U4 Helpdesk Answer 2018:11

Behavioural changes against

corruption

Author(s): Nieves Zúñiga

Reviewer(s): Marie Chêne and David Jackson
Date: 29 July 2018

U4 Anti-Corruption Helpdesk
A free service for staff from U4 partner agencies
Query
Are there any best practices where corruption was countered through triggering
behavioural change in local actors and, if yes, how exactly? Furthermore, are there
any research results, which indicate what approach should be taken in the future
to achieve anti-corruption through behavioural changes?

Contents aspects. Behavioural practices can take several

forms, such as information campaigns, collective
1. Background: understanding corrupt behaviour
deliberations, promotion of intrinsic motivation
and “behavioural change”
and civic engagement, among others.
2. Behavioural practices and approaches against
corruption 1. Background: understanding
corrupt behaviour and
3. Assessment of behavioural approaches against “behavioural change”
corruption
In 2010, David Cameron set up the Behavioural
4. References Insights Team in the UK cabinet office (Rutter
2015). In 2015, Barack Obama hired the Social and
Summary Behavioural Sciences Team and ordered all federal
agencies to use behavioural sciences for public
Behavioural change approaches have increasingly
policy (Marron 2015). Behavioural change is
gained ground in policymaking as they aim to
increasingly becoming key in policymaking (Lunn
influence how people behave and make decisions.
2014).
In anti-corruption policies, these approaches
contribute to understanding how people decide to The use of behavioural science in policymaking
act towards and engage in corruption. That helps to design policies based on how people
requires first an understanding of the psychology of behave and make decisions. That requires an
corruption, and second a holistic approach to understanding of why people do what they do and
influence both the mind and the environment in what influences their decision to behave in a
which the individual makes decisions. certain way. In the case of anti-corruption policies,
that implies being aware of the behavioural
Studies show that the cost-benefit calculations of
influences that contribute to engagement in corrupt
engaging in corruption or not are not only based on
behaviour and in fighting it.
logic. Often, they are influenced by mental
shortcuts, false intuitions, how individuals process
and organise information, emotions and social
norms. A behavioural approach against corruption
is based on an understanding of corruption, and it
takes into account communication and social

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Behavioural changes against corruption 2
Understanding why people are corrupt them want it even more (Rusch 2016). When
there is scarcity and time pressure, unethical
The psychology of corruption behaviour becomes more likely.

A growing body of empirical research in social • Commitment and consistency: this mental
psychology and behavioural economics shows that shortcut makes us behave consistently with a
decision-making is influenced by people’s commitment made in the past, sometimes
overreliance on faulty intuition and mental independently of how ethical that commitment
shortcuts (Rusch 2016), as well as social pressure. was.
This does not mean that individuals do not make
decisions based on a rational cost-benefit • Social proof: occurs when people assume
calculation, but the definition of costs and benefits others’ behaviour is correct in a given situation.
is perhaps less based on logic and more based on In ambiguous situations when people do not
emotions. know the appropriate way to behave, the
individual is driven by other people’s behaviour
Following Kahneman’s (2011) dichotomy between a assuming that they know more and better. For
mode of thought that is fast, instinctive and example, if in a situation where there is a risk
emotional and a mode of thought that is slower, of becoming corrupt and nobody does anything
logical and deliberative, Kahneman identifies key to prevent it, it might be understood that it is
types of faulty intuition and mental shortcuts that not worth doing anything and, therefore, lead
can influence individuals in participating in the subject to decide not to take action either.
corruption (Rusch 2016):
• Confirmation bias: is the tendency to search
• The overconfidence effect: when a person’s and favour information that confirms one’s
subjective confidence in his or her judgements pre-existing beliefs. This can prevent or limit
is greater than the objective accuracy of those an individual to act on his or her perception of
judgements. This can evolve into deforming the questionable ethics in certain transactions, and
self-perception on ethical issues and create a instead make that individual look for and
gap between how people believe they would accept more innocent explanations for corrupt
behave and how they actually behave, actions.
especially in ambiguous or high-pressure
circumstances (Rusch 2016). In addition, the literature on the psychology of
corruption identifies factors that influence how
• Reciprocation: the idea of repaying what individuals mentally interpret, process and
another person has done for us can become an organise information, such as power and risk
easy entrance to influence individuals and drag perceptions, personal gain and self-control,
them into corruption. emotions and rationalisation narratives (Dupuy
and Neset 2018). According to the literature,
• Scarcity: the fact that a key asset or resource is
individuals in positions of power, as well as those
available for a limited period of time can trigger
standing to gain personally and having lower self-
human weaknesses for shortcuts, especially
control, are more likely to act corruptly (Dupuy and
when individuals perceive that their free choice
Neset 2018). Rationalisation narratives seem to
in something of value is threatened, making
make corruption more acceptable, and certain

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Behavioural changes against corruption 3
emotions, like guilt, may make the decision to act Components of a behavioural approach to
corruptly less likely (Dupuy and Neset 2018). anti-corruption
Components that define a behavioural approach to
Social norms and the social dimension of
anti-corruption are, among others:
corruption

If mental shortcuts are internal psychological • A complex understanding of how individuals

processes influencing how individuals face make choices: a behavioural perspective looks
corruption, social norms are external influencers of not only at the decision to act corruptly or not,
the extent to which individuals engage and expect but at how the individual makes that decision.
others to engage in corruption. Social norms are To understand the rational decision-making
informal norms resulting from cultural values, based on a cost-benefit calculation, a
customs and traditions that shape people’s social behavioural approach adds complexity in
behaviour and expectations of what people should deciding what are the costs and the benefits. As
do. They are embedded in personal, local and explained above, not only logic but also
organisational contexts, and they explain emotions, in-built mental shortcuts, default
psychological justification processes of corrupt solutions to problems, and social and cultural
behaviour (Kubbe and Engelbert 2018). expectations of acceptability, independently of
legal and administrative incentives (Baez
In some cases, engagement in corrupt practices Camargo 2017), play a role in framing the
might be justified by certain social norms around decision-making of individuals facing
social status and recognition, as well as around opportunities for corruption.
promoting solidarity and reciprocity. For example,
in Uganda, to acquire and share wealth with the • A contingent understanding of corruption:
group brings social respectability and status, from a behavioural perspective, corruption is
independently of how the wealth has been earned. seen as a collection of individual behaviours
If the expectation of the network is not fulfilled it (Wills Silva and Day 2016). So, rather than a
might be a reason for shame, social isolation and single problem, corruption decisions are made
even physical violence (Stahl and Baez Camargo in a specific way, at a specific time in a specific
2017). Nevertheless, the same social norms of context. The anti-corruption target then is to
solidarity and reciprocity represent the potential of intervene in those specific decisions more than
communities to engage against corruption (Baez overarching impersonal sets of policies (Wills
Camargo 2018). Silva and Day 2016).

Another aspect of the social dimension of • A consideration of forms of communication as

corruption is how extended and rooted corruption a trigger for change: how information is framed
is in a society. In some societies, embedded and presented and having the right kind of
corruption becomes a reference point that creates information can push citizens from having a
social expectations. When there is the expectation passive attitude about corruption to engaging
that everybody is corrupt, to be corrupt becomes against it (Baez Camargo 2017). It has been
part of the identity, which determines an automatic shown that the right information is not only
decision-making that justifies corruption (Stahl about the costs of corruption, but about
and Baez Camargo 2017). dismantling the beliefs associated with

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Behavioural changes against corruption 4
 corruption when it is seen as a norm (Baez When the change is motivated internally, its
Camargo 2017). Also, messages about rights duration is considerably longer. An intrinsic
and the importance of enjoying access to high motivation is related to acting altruistically and to
quality public services have proved to have helping others. Those actions are known to produce
positive results (Baez Camargo 2017). an emotional reward. It has been scientifically
demonstrated that doing good or the “right thing”
• It takes into account the social dimension of can make a person feel good both psychologically
corruption: the social context affects corrupt and physically (Van der Linen 2015).
behaviour in different ways (Lindner 2014). For
example, increased corruption in a society
2. Behavioural practices and
lowers the trust and expectations of honesty in
approaches against corruption
public institutions, which in turn might
increase the belief that corruption is the only The inclusion of behavioural science in
solution to get what citizens need. It might also policymaking has evolved in the use of different
enhance the belief that corruption is the only types of behavioural informed interventions. Below
way to get the individual’s needs satisfied and are some of the practices and approaches to
ensure quality service delivery. In addition, behaviour change regarding corruption.
social norms and pressures, for example, to
reciprocate favours also explains corrupt Information campaigns
behaviour in some contexts. In the same way as Campaigns can challenge conventional belief
social norms might tolerate corrupt decisions, systems that consider corruption as normal by, for
they can be a powerful anti-corruption tool due instance, disseminating stories of its negative
to their great influence to shape behaviour in consequences. They can also present alternative
certain societies. ways of thinking and acting, for example,
reinforcing positive role models. And they can be
One of the main challenges in behavioural change
used to raise awareness about the rights and duties
is how to make positive behaviour change stick
of citizens. Requirements for the success of those
(Van der Linden 2015). The source of motivation is
campaigns are: disseminating the information in
a crucial aspect in this regard: when the change is
trustworthy, legitimate and likable ways; to account
motivated externally, it is generally of short
for power asymmetries among participants and
duration since, once the external stimulation is
include the different groups; and to provide
gone, the behaviour might easily revert to the old
tutoring to model correct behaviours and attitudes.
pattern. This explains the limited effect of
awareness raising campaigns or competitions. A powerful example is the information campaign
Those strategies can be very efficient in producing against corruption developed in Paraguay – one of
the change in behaviour but not necessarily to the most corrupt countries in Latin America –
sustain it or to awaken the right reasons to change. called the anti-corruption suit. Tired of how
Competitions, for example, might not have the politicians stole public money, a tailor created a
motivation to act for a good cause but in one’s self- suit without pockets. Named after deputy José
interest (to win) and not for the interest of the María Ibáñez who was known for his abuses of
collective. power, “The Ibáñez Collection” tried ironically to
stimulate politicians and public officials to buy the

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Behavioural changes against corruption 5
suit in the hope that the lack of pockets would can be redirected using the same energy of
impede them from stealing public money. The reciprocity to promote behaviour to counter
collection of “pocket-less suits” caused a sensation corruption. Considering that part of the purpose of
in Paraguay and abroad. More information at networks and reciprocity is to help each other in
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=19BbBtU- solving problems, one way to put reciprocity and
4NU social networks to work against corruption is by
defining corruption as a collective problem that
Collective deliberation and commitment affects the group and that they need each other to
solve it.
Getting the parties involved in a discussion to reach
a consensus, to weigh the different options and to Another way of harnessing the anti-corruption
determine future actions, beliefs and attitudes power of networks is by means of a “peer effect”
about a situation or topic creates an open and where the chances of an individual adopting a
transparent space of participation and can break certain behaviour increases if he or she has a friend
with given and unquestioned patterns of thinking or relative who has already adopted that behaviour
and behaving. A requirement for the success of this (Stahl and Baez Camargo 2017). One way to
strategy is to encourage the participation in the facilitate this is by enlisting individuals in their
deliberation and the incorporation in the communities to become anti-corruption
discussion of national standards or other ideas on champions.
the topic so participants are aware of the
alternatives.
Reframing the cultural environment and
One of the challenges of this strategy is the
identity
heterogeneity among the participants. According to In societies where corruption is a part of daily life,
a field experiment developed by Björkman and there might be a subconscious belief that
Svensson (2009) in primary health in Uganda, the corruption is part of the cultural identity. In those
heterogeneity among the participants of cases, corruption might act as a reference point
community-based monitoring groups represented that shapes expectations and decisions in social
in income inequality and ethnic fractionalisation, interactions, since those exchanges are part of the
adversely impacted collective action for improved foundation of that society. Practical steps to
service provision. Creating an open space in which address this kind of situation are, first, to identify
all the points of view are acknowledged and and acknowledge those belief systems and
respected will help to create an open attitude to acknowledge them as based on practices but
reach a consensus. distant from the collective identity. Second,
highlight and promote the values in that culture
Addressing reciprocity and moral obligation that go against corruption and attach the collective
with closed networks identity to those through public discourse, media
campaigns and formal and informal education
This strategy is especially relevant in societies in
methods.
which favours and obligations to relatives and close
networks is more important than laws and formal The anti-corruption policy undertaken by president
regulations. The power of social networks to Paul Kagame in Rwanda is an example of how the
perpetuate the questionable exchange of favours, problem of corruption is framed in the bigger

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Behavioural changes against corruption 6
picture of how the country wants to become and standards of integrity, honesty and transparency.
how Rwandan identity should be defined after the “While institutions and rules provide the
genocide in 1994. In the governmental discourse, to background context and can help to frame social
be corrupt is detached from the “new” national action, it is the living-breathing culture that
identity as Rwandan based on pre-colonial values. determines how they operate in practice and how
Thus, identification with the national identity people act in the many situations not covered by
magnifies the stigma and negative consequences of formal rules” (Mulgan and Wanna 2011).
being corrupt as going against what it means to be
Rwandan. An example of leadership by example in the private
sector is Jim Sinegal, chief executive of Costco, an
At a practical level, this was manifested in an American multinational retail company. Unlike
emphasis on education in values using both formal other executives in the corporate world, Sinegal is
and informal mechanisms (Heywood et al 2017). known for his integrity, his discipline, lack of
The formal strategies included the incorporation showiness and reasonable salary despite his
lessons on anti-corruption and crime, gender success, and for putting his employees before the
issues, as well as culture and values in the school numbers even in times of recession (McGregror
curriculum. National radio shows were used to 2011). An example of the latter is when he gave
disseminate the message, and public institutions each employee an added stock when Costco had to
held anti-corruption weeks to educate Rwandan raise its health care premiums to its employees
citizens on the negative consequences of after nine years without raising them. Another
corruption. Of particular importance are itorero, a example of his commitment to his values is to have
pre-colonial style training camp where participants as a mantra that any product should be marked no
spent several weeks learning Rwandan history, pre- more than 14% to 15% above cost (McGregror
colonial values and national policies, as well as 2011). This culture of integrity has set the ground
issues of direct relevance to their particular for how Costco operates, and is being followed for
profession (Heywood et al. 2017). 
 by executives in the company.

Leadership and installing a culture of Promote intrinsic motivation

integrity The promotion of intrinsic motivation to change
Increasing attention has been paid in recent years corrupt practices should be oriented to produce in
to the importance of leadership in setting the right the individual the “warm glow” or emotional
framework for integrity in the public and private reward obtained after doing something “right” or
sector. The importance of leadership in changing for others. There are at least two ways in which that
behaviour is twofold: leadership inspires can be achieved: i) by appealing to the leader and
behaviour, and without leadership it is not possible responsibility in each of us to improve our
to establish a culture of integrity (Heywood et al. societies, and reinforcing the idea that what is done
2017). at the individual level matters; ii) focusing, not only
on preventing corruption but on promoting
Often, corrupt behaviour is justified with the integrity and actions to make the institutions or
sentence, “if they [the government] do it why society better for all. The logic behind this is to not
shouldn’t I?” Hence, the importance of having put energy into not doing the wrong things but put
leaders and authorities that represent high

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Behavioural changes against corruption 7
into doing more of the right things. Those actions engage after committing, and to simplify the
should be concrete to produce tangible results that, engagement process. Social incentives will be
in turn, fuels the motivation. leveraged when engagement is social and fun and
when people can see that others are already
Behavioural research has shown the short engaged. (For more strategies of citizen
durability of behavioural change motivated by engagement and concrete ideas of how to
extrinsic incentives. For instance, the Doing-in-the- implement them see Farag 2018).
Dark campaign promoted by Princeton University,
where students were encouraged to reduce their An example of how to make engaging activities fun
energy consumption for one month showed that, as is to organise sport events, for example, the
soon as the competition stopped, energy levels marathons against corruption in Afghanistan
bounced back to where they were before the (Saifullah, M. 2013). An example of leveraging the
competition (Van der Linden 2015). power of habit is, as in Nairobi, to organise
informative sessions where people gather to watch
Moreover, extrinsic incentives might undermine football and have the information session before
intrinsic motivation. For instance, emphasising the the football match.
financial benefits for enrolling in an energy-saving
programme can decrease environmental concern
3. Assessment of behavioural
and reduce the willingness to care about it (Van der
approaches against corruption
Linen 2015).
Little empirical evidence exists on the impact of
behavioural approaches against corruption. The
Civic engagement
lack of research results makes it difficult to suggest
The engagement of citizens in anti-corruption what behavioural approaches should be taken in
efforts is in principle a very direct way of leading the future to prevent corruption. Nevertheless,
behaviour against corruption. The challenge, there are important ideas to consider when it
though, is how to engage citizens in that enterprise. comes to choosing an approach to change
As experts on the topic argue that, to get more behaviour.
people involved in countering corruption, it is
necessary to design incentives that leverage the The lack of results of behavioural strategies in the
different dimensions of human behaviour (Farag short term does not necessarily mean that those
2018). Farag (2018) presents 15 ways to leverage strategies are not working. Behavioural change is a
rational, internal and social incentives. long endeavour that requires changing belief
systems and routines. That change might take
For example, among the strategies to leverage generations or it might happen faster due to
rational incentives are: to offer rewards and limit contingent circumstances. The case of the
cost, to not make engagement a waste of time, and municipal government in La Paz (Bolivia) is an
make it informative and valuable, and to use quick example of the latter. In early 2002, a flood caused
wins to demonstrate impact. Ways to leverage by two weeks of heavy rain killed 68 people and left
internal incentives are to focus on what people will a total of 1,581 people affected in the city. A
lose not on what will gain, to leverage the power of massive communal effort was required to help
habit, to play on the self-image of people, to flood victims and repair the damage, and the
visualise and make a plan on how they are going to municipal government led by mayor Juan Del

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Behavioural changes against corruption 8
Granado made an enormous, highly visible 4. Masculinity/femininity: masculine societies are
contribution. The resulting public gratitude for those considered assertive and competitive,
their efforts bolstered the morale of city officials whereas feminine societies are those more
who had long been derided by the public for their modest and caring.
rent-seeking and predatory behaviour. The
experience encouraged them to put public good 5. Long/short terms orientation: short-term
before individual self-interest (Zúñiga and oriented societies focus on the present or the
Heywood 2015). past; they value tradition, family imperatives,
short-term material gratification and universal
In addition, the change might be more or less guidelines on what is good and evil. A long-
permanent depending whether the motivation to term society focus on the future and values
change behaviour is internal or external. For persistence and the capacity of adaptation. In
instance, a reward scheme for good behaviour in this case, what is good and evil depends on the
the civil service might trigger fast change. circumstances.
Nevertheless, that change might last as long as
there is a reward scheme and disappear when the 6. Indulgence/restraint: in an indulgent society
scheme is cancelled. Internal motivation to change there is more space for relatively free
might take longer but last longer since it does not gratification of basic and human desires to
depend on an external source beyond the control of enjoy life, whereas in a restrained society
the subject. gratification of needs are strictly controlled by
social norms.
Contextual and cultural aspects can also play an
important role in determining what behavioural Thus, strategies involving competitions to see who
approaches might be more or less effective. is the best civil servant might work better in
Hofstede (2011) identifies six dimensions of masculine societies than in feminine ones. In the
national cultures that might affect how people latter, strategies to counter corruption might be
behave: more successfully framed as part of caring for the
collective. In an indulgent society, behaviour might
1. Power distance: the extent to which the less be triggered by presenting corruption as an
powerful members of obstacle to enjoying life, whereas in a restrained
organisations/institutions accept and expect society corruption might be presented as wrong
that power is distributed unequally. and against the norm. Trying to change behaviour
at the individual level or as a group is an important
2. Uncertainty avoidance: society’s tolerance to consideration depending on whether the society is
ambiguity and to what extent a culture individualist or collectivist. And the use of
programmes its members to feel uncomfortable leadership and hierarchies will be more or less
or comfortable in unstructured and uncertain effective in accordance with the conception of
circumstances. power distance in that society or group.

3. Individualism/collectivism: the degree to which Religious values also exercise, consciously or

people in a society are integrated into groups. unconsciously, a significant influence in behaviour
and moral judgements. Several studies show a
relationship between religion and corruption

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Behavioural changes against corruption 9
(Treisman 2000; Serra 2006; Sommer et al. 2013).
According to Treisman (2000), religion might
affect the perceived cost of corrupt actions through
conditioning attitudes towards social hierarchy.
When hierarchical religions, such as Catholicism or
Islam, dominates, challenges to office holders are
rarer than in societies where a more equalitarian
religion, like Protestantism, prevails. Religion can
also influence loyalties to family as opposed to
other citizens, affecting the levels of nepotism
(Treisman 2000). Being aware of these differences
helps to decide the best behavioural approach to
counter corruption.

Collective action potential in communities is

another variable that may be conducive for a
behavioural approach. Community attributes such
as horizontal social networks, levels of
participation in voluntary associations,
communitarian or individualistic patterns for
problem solving, and social norms like solidarity,
reciprocity and gift-giving, are expressions of the
social capital conducive to collective action (Baez
Camargo 2018) and, therefore, key for choosing the
right behavioural approach.

Finally, considering the diversity of aspects

determining behaviour and interacting
simultaneously, such as through rational
calculations, emotions, social relations, values,
culture, needs, demands and motivations, among
others, a successful approach to counter corruption
through changing behaviour requires a
combination of simultaneous strategies acting
upon those different aspects. In other words, it has
to involve actions that influence decision-making,
change the environment, communicate in effective
ways according to the subject’s belief systems, and
to appeal to both the rational and the emotional
mind.

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Behavioural changes against corruption 10
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Keywords

Behavioural changes – social norms

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