performance and finally a
robust software development.
 C++ programming gives you a clear understanding about Object Oriented
Programming. You will understand low level implementation of polymorphism when you
will implement virtual tables and virtual table pointers, or dynamic type identification.
 C++ is one of the every green programming languages and loved by millions of software
developers. If you are a great C++ programmer then you will never sit without work and
more importantly you will get highly paid for your work.
 C++ is the most widely used programming languages in application and system
programming. So you can choose your area of interest of software development.
 C++ really teaches you the difference between compiler, linker and loader, different data
types, storage classes, variable types their scopes etc.
There are 1000s of good reasons to learn C++ Programming. But one thing for
sure, to learn any programming language, not only C++, you just need to code, and
code and finally code until you become expert.

Hello World using C++

Just to give you a little excitement about C++ programming, I'm going to give you a
small conventional C++ Hello World program, You can try it using Demo link
C++ is a super set of C programming with additional implementation of object-
oriented concepts.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// main() is where program execution begins.

int main() {
cout << "Hello World"; // prints Hello World
return 0;
}
There are many C++ compilers available which you can use to compile and run
above mentioned program:
 Apple C++. Xcode
 Bloodshed Dev-C++
 Clang C++
 Cygwin (GNU C++)
 Mentor Graphics
 MINGW - "Minimalist GNU for Windows"
 GNU CC source
 IBM C++
 Intel C++
 Microsoft Visual C++
 Oracle C++
 HP C++
It is really impossible to give a complete list of all the available compilers. The C++
world is just too large and too much new is happening.

Applications of C++ Programming

As mentioned before, C++ is one of the most widely used programming languages.
It has it's presence in almost every area of software development. I'm going to list
few of them here:
 Application Software Development - C++ programming has been used in developing
almost all the major Operating Systems like Windows, Mac OSX and Linux. Apart from
the operating systems, the core part of many browsers like Mozilla Firefox and Chrome
have been written using C++. C++ also has been used in developing the most popular
database system called MySQL.
 Programming Languages Development - C++ has been used extensively in
developing new programming languages like C#, Java, JavaScript, Perl, UNIX’s C Shell,
PHP and Python, and Verilog etc.
 Computation Programming - C++ is the best friends of scientists because of fast
speed and computational efficiencies.
 Games Development - C++ is extremely fast which allows programmers to do
procedural programming for CPU intensive functions and provides greater control over
hardware, because of which it has been widely used in development of gaming engines.
 Embedded System - C++ is being heavily used in developing Medical and Engineering
Applications like softwares for MRI machines, high-end CAD/CAM systems etc.
This list goes on, there are various areas where software developers are happily
using C++ to provide great softwares. I highly recommend you to learn C++ and
contribute great softwares to the community.
Audience
This C++ tutorial has been prepared for the beginners to help them understand the
basic to advanced concepts related to C++.

Prerequisites
Before you start practicing with various types of examples given in this C++
tutorial,we are making an assumption that you are already aware of the basics of
computer program and computer programming language.

C++ Overview
C++ is a statically typed, compiled, general-purpose, case-sensitive, free-form
programming language that supports procedural, object-oriented, and generic
programming.
C++ is regarded as a middle-level language, as it comprises a combination of both
high-level and low-level language features.
C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell Labs in Murray
Hill, New Jersey, as an enhancement to the C language and originally named C
with Classes but later it was renamed C++ in 1983.
C++ is a superset of C, and that virtually any legal C program is a legal C++
program.
Note − A programming language is said to use static typing when type checking is
performed during compile-time as opposed to run-time.

Object-Oriented Programming
C++ fully supports object-oriented programming, including the four pillars of object-
oriented development −

 Encapsulation
 Data hiding
 Inheritance
 Polymorphism

Standard Libraries
Standard C++ consists of three important parts −
 The core language giving all the building blocks including variables, data types and
literals, etc.
 The C++ Standard Library giving a rich set of functions manipulating files, strings, etc.
  The Standard Template Library (STL) giving a rich set of methods manipulating data
structures, etc.

The ANSI Standard

The ANSI standard is an attempt to ensure that C++ is portable; that code you write
for Microsoft's compiler will compile without errors, using a compiler on a Mac,
UNIX, a Windows box, or an Alpha.
The ANSI standard has been stable for a while, and all the major C++ compiler
manufacturers support the ANSI standard.

Learning C++
The most important thing while learning C++ is to focus on concepts.
The purpose of learning a programming language is to become a better
programmer; that is, to become more effective at designing and implementing new
systems and at maintaining old ones.
C++ supports a variety of programming styles. You can write in the style of Fortran,
C, Smalltalk, etc., in any language. Each style can achieve its aims effectively while
maintaining runtime and space efficiency.

Use of C++
C++ is used by hundreds of thousands of programmers in essentially every
application domain.
C++ is being highly used to write device drivers and other software that rely on
direct manipulation of hardware under realtime constraints.
C++ is widely used for teaching and research because it is clean enough for
successful teaching of basic concepts.
Anyone who has used either an Apple Macintosh or a PC running Windows has
indirectly used C++ because the primary user interfaces of these systems are
written in C++.

C++ Environment Setup

Local Environment Setup

If you are still willing to set up your environment for C++, you need to have the
following two softwares on your computer.
Text Editor
This will be used to type your program. Examples of few editors include Windows
Notepad, OS Edit command, Brief, Epsilon, EMACS, and vim or vi.
Name and version of text editor can vary on different operating systems. For
example, Notepad will be used on Windows and vim or vi can be used on windows
as well as Linux, or UNIX.
The files you create with your editor are called source files and for C++ they
typically are named with the extension .cpp, .cp, or .c.
A text editor should be in place to start your C++ programming.

C++ Compiler
This is an actual C++ compiler, which will be used to compile your source code into
final executable program.
Most C++ compilers don't care what extension you give to your source code, but if
you don't specify otherwise, many will use .cpp by default.
Most frequently used and free available compiler is GNU C/C++ compiler, otherwise
you can have compilers either from HP or Solaris if you have the respective
Operating Systems.

Installing GNU C/C++ Compiler

UNIX/Linux Installation
If you are using Linux or UNIX then check whether GCC is installed on your system
by entering the following command from the command line −
$ g++ -v
If you have installed GCC, then it should print a message such as the following −
Using built-in specs.
Target: i386-redhat-linux
Configured with: ../configure --prefix=/usr .......
Thread model: posix
gcc version 4.1.2 20080704 (Red Hat 4.1.2-46)
If GCC is not installed, then you will have to install it yourself using the detailed
instructions available at https://gcc.gnu.org/install/

Mac OS X Installation
If you use Mac OS X, the easiest way to obtain GCC is to download the Xcode
development environment from Apple's website and follow the simple installation
instructions.
Xcode is currently available at developer.apple.com/technologies/tools/.
Windows Installation
To install GCC at Windows you need to install MinGW. To install MinGW, go to the
MinGW homepage, www.mingw.org, and follow the link to the MinGW download
page. Download the latest version of the MinGW installation program which should
be named MinGW-<version>.exe.
While installing MinGW, at a minimum, you must install gcc-core, gcc-g++, binutils,
and the MinGW runtime, but you may wish to install more.
Add the bin subdirectory of your MinGW installation to your PATH environment
variable so that you can specify these tools on the command line by their simple
names.
When the installation is complete, you will be able to run gcc, g++, ar, ranlib, dlltool,
and several other GNU tools from the Windows command line.

C++ Basic Syntax

When we consider a C++ program, it can be defined as a collection of objects that
communicate via invoking each other's methods. Let us now briefly look into what a
class, object, methods, and instant variables mean.
 Object − Objects have states and behaviors. Example: A dog has states - color, name,
breed as well as behaviors - wagging, barking, eating. An object is an instance of a
class.
 Class − A class can be defined as a template/blueprint that describes the
behaviors/states that object of its type support.
 Methods − A method is basically a behavior. A class can contain many methods. It is in
methods where the logics are written, data is manipulated and all the actions are
executed.
 Instance Variables − Each object has its unique set of instance variables. An object's
state is created by the values assigned to these instance variables.

C++ Program Structure

Let us look at a simple code that would print the words Hello World.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// main() is where program execution begins.

int main() {
cout << "Hello World"; // prints Hello World
return 0;
}
Let us look at the various parts of the above program −
 The C++ language defines several headers, which contain information that is either
necessary or useful to your program. For this program, the header <iostream> is
needed.
 The line using namespace std; tells the compiler to use the std namespace.
Namespaces are a relatively recent addition to C++.
 The next line '// main() is where program execution begins.' is a single-line comment
available in C++. Single-line comments begin with // and stop at the end of the line.
 The line int main() is the main function where program execution begins.
 The next line cout << "Hello World"; causes the message "Hello World" to be displayed
on the screen.
 The next line return 0; terminates main( )function and causes it to return the value 0 to
the calling process.

Compile and Execute C++ Program

Let's look at how to save the file, compile and run the program. Please follow the
steps given below −
 Open a text editor and add the code as above.
 Save the file as: hello.cpp
 Open a command prompt and go to the directory where you saved the file.
 Type 'g++ hello.cpp' and press enter to compile your code. If there are no errors in your
code the command prompt will take you to the next line and would generate a.out
executable file.
 Now, type 'a.out' to run your program.
 You will be able to see ' Hello World ' printed on the window.
$ g++ hello.cpp
$ ./a.out
Hello World
Make sure that g++ is in your path and that you are running it in the directory
containing file hello.cpp.
You can compile C/C++ programs using makefile. For more details, you can check
our 'Makefile Tutorial'.

Semicolons and Blocks in C++

In C++, the semicolon is a statement terminator. That is, each individual statement
must be ended with a semicolon. It indicates the end of one logical entity.
For example, following are three different statements −
x = y;
y = y + 1;
add(x, y);
A block is a set of logically connected statements that are surrounded by opening
and closing braces. For example −
{
cout << "Hello World"; // prints Hello World
return 0;
}
C++ does not recognize the end of the line as a terminator. For this reason, it does
not matter where you put a statement in a line. For example −
x = y;
y = y + 1;
add(x, y);
is the same as
x = y; y = y + 1; add(x, y);

C++ Identifiers
A C++ identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, class, module, or any
other user-defined item. An identifier starts with a letter A to Z or a to z or an
underscore (_) followed by zero or more letters, underscores, and digits (0 to 9).
C++ does not allow punctuation characters such as @, $, and % within identifiers.
C++ is a case-sensitive programming language.
Thus, Manpower and manpower are two different identifiers in C++.
Here are some examples of acceptable identifiers −
mohd zara abc move_name a_123
myname50 _temp j a23b9 retVal

C++ Keywords
The following list shows the reserved words in C++. These reserved words may not
be used as constant or variable or any other identifier names.

asm else new this

auto enum operator throw

bool explicit private true

break export protected try

case extern public typedef

 catch false register typeid

char float reinterpret_cast typename

class for return union

const friend short unsigned

const_cast goto signed using

continue if sizeof virtual

default inline static void

delete int static_cast volatile

do long struct wchar_t

double mutable switch while

dynamic_cast namespace template

Trigraphs
A few characters have an alternative representation, called a trigraph sequence. A
trigraph is a three-character sequence that represents a single character and the
sequence always starts with two question marks.
Trigraphs are expanded anywhere they appear, including within string literals and
character literals, in comments, and in preprocessor directives.
Following are most frequently used trigraph sequences −

Trigraph Replacement

??= #
 ??/ \

??' ^

??( [

??) ]

??! |

??< {

??> }

??- ~

All the compilers do not support trigraphs and they are not advised to be used
because of their confusing nature.

Whitespace in C++
A line containing only whitespace, possibly with a comment, is known as a blank
line, and C++ compiler totally ignores it.
Whitespace is the term used in C++ to describe blanks, tabs, newline characters
and comments. Whitespace separates one part of a statement from another and
enables the compiler to identify where one element in a statement, such as int, ends
and the next element begins.

Statement 1
int age;
In the above statement there must be at least one whitespace character (usually a
space) between int and age for the compiler to be able to distinguish them.

Statement 2
fruit = apples + oranges; // Get the total fruit
In the above statement 2, no whitespace characters are necessary between fruit
and =, or between = and apples, although you are free to include some if you wish
for readability purpose.

Comments in C++
Program comments are explanatory statements that you can include in the C++
code. These comments help anyone reading the source code. All programming
languages allow for some form of comments.
C++ supports single-line and multi-line comments. All characters available inside
any comment are ignored by C++ compiler.
C++ comments start with /* and end with */. For example −
/* This is a comment */

/* C++ comments can also

* span multiple lines
*/
A comment can also start with //, extending to the end of the line. For example −
Live Demo
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

main() {
cout << "Hello World"; // prints Hello World

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled, it will ignore // prints Hello World and final
executable will produce the following result −
Hello World
Within a /* and */ comment, // characters have no special meaning. Within a //
comment, /* and */ have no special meaning. Thus, you can "nest" one kind of
comment within the other kind. For example −
/* Comment out printing of Hello World:

cout << "Hello World"; // prints Hello World

*/
 C++ Data Types
While writing program in any language, you need to use various variables to store
various information. Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to store
values. This means that when you create a variable you reserve some space in
memory.
You may like to store information of various data types like character, wide
character, integer, floating point, double floating point, boolean etc. Based on the
data type of a variable, the operating system allocates memory and decides what
can be stored in the reserved memory.

Primitive Built-in Types

C++ offers the programmer a rich assortment of built-in as well as user defined data
types. Following table lists down seven basic C++ data types −

Type Keyword

Boolean bool

Character char

Integer int

Floating point float

Double floating point double

Valueless void

Wide character wchar_t

Several of the basic types can be modified using one or more of these type
modifiers −

 signed
 unsigned
 short
 long
The following table shows the variable type, how much memory it takes to store the
value in memory, and what is maximum and minimum value which can be stored in
such type of variables.

Type Typical Bit Width Typical Range

char 1byte -127 to 127 or 0 to 255

unsigned char 1byte 0 to 255

signed char 1byte -127 to 127

int 4bytes -2147483648 to 2147483647

unsigned int 4bytes 0 to 4294967295

signed int 4bytes -2147483648 to 2147483647

short int 2bytes -32768 to 32767

unsigned short int Range 0 to 65,535

signed short int Range -32768 to 32767

long int 4bytes -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

signed long int 4bytes same as long int

unsigned long int 4bytes 0 to 4,294,967,295

float 4bytes +/- 3.4e +/- 38 (~7 digits)

double 8bytes +/- 1.7e +/- 308 (~15 digits)

 long double 8bytes +/- 1.7e +/- 308 (~15 digits)

wchar_t 2 or 4 bytes 1 wide character

The size of variables might be different from those shown in the above table,
depending on the compiler and the computer you are using.
Following is the example, which will produce correct size of various data types on
your computer.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
cout << "Size of char : " << sizeof(char) << endl;
cout << "Size of int : " << sizeof(int) << endl;
cout << "Size of short int : " << sizeof(short int) << endl;
cout << "Size of long int : " << sizeof(long int) << endl;
cout << "Size of float : " << sizeof(float) << endl;
cout << "Size of double : " << sizeof(double) << endl;
cout << "Size of wchar_t : " << sizeof(wchar_t) << endl;

return 0;
}

This example uses endl, which inserts a new-line character after every line and <<
operator is being used to pass multiple values out to the screen. We are also
using sizeof() operator to get size of various data types.
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result
which can vary from machine to machine −
Size of char : 1
Size of int : 4
Size of short int : 2
Size of long int : 4
Size of float : 4
Size of double : 8
Size of wchar_t : 4

typedef Declarations
You can create a new name for an existing type using typedef. Following is the
simple syntax to define a new type using typedef −
typedef type newname;
For example, the following tells the compiler that feet is another name for int −
typedef int feet;
Now, the following declaration is perfectly legal and creates an integer variable
called distance −
feet distance;

Enumerated Types
An enumerated type declares an optional type name and a set of zero or more
identifiers that can be used as values of the type. Each enumerator is a constant
whose type is the enumeration.
Creating an enumeration requires the use of the keyword enum. The general form
of an enumeration type is −
enum enum-name { list of names } var-list;
Here, the enum-name is the enumeration's type name. The list of names is comma
separated.
For example, the following code defines an enumeration of colors called colors and
the variable c of type color. Finally, c is assigned the value "blue".
enum color { red, green, blue } c;
c = blue;
By default, the value of the first name is 0, the second name has the value 1, and
the third has the value 2, and so on. But you can give a name, a specific value by
adding an initializer. For example, in the following enumeration, green will have the
value 5.
enum color { red, green = 5, blue };
Here, blue will have a value of 6 because each name will be one greater than the
one that precedes it.

C++ Variable Types

A variable provides us with named storage that our programs can manipulate. Each
variable in C++ has a specific type, which determines the size and layout of the
variable's memory; the range of values that can be stored within that memory; and
the set of operations that can be applied to the variable.
The name of a variable can be composed of letters, digits, and the underscore
character. It must begin with either a letter or an underscore. Upper and lowercase
letters are distinct because C++ is case-sensitive −
There are following basic types of variable in C++ as explained in last chapter −

Sr.No Type & Description

1
bool
Stores either value true or false.

2
char
Typically a single octet (one byte). This is an integer type.

3
int
The most natural size of integer for the machine.

4
float
A single-precision floating point value.

5
double
A double-precision floating point value.

6
void
Represents the absence of type.

7
wchar_t
A wide character type.

C++ also allows to define various other types of variables, which we will cover in
subsequent chapters like Enumeration, Pointer, Array, Reference, Data
structures, and Classes.
Following section will cover how to define, declare and use various types of
variables.

Variable Definition in C++

A variable definition tells the compiler where and how much storage to create for the
variable. A variable definition specifies a data type, and contains a list of one or
more variables of that type as follows −
type variable_list;
Here, type must be a valid C++ data type including char, w_char, int, float, double,
bool or any user-defined object, etc., and variable_list may consist of one or more
identifier names separated by commas. Some valid declarations are shown here −
int i, j, k;
char c, ch;
float f, salary;
double d;
The line int i, j, k; both declares and defines the variables i, j and k; which instructs
the compiler to create variables named i, j and k of type int.
Variables can be initialized (assigned an initial value) in their declaration. The
initializer consists of an equal sign followed by a constant expression as follows −
type variable_name = value;
Some examples are −
extern int d = 3, f = 5; // declaration of d and f.
int d = 3, f = 5; // definition and initializing d and
f.
byte z = 22; // definition and initializes z.
char x = 'x'; // the variable x has the value 'x'.
For definition without an initializer: variables with static storage duration are
implicitly initialized with NULL (all bytes have the value 0); the initial value of all
other variables is undefined.

Variable Declaration in C++

A variable declaration provides assurance to the compiler that there is one variable
existing with the given type and name so that compiler proceed for further
compilation without needing complete detail about the variable. A variable
declaration has its meaning at the time of compilation only, compiler needs actual
variable definition at the time of linking of the program.
A variable declaration is useful when you are using multiple files and you define
your variable in one of the files which will be available at the time of linking of the
program. You will use extern keyword to declare a variable at any place. Though
you can declare a variable multiple times in your C++ program, but it can be defined
only once in a file, a function or a block of code.

Example
Try the following example where a variable has been declared at the top, but it has
been defined inside the main function −

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// Variable declaration:
extern int a, b;
extern int c;
extern float f;

int main () {
// Variable definition:
int a, b;
int c;
 float f;

// actual initialization
a = 10;
b = 20;
c = a + b;

cout << c << endl ;

f = 70.0/3.0;
cout << f << endl ;

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −
30
23.3333
Same concept applies on function declaration where you provide a function name at
the time of its declaration and its actual definition can be given anywhere else. For
example −
// function declaration
int func();
int main() {
// function call
int i = func();
}

// function definition
int func() {
return 0;
}

Lvalues and Rvalues

There are two kinds of expressions in C++ −
 lvalue − Expressions that refer to a memory location is called "lvalue" expression. An
lvalue may appear as either the left-hand or right-hand side of an assignment.
 rvalue − The term rvalue refers to a data value that is stored at some address in
memory. An rvalue is an expression that cannot have a value assigned to it which
means an rvalue may appear on the right- but not left-hand side of an assignment.
Variables are lvalues and so may appear on the left-hand side of an assignment.
Numeric literals are rvalues and so may not be assigned and can not appear on the
left-hand side. Following is a valid statement −
int g = 20;
But the following is not a valid statement and would generate compile-time error −
10 = 20;
 Variable Scope in C++
A scope is a region of the program and broadly speaking there are three places,
where variables can be declared −
 Inside a function or a block which is called local variables,
 In the definition of function parameters which is called formal parameters.
 Outside of all functions which is called global variables.
We will learn what is a function and it's parameter in subsequent chapters. Here let
us explain what are local and global variables.

Local Variables
Variables that are declared inside a function or block are local variables. They can
be used only by statements that are inside that function or block of code. Local
variables are not known to functions outside their own. Following is the example
using local variables −

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main () {
// Local variable declaration:
int a, b;
int c;

// actual initialization
a = 10;
b = 20;
c = a + b;

cout << c;

return 0;
}

Global Variables
Global variables are defined outside of all the functions, usually on top of the
program. The global variables will hold their value throughout the life-time of your
program.
A global variable can be accessed by any function. That is, a global variable is
available for use throughout your entire program after its declaration. Following is
the example using global and local variables −
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// Global variable declaration:

int g;

int main () {
// Local variable declaration:
int a, b;

// actual initialization
a = 10;
b = 20;
g = a + b;

cout << g;

return 0;
}

A program can have same name for local and global variables but value of local
variable inside a function will take preference. For example −

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// Global variable declaration:

int g = 20;

int main () {
// Local variable declaration:
int g = 10;

cout << g;

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −
10

Initializing Local and Global Variables

When a local variable is defined, it is not initialized by the system, you must initialize
it yourself. Global variables are initialized automatically by the system when you
define them as follows −
 Data Type Initializer

int 0

char '\0'

float 0

double 0

pointer NULL

It is a good programming practice to initialize variables properly, otherwise

sometimes program would produce unexpected result.

C++ Constants/Literals
Constants refer to fixed values that the program may not alter and they are
called literals.
Constants can be of any of the basic data types and can be divided into Integer
Numerals, Floating-Point Numerals, Characters, Strings and Boolean Values.
Again, constants are treated just like regular variables except that their values
cannot be modified after their definition.

Integer Literals
An integer literal can be a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant. A prefix
specifies the base or radix: 0x or 0X for hexadecimal, 0 for octal, and nothing for
decimal.
An integer literal can also have a suffix that is a combination of U and L, for
unsigned and long, respectively. The suffix can be uppercase or lowercase and can
be in any order.
Here are some examples of integer literals −
212 // Legal
215u // Legal
0xFeeL // Legal
078 // Illegal: 8 is not an octal digit
032UU // Illegal: cannot repeat a suffix
Following are other examples of various types of Integer literals −
85 // decimal
0213 // octal
0x4b // hexadecimal
30 // int
30u // unsigned int
30l // long
30ul // unsigned long

Floating-point Literals
A floating-point literal has an integer part, a decimal point, a fractional part, and an
exponent part. You can represent floating point literals either in decimal form or
exponential form.
While representing using decimal form, you must include the decimal point, the
exponent, or both and while representing using exponential form, you must include
the integer part, the fractional part, or both. The signed exponent is introduced by e
or E.
Here are some examples of floating-point literals −
3.14159 // Legal
314159E-5L // Legal
510E // Illegal: incomplete exponent
210f // Illegal: no decimal or exponent
.e55 // Illegal: missing integer or fraction

Boolean Literals
There are two Boolean literals and they are part of standard C++ keywords −
 A value of true representing true.
 A value of false representing false.
You should not consider the value of true equal to 1 and value of false equal to 0.

Character Literals
Character literals are enclosed in single quotes. If the literal begins with L
(uppercase only), it is a wide character literal (e.g., L'x') and should be stored
in wchar_t type of variable . Otherwise, it is a narrow character literal (e.g., 'x') and
can be stored in a simple variable of char type.
A character literal can be a plain character (e.g., 'x'), an escape sequence (e.g., '\t'),
or a universal character (e.g., '\u02C0').
There are certain characters in C++ when they are preceded by a backslash they
will have special meaning and they are used to represent like newline (\n) or tab (\t).
Here, you have a list of some of such escape sequence codes −
 Escape sequence Meaning

\\ \ character

\' ' character

\" " character

\? ? character

\a Alert or bell

\b Backspace

\f Form feed

\n Newline

\r Carriage return

\t Horizontal tab

\v Vertical tab

\ooo Octal number of one to three digits

\xhh . . . Hexadecimal number of one or more digits

Following is the example to show a few escape sequence characters −

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
 cout << "Hello\tWorld\n\n";
return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −
Hello World

String Literals
String literals are enclosed in double quotes. A string contains characters that are
similar to character literals: plain characters, escape sequences, and universal
characters.
You can break a long line into multiple lines using string literals and separate them
using whitespaces.
Here are some examples of string literals. All the three forms are identical strings.
"hello, dear"

"hello, \

dear"

"hello, " "d" "ear"

Defining Constants
There are two simple ways in C++ to define constants −
 Using #define preprocessor.
 Using const keyword.

The #define Preprocessor

Following is the form to use #define preprocessor to define a constant −
#define identifier value
Following example explains it in detail −

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

#define LENGTH 10
#define WIDTH 5
#define NEWLINE '\n'

int main() {
int area;
 area = LENGTH * WIDTH;
cout << area;
cout << NEWLINE;
return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −
50

The const Keyword

You can use const prefix to declare constants with a specific type as follows −
const type variable = value;
Following example explains it in detail −

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
const int LENGTH = 10;
const int WIDTH = 5;
const char NEWLINE = '\n';
int area;

area = LENGTH * WIDTH;

cout << area;
cout << NEWLINE;
return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −
50
Note that it is a good programming practice to define constants in CAPITALS.

C++ Modifier Types

C++ allows the char, int, and double data types to have modifiers preceding them.
A modifier is used to alter the meaning of the base type so that it more precisely fits
the needs of various situations.
The data type modifiers are listed here −

 signed
 unsigned
 long
 short
The modifiers signed, unsigned, long, and short can be applied to integer base
types. In addition, signed and unsigned can be applied to char, and long can be
applied to double.
The modifiers signed and unsigned can also be used as prefix
to long or short modifiers. For example, unsigned long int.
C++ allows a shorthand notation for declaring unsigned, short, or long integers.
You can simply use the word unsigned, short, or long, without int. It automatically
implies int. For example, the following two statements both declare unsigned
integer variables.
unsigned x;
unsigned int y;
To understand the difference between the way signed and unsigned integer
modifiers are interpreted by C++, you should run the following short program −

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

/* This program shows the difference between

* signed and unsigned integers.
*/
int main() {
short int i; // a signed short integer
short unsigned int j; // an unsigned short integer

j = 50000;

i = j;
cout << i << " " << j;

return 0;
}

When this program is run, following is the output −

-15536 50000
The above result is because the bit pattern that represents 50,000 as a short
unsigned integer is interpreted as -15,536 by a short.
Type Qualifiers in C++
The type qualifiers provide additional information about the variables they precede.

Sr.No Qualifier & Meaning

1
const
Objects of type const cannot be changed by your program during execution.

2
volatile
The modifier volatile tells the compiler that a variable's value may be changed in ways
not explicitly specified by the program.

3
restrict
A pointer qualified by restrict is initially the only means by which the object it points to
can be accessed. Only C99 adds a new type qualifier called restrict.

Storage Classes in C++

A storage class defines the scope (visibility) and life-time of variables and/or
functions within a C++ Program. These specifiers precede the type that they modify.
There are following storage classes, which can be used in a C++ Program

 auto
 register
 static
 extern
 mutable

The auto Storage Class

The auto storage class is the default storage class for all local variables.
{
int mount;
auto int month;
}
The example above defines two variables with the same storage class, auto can
only be used within functions, i.e., local variables.
The register Storage Class
The register storage class is used to define local variables that should be stored in
a register instead of RAM. This means that the variable has a maximum size equal
to the register size (usually one word) and can't have the unary '&' operator applied
to it (as it does not have a memory location).
{
register int miles;
}
The register should only be used for variables that require quick access such as
counters. It should also be noted that defining 'register' does not mean that the
variable will be stored in a register. It means that it MIGHT be stored in a register
depending on hardware and implementation restrictions.

The static Storage Class

The static storage class instructs the compiler to keep a local variable in existence
during the life-time of the program instead of creating and destroying it each time it
comes into and goes out of scope. Therefore, making local variables static allows
them to maintain their values between function calls.
The static modifier may also be applied to global variables. When this is done, it
causes that variable's scope to be restricted to the file in which it is declared.
In C++, when static is used on a class data member, it causes only one copy of that
member to be shared by all objects of its class.

#include <iostream>

// Function declaration
void func(void);

static int count = 10; /* Global variable */

main() {
while(count--) {
func();
}

return 0;
}

// Function definition
void func( void ) {
static int i = 5; // local static variable
i++;
std::cout << "i is " << i ;
std::cout << " and count is " << count << std::endl;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −
i is 6 and count is 9
i is 7 and count is 8
i is 8 and count is 7
i is 9 and count is 6
i is 10 and count is 5
i is 11 and count is 4
i is 12 and count is 3
i is 13 and count is 2
i is 14 and count is 1
i is 15 and count is 0

The extern Storage Class

The extern storage class is used to give a reference of a global variable that is
visible to ALL the program files. When you use 'extern' the variable cannot be
initialized as all it does is point the variable name at a storage location that has
been previously defined.
When you have multiple files and you define a global variable or function, which will
be used in other files also, then extern will be used in another file to give reference
of defined variable or function. Just for understanding extern is used to declare a
global variable or function in another file.
The extern modifier is most commonly used when there are two or more files
sharing the same global variables or functions as explained below.

First File: main.cpp

#include <iostream>
int count ;
extern void write_extern();

main() {
count = 5;
write_extern();
}

Second File: support.cpp

#include <iostream>

extern int count;

void write_extern(void) {
std::cout << "Count is " << count << std::endl;
}
Here, extern keyword is being used to declare count in another file. Now compile
these two files as follows −
$g++ main.cpp support.cpp -o write
This will produce write executable program, try to execute write and check the
result as follows −
$./write
5

The mutable Storage Class

The mutable specifier applies only to class objects, which are discussed later in this
tutorial. It allows a member of an object to override const member function. That is,
a mutable member can be modified by a const member function.

Operators in C++
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or
logical manipulations. C++ is rich in built-in operators and provide the following
types of operators −

 Arithmetic Operators
 Relational Operators
 Logical Operators
 Bitwise Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Misc Operators
This chapter will examine the arithmetic, relational, logical, bitwise, assignment and
other operators one by one.

Arithmetic Operators
There are following arithmetic operators supported by C++ language −
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −
Show Examples

Operator Description Example

+ Adds two operands A + B will give 30

- Subtracts second operand from the first A - B will give -10

* Multiplies both operands A * B will give 200

 / Divides numerator by de-numerator B / A will give 2

% Modulus Operator and remainder of after B % A will give 0

an integer division

++ Increment operator, increases integer A++ will give 11

value by one

-- Decrement operator, decreases integer A-- will give 9

value by one

Relational Operators
There are following relational operators supported by C++ language
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −
Show Examples

Operator Description Example

== Checks if the values of two operands are (A == B) is not true.

equal or not, if yes then condition
becomes true.

!= Checks if the values of two operands are (A != B) is true.

equal or not, if values are not equal then
condition becomes true.

> Checks if the value of left operand is (A > B) is not true.

greater than the value of right operand, if
yes then condition becomes true.

< Checks if the value of left operand is less (A < B) is true.

than the value of right operand, if yes
then condition becomes true.

>= Checks if the value of left operand is (A >= B) is not true.

greater than or equal to the value of right
operand, if yes then condition becomes
 true.

<= Checks if the value of left operand is less (A <= B) is true.

than or equal to the value of right
operand, if yes then condition becomes
true.

Logical Operators
There are following logical operators supported by C++ language.
Assume variable A holds 1 and variable B holds 0, then −
Show Examples

Operator Description Example

&& Called Logical AND operator. If both the (A && B) is false.

operands are non-zero, then condition
becomes true.

|| Called Logical OR Operator. If any of the (A || B) is true.

two operands is non-zero, then condition
becomes true.

! Called Logical NOT Operator. Use to !(A && B) is true.

reverses the logical state of its operand. If
a condition is true, then Logical NOT
operator will make false.

Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operator works on bits and perform bit-by-bit operation. The truth tables for
&, |, and ^ are as follows −

p q p&q p|q p^q

0 0 0 0 0
 0 1 0 1 1

1 1 1 1 0

1 0 0 1 1

Assume if A = 60; and B = 13; now in binary format they will be as follows −
A = 0011 1100
B = 0000 1101
-----------------
A&B = 0000 1100
A|B = 0011 1101
A^B = 0011 0001
~A = 1100 0011
The Bitwise operators supported by C++ language are listed in the following table.
Assume variable A holds 60 and variable B holds 13, then −
Show Examples

Operator Description Example

& Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the

(A & B) will give 12 which is 0000 1100
result if it exists in both operands.

| Binary OR Operator copies a bit if it exists (A | B) will give 61 which is 0011 1101
in either operand.

^ Binary XOR Operator copies the bit if it is

(A ^ B) will give 49 which is 0011 0001
set in one operand but not both.

~ Binary Ones Complement Operator is (~A ) will give -61 which is 1100 0011 in
unary and has the effect of 'flipping' bits. 2's complement form due to a signed
binary number.

<< Binary Left Shift Operator. The left

A << 2 will give 240 which is 1111 0000
operands value is moved left by the
number of bits specified by the right
 operand.

>> Binary Right Shift Operator. The left

operands value is moved right by the
A >> 2 will give 15 which is 0000 1111
number of bits specified by the right
operand.

Assignment Operators
There are following assignment operators supported by C++ language −
Show Examples

Operator Description Example

= Simple assignment operator, Assigns values C = A + B will assign value of A + B

from right side operands to left side operand. into C

+= Add AND assignment operator, It adds right

operand to the left operand and assign the C += A is equivalent to C = C + A
result to left operand.

-= Subtract AND assignment operator, It

subtracts right operand from the left operand C -= A is equivalent to C = C - A
and assign the result to left operand.

*= Multiply AND assignment operator, It

multiplies right operand with the left operand C *= A is equivalent to C = C * A
and assign the result to left operand.

/= Divide AND assignment operator, It divides

left operand with the right operand and C /= A is equivalent to C = C / A
assign the result to left operand.

%= Modulus AND assignment operator, It takes

modulus using two operands and assign the C %= A is equivalent to C = C % A
result to left operand.
<<= Left shift AND assignment operator. C <<= 2 is same as C = C << 2

>>= Right shift AND assignment operator. C >>= 2 is same as C = C >> 2

&= Bitwise AND assignment operator. C &= 2 is same as C = C & 2

^= Bitwise exclusive OR and assignment

C ^= 2 is same as C = C ^ 2
operator.

|= Bitwise inclusive OR and assignment

C |= 2 is same as C = C | 2
operator.

Misc Operators
The following table lists some other operators that C++ supports.

Sr.No Operator & Description

1
sizeof
sizeof operator returns the size of a variable. For example, sizeof(a), where ‘a’ is integer,
and will return 4.

2
Condition ? X : Y
Conditional operator (?). If Condition is true then it returns value of X otherwise returns
value of Y.

3
,
Comma operator causes a sequence of operations to be performed. The value of the
entire comma expression is the value of the last expression of the comma-separated list.

4
. (dot) and -> (arrow)
Member operators are used to reference individual members of classes, structures, and
unions.

5
Cast
Casting operators convert one data type to another. For example, int(2.2000) would
return 2.
6
&
Pointer operator & returns the address of a variable. For example &a; will give actual
address of the variable.

7
*
Pointer operator * is pointer to a variable. For example *var; will pointer to a variable var.

Operators Precedence in C++

Operator precedence determines the grouping of terms in an expression. This
affects how an expression is evaluated. Certain operators have higher precedence
than others; for example, the multiplication operator has higher precedence than the
addition operator −
For example x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is assigned 13, not 20 because operator * has
higher precedence than +, so it first gets multiplied with 3*2 and then adds into 7.
Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table, those
with the lowest appear at the bottom. Within an expression, higher precedence
operators will be evaluated first.
Show Examples

Category Operator Associativity

Postfix () [] -> . ++ - - Left to right

Unary + - ! ~ ++ - - (type)* & sizeof Right to left

Multiplicative */% Left to right

Additive +- Left to right

Shift << >> Left to right

Relational < <= > >= Left to right

Equality == != Left to right

 Bitwise AND & Left to right

Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right

Bitwise OR | Left to right

Logical AND && Left to right

Logical OR || Left to right

Conditional ?: Right to left

Assignment = += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left

Comma , Left to right

C++ Loop Types

There may be a situation, when you need to execute a block of code several
number of times. In general, statements are executed sequentially: The first
statement in a function is executed first, followed by the second, and so on.
Programming languages provide various control structures that allow for more
complicated execution paths.
A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple
times and following is the general from of a loop statement in most of the
programming languages −
C++ programming language provides the following type of loops to handle looping
requirements.

Sr.No Loop Type & Description

1 while loop

Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is true. It tests the
condition before executing the loop body.

2 for loop

Execute a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the code that
manages the loop variable.

3 do...while loop

Like a ‘while’ statement, except that it tests the condition at the end of the loop body.

4 nested loops

You can use one or more loop inside any another ‘while’, ‘for’ or ‘do..while’ loop.

Loop Control Statements

Loop control statements change execution from its normal sequence. When
execution leaves a scope, all automatic objects that were created in that scope are
destroyed.
C++ supports the following control statements.

Sr.No Control Statement & Description

1 break statement

Terminates the loop or switch statement and transfers execution to the statement
immediately following the loop or switch.

2 continue statement

Causes the loop to skip the remainder of its body and immediately retest its condition
prior to reiterating.

3 goto statement

Transfers control to the labeled statement. Though it is not advised to use goto
statement in your program.

The Infinite Loop

A loop becomes infinite loop if a condition never becomes false. The for loop is
traditionally used for this purpose. Since none of the three expressions that form the
‘for’ loop are required, you can make an endless loop by leaving the conditional
expression empty.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main () {
for( ; ; ) {
printf("This loop will run forever.\n");
}

return 0;
}

When the conditional expression is absent, it is assumed to be true. You may have
an initialization and increment expression, but C++ programmers more commonly
use the ‘for (;;)’ construct to signify an infinite loop.
NOTE − You can terminate an infinite loop by pressing Ctrl + C keys.