Web of Scholar 2 PDF
Web of Scholar 2 PDF
Web of Scholar 2 PDF
ISSN 2518-167X
CONTENTS
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Єлагін Віктор Павлович, Мартиненко Наталія Василівна
АДМІНІСТРУВАННЯ ПЕНСІЙНИХ ВНЕСКІВ В КРАЇНАХ –
ЧЛЕНАХ ЄВРОПЕЙСЬКОГО СОЮЗУ: ДОСВІД ДЛЯ УКРАЇНИ…………………...….…. 3
SOCIOLOGY
Mikhno Nadiya
ГРОМАДСЬКІСТЬ МІСТА ЯК КОЛЕКТИВНИЙ СУБ’ЄКТ СОЦІАЛЬНОЇ ДИНАМІКИ... 13
PHILOLOGY
Nigar Aghayeva
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SOME LYRIC AND EPIC GENRES IN AZERBAIJANI
AND ENGLISH CHILDREN’S FOLKLORE………………………...…………..……....……... 17
Aysel Talibova Saleh gizi
PROPER NAMES IN G. G. MARQUEZ’S NOVEL “ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF
SOLITUDE” AS BEARERS OF AUTHOR MISSION………………………..…………....….... 22
Nurana Orujova
THE SUPERIORITY OF TRAVEL MOTIF IN AZERBAIJANI EPIC FOLKLORE……...….... 26
Teymurlu Z. M.
THE PHONOSEMANTIC RESEARCH OF AZERBAIJANI AND TURKISH
IN THE ASPECT OF LITERARY LANGUAGE AND DIALECT………....……..……....…..... 30
Гейдарова Хадиджа Исабала гызы
ПОСТРОЕНИЕ СЛОВАРЯ МАХМУДА КАШГАРИ «ДИВАН ЛУГАТ АТ-ТУРК»
(СРАВНИТЕЛЬНЫЙ АНАЛИЗ СЛОВАРЕЙ АЛЬ-ФАРАБИ «ДИВАН АЛЬ-АДАБ ФИ
БАЯН ЛЮГАТИЛ-Л-АРАБ» И МАХМУДА КАШГАРИ «ДИВАН ЛУГАТ-АТ-ТУРК»).... 37
ARCHITECTURE AND CONSTRUCTION
Ксеневич Михаил Яковлевич
ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ ПО АКТИВИЗАЦИИ СОВРЕМЕННОГО РАЗВИТИЯ АРХИТЕКТУРЫ
ГРАДОСТРОИТЕЛЬСТВА УКРАИНЫ…………………………..……....……………....….... 41
ENGINEERING SCIENCES
Ходарина Кристина Валериевна, Гаркуша Галина Геннадиевна,
Хлопецкая Лариса Федоровна
МОДЕЛИРОВАНИЕ И АЛГОРИТМИЗАЦИЯ ПРОЦЕССОВ УПРАВЛЕНИЯ
ЭКСПЛУАТАЦИЕЙ СУДОВЫХ ЭНЕРГЕТИЧЕСКИХ СИСТЕМ…………….…………..... 46
MEDICINE
Astakhova OlenaVasylivna, Hryhorenko Andrij Mykolajovych,
Malinina Olena Bohdanivna, Taran Oksana Anatoliivna
ANATOMIC-FUNCTIONAL STATE OF PELVIC ORGANS IN WOMEN WITH
INFERTILITY AND OVARICOVARICOCELE……………………………………………....... 52
Vladeva E. P.
THE BOSTON CARPAL TUNNEL QUESTIONNAIRE /BCTQ/ − A RELIABLE METHOD
FOR DIAGNOSIS AND ASSESSMENT OF THE TREATMENT OF CARPAL TUNNEL
SYNDROME……………………………………………………………………………………... 58
Sagynbaeva G. A., Kaliev R. R.
ROLE OF T-786C ENDOTHELIAL GENE POLYMORPHISM OF NO - SYNTHASE IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF ACUTE CONTRAST-INDUCED NEPHROPATHY IN PATIENTS
WITH CORONARY HEART DISEASE……………………………………………………….... 64
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Copyright: © 2020 Єлагін В. П., Мартиненко Н. В. This is an open-access article distributed under
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other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication
in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is
permitted which does not comply with these terms.
В 2016 році в Україні ставка ЄСВ для роботодавців була зменшена до 22%, внесок
працівників було перенесено до податку на доходи фізичних осіб. Сума єдиного внеску на
загальнообов’язкове державне соціальне страхування розподіляється на: загальнообов’язкове
державне соціальне страхування на випадок безробіття – 4,8058 відсотка; загальнообов’язкове
державне соціальне страхування у зв’язку з тимчасовою втратою працездатності і
загальнообов’язкове державне соціальне страхування від нещасного випадку на виробництві та
професійного захворювання, які спричинили втрату працездатності, – 9,5727 відсотка;
загальнообов’язкове державне пенсійне страхування (до солідарної системи) – 85,6215 відсотка [9].
Отже, у Нідерландах загальна ставка внесків на соціальне страхування з урахуванням
всіх програм значно вища ніж в Україні, воднораз для роботодавців ставка майже вдвічі менша.
Крім того, у Нідерландах, на відміну від України, працівники сплачують пенсійні внески за
досить високою ставкою.
Пенсійні системи Швеції, Норвегії та Німеччини згідно досліджень “Глобальний індекс
пенсійного забезпечення” у 2019 році дістали оцінку “B” (від 65 до 80 балів), яка характеризує
пенсійні системи, що володіють багатьма плюсами, проте вимагають доопрацювань. Втім, у
порівнянні з 2018 загальне значення індексу шведської пенсійної системи знизилось з 72,5 до
72,3, норвезької – з 71,5 до 71,2, німецької – з 66,8 до 66,1. Зазначене відбулось внаслідок
падіння реального економічного зростання та негативних демографічних трендів.
У Швеції діє тип програми: універсальна, соціальне страхування, умовно-визначені
внески (NDC) і обов'язкова система індивідуальних рахунків [16]. Система соціального
страхування за віком охоплює зайнятих і самозайнятих осіб, які народилися до 1938 року.
Відбувається поступовий перехід від системи соціального страхування до планів з умовно-
визначеними внесками (NDC) та обов'язкової системи індивідуальних рахунків.
Пенсійна система Швеції складається з наступних частин: загальної пенсії – державна
пенсія, за яку відповідає Шведське пенсійне агентство; професійної пенсії від роботодавців;
власних накопичень на пенсію [16].
Внески в NDC (notional defined contribution або умовно-накопичувальна модель) і DC
(defined contribution або модель з встановленими внесками) в сукупності складають 18,5% від
доходу працівника. В NDC спрямовується 16% та використовуються для виплати пенсій у
цьому ж році по розподільчій схемі, але при цьому вводиться персоніфікований облік внесків,
коли для кожної застрахованої особи відкривається віртуальний рахунок, внески на якому
накопичуються і щорічно індексуються з урахуванням динаміки заробітної плати. В DC – 2,5%
надходять на особистий накопичувальний рахунок працівника. Застрахована особа самостійно
розміщує ці кошти в приватний або державний пенсійний фонд. В результаті при трудовому
стажі 35-40 років коефіцієнт заміщення становить 45-60% від заробітної плати. Кожен рік
стажу впливає на розмір майбутньої пенсії, що змушує працівників вести активну трудову
діяльність на протязі всього свого життя.
Роботодавець сплачує пенсійні внески від оподатковуваної бази за ставкою 10,21%,
працівник – 7%. Крім того, роботодавець сплачує внески за програмами “Хвороба і материнство” –
6,95%, “Трудова травма” – 0,2%, “Безробіття” – 2,91%, що загалом становить – 20,97% [16].
Отже, ставка ЄСВ в Україні майже дорівнює сумарній ставці внесків до соціальних
фондів за різними програмами для роботодавців у Швеції. Але у Швеції, на відміну від
України, пенсійні внески сплачуються також і працівниками. В Україні зберігається
патерналізм з боку держави за відсутності обов'язкової участі працівників у пенсійному
страхуванні. Необхідно введення умовно-накопичувальної моделі пенсійного забезпечення, що
включає елементи розподільної системи і схем з встановленими внесками.
На відміну від України, у Швеції самозайняті особи та роботодавці сплачують внески
разом з прибутковим податком до Шведського податкового агентства [16]. В Україні зміни, які
регулюють подання єдиної звітності з ЄСВ і податку на доходи фізичних осіб запроваджуються
з 01.01.2021 року. Слід звернути увагу на те, що Шведське пенсійне агентство управляє
програмами по старості та у зв'язку з втратою годувальника; Шведське агентство соціального
страхування управляє і контролює програму по інвалідності; регіональні та місцеві органи
соціального страхування реалізують програму по інвалідності [16]. Зазначене доцільно
врахувати з метою зменшення навантаження на пенсійну систему, оскільки доволі таки значна
частина пенсійних виплат здійснюється не після досягнення пенсійного віку, а по інвалідності.
В Норвегії діє тип програми: універсальна, соціальне страхування, умовно визначений внесок
(NDC) [16]. Пенсійна система Норвегії базується на умовно-накопичувальній моделі (NDC, Notional
Defined Contribution), що включає елементи розподільчої системи і схем з встановленими внесками.
В Норвегії внески збирає Місцева податкова служба в кожному муніципалітеті;
Міністерство праці та соціальних справ здійснює загальний нагляд; Норвезьке управління праці
та соціального забезпечення (NAV) управляє програмами на національному рівні; Місцеві
служби NAV керують програмами на місцевому рівні; зареєстровані професійні пенсійні фонди
управляють обов'язковими професійними пенсійними програмами [16].
Внески для найманих працівників становлять 8,2% від доходу з правом на пенсію
(валової заробітної плати). Ставки внесків до системи пенсійного страхування для роботодавців
диференційовані відповідно до п'ятьох регіональних зон, причому показники варіюються від 0
у самій північній частині до 14,1 відсотка в більшості центральних районів.
З метою сприяння економічному розвитку регіонів, формування здорового підприємницького
клімату в Україні, зменшення оподаткування легального бізнесу слід диференціювати ставки ЄСВ з
урахуванням стану економічного розвитку регіонів (високий, середній, нижче середнього).
У Німеччині до Федерального пенсійного страхування, що адмініструє програму
спільно з регіональними управліннями, застрахована особа на пенсійне страхування сплачує:
9,3% від місячної страхової суми понад 850 євро. Внесок зменшується за щомісячний заробіток
до 850 євро. Можливі добровільні внески для щомісячного заробітку до 450 євро. Роботодавець
сплачує 9,3% від місячної заробітної плати, а за працівників з щомісячним заробітком до 450
євро – 15% [16]. Отже, у Німеччині ставка внесків варіюється в залежності від розміру місячної
заробітної плати застрахованої особи. Якщо для працівника при збільшенні рівня доходів
ставка збільшується, то для роботодавців навпаки – з меншої заробітної плати сплачується
значно більший внесок. Саме в такий спосіб слід заохочувати роботодавців до збільшення
заробітної плати працівникам, з метою зменшення тіньової економіки.
Пенсійні системи Франції та Польщі отримали оцінку С (50-65 балів) як такі, що мають
ряд позитивних рис, але водночас потрібно усунути низку недоліків, які в довгостроковій
перспективі загрожують їх стійкості. Слід звернути увагу на те, що загальне значення індексу
французької пенсійної системи знизилося з 60,7 у 2018 році до 60,2 у 2019 році, а польської –
зросло з 54,3 в 2018 році до 57,4 в 2019 році.
Пенсійна система Франції, яка формувалася протягом багатьох років, характеризується
великою кількістю фондів і різних режимів, що знаходяться у віданні Національного фонду
пенсійного страхування. У Франції діє тип програми: соціальне страхування, обов'язкова
професійна пенсія та система соціальної допомоги [16].
Органи, що займаються пенсійним забезпеченням Франції: Міністерство економіки і
фінансів забезпечує загальний нагляд і видає нормативні акти; Національне пенсійне
страхування по старості управляє пенсіями по старості та страховим виплатам по догляду за
особами, які працюють у приватному секторі; Федерація Agirc-Arrco адмініструє професійні
пенсії найманих працівників та менеджерів у приватному секторі. Депозитні та консигнаційні
фонди (IRCANTEC) адмініструють професійні пенсії для працівників приватного сектора, які
працюють за контрактом у державному секторі. Центральне агентство соціального захисту
здійснює нагляд за спільними агентствами зі збору платежів та адмініструє центральні рахунки
для внесків. Спільні агентства зі збору платежів збирають внески [16].
Таким чином у Франції платежі на пенсійне забезпечення стягуються окремо від
податків. Функції зі збору соціальних внесків та їх подальшого перерозподілу належать до
компетенції одного інституту системи соціального захисту.
На відміну від України в досліджених країнах фізичні особи, соціальні ризики яких
підлягають страхуванню, беруть участь у фінансуванні пенсійної системи поряд з
роботодавцями. Участь застрахованих осіб у системі пенсійного страхування робить її дійсно
страховою, оскільки надає пенсійним внескам властивість зворотності. В Угорщині та Естонії те,
що страховий принцип полягає в основі соціальних платежів відображено в правовій кваліфікації
та назві відрахувань на соціальні потреби.
Так, в Угорщині соціальні платежі, що покладаються на працівників, називаються страховими
внесками, а ті, що обтяжують роботодавців, називаються соціальним податковим внеском [12]. В
Естонії платежі, що сплачуються роботодавцем називаються соціальним податком [15].
пенсійні плани
Добровільні
Обов'язкова
Солідарна
а система
система
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Нідерланди Система Банк соціального страхування Національний
соціального управляє пенсіями по старості податковий
Індиві-
страхування. та у зв'язку з втратою году- департамент
100 88,0 дуальні
вальника. Інститут по виплатах податкової і
–28,3
працівникам адмініструє митної
допомоги по інвалідності. адміністрації
Норвегія Універсальне, Міністерство праці та соціаль- Місцеві
соціальне них справ здійснює загальний податкові
страхування, нагляд. Норвезьке управління служби в
Індиві-
умовно-сплачений праці та соціального забезпечен- кожному
100 59,4 дуальні
внесок (NDC) і ня (NAV) управляє програмами муніципалітеті
–23,1
обов'язкова на національному рівні. Місцеві
професійна служби (NAV) керують
пенсійна система програмами на місцевому рівні.
Швеція Універсальне, Шведське пенсійне агентство Шведське
соціальне управляє програмами по податкове
страхування, старості і у зв'язку з втратою агентство
умовно годувальника.
визначений Індиві- Шведське агентство
внесок (NDC) і 100 100 дуальні соціального страхування
обов'язкова –24,2 управляє і контролює програму
система по інвалідності. Регіональні та
індивідуальних місцеві органи соціального
рахунків. страхування здійснюють
програму по інвалідності.
Продовження таблиці 1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Угорщина Система Державне казначейство Національна
Індиві-
соціального податкова та
100 дуальні
страхування. митна
– 18,7
адміністрація
Болгарія Соціальне Міністерство праці та Національне
страхування, соціальної політики податкове
індивідуальний відповідає за національну агентство
рахунок і політику соціального
система страхування та соціальної
соціальної допомоги. Національний
допомоги. 100 86,0 інститут соціального
забезпечення, керований
Тристоронньою наглядовою
радою представників уряду,
роботодавців і працівників
управляє системою
соціального страхування.
Естонія Універсальне, Міністерство соціальних Податкова
соціальне справ відповідає за загальне служба і
страхування, керівництво і нагляд. Рада митниця.
Індиві-
обов'язковий соціального страхування
100 83,4 дуальні
індивідуальний відповідає за загальне
– 11,2
облік і система планування і координацію.
соціальної
допомоги.
Латвія Універсальний Міністерство добробуту Служба
(допомога по здійснює загальний нагляд. державних
догляду за Державне агентство доходів.
інвалідом), соціального страхування
соціальне управляє грошовими
страхування Профе- допомогами та
(допомоги по сійні – індивідуальними рахунками.
інвалідності), 1,0
умовно- 100 100
встановлений Індиві-
внесок (NDC), дуальні
обов'язковий –19,0
індивідуальний
рахунок і
система
соціальної
допомоги.
Україна Система Пенсійний фонд України та Державна
соціального його територіальні органи фіскальна
страхування і служба
100 2,9
соціальної України та її
допомоги територіальні
органи
Складено автором за даними [1, 5, 13, 14, 16]
*– у відсотках до кількості населення працездатного віку (15-64 роки)
SOCIOLOGY
Citation: Mikhno Nadiya. (2020) Hromadskist Mista yak Kolektyvnyi Subiekt Sotsialnoi Dynamiky.
International Academy Journal Web of Scholar. 2(44). doi: 10.31435/rsglobal_wos/28022020/6911
Copyright: © 2020 Mikhno Nadiya. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is
permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal
is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which
does not comply with these terms.
менеджмент, організаційні навчання, навчальні візити у інші міста України та світу, а також
розвиток місцевого самоврядування [9].
Висновки. Підсумовуючи зазначимо, визначення сутності феномену міського активізму
та дослідження процесу його змістовного розширення є демонстрацією модифікованого
класичного дискурсу щодо проблеми участі громадськості міста в сферах міського управління і
розвитку. В ситуації постмодерну, ми говоримо про деконструкцію традиційних структур,
домінування мережевої комунікації, ситуацію коли Левіафан втратив монополію на уособлення
загальнонаціональної ідеї, що обернулося як перенасиченістю та переплетенням змістів усіх
існуючих ідеологій, так і модифікацією типових форм громадської активності. Сучасний
міський активізм, таким чином, ми визначаємо в форматі «низової» форми самоорганізації
мешканців міст, який в своїх ключових рисах відтворює логіку нових суспільних рухів.
ЛІТЕРАТУРА
1. Вевйорка, М. (1997). Новая парадигма насилия. Демоны мира и боги войны. К.: Політична думка.
2. Мордовець, М. (2013). Полiтична активнiсть VS полiтичного активiзму: особливості концептуального
розрiзрення. Панорама полiтологiчних студiй. Науковий вiсник РДГУ. Рівно.11. 43- 46.
3. Козловски, П. (1997). Культура постомодерна. М.: Республика.
4. Шестая власть: городские активисты. (2017). Режим доступа: https://media.strelka-kb.com/bulletin3-activists
5. Петренко-Лисак, А. (2019). Повернути містянам голос. Режим доступу:
https://kufer.media/misto/povernuty-mistyanam-golos/
6. Петренко-Лисак, А. (2019). Урбан-тезаурас: міський активізм. Режим доступу:
https://rubryka.com/blog/urban-tezaurus-miskyj-aktyvizm/.
7. Брязкун, В. (2008). Флешмоб: розвага для молоді чи спосіб управління людьми. Країна знань. 1. 41-45.
8. Рейнгольд, Г. (2006). Умная толпа: новая социальная революция. Г.: ФАИР Пресс.
9. Портрет громадського активіста. Інститут лідерства та управління. Режим доступу:
http://management.lviv.ua/aktualno/news/item/435-portret-aktyvista#.
PHILOLOGY
Citation: Nigar Aghayeva. (2020) Comparative Analysis of Some Lyric and Epic Genres in Azerbaijani
and English Children’s Folklore. International Academy Journal Web of Scholar. 2(44). doi:
10.31435/rsglobal_wos/28022020/6912
Copyright: © 2020 Nigar Aghayeva. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is
permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal
is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which
does not comply with these terms.
Introduction. In both Azerbaijani and English folklore a special emphasis is placed on the
upbringing of the younger generation. Children's folklore genres develop aesthetic feelings of children,
nurture them in the spirit of the traditions of their people, and encourage them to love their country,
their people and their language. Scientific and theoretical views of many researchers on the problems
of children's folklore in Azerbaijani and English folklore have been analyzed. Using the method of
comparative analysis, specifications and idea-artistic features of Azerbaijani and English children's
folklore genres were explored.
Research results. Theme and plot similarity of the different genres of Azerbaijan and English
children's folklore- lullabies-cradles, riddles and tongue-twisters is related to the fact that the life and
lifestyle of children are the same for all peoples of the world.
Lullabies are one of the most popular genres in both Azerbaijan and English children's
folklore. They are the songs that have been sung to put babies to the bed and to fondle them. An
Azerbaijani mother says for her baby:
“Laylay dedim, yatasan, / Lay-lay my dear, sleep,
Qızıl gülə batasan, / Fall into the roses
Qızıl gülün içində / Among the roses
Şirin yuxu tapasan / Find a very sweet dream ” [Children's folklore, 2007:10].
On the other hand, a woman in England also expresses her heartfelt feelings for her child:
“Day is done,
Gone the sun,
From the lake, from the hills, from the sky.
All is well, safely rest,
God is nigh…” [https://www.famlii.com/day-is-done-lullaby-lyrics/].
Prof. Shahin Khalilli, the researcher of Azerbaijan and English literary relations translated this
lullaby into Azerbaijani as follows:
“Günüm bitdi,
Günəş batdı
Təpələrdən,
Göldən, göydən
Nə vardısa yuxuladı.
Pənahımız Allahadı” [Shahin Khalilli, 2002:42].
Despite the difference in content and form the sense of purity is felt within hemistich in both
lullaby samples. The power of faith in religion and religious rituals is also manifested in rituals in English
children's songs. Children who want to play in the yard sing the following songs to stop the rain:
Rain, rain, go away.
Come again another day;
Little Arthur wants to play” [The Nursery Rhymes of England, 1843:214].
We can observe the traces of the original belief in the call of sun (sun rise, sun rise, ride a bay horse),
wind (Oh wind grandfather, wind grandfather) or in godu-godu ceremonial song in Azerbaijani folklore.
In both folklore samples the child calls the forces of nature, the sun, the wind, the rain, and
says the magic witchcraft. In both Azerbaijan and English appeals, the child interacts with the forces
of nature: he wants hot and endearment from the sun; He asks for strong rain or to stop the rain.
There are counting-out rhymes in the children's folklore of all nations. Counting-out rhymes
taught to count from ancient times to the present day in Azerbaijan. The naming of each finger helps
to keep and remember the numerical system well. Children remember and keep alive such counting-
out rhymes that bring comfort to their spirits.
Bura bir xərmənidi (Here was a threshing floor)
Bura bir quş qondu. (A bird sat here)
Biri vurdu, (The first hit)
Biri tutdu, (The second caught)
Biri pişirdi, (The third cooked)
Biri yedi, (The fourth ate)
Cöcülüyə qalmadı (The Fifth is nothing left) [Southern Azerbaijani folklore, 2015: 34].
The five fingers are the most basic, the palm of the hand is threshing-floor. The hunter is the
thumb, index finger catches, the middle finger cooks, ring finger eats, but the pinky finger is still little.
This is further proof of the aforementioned idea. Such counting-out rhymes are for young
children.These counting-out rhymes help children learn how to count from one to five.
There are also songs with fingers that are intended for teaching purposes in English children's
folklore. They are in short song form and performs with gestures. Counting-out rhymes can also be called a
teaching game because they teach a child a lot of movement. When the mother sings a song, it remains in
the child's mind and child combines every word and gesture. These rhymes are more interesting for
younger children. They draw the kid's attention and soothe them. These rhymes can be considered a special
entertainment of adults with kids. In this case, body movements of both sides are remarkable. This is an
english finger-related counting-out rhyme called “Round and round the garden”.
“Round about, round about,
here sits the hare,
In the comer of a cornfield
and that's just there, (close to thumb)
This httle dog found her, (fingers, starting with thumb)
This htde dog ran her.
This little dog caught her,
This httle dog ate her.
And this little dog said, Give me a little bit please” [ Opie & Opie, I. and P, 1966:199].
This rhyme is very similar to Azerbaijan's finger-related songs-counting-out rhymes. While saying
these words, the two fingers passes through the child's palm and then as the "dog" pursues the "rabbit" −
two fingers (index and middle fingers) run from the boy's arm to the shoulder. While the rhymes are
performed teaching activities are performed in both Azerbaijan and English children's folklore.
In these entertaining English songs, counting-out rhymes are also used when counting children's
feet. While singing "This Little Pig" song narrator touches the child's fingers in a row and finally tickles
“This little piggy went to market,
This little piggy stayed home,
This little piggy had roast beef,
This little piggy had none,
And this little piggy cried "wee wee wee" all the way home”
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Little_Piggy].
Azerbaijani and English counting-out rhymes include simple jokes, funny motives, and hand
gestures to provide a cheerful mood. Both people use calculation methods in these songs.They
encourage a child to calculate without having to deal with abstract mathematical problems. These are
the first steps towards abstract calculation.
“Ladybird! Ladybird! Fly Away Home” game song is associated with ancient customs and
traditions in Azerbaijani folklore. It is loved and performed by children in different regions of
Azerbaijan. In this game song (nursery rhyme) children carry the Ladybird in their hand and ask her to
make their wishes come true. First, the children search for Ladybird in the grass and flowers, then
catch and carry it in their hands, make different wishes and set the Ladybird free. The wishes
expressed in this joyful song differ in some parts of Azerbaijan: “Fatmanənə, fatmanənə, sarısı sizin
zəmiyə, yaşılı bizim zəmiyə” (Ladybird, Ladybird yellow to your, green is to our cornfield)
[Azerbaijan Folk Literature, 2001:95].
The nursery rhyme singing by English peasants in the past “Ladybird! Ladybird! Fly Away
Home” is one of the songs that children sing in modern times.
“Ladybird, ladybird fly away home,
Your house is on fire and your children are gone,
All except one, and her name is Ann,
And she hid under the baking pan” [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladybird_Ladybird].
When the villagers burned the fields for the next planting, they shouted:
Ladybird, ladybird, fly away home,
Thy house is on fire, thy children all gone,
All but one, and her name is Ann,
And she crept under the pudding-pan [W.Gannon,1902:288].
Ladybird is a beneficial insect that eats harmful insects that destroy plants. Villagers want to
reduce the number of vermin and save useful Ladybird. At the moment, when Ladybird settle on
children they are singing this song as if they were performing an ancient ceremony.
Tongue-twisters play a special role in strengthening the child's mind and memory. Tongue-twisters
are created both in prose and poetry, reflects all the tenderness of lively folk language and as well as shaping
children's fluent speech and attention, entertain them and become a means of nurturing as a word game.
In English folklore, tongue-twisters are similar to Azerbaijan tongue-twisters in terms of many
qualities. So "She sells sea-shells" is an example of formation a new tongue-twister by replacing words.
“She sells sea-shells on the sea-shore.
The shells she sells are sea-shells, I'm sure.
So if she sells sea-shells on the sea-shore
I'm sure the sells are sea-shore shells” [Tongue Twisters Limericks and Humorous Verse, 2000:2].
The riddles reveal many differences in history and ethnic relations. The ethnic peculiarity of
riddles are expressed in the selection of subjects to be found (especially household items), in the
nature and metaphorical structures of the characters. Sometimes we encounter riddles with the names
of fruits, animals, birds, food and so on. that they have become famous only in Azerbaijan and are
almost never seen in other nations, as well as in English, or, conversely, a number of British items,
food, animals, and bird names are not mentioned in our riddles.
In English riddles, the motives of the riddles are in or near the villagers' home. Small worms,
chickens, milk, eggs and also home appliances are typical and popular topics. But the choice here is
still very limited. Although dogs and horses are often not the answer to the riddle, they are sometimes
used in the sense of comparison. Cats and mice are not used in any of the above situations. In England,
those who use riddles rarely use the names of wild animals. Storks, bears, foxes or wolves are rarely
found in riddles.But these creatures are often used in folk tales. Fruits or vegetables such as carrots,
onions, walnuts, blackberries and cherries can rarely be the subject of riddles.Apples and pears are
completely unknown to riddles. Unlike the flowers, the thistle are the subject of riddles.
One of the famous English children's songs talk about the mysterious creature "Humpty
Dumpty." This hero has also been a source of many problems for translators. This character is
translated into Azerbaijani as Shaltay-Baltay. Humpty Dumpty is an ordinary chicken egg and the
truth is that if it breaks no force can combine it again. The description of things here is quite different.
“Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall,
Humpty Dumpty had a great fall;
All the King's horses
And all the King's men,
Couldn't put Humpty together again” [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humpty_Dumpty].
“Humpty Dumpty” in English means “ fat and short”. In illustrations, he is often described as
an egg, but in some versions as a boy.The strangeness of the matter is that we have to guess the riddle
itself from this description. This nursery rhyme was used as a riddle before.
It is clear from the text of egg related Azerbaijan children's riddle “O yanı qaya, Bu yanı qaya,
İçində sarı maya” (The rock on that side, the rock on this side, yellow yeast inside) [Riddles, 2004:98]
that all sides of the yellow yeast resembles a rock. If that rock- shell falls, it will not be possible to
hold the yellow yeast together. Here, the expression "yellow yeast" plays the key to finding the riddle.
The riddles in Azerbaijani folklore are in the form of poetry and prose. Most of the riddles are
expressed in verse form.Their 2, 3, 4 hemistiches patterns are more in number: Yaşıldı abası, Sarıdı
libası (Badam) / Its aba (robe) is green, Clothing is yellow (Almond) [Riddles, 2004:57], Bizim evdə
bir kişi var, Ağzında üç dişi var (Sacayaq) / There is a man in our house, There are three teeth in his
mouth (Trivet) [Riddles, 2004:21].
Most of the riddles in the form of prose, begin with “O nədir ki?” / "What is it?" questions.
Riddles in verse are more and different in structure. Some begin with the words, “Tap,
tapmaca”/"Find, riddle", “Bizdə bir kişi var”/ “There is a man in our house".
In Azerbaijani and English folklore, they are based on a metaphorical description of something
with metaphor. Some riddles are like counting-out words and this is also "lively math," a unique way
of teaching the number.
Conclusions. Children’s folklore is one of the distinct branches of folklore. It is possible to feel
clearly the national spirit of the people, manner of life, cultural standards of language, manner of national
thought in the genres of children’s folklore. People's manner of life are coded in these genres for thousands
of years. Azerbaijan, as well as English children's folklore is rich in terms of theme and motif. This is
inevitable of differing these folklore genres from one another formed in the different places. But there are
also aspects doing them close to one another like created by children or addressed to children.
The initial demonstration of literary thinking began from children's folklore. The parallels, as
well as differences are available between Azerbaijani and English children's folklore genres.
Children’s nursery rhymes are very urgent issue in both English and Azerbaijan folklore. Regardless
of their age, folklore affects a person's mental and psychological development. The power of religious
belief shows itself on the basis of the rituals during the performance of Azerbaijani and English
children's songs. Child also appeals to the power of nature in these rituals and tells the magic.
Riddle is one of the oldest genres of folklore. Riddles have been associated with mythological
and animistic views during the first formation. Real life facts are also involved in the formation of the
riddle genre. Riddles play a major role in the child's mental development. Riddles express all the
characteristics of the surrounding world on symbols and signs. Riddles point surrounding objects, the
world surrounding people using the poetic word code. The riddle genre is practically used to develop,
improve, and agitate child's thought.
Tongue-twisters have particular importance in strengthening child’s mind and memory.
Creating an artificial speech habit of tongue-twisters is used to smooth a child's speech. The tongue-
twisters reflect all the subtleties of the lively spoken language, along with forming children's fluent
speech, attention, as well as entertaining them and as a word game becomes a means of education.
REFERENCES
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House of New Publications, Baku, 2001, 376 pages.
2. Children's folklore / edited by R. Ismayilov. - Baku: The Golden Book, 2007, - 96 pages.
3. Faraway countries, native songs (Folklore samples, rhymes and poem). Baku, Yazichi, 1986, 197 pages.
4. Opie & Opie, I. and P., The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes. Oxford University Press, Ely House,
London W., 1966, 544 pages.
5. Riddles. collected and compiled by N. Seyidov, Baku, "East-West", 2004, 208 pages.
6. Shahin Khalilli. Azerbaijani-English literary relations. “Azerbaijan National Encyclopedia” NPB, 2002, 216 pages.
7. Southern Azerbaijani folklore, V Book. Baki, Science and Education, 2015. 388 pages.
8. The Nursery Rhymes of England. By James Orchard Halliwell, London: John Russell Smith, 4, Old
Compton Street, Soho Square. 1843, 323p.
9. Tongue Twisters Limericks and Humorous Verse. Selecded by Fiona Waters. Pearson Education Limited,
England, 2000, 14 pages.
10. W.Gannon. Mother Goose's Rhymes Nursery Tales and Jingles. New York: Hurst And Company
Publishers.1902, 418 pages.
11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humpty_Dumpty
12. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Little_Piggy
13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladybird_Ladybird
14. https://www.famlii.com/day-is-done-lullaby-lyrics/
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31435/rsglobal_wos/28022020/6913
Citation: Aysel Talibova Saleh gizi. (2020) Proper Names in G. G. Marquez’s Novel “One Hundred
Years of Solitude” as Bearers of Author Mission. International Academy Journal Web of Scholar. 2(44). doi:
10.31435/rsglobal_wos/28022020/6913
Copyright: © 2020 Aysel Talibova Saleh gizi. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums
is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this
journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted
which does not comply with these terms.
Introduction. The most famous work by world wide known writer Gabriel Garcia Marquez is
the novel “One Hundred Years of Solitude” that he won Nobel Prize for. Every event, every detail,
every character has literary-symbolic mission in the work. As well as some onomastic units, especially
anthroponyms and toponyms in the work have been purposely selected by the author according to
meanings they bear. Possibly, the writer who loves mystery as he writes in magic realism gives exact
information neither about the time of the events nor the place in his works for his this feature. The
names chosen bear symbolic essence due to their meanings.
Toponyms: Macondo. We come across with only a toponym in the work: Macondo. The nation
has been named after it as well: Macondo people. The writer hasn’t randomly chosen this name. Marquez
would travel to different places with his grandfather by train in his childhood. In one of such trips: “...the
train stopped at a station not belonging to any village, after a while it passed in front of the only banana
plantation on its way. It had its name written on its door: “Macondo”. This name and its melodic sound
drew my attention since my childhood. After too many years when I saw the meaning of this name in
encyclopedia I had already used it as the name of an imaginary village in 3 of my works. The name of the
village was taken from cognominal tree. Macondo is a tropical tree that has a giant body and doesn’t have
buds or fruit. Later I had read that cognominal ancient tribe existed in the book “Britannica”, and the name
of the tree could be stemmed from here” (Marquez, 2016, p. 31). In short, this name is of great importance
in terms of having ancient historical roots and containing modern meanings in order to be chosen as a
village name in such a work by Marquez. As we see from the citation, Macondo is the name of lands where
banana plantations were built. Historical-political events that stand in the center of the work are also
directly connected with Banana company. At the same time Macondo is a symbolic village. It symbolizes
not only a village or a country but commonly a continent in itself. The author reveals the fate of a continent
on the behalf of Macondo people as a whole.
Ethnonyms: gypsies. The word “gypsy” is also used as another tribe name alongside with
Macondo people. Gypsies come to Macondo together with Melquíades in the work. “Every year
during the month of March a family of ragged gypsies would set up their tents near the village, and
with a great uproar of pipes and kettledrums they would display new inventions.” − before they came
“the world was so recent that many things lacked names, and in order to indicate them it was
necessary to point” (Marquez, 2011, pp. 1-3).
As it is clear, the author calls “innovators” “gypsy”. This tribe is called “gitano” in Spanish, the
author’s mother tongue and the language the work was written in. The word has other meanings in that
language too: flunkey, smarty, dirty. Though the tribe has a distinct name in every language, some of
these names were derived from the Greek word “cigany”, however this word was derived from the word
“tsingános” that means “untouchable” in the Byzantine language (Medieval Greek) (Altinoz, 2019). The
word “cigany” renders the meanings of worthless, immoral, good-for-nothing etc. alongside with having
the meaning gypsy tribe in Greek it belongs. These tribes were dependent on the states they lived in the
patronage of throughout the history, and exceedingly kept back from their peoples, they had neither their
own states nor lands. Here appears an interesting question: while gypsies are undeveloped societies in
the world, why does the author choose gypsies as a power that brings inventions to Macondo people who
still live in the early stage of the society and inspires them to some improvement? Extensive progress in
the development of science and technologies began in Europe for the first time: the first book print, the
first train, the first plant and factory etc. We can guess from here that this is a metaphor selected for
Europeans that caused many troubles for Latin Americans for centuries. This history repeated itself when
Marques was born too. With the establishment of Banana company several innovations were introduced
here: television, theater and other many technologies that ease the life. However, these innovations
brought some misfortunes with themselves as well. Marquez could denote Banana company founders on
the behalf of the image gypsies.
Anthroponyms: José. The majority of onomastic units that are literary-symbolic meaning
bearers are anthroponyms. For instance, José, Úrsula, Arcadio, Melquíades, Aureliano etc. Let’s have
a look at a few of these. The name Xose (José) belongs to ancient Hebrew, Jozef (Jozefina) in French
has the same roots with Yusif in the Aramaic language. The lexical meaning of the name is like this:
“He (God) will add” (Jose, 2019). If we pay attention to the meaning of the name, we’ll notice that the
name of this person who is considered the ancestor-father of the generation the Buendía hasn’t been
randomly chosen. Dozens of images that appeared after José Arcadio the Buendía in the work are
those who came into being from that person’s biological heritage who was considered moral father of
human destiny in the work. This name the writer gave his hero that has prayer essence is reflected in
the following chapters of the work. Another feature of the name Yusif in the image José is its being the
name of a prophet. José Arcadio the Buendía is also a kind of symbolic prophet image. Just as the
Jesus he was nailed to the tree – crucified by the crowd that didn’t understand him.
Anthroponyms: Úrsula. The father of the generation the Buendía is José Arcadio the
Buendía, and the mother of this generation is his wife Ursula. Why did the writer use the very name
Ursula? Ursula is both justice guide of the family and soft-hearted mother in the work. When family
members are carried away by their feelings and make mistakes or commit sins Ursula is the one who
can’t stay indifferent to these sins and even tries to lead them to a right path interfering. Ursula isn’t
just a biological mother, she is also a moral mother of all the generation the Buendía. She becomes the
symbol of honesty and purity like a prophet, tries to lead the individuals of the society she lives in to
that way. Her prediction skills and staying alive though years, centuries or generations pass by are
literary features that are directly related to this kind of prophet life she lives. In my opinion, the name
of the image has not been chosen randomly. There was a woman named Ursula Southeil who was
appreaciated like a prophet in the past (Harrison, 1881). The woman who was more known with the
name Mother Shipton left her trace in the history with her prophecies.
According to narratives about the woman who lived in the XIV-XV centuries she knew the
mystery of the Universe and could predict the events after the century she lived in - there will come a
day when people will send their ideas to one another through air (electromagnetic waves), cabs will be
used without horses (automobile), invisible living creatures (viruses) will cause mass massacres
(plague). She even had prophecies about the World Wars I, II and III and the ones about the first two
wars were ratified in the history (God forbid from the III!). If we analyze the connection between the
real bearer of the name Ursula in the history and its bearer in the work, we can conclude that the
author may have selected this name on purpose. According to the narratives about Ursula Southeil’s
life, the people who mistreated her underwent mysterious troubles. May be it is the very reason why
family members get cursed and get drowned in their ambiguous solitude in the end as with their sins
they aren’t fair to that moral mother Ursula, the woman who took the most care of them and who
experienced most pain out of these sins as well.
Melquíades. Most researchers conclude that Melquíades is the self image of the author. It sounds
reasonable to some extent; names look alike (Melquíades – Márquez); just as the author never shows his
attitude towards the events he images, we don’t see Melquíades’s attitude either towards J. A. Buendía or
the behaviours of his children. He neither blames, nor supports; Melquíades is just a means who delivers
the inventions to Macondo. At the same time the book Melquíades wrote in the Sanskrit language is also
about life trajectory of a generation from beginning to the end – the generation the Buendía like in the book
of Márquez’s. Of note, the word “Melquíades” has the meaning “My God is Yahweh” in ancient Hebrew
(Melquiades - Meaning of Melquiades, 2020). Probably, the author hasn’t chosen this name randomly. But
when we notice his behaviours through the work we can conclude that there is abstractness in the
symbolism of the image Melquíades, not definiteness. He is the representative of divine will on the Earth.
Because predicting the events beforehand and writing the fates of people are only belonged to God’s will.
Melquíades brings inventions and scientific innovations, but he doesn’t try to direct people in terms of
using those innovations, just like God.
Once Aureliano Buendía and II Aureliano start doing immoral acts, Melquíades is forgotten,
his room is locked. As if they go far from God. Melquíades is as if the center where science and
theology are combined. We observe it in his speeches as well. He explains the attraction of iron by
magnet like this “things have also soul, you must be able to wake their souls up, that’s all”.
Innovations of history of humanity or the discovery of existing truths “cost a lot”. Some of them were
sentenced to death, some were banished, and others were burned in the bonfire with claims that they
were witches. It has a lot of reasons. And one of the reasons is truths didn’t match mystical logic that
is called early human logic. Mystical logic is to see the reason or the essence of nature laws in
metaphysical forces, shortly, connects real events to unreal ones. Melquíades logic answers based on
this. Melquíades gives his own chemistry lab to J. A. Buendía as a gift – symbolically sends “science
and improvement light” to this Macondo (to J. A. Buendía). But like in the most essential points of the
work, coincidences and strangenesses take place here as well:
“By then Melquíades had aged with surprising rapidity. On his first trips he seemed to be the
same age as Jose Arcadio Buendía. But while the latter had preserved his extraordinary strength,
which permitted him to pull down a horse by grabbing its ears, the gypsy seemed to have been worn
dowse by some tenacious illness”. We don’t see Melquíades in the center after this, “high knowledge
light” had already moved to a new bearer. It’s interesting that both bearers of this high knowledge
light live kind of the same fate. Melquíades who visits several places and spreads this knowledge
suddenly ages and gets exhausted, he can no longer stand on his feet. And J. A. Buendía who exceeds
a bit more and tries to exploit this knowledge light undergoes mental disorder at the end. They tie him
to a tree and he has his last breath in the lap of that tree.
Conclusions. Names, especially anthroponyms are the indicators of Marquez’s professional
approach to events as well as containing certain literary-idelogocial goal in not only his work “One
Hundred Years of Solitude”, but also in all his other works. This appears in purposeful connection
between the meanings the names have and the characters they are bearers of and their activities
through the work. Marquez’s images have magic mystery not only for their mystical skills they
demonstrated through the work but also for the mystical-symbolic names they bear. As a result, we
concluded that Marquez used symbolic names in his work for two purposes: a) in order to apply
professional author attitude towards events to the subtextual meaning of names; b) in order to create
initial impression about the image in the reader’s mind by containing information related to the fate,
character and literary mission of the image. The author has been able to fulfill his literary mission in
two directions choosing successful samples.
REFERENCES
1. Altinoz, I. (2019, December 20). Gypsies. Retrieved from TDV Encyclopedia of Islam:
https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/cingeneler
2. Campbell, J. (2017). Mythology of the East - Masks of God. (K. Emiroglu, Trans.) Ankara: İmge Kitapevi Press.
3. Harrison, W. H. (1881). Mother Shipton Investigated. London: Museum Street.
4. Jose. (2019, December 26). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José
5. Marquez, G. G. (2011). One hundred years of solitude. (G. Movlud, Trans.) Baku: Qanun Nəşriyyatı press.
6. Marquez, G. G. (2016). Living to tale. Istanbul: Can Yayınları press.
7. Marriot, A., & K. Rachlin, C. (1994). American İndian Mythology. (U. Ozunlu, Trans.) İmge Kitapevi.
8. Martin, G. (2016). Gabriel Garcia Marquez. (Z. Alpar, & L. Cinemre, Trans.) Istanbul: Can Yayınları press.
9. Meaning of name Jose. (2020, February 26). Retrieved from first names meanings.com: http://www.first-
names-meanings.com/name/name-jose.html
10. Melquiades - Meaning of Melquiades. (2020, February 26). Retrieved from babynamespedia:
https://www.babynamespedia.com/meaning/Melquiades
11. TDV Encyclopedia of Islam (Vols. EK - 1). (2016). Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları Press.
Citation: Nurana Orujova. (2020) The Superiority of Travel Motif in Azerbaijani Epic Folklore.
International Academy Journal Web of Scholar. 2(44). doi: 10.31435/rsglobal_wos/28022020/6914
Copyright: © 2020 Nurana Orujova. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is
permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal
is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which
does not comply with these terms.
Introduction. Motif that doesn’t have a special meaning in separate, has symbolic
significance within the text and plays a dominant role in the formation of other literary components
stands at the stimulating position in human mind and it is any detail that regulates it by stimulating the
coherent and logical sequence of events in the structure of art work that is the product of this mind.
Diversity of artistic elements stipulates the formation of various motives that differ from each other.
Each field has its own motif and driving force that they also establish the models of ideas
serving to specific purposes of this field. Motif focuses on and unites the elements that are isolated
from each-other and scattered under an entire name and appears in the same sense with it by
coordinating it with the subject. Motif also includes artistic image, expression in the narration and
other elements of the text such as sound and physical movements. It is determined being symbolized
by means of the theme that shows itself in an abstract form. At the same time, motif which is the
simplest and straightforward part of the plot is used for the description of individual details of the
work. Of course, there is a key –major motif in the plot structure of each work and it is directly related
to the idea that will be delivered in the work. Structural components of a whole text can show itself in
an artistic motive. Similarly, a motif can condition a new motive. First of all, there should be a reason
that conditions it for the formation and occurrence of any motif in artistic work.
Travel motif is a space of motives that tightly connects and links historical thought with epic
tradition. Of course, the mentioned motif bearing historical nature, is the historical source in order to
ascertain the social, political and religious views, psychological and cultural sphere of ancient Turks. This
is such an element that it should absolutely show itself in any behavioral style and action. Motif bears an
informative nature, it directs this or that information either from plot to plot or from expositions within plot
to final as codes. In this regard, travel motif is a poetic way, direction and method.
It, being mainly a motif that is often found in voluminous epic genres – tales and sagas, is
characterized by its dominance in conditioning other motives. Travel about which researchers mention
episodically – is a motif that has specific semantics and which relates to Turkish mythological way of
thinking until Islam, and on the other hand, to mystical views. And this directs the motif to be
analyzed by approaching it from social, mythological and individual aspects.
First of all, the position of travel in the plot structure of epic works and its meaning as lexical
idiom is thought-provoking. Though it is impossible to express opinion about the specific time of the
advent of motif in the epic genre, it is possible to speak about its early evolution in the plot and stable
position as the required motif. In ancient times people were able to establish primitive motifs in early
artistic creativity or separate details were not in the form of perfect motifs. Travel motif as an ordinary
detail was firstly formed in mythical view of people. This, first of all, was the result of the search for
truth being a system of initial impressions of ancient people about the world. So, every ethnicity
created myth-poetic word before laying the foundation of civilized culture and formed the model of
mythical world. Just for that reason while investigating the position of any motif in the epic genre, we
should not forget that its history is filtered through mythical thinking.
If we will look at the history, in this case, we can see that travel has become a tradition in the
background of national interests, diplomatic and aggressive relations after the establishment of class
society. The primary reason that takes primitive man from one place to the other one was its food
search. Formation of tribes, their being separated into various ethnic groups and moving to new places
and historical flow of ethnic groups to other areas laid the foundation of the formation of a single plot
and motifs. Then either great conqueror Alexander's conquest, Arab conquests or crusades increased
the number of political visits, and this, in its turn, affected oral poetic language.
The religion of Islam and Islamic thought had great role in strengthening of the structure of epic
text by travel motif’s being widely spread. Although the mentioned motif existed in “Jahiliyyah” era
(Period of Ignorance), it was purely widely spread after the restoration of Islam. So, the travels of Prophet
Muhammad (p.b.u.h) and his followers, Imams and the Khalifahs for the reasons such as spreading Islam
etc. are the indicators of the fact that ancient people had enough knowledge about travel. Saying of Prophet
Muhammad “Travel, visit, be healthy, earn daily bread” [6,119] once more confirms our opinions.
Travel motif in epic folklore examples can be classified as follows:
1. According to the form of realization: When we say the form of realization, we mean the
ways by which trips or visits are realized. If we will take into consideration the directions of travels,
the following ways can be referred to this form:
a) Travels realized by arming oneself and going on horseback. This is a form of travel
motif that is clearly visible in the first reading of text. Undoubtedly, horse is always given as a friend,
brother and helpmate of hero in Turkish mythical thinking and by means of it contact is established
between two worlds – dark and light world, chaos and cosmos. And in most times, horse is given to a
hero who is travelling alone as a gift by respected person, a wise man or father. And this is a sign of
the power of horse and its ability to shorten long distances that is acting as a savior of the hero.
b) by means of dream. As dream retains its relevance for centuries, it is being enough
investigated by folklore scholars even today. Dream which is rooted either in the content or myth-poetic
structure of the text is an important detail in travelling and it requires special investigation. No any detail
being spontaneous in folklore text, plays a certain role in the course of events. This motif sometimes
playing major, and sometimes episodic role in several genres, mainly, shows itself in tying a knot at the
events. Dream has transition function between chaos and cosmos being a form of expression of individual’s
identity. Dream in itself being a psychological events, is a fact necessary from physiological point of view
with which person meets every day. It fulfills the function of transition between this and the other world.
To sleep at night embodies darkness, and to wake up at daytime personifies light. If we will accept
darkness as death and light as life, in this case, here we should again note that mythological- ritual initiation
is at the leading role. If dream fulfills transition functions either between chaos and cosmos, or death and
life, so it means that here travel motif is hidden in the sub-text. The Oghuz people didn’t vainly called
dream as “short death”. Verse 42 of Surat al-Zumar of Holy Guran it is guided: God gets the souls [spirits)
of those (whose end is near) while they are dead, and the souls of those who are not died (whose end is not
near) in dream (as dream is also a thing like death, connection of spirit with body is interrupted during
sleep). The souls of those who were sentenced to death are kept (in the world of spirits) (their spirits will
not return to bodies, so the body will also die). And will return the souls of others (who are not sentenced
to death) for a certain period (to their bodies when they wake up until their doom will come). Bringing
Guran’s verses into epic text and references made to it requires a special investigation. And the power of
influence of the above- mentioned verse in folklore texts is clearly visible. Travel by means of dream can
be characterized as travelling through eyes. Dream being before and after travel collects a number of
specific features in itself. Both of them hero fell asleep deeply. Hero’s falling asleep has more poetic
content in love eposes. Falling asleep is a little bit different in love eposes, if we will say that it comes from
the requirement of the motif of following bud, we wouldn’t be wrong. In our opinion, following budis also
a ritual, and it creates necessity for travelling. In eposes that are based on love, Lover (lover) will know its
beloved either by following budor by the tradition of cutting umbilical cord. And in a group of eposes
heroes fall asleep during travel and near the spring. They find a sign on them belonging to their lovers
when they wake up and travel following this sign in order to reunited with her. Lover falls asleep deeply and
no one can wake him up. Experienced persons, mainly, the old women state that they are budded. When hero
wakes up, he wants immediately to be reunited with his lover girl. Other girls will be shown to lover in order
to forget this love. However, lover will not return back from his way of love, though he faces with a number
of difficulties, it will prove that he is a lover of truth. Budding awakening interest in listener, makes it to
follow the plot of the work till the end and the lovers budded in dream will come together at the end.
c) By means of wells. In particular, in love eposes we often see that lover is thrown to well.
Sometimes this well, being full of with poison makes the position of hero more difficult. Well bears
the function of transition. This transition is between death and life, chaos and space. For example, in
the epos of “Abbas and Gulgaz” Abbas’s being thrown to well for twice and rescued by the holy
power, in the part “Koroghlu and Bolubey” in “Koroghlu” epos, the named hero’s being thrown into
the well and his being rescued by one of the characters – Isabali is the proof of what we are talking
about. Of course, we can enlarge this list: “Tahir and Zohra”, “Seydi and Pari”, “Shah Ismail” etc.
This detail is also reflected in our tales as in eposes: “Malikmammad”, “The tale of Hatem” etc.
Well represents the transition from chaos to space or vice versa in a micro level.
d) By means sea and spring. Heroes mythically take a trip by this way in our tales such as
“Shamsh and Gamar”, “The golden ram”, “Okhay and Ahmed”, “Tapdig” etc.
2. According to its purpose: As we have mentioned above, the purpose is important in every travel.
This conditions the end of travel. Travels or trips can be divided into 3 groups according to their purposes:
a) the travel done by lover in order to come together with his beloved;
b) military travels or journeys that reflect some certain social conflicts;
c) travels done for hunting; sometimes the last type of travels creates necessity for the above-
mentioned (items a and b) travels. So, in some cases, hero falls in love with the beautiful girl during
his travel and leaves his homeland in order to come together with her. (This, that’s, hero’s leaving his
homeland depends on where the girl is.) First type of travel can be mostly found in love eposes, tales,
and the second type of travel are found especially in heroic eposes, and the third type of travel can
show itself in all voluminous genres of epic type. It is possible to meet all three types (a, b, c) of
travels made according to purpose in a complex way in a number of our eposes.
3. According to the subject of the hero who is travelling: during these investigations every
work and its main character should be treated individually. So, while characters who are travelling in
the epic of "The Book of Dede Korkut" belong to high class, in "Koroglu" epos, except pashas,
Koroghlu and his fellows don’t belong to this class. However, the representatives of both classes who
are travelling can be found in love eposes and tales. Here, persons who financially have less
opportunities, working lovers’ falling in love with the daughters of rich families or pashas and beys
and achieving to their goals by their mind and skills are described. As the intention is different on
travelling in love and heroic eposes, the problems faced by those characters are also different.
4. And travels can be divided into two groups being horizontal and vertical according to
their directions. Here, vertical travels are mythical visits reflected in sub-layers of the text.
5. According to the space of realization; It is also necessary to clarify and investigate the
spaces where it gets direction in order to obtain comprehensive knowledge about the motif. If we will
approach this space from myth- geographical point of view, we should divide it into two poles being
space and chaos. Both of them reflect a specific society. More precisely, chaos doesn’t show itself in a
specific space or world outlook. If we will say that “chaos is over and it stayed in the past, and the space
is today”, we would be wrong. Plot of each epic work is formed from the combination of chaos and
cosmos. There is a polishing process within the plot and this leads to a neat layout –space at the end. In
our opinion, chaos is essential and primary, space is derivative. Chaos exists previously, and it is possible
to restore cosmos at any time in various spaces. If we will say it in a somewhat poetic form, in this case,
cosmos can be considered as a moonlight at dark night. Character who is in search of lost hopes plans to
travel in constant ideal spaces (cosmos). Realist hero clearly seeing the conflicts of the society is also an
emotional individual. He is able to make “an imaginery trip” to any space. Travel to chaos is possible
both by means of dream and mounting on a horse. However, here one point raises a question. A hero
who is armed with mounting on a horse falls asleep as soon as reaching to space – chaos where he
travels. This occurs infalling asleep, usually, in the transition of chaos and space. It can be conditionally
called transition within transition. It means that one travel conditions the other one in the top of the text,
if the demand will be increased for it, one transition in sub-text or myth-poetic plan conditions the other
one. Doctor of Philology S. Rzasoy calls chaos the world of sleep and death. Of course, it doesn’t mean
real death, if there is death in mythology, there is also return to life. “To be asleep is to be in the world of
death and to be in the world of death is to be asleep” [5,192]. This death and resurrection is possible only
with the initiation ritual. Death and resurrection of hero in epic plot has three types:
1. As the space of the travel done by the hero who goes to chaos is a dark world, he should
willingly or unwillingly pass the initiation process. This is being more common, refers to all heroes.
And again returning to space means its resurrection.
2. Travel to chaos is possible by means of dream. In this case, hero falling asleep is in the
status of death. After waking up, he will be alive. Therefore, sleep is called “short death” by the Oghuz
people. This process bears an individual character. So that, not each hero travels to chaos by means of
dream. However, we should mentioned a point that if one hero travels chaos by means of both
mounting on a horse and also dream, in this case, it means the hard trials that wait for him. Again to be
dead in the status of dead points out that the transition to status of being alive is very hard beforehand.
3. The ritual of initiation sometimes occurs by means of neither dream nor mounting on a horse in
epic work. In the text that bears a special interest in itself: a hero who successfully has passed tests and
rescued from difficulties hears unexpected news during the moment of marriage in cosmos. The character
that is in the position of death is awakened with talisman. The mentioned process is mostly found in tales.
6. Classification according to mythical- mystical and religious views that underlie this motif.
7. According to the dynamic of movement: Travel, along with being selected with its historical
antiquity, is a motif of the plot structure of work that is permanently significant in its evolutionary process.
If we will look at the dynamic of movement of motif, we can conditionally divide it into 2 groups being
active and passive: Activity-being closely related to the preference of the traditions of epos creativity over
the old-mythological views, comes from its standing at the important position within the epic plot. During
passive reflection, it is necessary to “mythically travel” the sub-layer of the work in order to reveal details
and secret mythical rituals sourced from early thinking. And this is noticeably more later during the initial
review and it is reflected not in external signs of events, but in its essence and core.
We can call the reasons and aims that condition the necessity of travel motif as the algorithms
of motif. So, the followings can be included in the general semantics of travel motif:
1. Travel motif being closely related to the idea that is delivered in the work, creates necessity
for its final.
2. The essence of travel and the problems occurred directly depend on the power of reflection
of truth by the set aims.
3. In most cases, it is turned into a necessary and required detail in achieving the purpose.
4. It doesn’t reflect specific time in itself.
5. It plays a role in the formation of heroic character.
6. It is embodied as the search of loft hopes of a person.
7. It is reflected with certain rituals.
8. It is, being a leading motif, non-identical in several genres.
9. It is in the process of historical evolution.
10. Majority of travels depend on the conflicts within plot.
Conclusions. So, the conclusion is that to leave the house and to go to any place doesn’t mean
to travel. The way overcome by hero in necessary or accidental cases, planned beforehand, or
suddenly leaving its homeland and again to his house within the certain periods is called “the travel
way” in epic text. This travel that has large-scale map is full of with various adventures and
challenges. So, in order to comprehensively investigate the burden of travel motif in the text, it should
be involved in the investigation and research from various aspects.
REFERENCES
1. Azerbaijani eposes, volume II, Baku: “Chirag” Publishing House, 2005
2. Azerbaijani eposes, volume III, Baku: “Chirag” Publishing House, 2005
3. Azerbaijani eposes, volume IV, Baku: “Chirag” Publishing House, 2005
4. Masterpieces of the Literature of Azerbaijan, Tales, Writer, 1985.
5. Seyfaddin Rzasoy, Themythology of Oghuz, Baku: “Nurlan”, 2009, p.363
6. O. Qudratov, N. Qudratov. Prophet Mohammad: His life and sayings. Baku-1990
Citation: Teymurlu Z. M. (2020) The Phonosemantic Research of Azerbaijani and Turkish in the Aspect
of Literary Language and Dialect. International Academy Journal Web of Scholar. 2(44). doi:
10.31435/rsglobal_wos/28022020/6915
Copyright: © 2020 Teymurlu Z. M. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is
permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal
is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which
does not comply with these terms.
Introduction. “The formation of Azerbaijani and Turkish that are from South-Western Oghuz
sub-branch of Turkic languages dates back to ancient times”. The Turkic languages as well as the
Azerbaijani language are included in agglutinative languages according to their morphological
classification. Since their genetic, typological, grammatical structures and basic vocabulary fund are
common, they unite in a single family. This family is called “the Turkic languages”. Among the
Turkic languages Azerbaijani and Turkish are closer to each other for their phonetic, lexical and
grammatical peculiarities.
The analysis of Azerbaijani and Turkish in terms of sound, word and form as well as observation
of differences in terms of phonetics, morphology and lexicon alongside with common words existing in
these languages are corresponding to originally historical progress of Oghuz languages.
The main reason behind the emergence of dialect differences in a language is relative isolation
of various alignments of language unity and decrease of linkage. For this reason, physical-geographical
factors (mountaion ridges, water resources, forrest massifs, deserts etc.) dominate among the factors that
complicate communication. Generally, territory factor is key in the diversity of dialects. Though these
languages are used in separate states in terms of executive territory, they have been able to preserve
common language peculiarities. When we look through Azerbaijani and Turkish in the aspect of literary
language and dialect, it becomes clear that these languages have been able to save common language
features in the background of literary language or in dialectal background. Today we come across
language features that are inherent to the Turkish literary language in the dialects of Azerbaijani.
Common language characteristics are observed in both the Turkic languages’ dialects. Discovering
common language features in the direction of literary language and dialect is the case in point for
preserving ancient historical linguistic features of Turkic languages. As a result of the comparison
between two regions based on the dialect facts new ancient language facts have been found out.
The research conducted in the aspect of literary language and dialects is of great importance in
the detection of the impact of interdialect processes that carry on in both the languages, and literary
languages on dialect. Direction fields of the research are the following:
Dialect and the research conducted in the background of dialect
The dialects in the Azerbaijani language are compared with the Eastern dialects in Anatolia here.
Similar phonetic, morphological features have been discovered in both the dialects during the research.
This adequacy brings Anatolia’s Eastern dialects closer to Azerbaijani dialects. The research has been
carried out based on phonetic and morphological peculiarities discovered by L. Karahan in Anatolia’s “East
group dialect” classification and that are separated from Anatolia’s North-East and West group of dialects.
Considering the dialectological features crucial listed by the author, other dialectological research papers
have also been reviewed in the research in the background of literary language and dialect. During the
research it became certain that dialects in the regions Kars and Erzurum reflect the features of Azerbajani
dialects more. And the reason behind it is the historical settlement of Azerbaijanis in these regions. “Today
original settlement area of Kars Azeris is Surmali area that embraces Tuzluca, Igdir and Mediterranean
districts. Most of the people living in these districts and villages are Azeri. The region where they are dense
and crowded outside Surmali area is Arpacay district. Most villages of this district, especially Bashgedikler
consist of Azeris. Furthermore, a good number of Azeris dwell in the center of Kars and in some villages
that depend on the center” (Ercilasun, 1983:47). E. Gemalmaz noted that the dialects in the region Erzurum
bear traces of Turkmen-Azeri-Terekeme dialects (Gemalmaz, 1995:22).
Dialect and the research conducted in the background of literary language
Phonetic, morphological and lexical features of Azerbaijani dialects have been comparatively
studied with the Turkish literary language here.
Although the modern Turkic languages were formed from common Turkic roots, gradually
there emerged some different characteristics in their phonetic, lexical and grammatical structures.
Figuring out common and different features in related languages during the research of the separate
Turkic languages enables us to comprehensively learn the specific features of the studied language.
East group dialects of Azerbaijan and Anatolia:
Anatolia’s East group dialects comply with Azerbaijani dialects and dialects of Iraq Turkmens’
South and South-East group dialects in terms of language features. According to the classification by
M. Shiraliyev, dialects of Kars Azeris that live in the East in Surmali area that covers the regions
Tuzluca, Igdir, Mediterranean, in Arpacay and partially in the center of Kars comply with South group
dialects (Nakhchivan, Ordubad, Erevan) of Azerbaijani (Karahan, 2011:54). Iraq-Turkmen dialect also
complies with South group dialects of Azerbaijani (Iraq-Turkmen dialect 2004: 44).
M. Shiraliyev considers dialects of Kars Terekemes living in Cildir, Arpacay, Susuz, Selim and
in the center of Kars close to the West group (Gazakh, Ayrum-Borchaly) of that classification (Karahan,
2011:54). Terekemes that came to Kars are “Cildir terekemes” who are mostly called “Karakalpak”
today. They used to live in the regions Borchaly and Gazakh that depended on Gazakh-Shamsaddin
khanate in North Azerbaijan, at the time Turkmenchay contract was signed in 1828 they abandoned their
birthplaces and came to Kars and settled down in the villages of Cildir and Ardahan. Some of them
moved to Iran, most of them are living in the regions Gazakh, Tovuz and Aghstafa in Gazakh (Ercilasun,
1983:44). Azerbaijanis migrated from their ancient Oghuz land in various years. And also after Kars
contract was signed (in 1921, October 13) Karapapaks who didn’t want to stay in the territory of newly
established Armenia and in the subordination of Armenians and who lived in the villages Mumukhan,
Siniq, Tezbahar, Arpa, Boyuk Shishtapa, Kichik Shishtapa, Sultanabad, Soyudlu, Mustuqlu, Bahceli,
Seldaghilan, Kichik Tapakoy, Khancalli, Bozgala, Ordaklu, Gonchali, Tezekoy as well as Akbaba
migrated to Turkey protesting the bordering and never came back. Currently in Kars, Erzurum, Cildir,
Ardahan, Sarykamysh, Igdir and some other places thousands of Akbaba people are living (Bayramov,
Bayramova, 2014:17-19). A. B. Ercilasun calls dialects of Kars region “the circle connecting Azerbaijan
with Turkey” in terms of ethnic and dialectic factors. He notes that one end of this circle extends to
Erzurum, Coruh and Central Anatolia, and the other end extends to Baku, Nakhchivan, Erevan,
Akhbaba, Akhalkalaki, Tbilisi, Gazakh, Borchaly and Akiska (Ercilasun, 1983:145).
M. Ergin highlights: “Oral language of East Anatolia is Azeri, written language is natural Turkish.
The features and influence of Azerbaijani are felt beginning from Kars to Samsun-Sivas-Iskenderun line
and sometimes to the inner parts of Central Anatolia. However, this influence weakens gradually from East
to West. Kars province is where the usage of Azerbaijani dominates in Anatolia” (Ergin, 1971:9).
Today the reason behind the closeness between East Anatolia dialects and the Azerbaijani
language is the Azerbaijanis who once migrated here: “Most of them spread into some villages as well as
small towns. Therefore, Kars province has rich folklore of dialects which is unimaginably diverse”
(Jafaroglu, 1995:12;296). The dialects of Terekemes living in the areas Cildir, Susuz, Selim areas in Kars
and in the villages dependent on the center of Kars; the dialects of Azerbaijanis living in the villages
Tuzluca, Igdir, Mediterranean located in Surmali and in the villages dependent on Arpacay and Kars center
differ from the dialect features of East group of Anatolia (Karahan, 2011:55). L.Karahan divides East
dialects of Anatolia that are different in terms of phonetics and grammar into groups and calls these groups
“sub-branches”. The author’s classification is like this: Group I: Agri, Van, Mush, Bitlis, Bingol, Siirt,
Diyarbakir, Mardin, Hakkari, Urfa (except Birecik, Halfeti), Palu, Karakochan (Elazig) dialects; Group II:
Kars (except Ardahan, Posof), central Erzurum, Ashkale, Ovacik, Narman, Pasinler, Horasan, Hinis,
Tekman, Karayazi, central Erzincan, Tercan, Chayirli, Kemah, Refahiye, Gumushane dialects; Group III:
Ardahan, Posof (Kars), central Artvin, Shavshat, Yusufeli, Ardanuch (Artvin), Oltu, Tortum, Olur,
Shenkaya, Ispir (Erzurum) dialects; Group IV: Kemaliye, Ilich (Erzincan), central Elazig, Keban, Baskil,
Aghin, Harput (Elazig), Tunceli dialects (Karahan, 2011:58).
As it is obvious, the role of the public-political processes that the history established is
undeniable in the emergence of dialects. “The emergence of dialects is not an issue of today, dialect is
a historical category” (Azizov, 2016:291).
The researches conducted show that the same language fact can be related to both literary language
and dialect. During the comparison of language facts hopeless situation appears in several cases, the
samples involved in the study bring about questions. Thus, it becomes possible to determine which of the
words belong to literary language or dialect as a result of historical-comparative research. During the
comparison of East-Anatolia dialects with Azerbaijani dialects in terms of language features relevant
language features have been taken into account in the mentioned sub-branches. This coherence indicates
itself in phonetic changes, usage of suffixes and in lexical direction. Some phonetic, grammatical and
lexical features that belong to ancient layers of a language leave literary language in certain periods and are
antiquated, but these forms are maintained in everyday folk dialects.
Changes in East Anatolia dialects in terms of phonetics
1. Replacing vowels “ı,u,ü” with vowel “i” (gözi) (Karahan, 2011:56). We encounter the
violation of vowel harmony in Azerbaijani dialects: yüzi (Ordubad, Kotam), üzdi, düşir, düzdi, kusib,
sürdik (Baku, Shamakhi, Mughan), üzimizi, yüngüldi, küni (Nakhchivan-Nehram), uni (Ordubad) etc.
(Karahan, 2011:59). A misfit that is wide-spread in words that have thick vowels emerged in East and
North-East Anatolia dialects with ı’s becoming thin vowel: ganli (Amasya), olmā mi (Amasya),
ayrilan (Amasya), etrafi (Kars), taflanif ki (Kars), tudti (Kars), garısi (Kars), çadiri (Kars), alirmiş
(Kars), ahilli başli (Erzurum) (Korkmaz, 1994:38).
2. The consonant Ḫ is specific to this dialect group. (aldıḫ) (Karahan, 2011:56). “Durnam
geder olsan bizim ellere// Gatıḫ söyle, gaymaḫ söyle, yağ söyle” (Gudretullah Iydirli// Igdir: from
Yukari Çarıhçı ‘Carikci’ village) (Jafaroglu, 1995:94;296). The same case appears in Azerbaijani
dialects as well: aldıx, aldux (Shaki), qurdux (Shaki, Zaqatala, Qakh), işdədıx (Nakhchivan-Nehram,
Ordubad, Tabriz, Shaki, Zaqatala, Qakh) (Shiraliyev, 2008: 203).
3. Consonant “ñ” disappeared having changed or fallen (aldın, baa) (Karahan, 2011:56). We
don’t observe the sound “ñ” in East dialects of Azerbaijani. But in West group of dialects this sound is
widely used. The sound “ñ” gave its nasal feature to the vowel before or after it disappearing gradually in
dialects of Shaki, Zaqatala-Qakh, Nakhchivan and Ordubad. (doār, maā, əliĭ, aldıĭz) (Shiraliyev, 2008:73).
When personal pronouns are used in dative case in dialects of Kars Azerbaijanis and Terekemes, the
consonant “ñ” is fallen and two vowels are created: maa, baa (Jafaroglu, 1995:138;296).
4. Hard palate consonant “g” is kept between two vowels and at the end of syllable (döger)
(Karahan, 2011:56). In Azerbaijani dialects this case is observed between two vowels or between two
vowels and sonorant sounds in East dialects: ignə, dügi, dügmə, dügün etc. (Shiraliyev, 2008:86).
5. In some certain words initial phoneme consonant “y”has fallen (igit) (Karahan, 2011:56).
In some words in the Turkish literary language “y” which is counted one of ancient phonemes has
been kept in the beginning of the words, while in Azerbaijani these have undergone to sound falling:
yıldırım “ildırım”, yıldız “ulduz”, yılkı “ilxı”, yılan “ilan”, yiğit “igid”. Falling of the consonant “y” is
mainly found in the dialects of Azerbaijanis in Kars region: üz, ilan, uca, il, üzüh, ürəyim, itdi, igirmi
etc. (Jafaroglu, 1995:135;296). This case is peculiar to the Azerbaijani literary language. Azerbaijani.
üz - Turkish. yüz, Az. İlan - T. yılan, Az. uca - T. yüce, Az. il - T. yıl, Az. üzük – T. yüzük, Az. ürəyim
- T. yüreğim, Az. itdi - T. yitdi, Az. iyirmi - T. yirmi.
6. Phonetics plosive consonants especially in number names double (yeddi) (Karahan,
2011:56). This case is peculiar to the Azerbaijani literary language: yeddi, səkkiz, doqquz. In the
dialects of Erzurum region “–nn-, -ll-, -ss-, -cc-, -mm-, -gg-, -zz-, -bb-” consonant doubles are mainly
found: [annım] «anlım», [yallat] «aldat-», [yassi] «yatsı», [ducci] «tuzcu», [memmet] «mehmet»,
[möggem] «muhkem», [ezza] «ecza», [mebbuz] «makbuz» (Gemalmaz, 1995:216).
7. Sound changes between “g-r, p-r” consonants are widespread in these dialects
(dorğu,torpaḫ). (Karahan, 2011:57). This case is often observed in dialects of Erzurum region. :
[torpa≈] «toprak», [yarpa≈] «yaprak», [örgen-], «ögren-», [çilpa≈], «çıplak», [kölmex]/[çölmex]
«gömlek», [terkaldan] «tekrar[dan]», [gürbe] «gübre», [arği] «ağrı» etc. (Gemalmaz, 1995:206-207).
The change of sounds inside a word is inherent to the Azerbaijani spoken language: yanlış-[yalnış(nl-
ln)]; məşhur-[məhşur(şh-hş]. (Gurbanov, 2003:95). This case is also found in Azerbaijani dialects
(Jalilabad, Salyan, Gadabay, Nakhchivan, Sharur, Ordubad, Goychay, Lankaran, Masally):
çölməg//çölməx`//çölməy~çömlek (Azerbaijani Language Dialectological Dictionary, 2007:106).
8. The 2nd person plural personal suffix and possessive suffix are “-z”. (geldiz, babaz)
(Karahan, 2011:57). As it seems “ŋ” sound has fallen here as well. In Azerbaijani dialects it is
possible to see both “ŋ” form and shortened forms of suffix of possessive in the second person plural.
For example: komuz, baltaz, keçız (Shaki), ata:z, baba:z, qutu:z (Zangilan), ağacı:z, dərdi:z, yolu:z,
gözü:z (Khojavend) (Mammadli, 2019:140). Alongside with this, replacement of “ŋ” consonant with
“n, g, ğ, y” consonants is also possible. In the dialects of Kars Azeris “ŋ” sound is essentially
preserved. But change in the direction of ŋ>y in the dialects of Tuzluca Azeris, especially in Pulur
village unite Azeris of this region with Nakhchivan region: eliyiz, qoluyuz (Ercilasun, 1983:120). Just
as in dialects of East Anatolia, the 2nd person plural possessive suffix in past categories tense in
Azerbaijani dialects is “-z”: gəldiz (Sharur), tuttu:z (Zangilan), içti:z (Tabriz) (Mammadli, 2019:224).
9. b>m change. This change is observed in East Anatolia dialects. “Mirze Meḥmet çıḫi, dęyi:
menim babami gözümün garşında yime, men saġam. Evvela meni yi, sorā babami yi.” (Van) (Jafaroglu,
1995:3;288), “Gülli ḥamamin üsdiyem/İncitme meni ḫesdeyem /Baġla yarami yarami” (Mush) (Jafaroglu,
1995:82;288), “Mineydim gemisine, Ömrümün hemmisine” (Ahlat), “Nali parlatdi getdi, meni aġlatdi
getdi” (Ahlat) (Jafaroglu, 1995:53;288). The 1st person personal pronoun is “mən” in the Azerbaijani
literary language. During the period when “Book of Dede Korkut” ephos was formed, domination of mən
form in Azerbaijani should be understood as a language feature of ancient local tribes, and bən should be
considered a language feature of Oghuz-Seljuk tribes who came afterwards. (Azizov, 2016:104). B>m
change is found in most dialects of Azerbaijani in demonstrative pronouns. In demonstrative pronoun “bu”
sound “b” is replaced with sound “m” in all cases except nominative case. For example:
“bunun>munun//mının, muna//mına, munu//munı, munda//mında, mundan//mından” (Shiraliyev, 2008:76).
This case is inherent to the Turkmen literary language. The demonstrative pronoun “buu” undergoes some
changes in other cases unlike nominative case in the Turkmen literary language. For instance: “munuñ,
munı, muña, munda, mundan, munça” (Kara, 2005:111). B>m replacement is encountered in dialects of the
Turkmen language. We can observe the following changes: “boyun>moyın” in Yomut - Gunbatar dialect,
“büdüremek>müdüremek” in Arsari and Stavropol Turkmens’ dialects, “bol>mol” in Karakalpak
Turkmens’ dialects, “buzav>mizov” in Kirac dialects. (Berdiev, Kurenov, Shamuradov, Arazkuliyev,
1970:116). B>m case covers other words in Azerbaijani dialects as well: məŋiz, moyun (Gadabay), maŋla-,
məzkək, müdrimək (Imishli), miz>biz (Nakhchivan-Koshadiza, Sharur-Yengica), maŋladı, xoruz maŋı
(Gazakh), munca (Shaki-Orta Zayzid) (Azizov, 2016:104).
Changes in East Anatolia dialects in terms of morphology
10. Vowel of present tense suffix is narrow (geliy, gelêr, gelĭ) (Karahan, 2011:57). In some dialects
of Azerbaijani such as Shaki-Zaqatala-Qakh, Ordubad and some dialects of South Azerbaijan present tense
is expressed with the suffix “-iy”. In Gazakh dialect of Azerbaijani “-ēr//-er” suffix of present tense is found
(Shiraliyev, 2008:215). “-ı,-i,-u,-ü” suffixes of present tense are observed in some village dialects of
Azerbaijan such as Baku, Shamakhi, Khanlar, Goychay, Jabrayil, Tovuz, Lankaran (alu, gəlü, duru, kətiri,
olı, bili) (Shiraliyev, 2008:216). “–ir” from present tense suffixes “–ır,-ir,-ur,-ür” that belong to the
Azerbaijani literary language is used in the dialects of Ahlat, Agri, Malazgirt and partially central Bingol:
gelir, kızir, oḫirlar, oynirlardi, baḫir, baḫirik, edirem (Karahan, 2011:75).
11. The 1st person singular and plural negative simple present tense suffixes in East group
dialects such as in Van, Ahlat, Diyarbakir and Urfa are like “–manam/-menem, -manıḫ/menıḫ/-menik”:
unutmanam (Van), satmanam, satmanıḫ (Urfa), içmenem, içmenıḫ (Diyarbakir) (Karahan, 2011:74).
Unlike the Azerbaijani literary language “-manam,-mənəm,-manığ,-mənig” suffixes are observed in
several dialects. (Shiraliyev, 2008:235): başdamanam/başdamaram, gəlmənix`//gəlmərix`, gəlmənıx
(Nakhchivan, Erevan city, Ordubad, Tabriz, Zaqatala, Qakh) (Shiraliyev, 2008:237-238). Unlike the
Azerbaijani literary language, the 2nd person and sometimes the 3rd person singular negatives are like “–
mar, mər” in dialects. Though these suffixes have been preserved only in the first person in literary
language and “-maz, -məz” suffixes are used in the second and third persons: başdamaram, başdamarıx
(Karabakh, Aghdam, Ganja, Gazakh) (Shiraliyev, 2008:236-237). In dialects of central Mush, Bulanik
and Malazgirt in Turkish this suffix “-r” emerged from the combination of present simple tense suffix as
well: almaram, almarsan, almaroḫ, almarsız (Karahan, 2011:74).
Usage form in the Azerbaijan literary language: söylə-mə-r-əm, söylə-mə-z-sən, söylə-mə-z;
söylə-mə-r-ik, söylə-mə-z-siniz, söylə-mə-z-lər.
12. Studied past tense suffix is “-mış, -miş” in most dialects of East group. “-ıp/-ip” that is past
tense suffix and is currently used in Azerbaijani and Iraq Turkmen dialects are used in Bulanik, Ahlat,
Adilcevaz and Van dialects. Ahlat is the border of this suffix. Past tense suffix used in Mush and Bitlis
is “-miş”. (Karahan, 2011:73).
Usage form of past tense learnt in Azerbaijani: al-mış-am, al-mış-san (alıbsan), al-mış-dır
(alıb; alıbdır); al-mış-ıq, al-mış-sınız (alıbsınız), al-mış-lar (alıblar).
The research conducted in the background of dialect and literary language:
We can characterize phonetic and morphological features of Azerbaijani dialects and the
Turkish literary language like below:
1. While in the Azerbaijani literary language, “i” sound is observed in the beginning of a
word disrupting vowel harmony, “ı” sound is encountered in Gazakh, Ganja dialects and in some
dialects of Karabakh. For example, ışıx, ılxı, ıldırım etc. (Shiraliyev, 2008:56). Unlike Azerbaijani,
usage of ı vowel in the beginning of a word is typical in Turkish: ışık «işıq», ırak «iraq», ısı «istilik».
2. Addition of “y” sound in Azerbaijani dialects (especially in Zaqatala-Qakh dialect) reflects
itself on a large scale. We come across with the traces of “y” sound addition in dialects of Nakhchivan
and West. “y” sound is not strong in the beginning of a word in Gazakh dialect. However “y” sound
addition is observed in some village dialects which Gazakh dialect covers: yuldurum// yıldırım, yılxı
(Zaqatala, Qakh) (Shiraliyev, 2008:94). “y” which is counted as ancient phoneme was preserved in the
beginning of some words in Turkish. But in the Azerbaijani literary language these underwent sound
falling: yıldırım «ildırım», yıldız «ulduz», yılkı «ilxı».
3. Words that end with vowels in accusative case of nouns are formed with “-yı” suffix in
Azerbaijani dialects such as Ayrum, Shamkir, Tovuz, Qazakh and Borchaly, as well as in the village
dialects of some isled regions (Sharur, Sadarak, Kalbajar, Jabrayil, Zangilan, Baku, Salyan): qapıyı, dəriyi,
quzuyu, sürüyü (Gazakh), almeyı//almayı, qonşuyu, kişiyi (Ayrum) (Azizov, 2016:268). This case happens
in the Turkish literary language as well: elmayı, kapıyı, deriyi, kuzuyu, sürüyü, komşuyu, kişiyi etc.
4. Thick consonant “ӄ” [k`] is encountered in the beginning of some words in West dialects:
ӄış, ӄuş, ӄutu (Gazakh, Borchaly), ӄıfıl (Tovuz, Borchaly), ӄuş, ӄıfıl, ӄısır (Sharur) (Azizov,
2016:267). This case happens in the Turkish literary language as well: kış, kuş, kutu, kısır etc.
5. The negative form of the verb’s potential form is made with “-amma, -əmmə” suffixes in
West group dialects of Azerbaijani: yazammadı, görəmmədi, qaçammaz, üzəmməz etc. (Shiraliyev,
2008:21). In Turkish the verb’s potential form is expressed with “-ama, -eme” suffix: yazamadı,
göremedi, kaçamadı, yüzemedi etc.
6. Pronoun “kendi” replaces pronoun “öz” in Azerbaijani dialects: “gəndi” (Gazakh, Shaki)
“öz”- Biz gəndi ədətdərimizi yaxşı bilerix’ (Gazakh) (Azerbaijani Language Dialectological
Dictionary, 2007:178). This case happens in the Turkish literary language as well: kendi dilim “öz
dilim”, kendi odam “öz otağım”, kendi kendine “öz-özünə”.
7. Vowels are used in “–yor,-yör” form according to harmony in verbs that end with vowels
“u, ü” in West dialects of Azerbaijani: oxuyor, toxuyor, sürüyör (Gazakh) (Azizov, 2016:266-268).
Present tense form is made adding a single form “-yor” suffix to the root of the verbs in the Turkish
literary language as well: geliyorum «gəlirəm», okuyorum «oxuyuram», söylüyorum «söyləyirəm».
8. While “av” sound combination is kept in Turkish, it changes its place in Azerbaijani. In
Turkish: av, avuç, tavşan, tavuk; in Azerbaijani: ov, ovuc, dovşan, toyuq. But “av” sound combination
is kept in dialects of Nakhchivan, Shahbuz, Sharur, Zangilan, Gubadly, Jabrayil, Fuzuli
(Gharabulagh): davşan, yavşan, qavla - (Azizov, 2016:267).
Semantic similarity of Azerbaijani and Turkish
A sign that is dialect feature in Azerbaijani is considered a literary language feature in
Turkish. In some cases we observe the opposite.
For instance, the word «sülüx`» which we observe in Bashkechid, Borchaly dialects of
Azerbaijani is encountered in the Turkish literary language. (Azerbaijani Language Dialectological
Dictionary 2007:450): Şimdi gidip yanağıma beş on sülük yapıştıracağım (Faik Reshat) (Ayverdi,
2006:2873). The meaning of this («zəli») word is the same in both the Turkic languages: leech.
The words «Dalda// Dalday// Daldey» mean “a place where doesn’t see wind, rain or Sun” in the
dialects of the Azerbaijani language (Baku, Karabakh, Fuzuli, Goychay, Kurdamir, Qakh, Mingachevir and
others): Heyvannarı çek, daldada saxlaginən (Baku); Yeydə daldada uturanda isdi güc eləmiy (Qakh);
Daldada düzəliv işdi:rik (Fuzuli); Malçının bağı daldaydadı, onö:rə da meyvəniküləx` töx`mür
(Chenberek); Ağacın altında daldey vardı (Gazakh); Ojağı daldeyda qala (Ganja); Bu yağış bizim əhdimizi
kəsəjəx`; o qa:lığda daldey olar (Shamkir) (Azerbaijani Language Dialectological Dictionary 2007:112-
113). This word is faced in dulda form in the meaning «a part of a place where doesn’t see Sun, wind or
other things, a shield» in the Turkish literary language. «A silent, out of sight, alone place» meanings are
also typical in the Turkish literary language: (…) hayli aralıklı dut ağaçlarının ve kavakların duldasına
yapılmıştı (Mustafa N. Sepetcioglu) (Ayverdi, 2006:764). In ancient Turkic monuments dalda>dulda form
was used (Blagova, 1982:60). The word “dulda” was used in «patronage» meaning in Karacaoghlan’s
works: Yiğit duldasında yiğit saklanır/Muhannette gölge olmaz dal olmaz (Ayverdi, 2006:764). The
mentioned meaning is faced in Amasya, Kayseri, Nigde, Adana dialects of Turkish (Compilation
Dictionary. Vol: 4. http://tdkterim.gov.tr/ Dictionary of Turkish Dialects). Two meanings of the word dalda
is faced in Karakoyunlu village of Igdir in Turkish:
Ezizim dalda «arxada» yeri
Elemi daldadı dalda yeri
Muẖannet gözderim gene aẖtarır
Tez tapar gene dalda «gizli» yeri (Jafaroglu, 1995:9;296).
The word Dalda is used in the meaning «a place where is protected from wind, Sun or rain» in
most dialects of Turkish (Compilation Dictionary. Vol: 4. http://tdkterim.gov.tr/ Dictionary of Turkish
Dialects). Actually the word dal could be characterized in the meaning «back». But linguists related
the lexical unit dalda to Mongolian-Tungusic languages. In Mongolian dalda means “bulwark”, dali-
means “to close, to hide”, daliqa means “closed place, wall”. In ancient Turkic the meanings “to close,
to hide” were expressed with the word yaşur-. Yaşmaq means “veil” in Turkish. Based on these
samples, E. V. Sevortyan relates the word dalda~dalda- to common Altay lexicon and has a critical
approach towards its being Turkish originally (Sevortyan, 1980:138-139).
The word «əlliq//əllix» is faced in the meanings “cloth to take hot dish from the fire” (Imishli);
“armband or sleevelet to take hot bread out from tandoor” (Salyan); “mitten” (Barda, Borchaly,
Gazakh, Gadabay, Lachin) in Azerbaijani dialects: Əllig çörək yapanda lazım olur (Salyan); Əlligi
mə:, qazanı götürüm (Imishli); Əlliyin dörd barmağı bir olur, baş barmağ ayrı olur (Barda); Əllix`
yunnan toxunar (Borchaly); Əllix`siz qışda əzməy<gəzmək> olarmı, ə:arvad? (Gadabay) (Azerbaijani
Language Dialectological Dictionary 2007:159). The word əllik isn’t faced in the Turkish literary
language. This word means “gloves, thick protective gloves” in Turkish dialects (Compilation
Dictionary. Vol: 5. http://tdkterim.gov.tr/ Dictionary of Turkish Dialects): Еllеr, göbек üstündе, yoк
bir şеy umrunda / Еlliкtеn çıкmış еllеr, екmек uğrunda (Ziya Osman Saba «Hands»).
The words bildir «last year», sancaq «different-sized and formed woman accessory made of plain
or valuable metal to pin to breast or hair» that are used in the Azerbaijani literary language aren’t used in
the Turkish literary language. But these are encountered in Turkish dialects: the word bildir means «last
year» in Afyon, Bolu, Kars, Adana dialects (Compilation Dictionary. Vol: 2. http://tdkterim.gov.tr/
Dictionary of Turkish Dialects); the word sancaq means «different-sized and formed woman accessory
made of plain or valuable metal to pin to hair» in Kars dialect: İkiüç sancah al, başıma sancajam
(Compilation Dictionary. Vol: 10. http://tdkterim.gov.tr/ Dictionary of Turkish Dialects).
Conclusions. Comparative research of Azerbaijani and Turkish in the background of dialects and
literary language enables us to determine similar or different phonosemantic features between these
languages. We can conclude that the determined phonetic, morphological and lexical similarity in language
materials are closely due to the reasons that those languages have been fed from the same root and existed
in historically close periods. It’s undeniable that both the languages have common language characteristics.
One of the main reasons behind this is the migration of Azerbaijanis from their ancient lands. The most
undeniable historical fact is the ethnic familiarity of the people speaking in these languages.
During the research of Turkic languages revealing common and different features in related
languages provides a good opportunity to learn the specific features of the studied language in detail. Some
phonetic, grammatical and lexical features that belong to ancient layers of a language leave literary
language in certain periods and are antiquated, but these forms are maintained in everyday folk dialects.
Two related languages that share the same geography historically embarking on a path of development on
their own led to the emergence of tangible differences between these languages. As a conclusion we can
say that though Azerbaijani and Turkish are close due to phonetic, lexical and grammatical features among
Turkic languages, there exist different phonetic, morphological and lexical peculiarities alongside with
respective language elements. A sign that is a dialect feature in Azerbaijani is considered a literary
language feature in Turkish and vice versa. In our opinion, approaching the semantics of words in general
context is more advisable. It’s very difficult to determine the exact history of mutual influence
opportunities of Turkic languages based on dialect carriers. Thus, comparison of two related languages
based on language materials indicates the closeness of these languages on dialectal level.
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Citation: Гейдарова Хадиджа Исабала гызы. (2020) The Construction of the Dictionary by Mahmud
Kashgari “Divan Lugat At-Turk” (a Comparative Analysis of the Dictionaries by Al-Farabi “Divan Al-Adab Fi
Bayan Lugatil-l-Arab” and Mahmud Kashgari “Divan Lugat At-Turk”). International Academy Journal Web of
Scholar. 2(44). doi: 10.31435/rsglobal_wos/28022020/6916
Copyright: © 2020 Гейдарова Хадиджа Исабала гызы. This is an open-access article distributed
under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction
in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original
publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or
reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
первой букве в алфавитном порядке. Если первые буквы слов одни и те же, то в алфавитном ряду
по второй букве ставится слово» [Рыбалкин, 1984, с. 60-61].
Порядок слов в соответствии с последней буквой и второй буквой является одним из
основных условий метода рифмы и впервые был применен аль-Фараби. Однако повторный
принцип внесения заново по алфавитному порядку слов по последней и второй букве слова
многочисленных парадигматических разделов, излишних для словарного дела, в
действительности исходящий из этой школы, отстает от метода составления Аль-Джаухари,
потому что он внедрил единую алфавитную систему в макросистему словаря «Ас-Сыхах». Как
и аль-Фараби в названии словаря Кашгари также использовал слово «диван» (запись), потому
что в словаре было дано место для обширного иллюстративного материала; при сравнении
заголовков разделов двух словарей наблюдается одинаковая структура. Разница в том, что
Кашгари разделил свой словарь на восемь книг, главу «Хамза» сделал первой книгой,
нехарактерные для арабского языка слова (состоящие из носовых звуков) поместил в своей
седьмой книге, названной «Гюннели слова», в восьмую книгу вошли слова со сукун с
удвоенными согласными. Другие главы, находящиеся в середине, были расположены в
последовательности, данной, как и в словаре Фараби. В бабах, заканчивающихся словами с
одинаковыми буквами, согласные постоянные, только меняются гласные, например: арк, орк,
ирк. Расположение слов в словнике словаря по последней букве слова арабского алфавита,
соответственно, является основным методом составления словника. Как и в словаре аль-
Фараби, за этими словами, первая буква которых одинаковая, происходит изменение по второй
букве: ирк, илк. В «Диване» Кашгари каждая парадигматическая часть начинается с нового
алфавитного порядка. Следует отметить, что в этом вопросе, говоря буква, понимается
согласная, говоря хамза и харака, должна пониматься гласная буква.
Таким образом, словарь Кашгари состоит из следующих книг: 1) Книга «Хамза» ( كتاب
;)الهمز2) Книга «Салим» ) ;(كتاب السالم3) Книга «Мудааф» ) ;(كتاب المضاعف4) Книга «Мисал» (كتاب
) ;المثال5) Книга «Завату-с-саласа» ( ;)كتاب ذوات الثالثة6) Книга «Завату-л-арбаа» (;)كتاب ذوات االربعة
7) Книга «Гюнна» ) ;(كتاب الغ ّنة8) Книга «Соединение двух букв» )(كتاب الجمع بين الساكنين.
Во всех книгах словаря все главы и бабы составлены по единому принципу. Как и аль-
Фараби, Кашгари разделил свои книги на имена существительные и глаголы. Во вступительном
слове к словарю он отмечает, что имена существительные даются перед глаголами. Каждое из
них слово по количеству согласных букв в корне делятся на бабы (количество букв может
варьироваться от пяти до семи), бабы делятся на мудаафы (двойные согласные), мисалы-
примеры (слова, начинающиеся с буквы yə), мангус (слова, одна из букв которых əlif, vav, yə),
гюнне (слова со звуком [nq]), слова, в середине которых сукуны, матви (слова, в составе
которых буквы əlif, vav, yə) и так далее. В книгах, связанных с глаголами, Кашгари приводит
временные аффиксы и неопределённые формы глаголов и дает подробные и краткие
грамматические объяснения. Хотя заголовки, данные в словаре, являются повторением
терминов арабского языкознания, в целом, названия книг и словник были определены Кашгари
в соответствии с фонетической и морфологической системой тюркского языка. Тем не менее,
разделение бабов никогда не было одинаковым, неопределённым в единой системе, в
индивидуальном порядке были разделены на заголовки. Невозможно определить макросистему
словаря из-за многочисленного ненужного парадигматического расщепления, если глубоко
задуматься, по причине обновления в каждой классификации алфавитного порядка по
последней букве и второй букве слова. Как и в словаре аль-Фараби, многочисленные
парадигматические модели распределения в произведении Кашгари иногда должны
ограничиваться одним или двумя примерами. В результате мы можем сказать, что в словаре
Кашгари невозможно определить единую макросистему словаря из-за того, что в одной и той
же системе не обнаруживаются деления бабов, индивидуально выделяются заголовки,
множественное ненужное парадигматическое разбиение и в каждой классификации
обновляется алфавитный ряд по последней букве и второй букве корня слова. Хотя метод
рифмы, созданный аль-Фараби, в действительности является успешным открытием для
арабской лексикографии, в системе абнии в разделах баб наблюдаются ненужные
бесчисленные фрагменты, что является неприемлемым в словарном деле. К сожалению, это
неудачное сложное строение словаря «Диван аль-Адаб» Исхака аль-Фараби повторилось и в
словаре Кашгари. Так, чтобы найти тюркское слово в произведении «Диван Лугат-ат-Турк»,
которое является тюркско-арабским словарем, сначала пользователь должен был хорошо знать
ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ ПО АКТИВИЗАЦИИ
СОВРЕМЕННОГО РАЗВИТИЯ АРХИТЕКТУРЫ
ГРАДОСТРОИТЕЛЬСТВА УКРАИНЫ
Ксеневич Михаил Яковлевич
кандидат архитектуры, Украинская академия архитектуры, г. Киев, Украина
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31435/rsglobal_wos/28022020/6917
Copyright: © 2020 Ксеневич М. Я. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is
permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal
is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which
does not comply with these terms.
действий власти и состояние широких масс населения нашего государства. Вот лишь главные
факты развития Украины за последние 25 лет:
– резко уменьшилась численность населения Украины: с 52 млн. в 1993 году до 42 млн.
на декабрь 2019 года (с 2014 года статистика проводилась без учета Крыма и части Донбасса), с
перспективой дальнейшего уменьшения;
– подавляющее большинство населения Украины (около 70 %) стало проживать в
городах и поселках, тогда как численность проживающих в селах уменьшилась вдвое;
– социально-финансовое состояние большинства украинцев (около 80 %), определяется
как неимущие или малоимущие, причем за последние десятилетия состояние широких слоев
населения практически не улучшается;
– новое жилищное строительство в городах Украины ведется, как правило,
многоэтажными, многоквартирными жилыми домами высокой стоимости, а также
малоэтажными одноквартирными жилыми домами усадебного типа пригородной зоны.
Стоимость первичного и вторичного рынка жилья в экономически активных городах Украины
значительно превышает фактическую себестоимость и не отвечает платежеспособности
подавляющего большинства населения;
– вместе с тем, отмечается активизация молодых и дееспособных слоев населения
Украины, которые тотально мигрируют в крупные города, а также за границу (начиная с 2010
года, из Украины выехало и не вернулось обратно около 4 млн. украинцев разного возраста, что
составляет почти 10 % населения) с целью заработка, поиска лучшей жизни, труда, образования
и самоутверждения. При этом эмиграция украинского населения повлекла, а может и
спровоцировала, по существу, обострение проблемы будущего заселения народом в Украине.
Происходящее приводит к определенным негативным последствиям для Украины и украинцев:
замене коренного населения другими народами, снижению порядка в стране, изменению, а
иногда и деградации украинской культуры, языка [1, 3].
Целью работы является анализ тенденций современной архитектуры
градостроительства Украины, предпосылок к сегодняшнему положению народонаселения
нашего государства с формулировкой конкретных предложений по активизации современного
развития архитектуры градостроительства.
Результаты исследования и их обсуждение. Как подтверждает анализ последних
десятилетий, изложенные выше тенденции являются следствием искусственно созданных
трудностей жизнедеятельности населения Украины, что способствует монополии влияния
определенной, немногочисленной, зажиточной прослойки населения [5]. Прежде всего,
негативные последствия касаются широких слоев населения Украины, их существования и
развития на своей исконно родной земле, то есть важной основы государственного
строительства [1]. Следовательно, выявленные тенденции должны побуждать к активным
действиям всех небезразличных, ответственных за современную и будущую судьбу
украинского народа и Украины, как независимой, суверенной, самостоятельной страны, что и
показали массовые майданные выступления.
Современная практика сферы архитектуры градостроительства Украины являются
многоотраслевой, базовой, консолидирующей социальное, экономическое и хозяйственное
существование человеческих обществ, в частности Украины. Прежде всего это касается
жизнедеятельности населения, развития городов, поселков и сел. Среди базовых населенных мест
Украины на сегодня сложилось такое соотношение: 24 города – областные центры, 490 городов и
городков (поселков) – районные центры; 458 городов, которые имеют специальный статус; 177
городов республиканского, областного и районного подчинения; 886 поселков (городков). То есть
всего 2035 поселений – городского и поселкового типа. А также 28504 сельских поселений.
Как форма архитектурного и поселенческого освоения и организации территории
Украины, как видим, села количественно доминируют на территории страны. Городов
существенно меньше, но они являются местами концентрации, центрами интенсивного
освоения территорий и жизнедеятельности населения. Архитектура и градостроительство в
Украине проявляется как взаимодополняющее сочетание разных типов и видов поселений:
городов, поселков и сел, размещенных вдоль доминирующих естественных образований: рек,
балок и дорог разного типа и вида [2, 3]. Сформированные образования имеют разную степень
интенсивности сгустков поселений: городов, поселков, сел, агломераций, систем населенных
пунктов и образований расселения страны в целом. Такое положение сложилось исторически и
ENGINEERING SCIENCES
МОДЕЛИРОВАНИЕ И АЛГОРИТМИЗАЦИЯ
ПРОЦЕССОВ УПРАВЛЕНИЯ ЭКСПЛУАТАЦИЕЙ
СУДОВЫХ ЭНЕРГЕТИЧЕСКИХ СИСТЕМ
1
Канд. техн. наук, доц. Ходарина Кристина Валериевна,
2
Канд. техн. наук, доц. Гаркуша Галина Геннадиевна,
3
Хлопецкая Лариса Федоровна
Украина, Мариуполь, Азовский морской институт Национального университета «Одесская
морская академия»;
1
Докторант Национального университета «Одесская морская академия»;
2
Профессор Одесской национальной морской академии;
3
Старший преподаватель
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31435/rsglobal_wos/28022020/6918
Copyright: © 2020 Ходарина К. В., Гаркуша Г. Г., Хлопецкая Л. Ф. This is an open-access article
distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or
reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the
original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution
or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
Интерпретатор ввода-вывода
Математические модели
Алгоритмы
Блок вычислений
воздуха в рабочей зоне, т.е. там, где установлены датчики. Обслуживаемую зону судового
помещения можно представить как объект, на который оказывают влияние внешние и
внутренние возмущающие воздействия. Входными параметрами тогда будут: 𝑚𝑝𝑜 , 𝑞оз , 𝑞𝑛 , и
соответственно, регулируемыми: температура и качество воздуха.
Тогда динамические свойства объекта будут зависеть от коэффициента Кв – кратности
воздухообмена (определяется размерами помещения и общей площадью стен), коэффициентов
lv – теплоемкости, Когр – теплопереноса ограждений и Тогр – постоянной времени ограждения.
Передаточная функция по каналу температуры подаваемого воздуха получена в виде:
(Тогр р+1)Кпом
𝑊пом (р) = Тпом р+1
, (3)
где Кпом и Тогр определяются по показателям Кв, lv, Когр, теплопроводности Св и плотности Рв
воздуха; Тпом – постоянная времени помещения.
Анализ переходного процесса, проведенный на основании математической модели (рис.
2, кривая 1) и эксперимента (рис. 2, кривая 2), показал, что температура в помещении меняется
в два этапа. На этапе А температура изменяется быстро, при этом скорость изменения
температуры обратно пропорциональна к кратности воздухообмена 3–4 Кв. На этапе В
изменение температуры воздуха существенно замедляется, так как стены помещения обладают
большой теплоемкостью 3.
Δtпом
Δtуст
Δt`уст
Время
Т=Кв
А В
Рис. 2. Переходный процесс параметров воздуха в производственных помещениях
Инерционностью ограждений пренебрегаем. Входящим воздействием будем Q – тепло,
Вт, а выходом – отклонение температуры, оС/Вт. Тогда дифференциальное уравнение для
исследуемого помещения:
𝑑∆𝜀
𝑉 ∙ 𝑐в 𝑝в 𝑑𝑡 = ∆𝑄пр − ∆𝑇з , (4)
где ∆𝜀 – отклонение температуры;
∆𝑄пр – тепло приточного воздуха (не зависит от помещения);
∆𝑇з – температура зоны (изменяемая величина в течение рабочей смены).
Температура рабочей зоны может быть определена зависимостью ∆𝑇з = К𝜀 ∆𝜀, где
коэффициент К𝜀 можно вычислить по формуле:
К𝜀 = 𝐺в ∙ св рв ∙ 𝑞. (5)
Перенесем ∆𝑇з в левую часть уравнения (4) и разделим на К𝜀 , тогда получим
выражение:
𝑉∙𝑐в рв 𝑑∆𝜀 ∆𝑄пр
К𝜀
∙ 𝑑𝑡 + ∆𝜀 = К𝜀
. (6)
Постоянная времени (зависит от типа помещения):
𝑉∙𝑐 р
Тпом = Кв в . (7)
𝜀
Коэффициент усиления (зависит от типа помещения):
1
Кпом = К . (8)
𝜀
Представим функцию (3) температуры подаваемого воздуха по каналу апериодическим
звеном первого порядка:
Кпом
𝑊пом (р) = Т , (9)
пом р+1
где коэффициент Кпом и постоянная Тпом.Т находятся из выражений:
1 1
Кпом.Т = 𝐺 ∙с р ∙𝑞 = 2,49∙1,2∙1,025∙0,24 = 1,36; (10)
в в в
𝑉∙𝑐в рв 500
𝑇пом ~К−1
в = = = 836 𝑐, (11)
𝐺в ∙Св рв ∙𝑞 2,49∙0,24
где 𝐺в – расход воздуха, м /с; 3
Начало
Текущие параметры и
факторы
Корректировка Q(t)
Кпом, Тпом
Wпом(р)
Блок вычислений
Генерация оптимальных
выходных параметров
Конец
MEDICINE
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31435/rsglobal_wos/28022020/6919
Citation: Astakhova O. V., Hryhorenko A. M., Malinina O. B., Taran O. A. (2020) Anatomic-Functional
State of Pelvic Organs in Women with Infertility and Ovaricovaricocele. International Academy Journal Web of
Scholar. 2(44). doi: 10.31435/rsglobal_wos/28022020/6919
Copyright: © 2020 Astakhova O. V., Hryhorenko A. M., Malinina O. B., Taran O. A. This is an
open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The
use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are
credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice.
No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
Materials and methods. To solve the goals and objectives, 117 women of reproductive age
(21-42 years old) with functional infertility were prospectively examined and divided into 2 groups for
the comparative analysis: the main group was 62 women with infertility and ovarian varicose veins; A
comparison group - 55 women with infertility without varicose veins.
The criteria for including women in the main group was no pregnancy without any
contraceptive use for 12 months and the presence of ovarian veins confirmed with or without varicose
dilatation of any of the major venous reservoirs of the small pelvis of more than 5 mm in the
ultrasound examination diameter, positive Valsalva test (widening of the diameter of the veins with
respiratory depression and simultaneous stress).
In the comparison group, women with infertility were included in accordance with the criteria
of the main group without varicose veins dilatation. The study did not include women with tube-
peritoneal infertility factors in the context of endometriosis, inflammatory diseases of the pelvic
organs, organic changes in the genital organs (large-sized uterine fibroids, ovarian cysts), uterine
defects, thyroid gland diseases, hyperandrogenism and hyperprolactinemia, male factor infertility.
The control group was selected by random sampling and consisted of 33 women of
reproductive age without gynecological pathology who had a history of pregnancy and childbirth.
The study of the anatomical and functional state of uterus, ovaries and fallopian tubes in women of
the studied groups was performed by standard ultrasound examination on the PHILIPS ATL-HDI 4000,
PHILIPS HD 11-XE with the analysis of folliculogenesis. In conducting the echographic study, the size of
uterus and ovaries, the thickness of endometrium, the presence of dominant follicles and signs of ovulation,
the formation, development and regression of the yellow body, the presence of structural changes in the
pelvic organs were studied. The topographies, dimensions, contours, echo structure of the uterus and its
applications were echographed. Conducting ultrasound in a complex with laboratory methods of
investigation allowed to provide a preliminary assessment of the ovarian reserve. Determine the ovarian
volume by means of longitudinal, anterior-posterior, and transverse sizes, the number of antral follicles with
a diameter of 2-10 mm, the mean diameter of the largest follicle as the half-value of its perpendicular size.
Laparoscopic intervention was performed for the patients of the main group on the apparatus "Karl
Storz" (Germany) in the first phase of the menstrual cycle. During the laparoscopy performed a general
review of the pelvic organs. During the examination of the pelvic organs, uterus was evaluated externally,
its mobility, size, color, consistency, examined the peritoneum of the anterolateral and Douglas space,
uterine tubes and ovaries, wide and cardinal ligaments, and determined the patency of the fallopian tubes.
Diagnostic hysteroscopy with the aim of clarifying the state of uterus and endometrium was
performed simultaneously with laparoscopy in the 1st or 2nd phase of the menstrual cycle using the
equipment "Karl Storz" (Germany). During hysteroscopy, the size and shape of the uterine cavity, the
presence of deformations were evaluated. Attention was drawn to the color, the foldiness of endometrium,
the presence of polypodic formations, intrauterine sinechias, endometrioid passages. If necessary, an
endometrial biopsy was performed using an actinoid electrode in the form of a loop fed to it active current
with a frequency of 300 kHz, power in coagulation mode 80 W, in the tissue dissipation mode - 100-120 W.
Results Discussion. The average age of the examined women in the main group was 27.8 ±
3.6 years, which was approximately the same with the women of the comparison and control group,
with an average age of 28.1 ± 2.4 and 27.9 ± 3.4 years, respectively. The age group of women in the
main group was as follows: 21 - 27 years old - 8 (12.9%) patients, 28 - 35 years old - 39 (62.9%),
more than 36 years old - 15 (24.2%) women. In the comparison group, the number of patients from 21
to 27 years was 7 (12.7%), 28-35 years old - 35 (63.6%) women and 36-42 years old - 13 (23.7%).
The distribution of women by age group in the control group was approximately identical, namely: 21-
27 years old - 4 (12.1)% of women, 28-35 years old - 22 (65.7%), 36-42 years - 7 (22, 2%).
Thus, the position of uterus in retroflexio occurred in 36 (58.1%) patients in the main group,
only 12 (21.8%) women in the comparison group and 5 (15.2%) women in the control group. In the
latter, the position of the uterus in anteflexio prevailed - 43 (78.2%) and 28 (84.8%) respectively. The
usual form of uterine body is found in 53 (85.5%) cases of infertility patients and ovariocavirulus, in 48
(87.3%) cases of infertility women without structural ovarian changes and in 100% of women in the
control group. In women of the main group, the percentage of fibromatically altered uterus was 14.5% -
9 patients, and in women of the comparison group 12.7% - 7 cases. The state of myometrium in women
of the studied groups in most cases was unchanged (clear borders, linear form, normal structure): 50
(80.6%) in the main group, 45 (81.8%) in the comparison group and 100% in the control group.
Given the rather wide age range of examined women and the importance of age as a predictor of
the functional state of the reproductive system, in particular the ovarian reserve, we considered it necessary
to analyze the anatomical characteristics of the ovaries in women of the age groups under study.
Consequently, when investigating the volume of ovaries in women with infertility and
ovaricovaricocele, a gradual decrease in this index with age was established, namely at the age of 21-
27, the average ovary volume was 5.3 ± 1.1 cm3, at the age of 28-35 years - 4.8 ± 1.53 and in 36-42
years - 3.9 ± 1.3 cm3, while in comparison with patients with infertility without varicose dilatation of
ovarian veins there is a statistically significant difference in the direction of increase of these indices in
the latter with a similar tendency according to age - 6.8 ± 1.6 cm3, 5.9 ± 1.3 cm3 and 3 according to
age distribution. The indicators of the control group were not statistically significantly different from
those of the control group patients, but were slightly higher - in the 21-26 years - 6.9 ± 1.8 cm3, 28-35
years - 6.9 ± 1.8 cm3 and in the 36- 42 years - 5.3 ± 1.7 cm3.
Regarding the number of antral follicles, women with functional infertility and ovaricovaricocele
also showed a tendency to decrease with age, which statistically significantly differed from those of
infertile patients without structural changes in ovarian veins. Thus, in women of the main group, the
number of antral follicles at the age of 21-27 years was 5.4 ± 1.2 versus 6.4 ± 1.5 in the comparison group,
at the age of 28-35 years - 4.5 ± 1.7 versus 5 , 6 ± 1,2 and 36-42 years old - 3,7 ± 1,4 versus 4,9 ± 1,2,
respectively, in groups. In the control group of women, the number of antral follicles was not statistically
significantly different from those in the comparison group with a similar age-related trend, but a slight
increase was observed - 6.5 ± 1.3, 5.9 ± 1.1 and 5.1 ± 1.6 according to age distribution.
In addition, the statistically significant difference in the volume of the ovaries and the number
of antral follicles in the women of the studied groups, depending on the location relative to the pelvic
floor, is drawn to the attention. Thus, in patients with functional infertility and ovaricovaricocele, there
is a significant difference in the direction of reduction of the indicator of the left ovary compared with
the right ovary - 4.1 ± 0.1 cm3 vs. 4.7 ± 1.6 cm3. In the infertility group without varicose veins, ovarian
veins were not diagnosed with a statistically significant difference between the left and right ovary
parameters as in the control group of women - 5.8 ± 1.4 cm3 versus 5.9 ± 1.6 cm3 and 6.3 ± 1.4 cm3
versus 6.3 ± 1.7 cm3, respectively, in groups. A similar trend is observed with respect to the number of
antral follicles, which in women of the main group was lower in the left ovary than in the right and
this difference was statistically significant - 3.9 ± 1.1 versus 4.5 ± 1.1. In the comparison group and
the control group, a statistically significant difference between the numbers of antral follicles in the
left and right ovaries was not found to be statistically significant - 5.6 ± 1.4 versus 5.6 ± 1.1 and 5.7 ±
1.5 versus 5.8 ± 1, 2 in groups respectively.
Ovulatory function of the ovaries was studied using an ultrasound study based on morphological
characteristics. The echographic signs of ovulation were the following: disappearance of a dominant
follicle or a decrease in its size with deformation of the structure with shading and formation in the middle
of the structure of middle echogenicity (yellow body), the presence of free fluid in the Douglas space. For
example, in women with functional infertility and ovaricovaricocele in 27 (43.5%) cases ovulation was
observed with the formation of a yellow body, in 11 (17.7%) patients - persistence of the follicle, in 19
(30.6%) - absence of dominant follicles and in 5 (8.2%) women - premature lutheinization of the follicle. In
patients with infertility without varicose dilatation of ovarian veins, ovulation occurred in 25 (45.5%) cases,
in 7 (12.7%) - persistence of the follicle, in 20 (36.4%) - absence of a dominant follicle and 3 (5.4%) is
premature for his luteinists. As for women in the control group, the majority of them stated ovulation with
the formation of a yellow body - 30 (90.9%).
Since in a significant percentage of cases in women with functional infertility, both with
ovaricovaricocele and without varicose veins, ovulation was confirmed, the main characteristics of the
yellow body were studied by echographic study, namely, the ratio of its volume to the volume of the ovary,
as well as the thickness the walls of the yellow body. Consequently, in women with a combination of
varicose veins and functional infertility, and the average ratio of the volume of the yellow body to the
ovarian volume was 0.22 ± 0.01, which is statistically significantly lower than in patients with infertility
without structural ovarian changes veins - 0,23 ± 0,02 and healthy women - 0,25 ± 0,01. The thickness of
the wall of the yellow body was 1.2 ± 0.05 mm in the main group and there was also a statistically
significant difference in the indicators towards a significant decrease, while in the comparison group, this
indicator was 2.3 ± 0.03 mm and in the control group 2, 5 ± 0.05 mm.
In addition to establishing the fact of ovulation, the echography of the pelvic organs allows indirect
evaluation of the full function of the function of the yellow body by studying the morphological changes
occurring in endometrium in lutheal phase of the menstrual cycle during 3 cycles.
Thus, in studying the thickness of the endometrium in the middle of the secretory phase of the
menstrual cycle, it was found that the average thickness of it in women with functional infertility
without varicose widening of ovarian veins was 10 ± 2.1 mm, in the group of patients with infertility
and varicose dilatation of ovarian veins - 8 ± 1 , 4 mm, which is statistically significantly lower than in
the women of the previous group and in healthy women - 13 ± 2.1 mm.
In addition to the thickness of endometrium, special attention was paid to its echostructure.
Thus, the absence of complete secretory changes that echo-graphically showed an increase in
echogenicity only in the peripheral regions of the M-echo with the hypoechogenic zone in center, the
presence of its three-layer structure with hypoechoic functional layers occurred in 52 (83.8%) women
in the main group, 39 (70.1%) of the patients in the comparison group and in 1 (3.0%) of the women
from the control group, inconsistency in the structure of the endometrial phase of the cycle was
observed in 10 (16.2%) women in the primary group and in 16 (29.9%) patients comparison groups.
In recent years, laparoscopic examination is considered as a compulsory component in a
comprehensive examination of patients with infertility and suspicion of venous plethora of the pelvis.
Therefore, diagnostic-therapeutic laparoscopy and hysteroscopy were performed to verify the
diagnosis for all 62 women in the main group.
In all 62 (100%) women with laparoscopy, the expansion of the ovarian veins was established:
in 28 (45.2%) cases varicose enlarged were only the ovarian ligaments on the left, in 21 (33.8%) -
varicose veins were distributed on the vessels of a wide uterine ligament to the left. In 10 (16.1%)
cases there was a varicose vein enlargement of the broad uterine ligament; in 3 (4.9%) patients there
was venous dilation only in wide uterine ligaments from both sides. At the same time, in 27 (43.5%)
patients, including women with the expansion of only extensive uterine ligament, the expansion of the
veins of the small pelvis was more precisely diagnosed when trying to change the position of women
on the operating table (the transition from the position of Trendelenburg to the position Fowler)
In parallel with the study of the venous pelvic system, an intraoperative evaluation of the
morphofunctional state of the uterus and its adnexies was performed. Thus, in 45 (72.3%) cases, there
was an isolated expansion of the ovarian veins; in 11 (17.7%) patients there was a multifollicular
structure of the ovaries and in 6 (10.6%) cases, a functional ovarian cyst.
When performing diagnostic hysteroscopy, 9 (14.5%) patients had endometrial hyperplasia
requiring biopsy of the material and confirmed in 4 (6.5%) women in the main group. Regarding other
parameters, all women of the main group had normal size and shape of the uterus, absence of
deformation, intrauterine sinenchy, endometrioid passages.
Conclusions and perspectives of further developments.
1. In women of the main group with a combination of functional infertility and
ovaricoaricocele, there is a statistically significant increase in the percentage of incorrect position of
the uterus - 36 (58.1%) in normal form and size. The last cases, both in the main group of women, and
in the comparison group - 53 (85.5%) and 48 (87.3%) cases, respectively.
2. Analyzing the indicators of ovarian size and the number of antral follicles, a statistically
significant difference was found in the direction of its reduction in women with functional infertility
and ovaricovaricocele in spite of infertility women without varicose dilatation of ovarian veins - 4.1 ±
0.1 cm3 vs. 5.8 ± 1.4 cm3 and 3.9 ± 1.1 versus 5.6 ± 1.4, respectively, in groups. In addition, there is a
tendency to reduce the ovipositive obesity of the progradiental age in women of all the studied groups
with statistically significant rates in the patients of the main group. Also, there is a difference in right
ventricular left ventricle in women with infertility and ovarikovarikocele in the direction of decreasing
the size of the latter, which may be due to the predominant localization of the enlarged gonadal vein,
and this difference is statistically significant.
3. In determining the functional status of the ovaries in the vast majority of women in all the
groups studied, ovulation was noted, however, when studying the characteristics of the functional state
of the yellow body on the basis of echographic signs, a reduction in the thickness of the endometrium
in the middle of the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle in patients in the main group, as well as the
absence of the vast majority of cases of its adequate secretory changes, which is statistically
significant against the women of the comparison group.
4. In patients, both the main group and the comparison group, there is a decrease in the ratio of
volume of the yellow body and ovarian volume and reduction of the thickness of the wall of the
yellow body, respectively, against the women of the control group, which is an ultrasound sign of
inferiority of the yellow body and lack of luteal phase menstrual cycle. In addition, women in the main
group have a statistically significant reduction in the rates against the women in the comparison group.
5. In women of the main group, a large percentage of varicose veins of the small pelvis have
been established in the absence of organic changes in the uterus and appendages (73.3%) in the
presence of infertility of obscure genesis.
Thus, ultrasound examination in combination with color Doppler mapping of patients with
ovarikovarikocele is a highly informative method of research, because it allows to perform topical
diagnosis, to determine the morphological character of the lesion, to differentiate the type of pathological
process and to identify the concomitant pathology of the pelvic organs. The study suggests that
ovarikovarikocele should be considered not only as an accompanying symptomatic changes in diseases of
the female genital area, but also as one of the causes of ovarian dysfunction with delay or termination of
growth of follicles, change in their size, degenerative-dystrophic changes in the ovaries, which leads to a
violation hormonal homeostasis and manifested by reproductive disorders.
In the perspective of further research it is necessary to consider complex analysis of the
morphological and functional characteristics of internal genital organs, which will allow to establish
the presence of a certain functional and organic gynecological pathology and will enable to diagnose
the initial and minimum course of the pathological process of pelvic organs, finally verify the final
diagnosis and appoint pathogenetic treatment.
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.31435/rsglobal_wos/28022020/6920
Citation: Vladeva E. P. (2020) The Boston Carpal Tunnel Questionnaire /BCTQ/ − a Reliable Method
for Diagnosis and Assessment of the Treatment of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome. International Academy Journal
Web of Scholar. 2(44). doi: 10.31435/rsglobal_wos/28022020/6920
Copyright: © 2020 Vladeva E. P. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is
permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal
is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which
does not comply with these terms.
Introduction. Compression neuropathies are focal lesions of the peripheral nerves with a
different etiology and are caused by narrowing or mechanical stretching of the nerve root in a fibrous
or fibrous bone canal, or by fibrous tissue. They are characterized by pain, sensory impairment and/or
loss of function as a result of chronic pressure (compression) [1].
CTS is the most common compression neuropathy with an incidence of 125-515/100 000. It is
a result of compression of the median nerve by the transverse carpal ligament. It is observed in 2 to
5% of the general population, more frequently in women. It is considered that there is a link between
this condition and the occupational load on the wrist when working on a keyboard, in the presence
vibrations, in cases of overexertion of the upper limbs, etc.
In the last few years the scientific society has acknowledged the Boston Carpal Tunnel
Syndrome Questionnaire (BCTQ) and more and more frequently it is being used as a standard in CTS
patients. [2] The scientific literature contains a large number of analyses and comparative studies
focused on the reliability of this questionnaire. Most of them consider it more reliable when
diagnosing CTS and determining its severity than any other similar instrument. The literature also
contains numerous studies on the diagnostics and treatment of CTS using BCTQ. According to many
authors its use is almost obligatory in the field of CTS. The advantage of this questionnaire is that it
analyses the symptoms related to sensation (pain, loss of sensation, etc.) and the degree of functional
preservation of the hand in CTS patients, providing two types of data: on ‘clinical symptoms’ − SSS
(severity status scale) and on ‘function’ − FSS (functional status scale).[3, 4]
According to Leite, BCTQ has proven to have high reliability and can replace all other non-
standardized methods for the assessment of CTS severity.
Aim of study. To investigate the effect of a complex of physical factors on the reverse
development of symptoms of moderate carpal tunnel syndrome using BCTQ and to compare the
results of the BCTQ subjective rating (SSS) (symptom severity scale) and function - FSS (functional
status scale) with objective assessment measured by the ENG parameters of n. medianus
Materials and methods. 57 patients with mild to moderate degree of carpal tunnel syndrome
clinically proven by electroneurographic study were examined. 38.60% of the patients were with right
hand affected, 9 patients (15.80%) with left hand affected and 26 patients (45.60%) with bilateral
involvement (n=26). In the last group, we examined both hands, so 57 patients and 82 hands were
investigated (Fig. 1).
status scale - show a statistically significant improvement at the end of the physiotherapy course 1.91
to an average of 1.63 (p <0.001), with a tendency for long-term retention and a slight decrease in the
average of the results obtained to 1.37 within the first control examination at 1-4 months (p <0.001)
and resistance to this trend in the following months (4-8) - 1.31 (p <0.001). (Fig. 2). The results
presented in Fig. 2 show that in the patients we studied, the degree of involvement with respect to
subjective complaints - stiffness, pain, paresthesias was higher than the degree of involvement of the
function of the affected hand and daily activities.
Comparison of the results of the BCTQ subjective assessment and the objective
evaluation measured by the n. medianus ENG parameters
We compared the severity scores of the symptoms of SSS and FSS of the Boston
Questionnaire with those obtained from ENG examination of sensory and motor fibers.
The results of the ANOVA analysis and the calculation of the η coefficient presented in Table 1
show that the overlap between SSS and distant latency of sensory fibers ranged from 53.10% to 72.10% in
the period prior to initiation of treatment to 1-4 and 4-8 months after the start of treatment. Even higher is
the percentage of overlap when comparing the results of SSS and those for SNAP-sensory fibers from
ENG − from 84.30% to 91.50% for the same period. When comparing the results between SSS and
conduction velocity on sensory ENG fibers, this percentage ranges from 84.30% to 89.80%.
Table 1. Comparison of the results of the BCTQ subjective assessment (symptom severity
scale) and the objective assessment measured by the ENG parameters of n. medianus.
Stage of % of BCTQ and ENG
BCTQ ENG-parameters of n. medianus
investigation overlap
Before treatment 72,10 %
Distant latency (ms.) – sensory
1-4 м. 67,00 %
fibers
4-8 м. 53,10 %
SSS Before treatment 91,50 %
(symptom Amplitude (μV) – sensory fibers 1-4 м. 87,70 %
severity scale) 4-8 м. 84,30 %
Before treatment 77,70 %
Conduction velocity (m/s) – с
1-4 м. 89,80 %
sensory fibers
4-8 м. 84,90 %
Before treatment 65,90 %
Distant latency (ms.) – motor
1-4 м. 58,70 %
fibers
4-8 м. 78,30 %
Before treatment 80,60 %
SSS Amplitude (μV) – motor fibers 1-4 м. 86,90 %
(symptom 4-8 м. 74,40 %
severity scale) Before treatment 79,00 %
Conduction velocity (m/s) –
1-4 м. 86,40 %
motor fibers
4-8 м. 81,90 %
The subjective complaints are due not only to the damage to the sensory fibers, but also to the
motor fibers of the n. medianus. Here again, the results show a high percentage of overlap in the
different stages of the study − between 65.90% and 78.30% for distant latency between 74.40% and
86.90% for amplitude, and between 79.00% and 86, 40% for the speed of conduction (Table 1)
Table 2 presents the results of the comparison between patients' self-assessments of change in
FSS (functional status scale) function and objective ENG data. Again, there is a high percentage of
comparability, both in the comparative analysis between FSS and motor fibers, and between FSS and
sensory fibers.
The analysis of the results when comparing the FSS symptom severity assessment of the
Boston Questionnaire and those obtained from ENG-study of motor fibers shows that among the FSS-
average values of the Boston questionnaire, those for distant latency-motor fibers from ENG-study the
percentage of overlap ranged from 68.80% to 71.80% in the period before the start of treatment to 1-4
and 4-8 months after the start of treatment. Between FSS and the amplitude of ENG speed. Of
conduction of motor fibers, this percentage varies between 86.10% and 93.20%.
Table 2. Comparison of BCTQ - FSS subjective assessment results (functional status scale)
and the objective estimate measured by the ENG parameters of n. medianus.
Stage of % of BCTQ and ENG
BCTQ ENG-parameters of n. medianus
investigation overlap
Before treatment 71,80 %
Distant latency (ms.) – motor
1-4 м. 69,40 %
fibers
4-8 м. 68,80 %
FSS Before treatment 83,20 %
(functional Amplitude (μV) – motor fibers 1-4 м. 93,20 %
status scale) 4-8 м. 86,10 %
Before treatment 78,90 %
Conduction velocity (m/s) – с
1-4 м. 82,10 %
motor fibers
4-8 м. 95,60 %
Before treatment 67,20 %
Distant latency (ms.) – sensory
1-4 м. 64,70 %
fibers
4-8 м. 48,50 %
FSS Before treatment 91,70 %
(functional Amplitude (μV) – sensory fibers 1-4 м. 90,00 %
status scale) 4-8 м. 93,80 %
Before treatment 78,90 %
Conduction velocity (m/s) –
1-4 м. 94,70 %
sensory fibers
4-8 м. 82,40 %
We found that the degree of overlap between FSS and ENG sensory fibers was also
significantly high. In the different stages of the study, the degree of overlap between the FSS and
distant latency of sensory fibers averages varied between 48.50% and 67.20%, for SNAP amplitude
between 93.80% and 91.70%, and for speed of conduction − between 78.90% and 95.60% (Table 2).
ANOVA analyzes of the η coefficient show a high percentage of overlap in the results of the
two instruments, which leads us to assume that the questionnaire we use is reliable in assessing the
effect of physiotherapeutical treatment.
Comparative evaluation and comparison of results obtained from BCTQ and ENG study
Based on the ANOVA analysis and the calculation of the η coefficient, we proved that there is
no significant difference in the results obtained from the Boston questionnaire and those from the
ENG examination. There is a high percentage of overlap - from 53.10% to 95.60%.
Although the results of BCTQ are based on the subjective assessment of the patient, there is
a high percentage of overlap with those of the objective study (ENG), which is a prerequisite for
assuming that the questionnaire is highly reliable and valid and can be used as a tool for evaluating
and analyzing a number of carpal tunnel studies, which is in line with Leite's findings that the
Boston Questionnaire is highly reliable and can replace any other non-standard methods for
assessing CTS severity [4].
Conclusions. In the presented facts of the discussion the impression makes the patient's
influence both on the subjective complaints and the clinical symptoms as well as on the degree of
restoration of the affected hand functions at the end of the physiotherapy course, the continuation of
this trend up to 4 months after the end of the treatment and maintaining it for 4 to 8 months. The
results obtained are determined by the proven prolonged action of the physiotherapeutical procedures
included in the complex, electrophoresis, as well as the exercise program developed for the needs of
the patients with CTS and its individualization according to the specific functional deficit and
concomitant symptomatology in each patient.
There are many tools for assessing carpal tunnel syndrome − ENG, skin sensory testing,
muscle strength testing and grip testing, assessment of the degree of subjective complaints, difficulties
in daily professional activities. Many of the studies in the scientific literature concerning CTS
problems have reported pain reduction and other symptoms and improvement in hand functions, but
there are few tools where subjective results are well organized and easy to process and analyze [5].
In this line of thought, the literature has known a great deal of analysis and comparative
studies related to the reliability of BCTQ, and most have identified it as more reliable in terms of
diagnosis and severity of CTS than any other similar tool. The results of our analysis and comparison
of the two Boston Questionnaire scales and the other tools used support all of these studies. According
to many authors, the use of BCTQ is almost mandatory in the field of carpal tunnel syndrome [4, 5, 6].
REFERENCES
1. Milanov I. (2009). Bolka v nevrologichnata praktika. Sofia: Meditsina i fizkultura.
2. Levine DW, et al. A self-administered questionnaire for the assessment of severity of symptoms and
functional status in carpal tunnel syndrome. 1993; J Bone Joint Surg Am 75:1585–92
3. Dias, J. J., B. Bhowal, C. J. Wildin, J. R. Thompson. Аssessing the outcome of disorders of the hand. Is the patient
evaluation measure reliable, valid, responsive and without bias? – J Bone Joint Surg Br., 2001, 83(2): 235–240.
4. Leite JC, J., et al. A systematic review of the psychometric properties of the Boston Carpal Tunnel
Questionnaire. 2008; BMC Musculoskelet Disord 78 (7)
5. Meirelles L.M. et al. Evalution of the Boston questionnaire applied at late post-operative period of carpal tunnel
syndrome operated with the paine retinaculatome trhough palmar port. 2006; Acta ortop. bras. vol.14 no.3
6. Amadio R., Luchetti P. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome. 2007 Berlin Heidelberg New York Roma: Springer-Verlag.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31435/rsglobal_wos/28022020/6921
Citation: Sagynbaeva G. A., Kaliev R. R. (2020) Role of T-786C Endothelial Gene Polymorphism of NO
- Synthase in the Development of Acute Contrast-Induced Nephropathy in Patients with Coronary Heart Disease.
International Academy Journal Web of Scholar. 2(44). doi: 10.31435/rsglobal_wos/28022020/6921
Copyright: © 2020 Sagynbaeva G. A., Kaliev R. R. This is an open-access article distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other
forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in
this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is
permitted which does not comply with these terms.
Contrast-induced nephropathy (CIN), also called contrast-induced acute kidney damage (CI-AKI),
is an iatrogenic disease that occurs after administration of an iodinated contrast agent in the absence of
other causes [1,2], which appears as an AKI that occurs in within 24-72 hours after intravenous or intra-
arterial administration of X-ray contrast agents (CSWs), the diagnostic criteria of which are an increase in
serum creatinine by SCr ≥ 0.5 mg/dL (≥44 μmol/L) or more than 25% of the initial level within 48 hours
after the contrast agent administration, returning to the initial level within 10-14 days [3].
In 2004, Gleeson and Bulugahapitiya [4] indicated that CIN is the third considerable cause of
acute kidney failure (AKF) that developes in the hospital after invasive procedures and hypotension,
and causes 12% of all AKI-cases in the hospital. Very often CIN develops in patients suffering from
heart diseases after percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and makes up around 49%, since
repeated injections of a contrast agent are required [5]. So, in coronary heart disease (CAD),
manifestations of CIN, according to some data, are already initially associated with the presence of
different risk factor combinations, namely, diabetes mellitus, arterial hypertension, age [6,7]. At the
same time, in our opinion, the features of nephropathy induction by contrast and changes in the
subsequent prognosis of the coronary heart disease (CAD) itself are not completely disclosed.
Endothelial NO synthase (Type III, NOS-3, eNOS) is a key enzyme that is involved in the
homeostatic control of vascular tone, glomerular microcirculation and other processes [8]. Thus, the
disregulation of this enzyme is one of the factors for the development of CIN.
As it is known, the eNOS gene generates vasoprotective NO molecules [9], is localized on
chromosome 7q35-36, has 26 exons, 25 introns, and encodes the protein with the molecular weight of
135 kDa, consisting of 1203 amino acids [10, 11]. Polymorphism of the eNOS gene is considered one
of the main predisposing factors for endothelial dysfunction which is observed with CIN [12,13].
However, the role of the eNos gene polymorphism genetic factor for the development and severity of
CIN has not been fully disclosed.
Objective: To study the role of endothelial NO synthase gene polymorphism in the
development of acute contrast-induced nephropathy in coronary heart disease.
Materials and methods: The prospective study was conducted in the National Cardiology and
Therapy Center named after academician Mirsaid Mirahimov at the Ministry of Health of the Kyrgyz
Republic from 2015 to 2018. A total of 184 patients with coronary heart disease (CHD) aged 33-70
years (average age 55.2 ± 8.5 years), among them male were 132 (71,7%), female – 52, were
examined to determine possible associative relationships between eNOS gene polymorphism (T786C)
and the development of acute CIN in patients with CHD. Of these, the group without CIN was 152,
and with the CIN there were 32 patients who underwent coronary angiographic examination (CAG).
Radiopaque contrast agents Ultravist (Iopromide) and Omnipack (Iohexol) were used.
All the patients most often suffered from various forms of coronary heart disease (CHD)
(Table 1.) and acute coronary syndrome (ACS). As follows from it, including 26 patients with acute
myocardial infarction, 104 patients with unstable angina, 26 patients had signs of chronic heart failure.
The most common concomitant pathology was arterial hypertension (64.1%), obesity (32.6%), and
kidney cysts (13.0%).
Table 1. Forms of coronary heart disease among the examined patients.
CHD forms n %
Stable effort angina 44 23,9%
Unstable angina 104 56,5%
Vasospastic angina pectoris 2 1,1%
(Prinzmetal's angina)
Microvascular angina 8 4,3%
Acute myocardial infarction 26 14,1%
Atherosclerotic cardiosclerosis 2 1,1%
Postinfarction cardiosclerosis 24 13,0%
Chronic cardiac aneurysm 10 5,4%
Chronic heart failure (CHF) 26 14,1%
Type of study: case-control. The patients were divided into 2 groups. The first group included
32 patients who, after endovascular intervention for coronary heart disease, developed contrast-
induced nephropathy (CIN). The second group included 152 patients without CIN. The patients of
both groups underwent a full clinical examination with the clarification of complaints, medical history
and physical examination, anthropometric and biochemical studies, including determination of total
cholesterol, sugar, creatinine, transaminases, serum electrolytes, as well as troponin and creatinine
clearance according to the CKD-EPI formula [14]. The polymorphism of the eNOS gene was studied,
electrocardiographic and echocardiographic examination, ultrasound of the kidneys and CAG were
performed. In addition, the risk of CIN developing was calculated in all the patients according to the
Mehran R scale (2004) [6] (Table 2).
Table 2. The risk scale for the development of contrast-induced nephropathy after
percutaneous coronary intervention.
Risk factors Scale index
Hypotension 5
Application of IABC 5
Chronic heart failure (CHF) 5
Age over 75 years 4
Anemia 3
Diabetes mellitus 3
Volume of contrast agent 1 for every 100 ml
Serum creatinine more than 1.5 mg/dL or GFR (according to 4
MDRD) less than 60 l/min/1.73m2 2 with GFR from 40 to 60
4 with GFR from 20 to 40
6 with GFR less than 20
All indexes are summed up.
Scale risk assessment
Total index CIN risk Hemodialysis risk
Low (≤5 points) 7,5% 0,04%
Avarage (6 – 10 points) 14% 0,12%
High (11 –15 points) 26,1% 1,09%
Very high (≥16 points) 57,3% 12,6%
Note: IABC-intraaortic balloon counterpulsation; GFR (according to MDRD) - glomerular filtration
rate (according to the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study).
Prior to being included into the study, all the participants gave their written informed consent.
The study of the polymorphic locus of the e-NOS gene was carried out at the Scientific
Research Institute of Molecular Biology and Medicine at the National Cardiology and Therapy Center
named after academician Mirsaid Mirahimov at the Ministry of Health of the Kyrgyz Republic.
Blood sampling and extraction of genomic DNA. For the molecular genetic studies,
genomic deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was used, extracted from venous blood containing 0.5 M
EDTA as an anticoagulant. DNA was isolated from the blood by the standard phenol-chloroform
extraction method. 5 ml of whole blood was added with 9 volumes of sucrose buffer (0.32 M sucrose,
10 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.0, 5 mM MgCl2, 1% Triton X-100), incubated for 40 min. on ice. Leukocyte
nuclei were precipitated at 5000 rpm./min., washed twice with buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.0, 75
mM NaCl). The precipitate was resuspended in 1 ml of buffer (75 mM NaCl, 24 mM EDTA) with the
addition of SDS to 0.5% and 200 units of proteinase K, incubated at 37 ° C all night long. Protein
components after treatment with lysis buffers were removed by standard phenol-chloroform
extraction: 1 treatment with an equal volume of phenol, 2 - phenol-chloroform mixture (1: 1), 1 -
chloroform. DNA was precipitated from the aqueous phase by adding 2.5 volumes of 96% ethanol, the
DNA residue was washed with a 70% ethanol solution, dried in air and dissolved in bidistilled water.
Polymorphism of the lengths of restriction fragments (PCR-RFLP).
Patient genotyping at polymorphic C789T loci of the e-NOS gene was carried out by PCR-
RFLP method. The PCR reaction was carried out in the volume of 20 μl in a Px2 Thermal Cycler
(Thermo Electron Corporation, USA). The composition of the reaction mixture included: GoTaq
polymerase (Promega, USA); 5x Green PCR buffer, pH = 8.5, 7.5 mM MgCl2 solution (final
concentration of Mg2+ ions − 1.5 mM); 2.0 mM dNTP mixture solution (Promega); a mixture of
forward and reverse primers at the concentration of 5.0 μm (Promega).
The restriction products were separated on a 3% agarose gel for 50 minutes at a constant
voltage of 120V in a 1 × TBE solution. Ethidium bromide solution was used to visualize the DNA
fragments on an agarose gel. Analysis of the electrophoretic separation of PCR products was carried
out by a gel-documenting system Gel-Doc-It, UVP (Bio-Rad, USA).
Determination of genotypes and alleles of the polymorphic locus C789T of the e-NOS gene.
To amplify the polymorphic locus T786C of the eNOS gene, the following primers were used:
5`-GGTGTACCCCACCTGCATTCT 3` and 5`-CACCCCCACCCTGTCATTC – 3`. PCR amplification
products were treated with Turbo NAE endonuclease.
The results of PCR and restriction were detected on a 4% agarose gel and photographed with
the gel-documenting system Gel-Doc-It, UVP (Bio-Rad) (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Electrophoretic separation of the genotypes of the T786C polymorphic locus of the eNOS gene
in a 3% agarose gel, where to the TT genotype corresponds the 164 bps DNA fragment, CT – 164 bps
and 82 bps, and SS - 82 bps. M - DNA marker of molecular balance 100-1000 bps.
Statistical processing of the obtained data was carried out with the help of the standard
statistical software package STATISTICA 6.0. The normality of the distribution was determined by
Shapiro-Wilk and Lillefors criteria. The data are presented in the form of М ± σ with a normal
distribution of the attribute and in the form of Me (25 and 75 percentile) − with an asymmetric
distribution. The reliability of the differences between the groups was determined with the help of the
non-parametric Mann-Whitney and Kolmogorov-Smirnov criteria, as well as the Student t-parameter
test. For multiple comparisons, the Kruskal-Wallis criteria and analysis of variance were used with the
calculation of the coefficient F and subsequent post-hoc analysis. Contingency tables were used to
assess a qualitative attribute. The qualitative data are presented as the absolute number of patients with
this symptom and a percentage of their number in the group. To assess the correspondence of the
distributions of genotypes to the expected Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium values and to compare the
frequencies of genotypes and alleles in the samples of the sick and healthy, the χ2 criterion was used.
The associations of alleles and genotypes with a predisposition to the disease were evaluated by the
odds ratio (OR). The study of the interdependence between the indicators was carried out using
correlation analysis with the calculation of the Spearman correlation coefficient (r). Differences were
considered significant when a probability of p <0.05 was reached.
Results. We studied the frequency of contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with coronary heart
disease during endovascular interventions when contrast agents − iopromide (Ultravist) and Omnipack
(Iohexol) were used. Wherein, it turned out that the development of CIN according to the criteria given in
the chapter “Material and Methods” took place in 32 patients out of the184 patients included in the study,
i.e. the occurrence of CIN in the examined group was 17.4%. But there was not a single case where renal
replacement therapy (0%) was required for correction of renal impairment. The estimated incidence of CIN
in the examined patients according to the Mehran scale was: for the development of contrast-induced AKI
− 8.2 ± 2.6%, for AKI, which required hemodialysis − 0.06 ± 0.11%.
Thus, the incidence of CIN in patients with coronary heart disease during endovascular
interventions using the contrast agent − iopromide (Ultravist) and iohexol (Omnipack) in our study
was slightly higher than the estimated one and amounted to 17.4%.
All the examined patients with CHD were divided into 2 groups. The 1st group included 32
patients who, after endovascular intervention for coronary heart disease, developed CIN. The 2nd
group included 152 patients without CIN development.
Table 3. Comparative incidence of various forms of coronary heart disease among patients
with/without contrast-induced nephropathy
CHD forms CIN+ CIN - р
Stable effort angina 10 (31,3%) 34 (22,3%) NS
Unstable angina 10 (31,3%) 114 (75%) <0,001
Vasospastic angina pectoris 2 (6,3%) 0 (0%) NS
(Prinzmetal’s angina)
Microvascular angina 2 (6,3%) 6 (3,9%) NS
Acute myocardial infarction 8 (25%) 18 (11,8%) <0,05
Atherosclerotic cardiosclerosis 2 (6,3%) 4 (2,6%) NS
Postinfraction cardiosclerosis 4 (12,5%) 26 (17,1%) NS
Chronic heart aneurysm 4 (12,5%) 6 (3,9%) <0,05
Chronic heart failure (CHF) 8 (25%) 46 (30,2%) NS
Note: NS – differences between groups are not significant
When analyzing the features of the occurrence of CHD forms in the selected groups, the
following data were obtained. It turned out that the patients, who had had CIN, were much more likely
to suffer from acute myocardial infarction (25% versus 11.8%, p <0.05), as well as chronic heart
aneurysm (12.5% versus 3.9%, p <0, 05). At the same time, in the presence of acute forms of coronary
heart disease, their less severe course was revealed in this group of patients in the form of unstable
angina (31.3% versus 75% in the group without CIN, p <0.001). In terms of the frequency of
occurrence of other CHD forms, the selected groups did not differ significantly (p> 0.05).
Fig. 2. The state of the initial renal filtration function in the patients suffering from coronary heart
disease with / without the development of contrast-induced nephropathy
When analyzing the initial state of kidneys function and their filtration ability, it turned out
that the groups of patients with/without CIN did not differ in creatinine level (p> 0.05), as well as
glomerular filtration rate (GFR) (p> 0.05) (Fig. 3.1.). So, in the patients with CIN, serum creatinine
level was 94 ± 15 μmol/L, and in the patients without CIN, 90 ± 15 μmol/L (p> 0.05). Similarly, GFR
indices in the indicated groups were 77 ± 24 ml / min and 80 ± 13 ml / min (p> 0.05) respectively.
When analyzing the state of kidneys function and their filtration ability after 48-72 hours after
CAG, it turned out that the groups of patients with/without CIN differed in creatinine level (p> 0.05) and
glomerular filtration rate (GFR) (p> 0.05) (Fig. 4.0.). So, in the patients with CIN, serum creatinine level
was 131 ± 41 μmol/L, but in the patients without CIN - 90 ± 16 μmol/L (p> 0.05). Similarly, GFR indices
in the indicated groups were 56 ± 19 ml/min and 75 ± 13 ml/min (p> 0.05) respectively.
As follows from the data presented in Fig. 3.3., our distribution of alleles of the eNOS gene
demonstrates a significant predominance of the frequency of the T-allele occurrence (T-allele - 84.2%,
C-allele - 15.8%). The representation of the eNOS gene genotypes among the patients examined by us
was 72.8% for the TT genotype, 22.8% for the TS genotype, and 4.4% for the SS genotype. The
observed distribution of the genotypes was in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (Fig. 3.4.)
Fig 3. State of renal filtration function in the patients with coronary heart disease with/without the
development of contrast-induced nephropathy in 48 hours after CAG.
alleles
15,8
Т
84,2 С
Fig. 4. Allele frequency (in %) of the endothelial nitroxide synthetase gene among the examined
patients of the general group
Fig. 5. The frequency of occurrence of genotypes (in %) of the endothelial nitroxide synthetase gene
among the examined patients of the general group.
The comparative analysis of the frequencies of the alleles of the eNOS gene among the
patients with coronary heart disease with/without CIN demonstrated an association of these allelic
variants with the development of CIN after endovascular interventions (χ2 = 5.28, p = 0.02). So, the
frequency of the T allele in the group of patients with CIN was 93.75% and was significantly higher
than the frequency of this allele in the group of patients with coronary heart disease without CIN
(82.2%, p = 0.02). In contrast, the frequency of the C allele in the patients with CIN was significantly
lower (6.25% versus 17.8%, p = 0.02).
Table 4. Allele and genotype frequency of the endothelial nitroxide synthetase gene in patients
with coronary heart disease with/without contrast-induced nephropathy
Alleles and genotypes CIN+ CIN - χ2 р
Allele Т 60 (93,75%) 250 (82,2%) χ =5,28, р=0,02
2
=0,02
Allele С 4 (6,25%) 54 (17,8%) =0,02
ТТ 28 (87,5%) 106 (69,7%) χ2=4,21, р=0,04 <0,05
ТС 4 (12,5%) 38 (25%) NS
СС 0 8 (5,3%) NS
Note: NS – differences are not significant
The analysis of the frequency distribution of genotypes in the selected groups also
demonstrated the presence of an association with the development of CIN in the patients with
coronary heart disease after endovascular interventions (χ2= 4.21, p = 0.04). In particular, the
incidence of TT genotype among the patients with CIN at 87.5% was significantly higher than in the
patients without CIN (69.7%, p <0.05). The prevalence of the other genotypes (TS and SS) in the
compared groups did not significantly differ (p> 0.05).
Thus, carriage of the T allele in the homozygous variant (TT genotype) is associated with the
development of contrast-induced nephropathy in the patients with coronary heart disease after
endovascular interventions.
The discussion. We have studied the possibility of associative links between the
polymorphism of the eNOS gene (T786C) and the development of acute CIN in the patients with
coronary heart disease during endovascular interventions.
For the diagnosis of CIN, we used the criteria proposed by the KDIGO 2012 Working Group
and described in the «Material and Methods» section.
The main objective of our study was to study the interdependence of the C789T e-NOS gene with
the development of CIN in the patients with coronary heart disease after endovascular interventions.
The discovery of endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor that was identified in 1980 as
nitric oxide (NO) (Furchgott R.F., Zawadski J.V., 1980) [15], determined the interest in vascular
endothelial function, as well as the development of a new area of research, endothelial dysfunction, as
the main factor of the pathogenesis of vascular changes and the need for its therapeutic correction.
NO has a wide range of biological effects: it participates in the work of central and autonomic
nervous systems, in the regulation of cardiovascular activity, in the functioning of gastrointestinal and
genitourinary tract, in the work of secretory tissues and respiratory organs. The cytostatic and/or
cytotoxic activity of NO, which can occur at its high concentrations, indicates its role in the cellular
immunity system. This function determines the effect of NO on the processes of apoptosis and
initiation (Reutov V.P., 2000) [16].
The synthesis of NO from L - arginine is carried out under the influence of the three main isoforms
of the NO-synthases enzyme (NOS): neuronal (nNOS), endothelial (eNOS) and inducible (iNOS). In their
active form, all the three isoforms are homodimers with the molecular weight of 130 (iNOS), 135 (eNOS)
and 160 (nNOS) kDa (Reutov V.P., 2000; Andrew P.J., Mayer B., 1999) [16,17]. nNOS and eNOS are
constitutive, that is, they are constantly transcribed in neuronal and endothelial cells, respectively. The level
and activity of the enzyme depends on the allelic variant of the eNOS genes.
A series of meta-analyzes is devoted to the association of eNOS gene polymorphism and
kidney disease. So, in 2015 the interdependence between Glu298Asp polymorphism of the eNOS gene
and the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in the patients with established heart failure (HF)
was studied. Chand S. et al. (2015) [18] examined 140 patients who underwent magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) of the heart and tissue doppler echocardiography. Two clinical trials revealed that the
presence of Glu298Asp rs1799983 polymorphism of the eNOS gene is a significant risk factor for the
progression of chronic renal failure (CRF) among the patients with established HF.
In contrast to the above data, Ilhan N. et al. (2016) [19] studied the Glu298Asp eNOS gene
polymorphism and endothelial dysfunction in the patients with and without end-stage RF (ESRF) and
did not reveal any interdependence between the Glu298Asp eNOS gene polymorphism and ESRF in
the group of patients under examination. In the work of Marson B.P. et al. [20] eNOS gene
polymorphism and its haplotypes were also not associated with the presence of ESRF.
Thus, the incidence of TT genotype among the patients with CIN at 87.5% was significantly
higher than in the patients without CIN (69.7%, p <0.05). At the same time, the prevalence of the other
genotypes (TS and SS) in the compared groups did not significantly differ (p> 0.05).
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.31435/rsglobal_wos
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