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Fourier series - Wikipedia

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Fourier transforms

Continuous Fourier transform

Fourier series

Discrete-time Fourier transform

Discrete Fourier transform

Discrete Fourier transform over a ring

Fourier analysis

Related transforms

In mathematics, a Fourier series ([1]) is a periodic function

composed of harmonically related sinusoids, combined by a
weighted summation. With appropriate weights, one cycle (or
period) of the summation can be made to approximate an arbitrary
function in that interval (or the entire function if it too is periodic). As
such, the summation is a synthesis of another function. The
discrete-time Fourier transform is an example of Fourier series. The
process of deriving the weights that describe a given function is a
form of Fourier analysis. For functions on unbounded intervals, the
analysis and synthesis analogies are Fourier transform and inverse
transform.

Function (in red) is a sum of six sine functions of different

amplitudes and harmonically related frequencies. Their summation
is called a Fourier series. The Fourier transform, (in blue),
which depicts amplitude vs frequency, reveals the 6 frequencies (at
odd harmonics) and their amplitudes (1/odd number).

History[edit]

The Fourier series is named in honour of Jean-Baptiste Joseph

Fourier (1768–1830), who made important contributions to the
study of trigonometric series, after preliminary investigations by
Leonhard Euler, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and Daniel Bernoulli.[A]
Fourier introduced the series for the purpose of solving the heat
equation in a metal plate, publishing his initial results in his 1807
Mémoire sur la propagation de la chaleur dans les corps solides
(Treatise on the propagation of heat in solid bodies), and publishing
his Théorie analytique de la chaleur (Analytical theory of heat) in
1822. The Mémoire introduced Fourier analysis, specifically Fourier
series. Through Fourier's research the fact was established that an
arbitrary (continuous)[2] function can be represented by a
trigonometric series. The first announcement of this great discovery
was made by Fourier in 1807, before the French Academy.[3] Early
ideas of decomposing a periodic function into the sum of simple
oscillating functions date back to the 3rd century BC, when ancient
astronomers proposed an empiric model of planetary motions,
based on deferents and epicycles.

The heat equation is a partial differential equation. Prior to Fourier's

work, no solution to the heat equation was known in the general
case, although particular solutions were known if the heat source
behaved in a simple way, in particular, if the heat source was a sine
or cosine wave. These simple solutions are now sometimes called
eigensolutions. Fourier's idea was to model a complicated heat
source as a superposition (or linear combination) of simple sine and
cosine waves, and to write the solution as a superposition of the
corresponding eigensolutions. This superposition or linear
combination is called the Fourier series.

From a modern point of view, Fourier's results are somewhat

informal, due to the lack of a precise notion of function and integral
in the early nineteenth century. Later, Peter Gustav Lejeune
Dirichlet[4] and Bernhard Riemann[5][6][7] expressed Fourier's
results with greater precision and formality.

Although the original motivation was to solve the heat equation, it

later became obvious that the same techniques could be applied to
a wide array of mathematical and physical problems, and especially
those involving linear differential equations with constant
coefficients, for which the eigensolutions are sinusoids. The Fourier
series has many such applications in electrical engineering,
vibration analysis, acoustics, optics, signal processing, image
processing, quantum mechanics, econometrics,[8] thin-walled shell
theory,[9] etc.

Definition[edit]

Consider a real-valued function, , that is integrable on an

interval of length , which will be the period of the Fourier series.
Common examples of analysis intervals are:

and
and

The analysis process determines the weights, indexed by integer

, which is also the number of cycles of the harmonic in the
analysis interval. Therefore, the length of a cycle, in the units of , is
. And the corresponding harmonic frequency is . The

harmonics are and , and their amplitudes

(weights) are found by integration over the interval of length :[10]

Fourier coefficients

(Eq.1)

The synthesis process (the actual Fourier series) is:

Fourier series, sine-cosine form

(Eq.2)

In general, integer is theoretically infinite. Even so, the series

might not converge or exactly equate to at all values of (such
as a single-point discontinuity) in the analysis interval. For the "well-
behaved" functions typical of physical processes, equality is
customarily assumed.

Using a trigonometric identity:

and definitions and , the sine and

cosine pairs can be expressed as a single sinusoid with a phase
offset, analogous to the conversion between orthogonal (Cartesian)
and polar coordinates:

Fourier series, amplitude-phase form

(Eq.3)

The customary form for generalizing to complex-valued (next

section) is obtained using Euler's formula to split the cosine function
into complex exponentials. Here, complex conjugation is denoted
by an asterisk:
Therefore, with definitions:

the final result is:

Fourier series, exponential form

(Eq.4)

Complex-valued functions[edit]

If is a complex-valued function of a real variable both

components (real and imaginary part) are real-valued functions that
can be represented by a Fourier series. The two sets of coefficients
and the partial sum are given by:

and

Defining yields:
 (Eq.5)

This is identical to Eq.4 except and are no longer complex

conjugates. The formula for is also unchanged:

Other common notations[edit]

The notation is inadequate for discussing the Fourier coefficients

of several different functions. Therefore, it is customarily replaced
by a modified form of the function ( , in this case), such as or
, and functional notation often replaces subscripting:

In engineering, particularly when the variable represents time, the

coefficient sequence is called a frequency domain representation.
Square brackets are often used to emphasize that the domain of
this function is a discrete set of frequencies.

Another commonly used frequency domain representation uses the

Fourier series coefficients to modulate a Dirac comb:
where represents a continuous frequency domain. When variable
has units of seconds, has units of hertz. The "teeth" of the comb
are spaced at multiples (i.e. harmonics) of , which is called the
fundamental frequency. can be recovered from this
representation by an inverse Fourier transform:

The constructed function is therefore commonly referred to as

a Fourier transform, even though the Fourier integral of a periodic
function is not convergent at the harmonic frequencies.[B]

The first four partial sums of the Fourier series for a square wave

Convergence[edit]

In engineering applications, the Fourier series is generally

presumed to converge everywhere except at discontinuities, since
the functions encountered in engineering are more well behaved
than the ones that mathematicians can provide as counter-
examples to this presumption. In particular, if is continuous and
the derivative of (which may not exist everywhere) is square
integrable, then the Fourier series of converges absolutely and
uniformly to .[11] If a function is square-integrable on the interval
, then the Fourier series converges to the function at
almost every point. Convergence of Fourier series also depends on
the finite number of maxima and minima in a function which is
popularly known as one of the Dirichlet's condition for Fourier
series. See Convergence of Fourier series. It is possible to define
Fourier coefficients for more general functions or distributions, in
such cases convergence in norm or weak convergence is usually of
interest.

Four partial sums (Fourier series) of lengths 1, 2, 3, and 4 terms.

Showing how the approximation to a square wave improves as the
number of terms increases. (An interactive animation can be seen
here)
Four partial sums (Fourier series) of lengths 1, 2, 3, and 4 terms.
Showing how the approximation to a sawtooth wave improves as
the number of terms increases.

Example of convergence to a somewhat arbitrary function. Note the

development of the "ringing" (Gibbs phenomenon) at the transitions
to/from the vertical sections.

Examples[edit]

Example 1: a simple Fourier series[edit]

Plot of the sawtooth wave, a periodic continuation of the linear
function on the interval

Animated plot of the first five successive partial Fourier series

We now use the formula above to give a Fourier series expansion

of a very simple function. Consider a sawtooth wave

In this case, the Fourier coefficients are given by

It can be proven that Fourier series converges to at every point

where is differentiable, and therefore:

(Eq.7)
When , the Fourier series converges to 0, which is the half-
sum of the left- and right-limit of s at . This is a particular
instance of the Dirichlet theorem for Fourier series.

Heat distribution in a metal plate, using Fourier's method

This example leads us to a solution to the Basel problem.

Example 2: Fourier's motivation[edit]

The Fourier series expansion of our function in Example 1 looks

more complicated than the simple formula , so it is not
immediately apparent why one would need the Fourier series.
While there are many applications, Fourier's motivation was in
solving the heat equation. For example, consider a metal plate in
the shape of a square whose side measures meters, with
coordinates . If there is no heat source within the
plate, and if three of the four sides are held at 0 degrees Celsius,
while the fourth side, given by , is maintained at the
temperature gradient degrees Celsius, for in , then
one can show that the stationary heat distribution (or the heat
distribution after a long period of time has elapsed) is given by
Here, sinh is the hyperbolic sine function. This solution of the heat
equation is obtained by multiplying each term of Eq.7 by
. While our example function seems to have a
needlessly complicated Fourier series, the heat distribution is
nontrivial. The function cannot be written as a closed-form
expression. This method of solving the heat problem was made
possible by Fourier's work.

Other applications[edit]

Another application of this Fourier series is to solve the Basel

problem by using Parseval's theorem. The example generalizes
and one may compute ζ(2n), for any positive integer n.

Beginnings[edit]

This immediately gives any coefficient ak of the trigonometrical

series for φ(y) for any function which has such an expansion. It
works because if φ has such an expansion, then (under suitable
convergence assumptions) the integral

can be carried out term-by-term. But all terms involving

for j ≠ k vanish when integrated from −1 to

1, leaving only the kth term.

In these few lines, which are close to the modern formalism used in
Fourier series, Fourier revolutionized both mathematics and
physics. Although similar trigonometric series were previously used
by Euler, d'Alembert, Daniel Bernoulli and Gauss, Fourier believed
that such trigonometric series could represent any arbitrary
function. In what sense that is actually true is a somewhat subtle
issue and the attempts over many years to clarify this idea have led
to important discoveries in the theories of convergence, function
spaces, and harmonic analysis.

When Fourier submitted a later competition essay in 1811, the

committee (which included Lagrange, Laplace, Malus and
Legendre, among others) concluded: ...the manner in which the
author arrives at these equations is not exempt of difficulties
and...his analysis to integrate them still leaves something to be
desired on the score of generality and even rigour.[citation needed]

Birth of harmonic analysis[edit]

Since Fourier's time, many different approaches to defining and

understanding the concept of Fourier series have been discovered,
all of which are consistent with one another, but each of which
emphasizes different aspects of the topic. Some of the more
powerful and elegant approaches are based on mathematical ideas
and tools that were not available at the time Fourier completed his
original work. Fourier originally defined the Fourier series for real-
valued functions of real arguments, and using the sine and cosine
functions as the basis set for the decomposition.

Many other Fourier-related transforms have since been defined,

extending the initial idea to other applications. This general area of
inquiry is now sometimes called harmonic analysis. A Fourier
series, however, can be used only for periodic functions, or for
functions on a bounded (compact) interval.
Extensions[edit]

Fourier series on a square[edit]

We can also define the Fourier series for functions of two variables
and in the square :

Aside from being useful for solving partial differential equations

such as the heat equation, one notable application of Fourier series
on the square is in image compression. In particular, the jpeg image
compression standard uses the two-dimensional discrete cosine
transform, which is a Fourier transform using the cosine basis
functions.

Fourier series of Bravais-lattice-periodic-function[edit]

The three-dimensional Bravais lattice is defined as the set of

vectors of the form:

where are integers and are three linearly independent vectors.

Assuming we have some function, , such that it obeys the
following condition for any Bravais lattice vector ,
we could make a Fourier series of it. This kind of function can be,
for example, the effective potential that one electron "feels" inside a
periodic crystal. It is useful to make a Fourier series of the potential
then when applying Bloch's theorem. First, we may write any
arbitrary vector in the coordinate-system of the lattice:

where

Thus we can define a new function,

This new function, , is now a function of three-variables,

each of which has periodicity a1, a2, a3 respectively:

If we write a series for g on the interval [0, a1] for x1, we can define
the following:

And then we can write:

Further defining:

We can write once again as:

Finally applying the same for the third coordinate, we define:

We write as:

Re-arranging:

Now, every reciprocal lattice vector can be written as

, where are integers and are the reciprocal
lattice vectors, we can use the fact that to calculate that
for any arbitrary reciprocal lattice vector and arbitrary vector in
space , their scalar product is:

And so it is clear that in our expansion, the sum is actually over

reciprocal lattice vectors:

where
Assuming

we can solve this system of three linear equations for , , and in

terms of , and in order to calculate the volume element in the
original cartesian coordinate system. Once we have , , and in
terms of , and , we can calculate the Jacobian determinant:

which after some calculation and applying some non-trivial cross-

product identities can be shown to be equal to:

(it may be advantageous for the sake of simplifying calculations, to

work in such a cartesian coordinate system, in which it just so
happens that is parallel to the x axis, lies in the x-y plane, and
has components of all three axes). The denominator is exactly
the volume of the primitive unit cell which is enclosed by the three
primitive-vectors , and . In particular, we now know that
We can write now as an integral with the traditional coordinate
system over the volume of the primitive cell, instead of with the ,
and variables:

And is the primitive unit cell, thus, is the volume of the

primitive unit cell.

Hilbert space interpretation[edit]

In the language of Hilbert spaces, the set of functions

is an orthonormal basis for the space of
square-integrable functions on . This space is actually a
Hilbert space with an inner product given for any two elements
and by

The basic Fourier series result for Hilbert spaces can be written as
Sines and cosines form an orthonormal set, as illustrated above.
The integral of sine, cosine and their product is zero (green and red
areas are equal, and cancel out) when , or the functions are
different, and pi only if and are equal, and the function used is
the same.

This corresponds exactly to the complex exponential formulation

given above. The version with sines and cosines is also justified
with the Hilbert space interpretation. Indeed, the sines and cosines
form an orthogonal set:

(where δmn is the Kronecker delta), and

furthermore, the sines and cosines are orthogonal to the constant

function . An orthonormal basis for consisting of real
functions is formed by the functions and , with
n = 1, 2,... The density of their span is a consequence of the
Stone–Weierstrass theorem, but follows also from the properties of
classical kernels like the Fejér kernel.

Properties[edit]

Table of basic properties[edit]

This table shows some mathematical operations in the time domain

and the corresponding effect in the Fourier series coefficients.
Notation:

Property Time Frequency Remarks Reference

domain domain
(exponential
form)

Linearity complex
numbers

Time reversal [13]:p. 610

/ Frequency
reversal

Time [13]:p. 610

conjugation

Time reversal
& conjugation

Real part in
time

Imaginary
part in time

Real part in
frequency

Imaginary
part in
frequency

Shift in time / real [13]:p. 610

 Modulation in number
frequency

Shift in integer [13]:p. 610

frequency /
Modulation in
time

Symmetry properties[edit]

When the real and imaginary parts of a complex function are

decomposed into their even and odd parts, there are four
components, denoted below by the subscripts RE, RO, IE, and IO.
And there is a one-to-one mapping between the four components of
a complex time function and the four components of its complex
frequency transform:[14]

From this, various relationships are apparent, for example:

The transform of a real-valued function (fRE+ fRO) is the even

symmetric function FRE+ i FIO. Conversely, an even-symmetric

transform implies a real-valued time-domain.

The transform of an imaginary-valued function (i fIE+ i fIO) is the odd

symmetric function FRO+ i FIE, and the converse is true.

The transform of an even-symmetric function (fRE+ i fIO) is the real-

valued function FRE+ FRO, and the converse is true.

The transform of an odd-symmetric function (fRO+ i fIE) is the

imaginary-valued function i FIE+ i FIO, and the converse is true.

Riemann–Lebesgue lemma[edit]

If is integrable, , and This result

is known as the Riemann–Lebesgue lemma.

Derivative property[edit]

We say that belongs to if is a 2π-periodic function on

which is times differentiable, and its kth derivative is continuous.

Parseval's theorem[edit]

If belongs to , then .

Plancherel's theorem[edit]

If are coefficients and then there is a

unique function such that for every .

Convolution theorems[edit]

[D]

where:
Compact groups[edit]

One of the interesting properties of the Fourier transform which we

have mentioned, is that it carries convolutions to pointwise
products. If that is the property which we seek to preserve, one can
produce Fourier series on any compact group. Typical examples
include those classical groups that are compact. This generalizes
the Fourier transform to all spaces of the form L2(G), where G is a
compact group, in such a way that the Fourier transform carries
convolutions to pointwise products. The Fourier series exists and
converges in similar ways to the [−π,π] case.

An alternative extension to compact groups is the Peter–Weyl

theorem, which proves results about representations of compact
groups analogous to those about finite groups.

Riemannian manifolds[edit]

If the domain is not a group, then there is no intrinsically defined

convolution. However, if is a compact Riemannian manifold, it
has a Laplace–Beltrami operator. The Laplace–Beltrami operator is
the differential operator that corresponds to Laplace operator for the
Riemannian manifold . Then, by analogy, one can consider heat
equations on . Since Fourier arrived at his basis by attempting to
solve the heat equation, the natural generalization is to use the
eigensolutions of the Laplace–Beltrami operator as a basis. This
generalizes Fourier series to spaces of the type , where is a
Riemannian manifold. The Fourier series converges in ways similar
to the case. A typical example is to take to be the sphere
with the usual metric, in which case the Fourier basis consists of
spherical harmonics.

Locally compact Abelian groups[edit]

The generalization to compact groups discussed above does not

generalize to noncompact, nonabelian groups. However, there is a
straightforward generalization to Locally Compact Abelian (LCA)
groups.

This generalizes the Fourier transform to or , where is

an LCA group. If is compact, one also obtains a Fourier series,
which converges similarly to the case, but if is noncompact,
one obtains instead a Fourier integral. This generalization yields the
usual Fourier transform when the underlying locally compact
Abelian group is .

Table of common Fourier series[edit]

Some common pairs of periodic functions and their Fourier Series

coefficients are shown in the table below. The following notation
applies:

Time Plot Frequency Remarks Reference

domain domain (sine-
 cosine form)

Full-wave [16]:p. 193

rectified
sine

Half-wave [16]:p. 193

rectified
sine

[16]:p. 192

[16]:p. 192

[16]:p. 193

Approximation and convergence of Fourier

series[edit]

An important question for the theory as well as applications is that

of convergence. In particular, it is often necessary in applications to

replace the infinite series   by a finite one,

This is called a partial sum. We would like to know, in which sense

does converge to as .

Least squares property[edit]

We say that is a trigonometric polynomial of degree when it is

of the form

Note that is a trigonometric polynomial of degree . Parseval's

theorem implies that

Theorem. The trigonometric polynomial is the unique best

trigonometric polynomial of degree approximating , in the
sense that, for any trigonometric polynomial of degree , we
have

where the Hilbert space norm is defined as:

Convergence[edit]
Because of the least squares property, and because of the
completeness of the Fourier basis, we obtain an elementary
convergence result.

Theorem. If belongs to , then converges to in

, that is,  converges to 0 as .

We have already mentioned that if is continuously differentiable,

then is the nth Fourier coefficient of the derivative . It
follows, essentially from the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, that is
absolutely summable. The sum of this series is a continuous
function, equal to , since the Fourier series converges in the mean
to :

Theorem. If , then converges to uniformly (and hence

also pointwise.)

This result can be proven easily if is further assumed to be ,

since in that case tends to zero as . More generally, the
Fourier series is absolutely summable, thus converges uniformly to
, provided that satisfies a Hölder condition of order . In the
absolutely summable case, the inequality

  proves uniform convergence.

Many other results concerning the convergence of Fourier series

are known, ranging from the moderately simple result that the
series converges at if is differentiable at , to Lennart Carleson's
much more sophisticated result that the Fourier series of an
function actually converges almost everywhere.

These theorems, and informal variations of them that don't specify

the convergence conditions, are sometimes referred to generically
as "Fourier's theorem" or "the Fourier theorem".[17][18][19][20]
Divergence[edit]

Since Fourier series have such good convergence properties, many

are often surprised by some of the negative results. For example,
the Fourier series of a continuous T-periodic function need not
converge pointwise. The uniform boundedness principle yields a
simple non-constructive proof of this fact.

In 1922, Andrey Kolmogorov published an article titled Une série de

Fourier-Lebesgue divergente presque partout in which he gave an
example of a Lebesgue-integrable function whose Fourier series
diverges almost everywhere. He later constructed an example of an
integrable function whose Fourier series diverges everywhere
(Katznelson 1976).

See also[edit]

ATS theorem

Dirichlet kernel

Discrete Fourier transform

Fast Fourier transform

Fejér's theorem

Fourier analysis

Fourier sine and cosine series

Fourier transform

Gibbs phenomenon

Laurent series – the substitution q = eix transforms a Fourier series

into a Laurent series, or conversely. This is used in the q-series
 expansion of the j-invariant.

Multidimensional transform

Spectral theory

Sturm–Liouville theory

Notes[edit]

1. ^ These three did some important early work on the wave equation,
especially D'Alembert. Euler's work in this area was mostly
comtemporaneous/ in collaboration with Bernoulli, although the
latter made some independent contributions to the theory of waves
and vibrations. (See Fetter & Walecka 2003, pp. 209-210).

2. ^ Since the integral defining the Fourier transform of a periodic

function is not convergent, it is necessary to view the periodic
function and its transform as distributions. In this sense is
a Dirac delta function, which is an example of a distribution.

3. ^ These words are not strictly Fourier's. Whilst the cited article does
list the author as Fourier, a footnote indicates that the article was
actually written by Poisson (that it was not written by Fourier is also
clear from the consistent use of the third person to refer to him) and
that it is, "for reasons of historical interest", presented as though it
were Fourier's original memoire.

4. ^ The scale factor is always equal to the period, 2π in this case.

References[edit]

1. ^ "Fourier". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House.

2. ^ Stillwell, John (2013). "Logic and the philosophy of mathematics

in the nineteenth century". In Ten, C. L. (ed.). Routledge History of
 Philosophy. Volume VII: The Nineteenth Century. Routledge.
p. 204. ISBN 978-1-134-92880-4.

3. ^ Cajori, Florian (1893). A History of Mathematics. Macmillan.

p. 283.

4. ^ Lejeune-Dirichlet, Peter Gustav (1829). "Sur la convergence des

séries trigonométriques qui servent à représenter une fonction
arbitraire entre des limites données" [On the convergence of
trigonometric series which serve to represent an arbitrary function
between two given limits]. Journal für die reine und angewandte
Mathematik (in French). 4: 157–169. arXiv:0806.1294.

5. ^ "Ueber die Darstellbarkeit einer Function durch eine

trigonometrische Reihe" [About the representability of a function by
a trigonometric series]. Habilitationsschrift, Göttingen; 1854.
Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Göttingen, vol. 13, 1867. Published posthumously for Riemann by
Richard Dedekind (in German). Archived from the original on 20
May 2008. Retrieved 19 May 2008.

6. ^ Mascre, D.; Riemann, Bernhard (1867), "Posthumous Thesis on

the Representation of Functions by Trigonometric Series", in
Grattan-Guinness, Ivor (ed.), Landmark Writings in Western
Mathematics 1640–1940, Elsevier (published 2005), p. 49

7. ^ Remmert, Reinhold (1991). Theory of Complex Functions:

Readings in Mathematics. Springer. p. 29.

8. ^ Nerlove, Marc; Grether, David M.; Carvalho, Jose L. (1995).

Analysis of Economic Time Series. Economic Theory,
Econometrics, and Mathematical Economics. Elsevier.
ISBN 0-12-515751-7.
 9. ^ Flugge, Wilhelm (1957). Statik und Dynamik der Schalen [Statics
and dynamics of Shells] (in German). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

10. ^ Dorf, Richard C.; Tallarida, Ronald J. (1993-07-15). Pocket Book

of Electrical Engineering Formulas (1 ed.). Boca Raton,FL: CRC
Press. pp. 171–174. ISBN 0849344735.

11. ^ Georgi P. Tolstov (1976). Fourier Series. Courier-Dover.

ISBN 0-486-63317-9.

12. ^ Fourier, Jean-Baptiste-Joseph (1888). Gaston Darboux (ed.).

Oeuvres de Fourier [The Works of Fourier] (in French). Paris:
Gauthier-Villars et Fils. pp. 218–219 – via Gallica.

13. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Shmaliy, Y.S. (2007). Continuous-Time

Signals. Springer. ISBN 1402062710.

14. ^ Proakis, John G.; Manolakis, Dimitris G. (1996). Digital Signal

Processing: Principles, Algorithms, and Applications (3rd ed.).
Prentice Hall. p. 291. ISBN 978-0-13-373762-2.

15. ^ "Characterizations of a linear subspace associated with Fourier

series". MathOverflow. 2010-11-19. Retrieved 2014-08-08.

16. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Papula, Lothar (2009). Mathematische

Formelsammlung: für Ingenieure und Naturwissenschaftler
[Mathematical Functions for Engineers and Physicists] (in German).
Vieweg+Teubner Verlag. ISBN 3834807575.

17. ^ Siebert, William McC. (1985). Circuits, signals, and systems. MIT
Press. p. 402. ISBN 978-0-262-19229-3.

18. ^ Marton, L.; Marton, Claire (1990). Advances in Electronics and

Electron Physics. Academic Press. p. 369.
ISBN 978-0-12-014650-5.
19. ^ Kuzmany, Hans (1998). Solid-state spectroscopy. Springer. p. 14.
ISBN 978-3-540-63913-8.

20. ^ Pribram, Karl H.; Yasue, Kunio; Jibu, Mari (1991). Brain and
perception. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 26.
ISBN 978-0-89859-995-4.

Further reading[edit]

William E. Boyce; Richard C. DiPrima (2005). Elementary

Differential Equations and Boundary Value Problems (8th ed.). New
Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-43338-1.

Joseph Fourier, translated by Alexander Freeman (2003). The

Analytical Theory of Heat. Dover Publications.
ISBN 0-486-49531-0. 2003 unabridged republication of the 1878
English translation by Alexander Freeman of Fourier's work Théorie
Analytique de la Chaleur, originally published in 1822.

Enrique A. Gonzalez-Velasco (1992). "Connections in Mathematical

Analysis: The Case of Fourier Series". American Mathematical
Monthly. 99 (5): 427–441. doi:10.2307/2325087. JSTOR 2325087.

Fetter, Alexander L.; Walecka, John Dirk (2003). Theoretical

Mechanics of Particles and Continua. Courier.
ISBN 978-0-486-43261-8.

Katznelson, Yitzhak (1976). "An introduction to harmonic analysis"

(Second corrected ed.). New York: Dover Publications, Inc.
ISBN 0-486-63331-4.

Felix Klein, Development of mathematics in the 19th century.

Mathsci Press Brookline, Mass, 1979. Translated by M. Ackerman
from Vorlesungen über die Entwicklung der Mathematik im 19
Jahrhundert, Springer, Berlin, 1928.

Walter Rudin (1976). Principles of mathematical analysis (3rd ed.).

New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. ISBN 0-07-054235-X.

A. Zygmund (2002). Trigonometric series (third ed.). Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-89053-5. The first edition
was published in 1935.

External links[edit]

Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994], "Fourier series",

Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business Media
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