Water Engineering Ii

CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, FS CWE21/2AI
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGY

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Hydrology is concerned with the circulation of water and its constituents through
the hydrological cycle. It deals with precipitation, evaporation, infiltration,
groundwater flow, runoff, streamflow and the transport of substances dissolved or
suspended in water. Hydrology is concerned with inland surface waters,
oceanography and marine sciences.
Hydrology as science: Hydrology is the science that treats the waters on the
earth, the occurrence, circulation and distribution, the chemical and physical
properties, and the reaction with their environment, including the relation to living
things. Hydrology is also closely related to other sciences, e.g. climatology,
meteorology, physics and chemistry. Touchstone of any science is based on
prediction followed by verification. Verification is complicated in Hydrology since
the phenomena are driven by precipitation, which has a great spatial extent and
variability.
Hydrology as profession: Hydrology is a profession because the hydrologist

seeks to apply knowledge to solve problems and make life better for people.
Independent and recognised profession, but some affiliation with other
professions such engineering and applied sciences. Skills and methods used by
hydrologists are based on laws governing hydrological phenomena, professional
experience and observed data.
Skills/ knowledge/ characteristics of hydrologist

Technical accuracy
Work within a limited budget and time frame
Computer literate
Hydrologists are concerned with mainly three issues:
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Water use
Withdrawal of water from lakes, rivers and aquifers for water supply to cities,
industries, agriculture, hydropower, recreation and the protection of the
ecosystem
Specify and predict the inflow to water systems for both normal- and drought
conditions
Water resource planning and management
Water control
Control of hydrological extremes such as floods, erosion- and sediment
transport
Development of guidelines and regulatory documents regarding the
protection of floodplains and storm water detention
Pollution control
Prevention of the spread of pollutants and contaminants in natural water
bodies
Determine the source and extent of pollution
Locating point sources of pollution, e.g. landfills and chemical waste dumps.
Identify non-point sources of pollution, e.g. drainage/ runoff of pesticides,
fertilisers and various other solutes and liquids
1.2 HYDROLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
Hydrological analysis supplies the basis for planning, design and execution of
water related engineering projects.
Case study: Design of a water supply system for a new urban development.
Typical problems/ questions to be addressed:
Identify a suitable source of water supply (In this case a storage dam must
be build).
Determine the amount of water available. Compare this with the predicted
domestic demand and population growth.
Execute a typical hydrological budget, by making use of the formula:
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E = P+I ± U – O ± S (1)
Identify the area of contributing catchments, the precipitation-runoff
relationships within these catchments and evaluate all available
hydrological- and meteorological data.
Quantify all notable sources of runoff and identify all existing/ future users
downstream of the dam.
Evaluate the possibility of flood extremes.
Evaluate the probability of flood extremes during the construction period of
the storage dam in order to determine the height of coffer dams. Determine
how the flood will be routed through the uncompleted and vulnerable
structure. The size of the dam must be surely linked to the design period
(recurrence interval) of the dam.
Today, the increasing importance and wider perspective of hydrology is aimed at
the development/ implementation of integrated water resource management of
river basins over a whole geographical area. The hydrological insets now
determine several important variables, such as:
The size of the population and possible population growth.
The type and size of sustainable industrial development.
The type and extend of agricultural development.
Risk analysis and assuring a secure water supply. End-users, especially
industrialists need to know how secure the water supply is, in order to
provide then long term planning if a failure in being supplied the normal
water quota, by receiving for example, only 30% of his water needs once
every 10 years and 100% for the rest of the time.
1.3 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Water evaporates from the oceans and land surfaces. Atmospheric circulation
carried it over the earth’s surface as water vapour. Precipitation in the form of rain
and snow. The precipitation is then intercepted by vegetation. Runoff occurs on
land surfaces. Infiltration of water into the soils. Recharge of groundwater.
Discharges water into streams and ultimately flows into the ocean from which it
will eventually evaporate once again.
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Man complicates the processes of the hydrological cycle by interacting with the
natural system. The interaction of man, either constructive- or destructive is
illustrated in Figures 1.2 (a & b).
Atmosphere Atmosphere Atmosphere
Interception Interception
Evaporation Precipitation Evaporation
Depression Water on Overland Reservoir

storage surface flow storage
Interflow
Channel
Infiltration flow
Root zone Channel

storage seepage
Evapotranspiration
Groundwater Groundwater
storage flow
Ocean
Figure 1.1: Schematic layout of the hydrological cycle
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Overgrazing
MAN Fuel wood harvesting VEGETATION
Deforestation
Floods Reduced
Reduced food or infiltration
fodder production
SOIL Reduced soil water WATER

Increased soil
erosion
Rising river bed
Increased flood flows
Figure 1.2 (a): Destructive influence of man on the hydrological cycle
MAN Improved food or Fodder VEGETATION

production
Soil conservation Improved soil

productivity
Improved infiltration
SOIL Reduced erosion WATER
Reduced flood flow
Figure 1.2 (b): Constructive influence of man on the hydrological cycle
1.3.1 Proportional distribution of water on earth

Oceans 1338000000km3 (96.5%)
Glaciers and ice 24364100km3 (1.7%)
Fresh groundwater 10530000km3 (0.76%)
Saline groundwater 12870000km3 (0.93%)
3
Fresh water lakes 91000km (0.007%)
Saline lakes 85400km3 (0.006%)
Marshes 11470km3 (0.0008%)
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Rivers 2120km3 (0.0002%)

Biological water 1120km3 (0.0001%)
Atmosphere 12900km3 (0.001%)
3
Total water 1385984610km (100%)
Fresh water 35029210km3 (2.5%)
1.3.2 Transport- and rock cycles

Vast quantities of suspended and dissolved constituents are carried along in
transport cycles. Acid rain: Ionic substances, sulphates and chlorides evaporate
from the ocean, dissolve in atmospheric water along with nitrogen and sulphur
compounds. Primary weathering agent: Breaking and dissolving rocks down,
transport of sediments and solids in rivers discharging in the sea. These
sediments consolidate over time to form sedimentary rocks on the ocean floor
and these rocks are then redistributed over the earth’s surface through the action
of plate tectonics. Other sedimentary rocks sink deeper in the earth’s mantle;
increased temperatures and pressure metamorphose them to new rock types.
1.3.3 Carbon cycle

All living organisms may be mainly composed of water, but obviously contain also
a number of other elements that combine to form living tissues. The most
important elements are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus,
calcium, magnesium, sulphur, sodium, potassium and chlorine. These elements
are involved in biogeochemical cycling when they are taken up and used in living
organisms. Other physical and chemical processes also play a role. The carbon
cycle is much more complex than the hydrological cycle. Bulk form of carbonates
is stored in rocks like limestone and marble, sediments and living and dead
organisms. There are three main processes involved in the carbon cycle:
The uptake of carbon in the form of CO2 by plants through the process of
photosynthesis. It’s released back into the atmosphere through the
processes of respiration and decomposition
The equilibrium between dissolution of carbon dioxide into the sea and its
release back into the atmosphere
The weathering and dissolution of carbon-rich rocks
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1.4 CLIMATE AND WATER DISTRIBUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA

1.4.1 Climate and topography
The position of landmasses and mountain ranges, other topography, cold- and
warm currents in the oceans prevents the equal distribution of precipitation
around the world. Precipitation is highly seasonal with a great extent of spatial
variation and areal distribution.
Hyper-arid areas: < 25mm/ year

Arid areas: 25- 200mm/ year
Semi-arid areas: 200- 250mm/year
South Africa’s climate ranges from semi-arid to hyper-arid. Mean Annual

Precipitation (MAP) decreases, while evaporation increases west wards and
northwards across the southern part of Africa. Overall average rainfall is 452mm/
year. Nowhere, except for the few mountain tops in Drakensberg and south-
western Cape does rainfall exceed evaporation. Otherwise, evaporation far
outstrips precipitation. In Gauteng, the industrial Hartland of South Africa, the
evaporation is about twice as great as precipitation. In the area of the Lower
Orange is evaporation more than ten times the precipitation. Summer
precipitation is normally higher in the north and east, but due to dry high-pressure
air masses that persist for long periods, the precipitation is very low in the
western parts of South Africa. Climate is very variable throughout South Africa.
1.4.2 Types and distribution of water bodies in South Africa

Water bodies can be divided into standing (Lentic) and running (Lotic) systems.
Lakes, ponds, coastal lakes, estuaries and wetlands are typical examples of
Lentic systems. Rivers, both constant and intermittent, as well as floodplains are
typical examples of Lotic systems. Different organisms inhabit Lentic- and Lotic
ecosystems. Lotic systems consist of rivers and their estuaries. Estuaries are
seasonally “blind”; they are periodically Lentic and then Lotic. Many rivers in
South Africa are intermittent/ ephemeral systems with no water flowing or no
water for long periods. True inland lakes are poorly represented in South Africa.
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1.5 WATER ON EARTH

1.5.1 Origin of the earth’s water
Most likely source: Outgassing of water vapour from the earth’s interior as part of
the extrusion of ingenious material in volcanoes and ocean upwellings.
Juvenile water: High temperature- and pressure process, then the water is
released and due to the lower atmospheric temperature and pressure, water
condenses to a liquid form.
Connate water: The condensed juvenile water combines with rocks and is drawn
down into the earth’s core. Metamorphosis take place and this water can then re-
emerge as hot springs or can be absorbed into mineral veins.
1.6 WATER AS A PHYSICAL SUBSTANCE
The water molecule is one of the most versatile structures known. Phases of
water are liquid, solid and gas. Absorbs large amount of energy in the form of
heat and releases equivalent amounts when going from gas to liquid to solid.
Water buffer the planet against temperature extremes by absorbing vast amounts
of heat when melting form a solid to a liquid phase, giving heat out when freezing.
H2O > H3O+ +OH- (2)
Water > Hydronium cation + Hydroxyl anion
Solids (ice): Cold, but possesses heat energy expressed by the vibration of
atoms and molecules in the fixed structure. Increase in heat led to an increase in
vibrations, solid to liquid phase.
Liquid: Vibrations and temperature levels are more intense than in the solid
phase. The energy and temperature needed by water to go from the liquid to gas
(vapour) phase is know as the latent heat of evaporation.
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Freezing
SOLID STATE LIQUID STATE
Melting (Heat)
Evaporation Condensation
(Heat absorbed) (Heat released)
GASEOUS
(Water Vapour)
Figure 1.3: Various forms of water
1.7 DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROLOGY

 Read Chapter 1, pp. 1.9- 1.10: Maidment, DR. 1993. Handbook of
Hydrology. 1st Ed. McGraw-Hill Book Company, ISBN 0070397325. United
States of America.
1.8 HYDROLOGICAL UNITS

 Read Chapter 1, pp. 1.10- 1.13: Maidment, DR. 1993. Handbook of
Hydrology. 1st Ed. McGraw-Hill Book Company, ISBN 0070397325. United
States of America.
1.9 REFERENCES
 Davies, B & Day, J. 1998. Vanishing Waters. 1st Ed. University of Cape
Town Press, ISBN 1919713115. Cape Town, South Africa.
 Maidment, DR. 1993. Handbook of Hydrology. 1st Ed. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, ISBN 0070397325. United States of America.
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UNIT 2: METEOROLOGICAL DATA

2.1 WEATHER AND CLIMATE
The hydrology of a region depends primarily on its climate, second on its

topography and geology. Climate is dependent on the geographical position on
the earth’s surface, e.g. location. Climatic factors: Precipitation, humidity,
temperature and wind. Topography effects precipitation, the occurrence of lakes,
marshland and high- and low rates of runoff. Geology influences topography and
groundwater flow.
Atmospheric circulation: Complex process, influenced by the earth’s daily
rotation, which gives alternate 12-h heating and cooling. Coriolis forces acting on
airstreams moving towards or away from the equator are also produced.
Seasonal variation: The tilt of the earth’s axis to the plane of it’s rotation around
the sun.
2.2 HUMIDITY
The amount of water vapour absorbed, depends on the temperature of both the
air and water. Water vapour exerts partial pressure measured in bars.
1bar= 100kN/m²; 1mmHg= 1.33mbar; 1mbar= 100N/m².
Saturation vapour pressure (es): Source of heat energy is available and

evaporation of water will take place until a state of equilibrium is reached when
the air is saturated with vapour and the water molecules exert the pressure (e s;
mmHg).
Saturation deficit: More water vapour are absorbed, while the temperature is
constant, then the atmospheric pressure (P) would increase until the air is
saturated. Saturation deficit= es-e (mmHg).
Dew-point temperature (td): No change in humidity and the atmospheric pressure

is constant, it would move horizontal until saturation is reached at a new
temperature.
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Latent heat of evaporation (hr): Freely evaporation of water into an air mass due
to the heat available in the air itself.
Wet-bulb temperature (tw): Humidity and vapour pressure rise, the temperature of
the air drops and the atmospheric pressure rises until saturation vapour pressure
is reached at point ew and tw. Thus, it is the temperature to which the original air
can be cooled by evaporating water into it.
Relative humidity (h): Measure of the air’s capacity at the existing temperature to
absorb further moisture. Measured by blowing air over two thermometers, wet-
bulb and dry-bulb thermometers. The air has an influence on the wet-bulb
thermometer reading. Also known as a Psychrometer.
(ew-e) = (t-tw) (3)

tw = Wet-bulb temperature
t = Dry-bulb temperature
ew = Partial pressure at tw
= 0.485 (mmHg); 0.660 (mbar)
Es as a function of Temperature
34
32
es
30
28
Saturation vapour pressure (mmHg)
26
24 A
22 ew
20
18
1
16
14
3
12
10
e
8
2
6
4 C X (e, t)
B
2
0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Temperature (Deg.C)
Figure 2.1: Saturation vapour pressure of water in air
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Table 2.1: Saturation vapour pressure as a function of temperature
es (mmHg)
t 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
(°C)
-10 2.15
-9 2.32 2.30 2.29 2.27 2.26 2.24 2.22 2.21 2.19 2.17
-8 2.51 2.49 2.47 2.45 2.43 2.41 2.40 2.38 2.36 2.34
-7 2.71 2.69 2.67 2.65 2.63 2.61 2.59 2.57 2.55 2.53
-6 2.93 2.91 2.89 2.86 2.84 2.82 2.80 2.77 2.75 2.73
-5 3.16 3.14 3.11 3.09 3.06 3.04 3.01 2.99 2.97 2.95
-4 3.41 3.39 3.37 3.34 3.32 3.29 3.27 3.24 3.22 3.18
-3 3.67 3.64 3.62 3.59 3.57 3.54 3.52 3.49 3.46 3.44
-2 3.97 3.94 3.91 3.88 3.85 3.82 3.79 3.76 3.73 3.70
-1 4.26 4.23 4.20 4.17 4.14 4.11 4.08 4.05 4.03 4.00
-0 4.58 4.55 4.52 4.49 4.46 4.43 4.40 4.36 4.33 4.29
0 4.58 4.62 4.65 4.69 4.71 4.75 4.78 4.82 4.86 4.89
1 4.92 4.96 5.00 5.03 5.07 5.11 5.14 5.18 5.21 5.25
2 5.29 5.33 5.37 5.40 5.44 5.48 5.53 5.57 5.60 5.64
3 5.68 5.72 5.76 5.80 5.84 5.89 5.93 5.97 6.01 6.06
4 6.10 6.14 6.18 6.23 6.27 6.31 6.36 6.40 6.45 6.49
5 6.54 6.58 6.54 6.68 6.72 6.77 6.82 6.86 6.91 6.96
6 7.01 7.06 7.11 7.16 7.20 7.25 7.31 7.36 7.41 7.46
7 7.51 7.56 7.61 7.67 7.72 7.77 7.82 7.88 7.93 7.98
8 8.04 8.10 8.15 8.21 8.26 8.32 8.37 8.43 8.48 8.54
9 8.61 8.67 8.73 8.78 8.84 8.90 8.96 9.02 9.08 9.14
10 9.20 9.26 9.33 9.39 9.46 9.52 9.58 9.65 9.71 9.77
11 9.84 9.90 9.97 10.03 10.10 10.17 10.24 10.31 10.38 10.45
12 10.52 10.58 10.66 10.72 10.79 10.86 10.93 11.00 11.08 11.15
13 11.23 11.30 11.38 11.75 11.53 11.60 11.68 11.76 11.83 11.91
14 11.98 12.06 12.14 12.22 12.96 12.38 12.46 12.54 12.62 12.70
15 12.78 12.86 12.95 13.03 13.11 13.20 13.28 13.37 13.45 13.54
16 13.63 13.71 13.80 13.90 13.99 14.08 14.17 14.26 14.35 14.44
17 14.53 14.62 14.71 14.80 14.90 14.99 15.09 15.17 15.27 15.38
18 15.46 15.56 15.66 15.76 15.96 15.96 16.06 16.16 16.26 16.36
19 16.46 16.57 16.68 16.79 16.90 17.00 17.10 17.21 17.32 17.43
20 17.53 17.64 17.75 17.86 17.97 18.08 18.20 18.31 18.43 18.54
21 18.65 18.77 18.88 19.00 19.11 19.23 19.35 19.46 19.58 19.70
22 19.82 19.94 20.06 20.19 20.31 20.43 20.58 20.69 20.80 20.93
23 21.05 21.19 21.32 21.45 21.58 21.71 21.84 21.97 22.10 22.23
24 22.27 22.50 22.63 22.76 22.91 23.05 23.19 23.31 23.45 23.60
25 23.75 23.90 24.03 24.20 24.35 24.49 24.64 24.79 24.94 25.08
26 25.31 25.45 25.60 25.74 25.89 26.03 26.18 26.32 26.46 26.60
27 26.74 26.90 27.05 27.21 27.37 27.53 27.69 27.85 28.00 28.16
28 28.32 28.49 28.66 28.83 29.00 29.17 29.34 29.51 29.68 29.85
29 30.03 30.20 30.38 30.56 30.74 30.92 31.10 31.28 31.46 31.64
30 31.82 32.00 32.19 32.38 32.57 32.76 32.95 33.14 33.33 33.52
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In Figure 2.1 X is representing a mass of atmospheric air with the temperature (t)
and vapour pressure (e) respectively. The following aspects are of importance:
A = Saturation deficit
B = Dew-point temperature
C= Wet-bulb temperature
Point X lies below the saturation vapour curve, indicative that more water
vapour can be absorbed.
Water vapour is absorbed at a constant temperature and then X moves
vertically up dashed line 1 until the air is saturated. X is now known as the
saturation vapour pressure (es).
Saturation deficit (es-e) is indicative of the increase in the value of X.
Alternatively, if the humidity of air mass X is constant, X will then moves
horizontally along dashed line 2 until saturation is reached. The temperature
at this point is known as the dew-point.
An increase in both the humidity and vapour pressure would led to the
decrease in temperature, then point X moves diagonally along dashed line 3
until saturation vapour pressure is reached at the point defined by e w and tw.
Humidity: Example 2.1

An air mass is at a temperature of 28°C with a relative humidity of 70%.
Determine:
Saturation vapour pressure
es = 28.32 mmHg (Table 2.1)
Saturation deficit
h = e/es
es-e = 8.496 mmHg
Actual vapour pressure in mbar & mmHg

e = 19.824mmHg/ 26.366mbar
Dew-point
e = 19.824mmHg, then td= 22°C (Table 2.1)
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Wet-bulb temperature
(ew-e) = (t-tw)
Assume ew = 21.860mmHg & tw= 23.754°C; = 0.485

An air mass is at a temperature of 27.3°C with a relative humidity of 75%.
Determine:
es = 27.210mmHg (Table 2.1)
Saturation deficit
e
h =
es
es-e = 6.802mmHg
Actual vapour pressure in mbar & mmHg
e = 20.408mmHg/ 27.142mbar
Dew-point
e = 20.408mmHg, then td = 22.483°C (Table 2.1)
(ew-e) = (t-tw)
(ew-20.408) = 0.485 (27.3-tw)
Assume ew = 22.108mmHg & tw = 23.810°C; = 0.485

An air mass is at a temperature of 23.6°C, wet-bulb temperature of 19.6°C,
saturated vapour pressure of 21.84mmHg, ew = 17.1mmHg. Determine the
relative humidity.
Solution:
(ew-e) = (t-tw)
(17.1-e) = 0.485 (23.6- 19.6)
e = 15.160mmHg
e
h =
es
= 69.414%
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2.3 TEMPERATURE
Temperature is recorded by thermometers at ± 1.25m above the ground in
degrees Celsius (°C). The thermometers are housed in open louvered boxes or
Stevenson screens to protect them against direct sun rays and precipitation.
Minimum- and maximum thermometers: Measure respectively the minimum and
maximum temperature, since the instrument was last set.
Mean daily temperature: Average of the maximum- and minimum daily

temperature recorded.
Vertical temperature gradient: Rate of change in temperature with height is called

the lapse rate. Increase in altitude = decrease in barometric pressure, thus the
volume of the unit mass of air increases.
Dry-adiabatic lapse rate: Temperature change due to decompression is about

10°C/ 1000m in dry air.
Saturated-adiabatic lapse rate: Moist air rises, expands, cools and the water
vapour content condenses, releasing the latent heat of condensation, which
prevents the air mass cooling as fast as dry air, about 5- 6°C/ 1000m.
Temperature: Example 2.4
Temperature (°C) 6 5 5 12 21 20 14 11
Time ( hour) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Using the information above and calculate the mean daily temperature and the
true average temperature.
Mean daily temperature:

= ½ (Minimum + Maximum)
= 13°C
Average temperature:
= 1/8 ( Readings)
= 11.750°C
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2.4 RADIATION
Radiometers measure both incoming short-wave radiation from sun and sky and
net-radiation (algebraic sum of all incoming radiation and the reflected short-wave
and long-wave radiation from the earth’s surface). Radiation is measured in
g.cal/cm²/day.
2.5 WIND
Anemometer: Measures wind speed and direction at a standard height of 2m.
Relationship between wind speed and height:
0.147
u z
= (4)
uo zo
uo = Wind speed at zo (2m)

u = Wind speed at level z
Wind: Example 2.5
An Anemometer is situated on a tower 15m above the ground measures a wind
speed of 12.4 m/s. Determine the wind speed at the standardized height of 2m.
0.147
u z
=
uo zo
uo = 9.221 m/s.
Wind: Example 2.6

A wind speed of 5.2 m/s was recorded at standard height. Take the coefficient =
0.01 and calculate the wind speed at 8m-height.
0.010
u z
=
uo zo
uo = 5.273 m/s
Wind: Example 2.7

An Anemometer recorded wind speeds of 9m/s and 6m/s at 25m and 10m
respectively. Determine the coefficient for that location.
n
u z
=
uo zo
= 0.443
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Wind: Example 2.8

The long term wind speed record is available for heights at 10m (9.14m/s) and
15m (9.66m/s) respectively. For certain calculations of evaporation the wind
speed is required at 2m, so it is required to extend the long-term record to the 2m
level. Determine the exponent value which relates the two speeds and elevations.
n
u z
=
uo zo
n = 0.1364
Predict the speed for the 2m level

0.1364
u z
=
uo zo
uo = 7.339m/s
2.6 PRECIPITATION
The ice crystal- and coalescence process is capable to support the growth of
droplets to sufficient mass to overcome air resistance and eventually fall to the
earth as precipitation.
Coalescence process: Small cloud droplets increase their size due to the contact
with other droplets through collision.
Crystal process: Ice crystals and water exist together at sub-freezing

temperatures of -40°C where certain particles of clay minerals, organic- and
ocean salts serves as freezing nuclei so that ice crystals are formed. Dynamic or
adiabatic cooling is the primary cause of condensation and it is responsible for
most precipitation. Condensation may be attributed to one or more of the
following causes:
Dynamic or adiabatic cooling
Mixing of air masses with different temperatures
Contact cooling
Radiation
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The upward movement of air is caused by:

Convection: Heating of air in contact with the surface of the earth
Air forced up due to topographical variations
Warmer air flowing over colder, heavier air
Convergence of air in the lower regions of the atmosphere
Mean Annual Precipitation (MAP): the average values of the yearly precipitation,
which cannot be directly calculated, but calculated from observed data over a
period of time. The MAP of South Africa is summarized in the form of isohyetal
maps.
2.6.1 Types of precipitation

Convective precipitation:
Convective precipitation is typical in tropical areas. Heating of air at the interface
with the ground takes place. Heated air expands with a resultant reduction in
weight. Increasing quantities of water vapour are taken up. The warm moisture-
laden air becomes unstable and pronounced vertical currents are developed.
Dynamic cooling takes place and led to condensation and precipitation. Light
showers to high intensity storms.
Orographical precipitation:
Orographical precipitation occurs due to the mechanical lifting of moist horisontal
air currents over natural barriers such as mountain ranges. Factors that are
important in the process include land elevation, slope, orientation of land slope
and the distance from the moisture source. The cooling below saturation
temperature takes place, followed by precipitation on the windward slope of a
mountain.
Cyclonic precipitation:
Cyclonic precipitation occurs due to the movement of air masses from high
pressure- to low pressure regions. Pressure differences are created by the
unequal heating of the earth’s surface.
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Non-frontal: Barometric low lift the air through horisontal convergence of the
inflow into a low-pressure area.
Frontal: Lifting of warm air over cold air at the contact zone between air masses.
Warm front: Warm air replaces cold air.
Cold front: Cold air replaces warm air.
Stationary front: Not in motion.
2.6.2 Measurement of precipitation

Standard gauge: Typical standard precipitation gauges consist of collector or
receiver, cylindrical measuring tube and overflow can. The cross-sectional area
of the measuring tube is proportional to the area of the collector (normally 1/10 th).
Precipitation passes from the collector to the measuring tube. Precipitation
gauges can either be self-recording or non-recording gauges. The self-recording
gauges have a mechanism to measure the volume or weight of precipitation
reaching the gauge as well as the exact time.
Tipping bucket gauge: Precipitation is caught in the collector and then funnelled
into a two-compartment bucket or one-compartment bucket. Precipitation will fill
one compartment and overbalance the bucket so that it tips and emptying into
reservoir. The second compartment is then move then into place beneath the
funnel. The amount of precipitation is recorded when the bucket tipped.
Weighing-type gauge: Weighs the rain or snow which falls into the bucket set on
a platform of a spring or lever balance. The increasing weight of the the bucket
and its content is recorded on a chart. Measure the accumulated precipitation.
Float recording gauges (Tilting Siphon): The float is placed on a receiver. The
receiver rests in a bath of oil or Mercury. The float measures the rise of the oil or
Mercury displaced by the increasing weight of the receiver as the precipitation
catch accumulates.
OJ GERICKE 19
PRECIPITATION
Removable top cylinder
Funnel
NGL NGL
Collecting bucket
Bottom cylinder encased

in soil
Figure 2.2: Standard precipitation gauge
RAINWATER
TIPPING BUCKET
TIPPING FILLED UP: WATER
Figure 2.3: Tipping bucket precipitation gauge
The non-recording precipitation gauge has no built-in mechanism which can

record the amount of precipitation. It consists out of a container with a funnel and
two interior receptacles as well as a graduated measuring jar.
OJ GERICKE 20
Radar measurement of precipitation: Weather radar is basically a system of

locating targets, capable of reflecting high frequency radio waves/ micro waves.
Weather radar is used in precipitation studies to:
Estimate precipitation intensity
Estimate the total precipitation over an area
Evaluate the vertical- and horisontal extent, development and direction of
motion of precipitation areas
Detect and track severe storms for flood warning purposes
Satellite estimates of precipitation: Play a major role in precipitation monitoring,

particularly in remote, inhospitable uninhabited areas which lack adequate
conventional weather stations. Precipitation is not measure directly, but based on
relating brightness of cloud photographs to precipitation intensities. Thus, there
can be distinguished between precipitation clouds and non-precipitation clouds
on the basis of differences in their radiation reflection characteristics. The degree
of brightness is an indication of temperature and height of the cloud tops.
Relationship between brightness and precipitation intensity is calibrated with
gauge instruments and radar estimates. There are two basic types of weather
satellites; polar-orbiting satellites and geo-stationary weather satellites.
Polar-orbiting satellites: Travel near polar orbits and are located 800- 900km
above the earth’s surface. Observe weather over the area lying in their path
every 12 hours at the same local time.
Geo-stationary weather satellites: Travel around the equator at heights of about

35000km above the earth’s surface. The earth and the weather satellite move in
the same path at the same velocity. The satellite remains stationary relative to
the earth, thus hovering over an area of the earth’s surface, giving an almost
continuous coverage of the atmosphere conditions.
OJ GERICKE 21
2.6.3 Errors in precipitation

Observation- & instrument errors: Scale reading errors (non-recording gauges),
instrumental errors (cumulative), frictional effects in the weighing mechanisms,
float guides and recorder-pen leakages. Observer misses a reading and changes
the data to fit a feeling.
Wind: Vertical acceleration of air forced upward over a precipitation gauge

imparts an upward acceleration to precipitation about to enter the gauge and
results in a deficient catch, thus the underestimation of precipitation.
Hail: Block the collecting funnel so that it overflows.
Precipitation network: Spatial variability, areal extent and intended use of

precipitation data determine the density of a precipitation network.
2.6.4 Guidelines: General hydrometrical purposes

The measurement of precipitation comprises two aspects: The point
measurement of precipitation and the use of a number of gauges to estimate
areal precipitation. Two basic considerations in the design of a precipitation
network are the total number of precipitation gauges and their spatial distribution.
Two major defects in the design of a suitable precipitation network are as follows:
None of the applicable techniques give an indication of in which manner the
required number of precipitation gauges should be actually distributed.
The distribution is also based on the concept of optimum density which is of
limited practical value, since what is proposed as an optimum density will
vary from one area to another in response to variations in topography,
precipitation types and purpose of data.
Other forms of precipitation:

Snow and ice
Fog
Dew
Condensation
OJ GERICKE 22
2.6.5 Extension and interpretation of precipitation data

Intensity (I): Measure of the quantity of rain fallen in a given time (mm/h).
Duration: Period of time during which rain falls.
Depth-time-area relationship: The highest intensity will occurs over a smaller

area, due to the non-uniformity of precipitation over an area. The bigger the
geological area under consideration, the smaller the depth-time relationship
(mm/h) for the area becomes. Depth time is an indication of the total volume of
water to precipitate.
Intensity-duration relationship: The greater the intensity of precipitation, the

shorter the period in which it occurs. Take note that a high intensity of
precipitation in a short time span will not necessarily generate a higher volume of
surface runoff than a low intensity over a long period.
Intensity-duration-frequency relationship: For a given depth of precipitation to

occur in a given period, we would be most interested in it’s frequency of
occurrence.
Frequency (T): The expectation that a given depth of precipitation will fall in a
given time of which the amount may be equaled or exceeded in a given number
of days or years. Also known as the recurrence interval with units in years. The
recurrence interval of an event is inversely proportional to the probability of the
1
occurrence of that event; T = . Although the event will not necessary occur at
PT
regular intervals. A 1:50 year storm might even occur twice in 50 years with a
longer period before the third one comes around. The probability (P T) of an event
occurring in the specified recurrence interval (T), can be calculated as follows:
n
1
PT = 1 1 (n= Expected design life in years) (5)
T
Areal extent: Area over which a point’s precipitation can be held to apply.
OJ GERICKE 23
2.6.6 Missing precipitation data

Missing data can be due to absence of observers or instrumental errors.
Precipitation amounts from observations at three other nearby (index)
precipitation stations with annual precipitation data of within 10% of that for the
station with missing data are normally used.
Normal-ratio method: Used when the annual precipitation at index stations differ
more than 10% from the station with missing data. The amounts of annual
precipitation data at the index stations are weighted by the ratio of the normal-
annual-precipitation values. Thus, precipitation Px at station x.
1 Nx Nx Nx
Px = Pa Pb Pc (mm) (6)
3 Na Nb Nc
Double mass analysis: Test the consistency of a record at a station by comparing

its accumulated annual- or seasonal precipitation with the concurrent
accumulated values of mean precipitation for a group of surrounding stations.
Any change in slope of a double mass curve is indicative of a change in the data.
Therefore the double mass analysis can be used to:
Test for consistency of data
Correct for lack of consistency
Interpolate for missing data
Po
Ma
Pa = (7)
Mo
Where:
Pa = Observed/ adjusted data
Ma = Slope of the double mass curve corresponding to the observed
precipitation to be adjusted
Mo = Slope of the double mass curve corresponding to the precipitation
to which the observed values are being adjusted
OJ GERICKE 24
Double Mass Analysis: Example 2.9

The annual precipitation at stations X and Q are listed in the Table below.
Examine the data-consistency of station X and mention possible causes for

the change in the regime
Calculate the ratio of constants of proportionality between the two sets of
data
Estimate the precipitation data for station Q in 1970 and 1972
Precipitation (mm) Precipitation (mm)

Year Year
Station X Station Q Station X Station Q
1960 800 850 1966 900 820
1961 1050 950 1967 990 940
1962 900 910 1968 820 900
1963 1100 1000 1969 1320 1050
1964 960 900 1970 990 0
1965 960 880 1971 790 860
1972 1000 0
Solution:
Precipitation (mm) Cumulative Precipitation (mm)

Year
Station X Station Q Station X Station Q
1960 800 850 800 850
1961 1050 950 1850 1800
1962 900 910 2750 2710
1963 1100 1000 3850 3710
1964 960 900 4810 4610
1965 960 880 5770 5490
1966 900 820 6670 6310
1967 990 940 7660 7250
1968 820 900 8480 8150
1969 1320 1050 9800 9200
OJ GERICKE 25
Double Mass Analysis

10000
Cumulative Precipitation X (mm) 8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Cumulative Precipitation Q (mm)
Figure 2.4: Double mass curve analysis
Possible causes for the change in the data are:

Change in the type of precipitation gauge
Possibly a change of observers who collected the data
The average annual precipitation at station X would yield the slope M x
Mx = Cumulative precipitation/ Period of record

9800
=
10
= 980 mm
9200
MQ =
10
= 920 mm
Constant of proportionality:
920
MQ/ MX =
980
= 0.939
OJ GERICKE 26
Precipitation (1970)
= 0.939 x 990
= 929.388mm
Precipitation (1972)
= 0.939 x 1000
= 938.776mm
2.6.7 Depth-duration-frequency analysis

Depth-area duration analysis: Determine the maximum amount of precipitation
within various duration's over areas of various sizes, thus the analysis of the time
and areal distribution of storm precipitation. Determine the average precipitation
of each individual sub-area with the arithmetic mean, Thiessen polygons or
isohyets. The total storm is distributed through successive increments of time in
accordance with the distributions recorded at nearby stations. This data then
show the time distribution of average precipitation over areas of various sizes.
The maximum precipitation of various durations can then also be selected for
each size of area.
Figure 2.5 is a co-axial diagram which can be used to estimate the depth of point
precipitation likely to be equaled or exceeded in a given return period. This point
precipitation can be determined for any place in South Africa for durations from ¼
hour to 24 hours and return periods up to 100 years.
Point Precipitation: Example 2.10
Determine the 1:20 years design point precipitation for Potchefstroom, North
West Province, if the MAP is 540mm. Make use of 2 hour storm duration.
Solution:
Enter the MAP-value of 540mm (A); draw a line vertical upwards until it intersects
with the 2-hour duration line (B). Then, draw a horisontal line to the left until the
recurrence interval line (20 years) is reached (C). Now, moves vertically
downwards to the line representing the summer precipitation region (D). From
this intersection point, horizontally to the right, the precipitation depth (h) is found
(E).
Precipitation depth = 80mm
OJ GERICKE 27
C B
D E
Figure 2.5: Depth-duration-return period
A properly defined design storm should have the following properties:

MAP-value
Storm duration
A recurrence interval
A winter/ summer/ year round precipitation description
2.6.8 Average precipitation

The reliability of precipitation measured at one station in representing the
average depth over a surrounding area is a function of:
OJ GERICKE 28
Distance from station to the center of the representative area

Size of the area and topography
Nature of the precipitation (single storm event vs. mean monthly)
Local storm patterns
Three methods to determine average precipitation:

Arithmetic mean: Sum of all the point precipitation data divided by the number of
precipitation stations. Used where stations are uniformly distributed and the
topography flat.
Pi
P = (mm) (8)
Ni
The Arithmetic mean is only sufficient when:
Precipitation stations are distributed evenly
Topography is relatively flat
Spatial variations in precipitation are small
16.5 Arithmetic Mean
Pi
P =
Ni
37.1 48.8
16.5 = (37.1+48.8+68.3+114.3+75.7+127)/6
= 78.533mm
68.3
39.1
114.3
75.7
127
49.5
44.5
Figure 2.6: Arithmetic mean
OJ GERICKE 29
Thiessen method: The catchment is sub-divided into polygonal sub-areas using

the precipitation gauges as centers. Each precipitation station is connected with a
polyline. These polylines are then subdivided by perpendicular bisectors in order
to form polygons. These sub-areas (polygons) are used as weights to determine
the catchment’s average precipitation. Not suitable for mountainous areas
because of orographic influences.
Pi Ai
P = (mm) (9)
Ai
16.5
Thiessen Method
P (mm) A (km²) P.A

(mm.km²)
37.1 48.8 16.5 18 297
71.6
37.1 311 11538.1
39.1 52 2033.2
48.8 282 13761.6
68.3 311 21241.3
68.3 71.6 2 143.2
75.7 238 18016.6
39.1
114.3 197 22517.1
114.3 127 212 26924
Total 1623 116472.1
75.7
127
P = AiPi / Ai
= 71.764mm
49.5
44.5
Figure 2.7: Thiessen method
Isohyetal method: Based on interpolation between precipitation stations. The

precipitation stations are plotted on a suitable map together with the precipitation
amounts. These values are then interpolated to generate precipitation contours at
selected intervals. The areal average of the weighted precipitation depths
between the isohyets are then used to calculate the average precipitation. Most
accurate method.
OJ GERICKE 30
Pi Ai
P = (mm) (10)
Ai
16.5 Isohyetal Method
Isohyet P (mm) A (km²) P.A

(mm.km²)
37.1 48.8 127 135 34 4590
71.6 102 117 199 23283
76 89 300 26700
51 64 508 32448
25 38 500 19000
68.3
<25 20 80 1600
Total Total 1623 107621
39.1
114.3 P = AiPi / Ai
= 66.310mm
75.7
127
49.5
44.5
Figure 2.8: Isohyetal method
Average precipitation: Example 2.10:

Four precipitation stations are situated on a catchment. Compute the average
precipitation by making use of the arithmetic mean and Thiessen polygon
methods. All the relevant data are tabulated below.
Station Area (km²) Precipitation (mm)

1 12 80
2 18 115
3 14 90
4 6 125
Solution:
Arithmetic mean:
Pi
P =
Ni
= 102.500mm
OJ GERICKE 31
Thiessen method:
Pi Ai
P =
Ai
= 100.800mm
2.6.8 Probable Maximum Precipitation

Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP): The greatest depth of precipitation for a
given duration that is physically possible over a given size of storm area for a
particular location and time of year, thus a critical depth-duration-area
precipitation relationship. Only an estimate. Seasonal variation in PMP is
important in the design and operation of various structures and flooding
considerations. There are three methods which can be used to determine PMP:
Empirical methods with the maximum expected point precipitation as
starting point.
Statistical methods, where a frequency analysis is done on data as
observed.
Meteorological methods, where precipitation is expressed as the product of
available moisture content in the air and air movement due to temperature
fluctuations. A maximum precipitation storm is normally derived from
observed precipitation storms by maximising the precipitation parameters.
2.6.9 Effective precipitation

All precipitation that falls is not available to plant roots because of interception,
evaporation, run-off and seepage. Precipitation figures are often used as if all
precipitation reaches the soil surface. This is not the case as dense foliage needs
more water to wet the leaf cover to such an extent that water will move between
the leaves to wet the soil. The part of precipitation which remains on branches
and leaves of plants is known as intercepted water, which is considered only as
water being lost by evaporation and not water which may eventually trickle down
the stalk. A relatively large quantity of water is therefore subtracted from the
measured precipitation as evaporation losses and depends mainly on the
following:
Density of foliage: Trees and shrubs intercept more water for the same area
than strawberries or onions.
OJ GERICKE 32
Leaf area: Leafy crops intercept more water than stalky crops, e.g. potatoes
as opposed to wheat.
Precipitation duration: A short shower will have a higher percentage of
interception than a long shower.
Precipitation intensity: High intensity showers have a lower percentage of
interception and vice versa, for the same time.
Statistics obtained from South African weather experts indicate that interception
by plants makes up no more than 10 - 15% of annual precipitation. With forests,
however, the loss may be as high as 25% of total annual precipitation. There are
varied opinions on the hydrological significance of interception, but not in a plant
physiological sense.
The monthly and daily effective precipitation can be determined as follows, using
long-term average precipitation figures:
Pavg 20
Pemonth = (11)
2
Peday = P – 1.5Eo (12)

Where:
Pe = Effective precipitation (mm/month or mm/day)
PAvg = Long-term average monthly rainfall (mm/month)
P = Precipitation (mm/day)
Eo = A-pan evaporation (mm/day)
2.6.10 Variations in precipitation

Geographical variations:
Distance from the equator (Precipitation heaviest near equator, decreases
with an increasing altitude)
Orographical effects (Precipitation heavier near coastlines and at the
windward end of mountain slopes)
Elevation, slope and orientation and topographic effects
OJ GERICKE 33
Time variations:
Diurnal and seasonal variation in precipitation
Time distribution of precipitation is important for estimating flood
hydrographs
Time distributions vary with storm type, intensity and duration
2.7 EVALUATION EXERCISES
2.7.1 Define the following terms related to Meteorological data:

Hydrology
Meteorology
Climatology
Latent heat of condensation
Latent heat of evaporation
Dry-bulb temperature
Relative humidity
Dew-point
Precipitation-frequency
Normal-ratio method
Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP)
Double mass analysis
2.7.2 Explain the use of the following meteorological instruments:
Anemometer
Barometer
Psychrometer
2.7.3 Saturated vapour pressure is a function of temperature. Make a neat
sketch that would clearly show this relationship.
2.7.4 Calculate the relative humidity of an air mass with the following
information: t = 26°C, tw = 20°C, es = 24mmHg, ew = 15mmHg and =
0.485. [50.375%]
OJ GERICKE 34
2.7.5 An air mass is at a temperature of 28ºC with a relative humidity of 70%.

Determine the saturation vapour pressure, wet bulb temperature,
saturation deficit, actual vapour pressure (mmHg & mbar), and dew point.
[Example 2.1]
2.7.6 If the Psychrometer gave a wet-bulb temperature reading of 19 C and the
corresponding vapour pressure was 21.892 mbar calculate the air
temperature and actual vapour pressure. The relative humidity was 41.8%
and the saturation deficit equal to 16.68 mmHg.
[28.231°C & 11.983mmHg]
2.7.7 Calculate the relative humidity and saturation vapour pressure of an air
mass of which the dry-bulb temperature is equal to 27.5 C, and the wet-
bulb temperature is 22.5 C. For the given wet-bulb temperature
determines the corresponding vapour pressure in mbar. If the relative
humidity content changes to 40% what would be the new wet-bulb
temperature? [h = 65.401%, es = 27.53mmHg, ew = 20.43mmHg, e =
18.005mmHg, 40%: e=11.012mmHg/14.646mBar, ew=
15.568mmHg/ 20.705mBar & tw = 18.108°C]
2.7.8 If the relative humidity of an air mass is 40% with a vapour pressure of
9.2mmHg, calculate the saturation deficit. [13.800mmHg]
2.7.9 The relative humidity of an air mass is 60%. The dry-bulb temperature is
26ºC. Determine the saturation vapour pressure, saturation deficit, dew-
point temperature and the wet-bulb temperature in mmHg and mbar.
[es = 25.31mmHg, es-e = 10.124mmHg, td = 17.719°C, ew =
17.926mmHg & tw = 20.360°C]
2.7.10
Temperature (°C) -2 -3 0 8 9 8 4 3
Time ( hour) 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Using the information above and calculate the mean daily temperature and
the true average temperature. [3.0°C & 3.375°C]
2.7.11 Calculate the mean daily temperature using the data below. Use two
different methods and compare the answers. Absolute maximum
temperature: 8.6 ºC. Absolute minimum temperature: 1.1ºC.
OJ GERICKE 35
Hour Temperature (ºC)

00:00 2.8
02:00 2.4
04:00 2.1
06:00 1.4
08:00 2.6
10:00 5.8
12:00 7.6
14:00 8.2
16:00 7.8
18:00 6.3
20:00 4.2
22:00 3.2
24:00 3.0
[4.850°C & 4.415°C]
2.7.12 A warm air-balloon experiences a wind speed of 40 km/h at 500m
elevation. Estimate the wind velocity at 15m elevation. [23.889km/h]
2.7.13 The wind speed observed by an anemometer at 4.5m elevation was
32km/h. Compute the wind velocity at 800mm and 1.2m above ground
level. [24.825km/h & 26.349km/h]
2.7.14 Name and discuss the three types of precipitation.
2.7.15 Different storm and precipitation forms result from different types of lifting
processes. Describe with a sketch the precipitation form that is the result
of two air masses of different temperature and moisture content brought
together by general circulation.
2.7.16 Discuss the relationships between depth, duration and area of
precipitation for particular storms.
2.7.17 One of four monthly-read rain gauges on a catchment area develops a
fault in a month when the other three gauges record 37, 43 and 51mm
respectively. If the average annual precipitation amounts of these three
gauges are 726, 752 and 840mm respectively and those of the broken
gauge 694mm, estimate the missing monthly precipitation of the latter.
[39.063mm]
2.7.18 Explain how wind causes underestimation in precipitation gauge readings
and how this can be counteracted.
2.7.19 Draw a neat sketch of the standard precipitation gauge to illustrate the
working thereof.
OJ GERICKE 36
2.7.20 Illustrate the proper siting of a standard precipitation gauge with respect to
the nearest surrounding object by means of a descriptive sketch.
2.7.21 Discuss the numerous factors that affect the amount of rain caught by any
given precipitation gauge in any given locality.
2.7.22 Differentiate between self-recording and non-self-recording precipitation
gauges.
2.7.23 Mention five possible causes of inaccurate precipitation records.
2.7.24 Explain the purpose of the double mass curve.
2.7.25 Use the information given in the Table below and estimate the precipitation
amounts for 1989 and 1992 at station A.
Year Station A Base station
1980 134.7 124.9
1981 95.7 131.0
1982 112.9 112.5
1983 115.1 115.4
1984 117.2 125.7
1985 125.2 129.5
1986 203.2 125.6
1987 195.6 152.1
1988 182.2 141.2
1989 ? 131.8
1990 152.1 134.8
1991 186.2 142.4
1992 ? 131.5
1993 160.8 95.6
2.7.26 The precipitation data for a 10 month period at station A is given in the
Table below, together with the average precipitation measured each
month at a group of six base stations. Use this information and prepare a
double mass curve. Comment on the consistency of the precipitation data
of station A [Station moved in the month of March/ new
instrumentation].
Month Station Base stations
January 45.6 72.4
February 98.4 106.2
March 88.0 95.2
April 25.2 66.6
May 30.0 55.8
June 25.9 69.3
July 10.4 24.5
August 5.6 14.7
September 35.9 54.8
October 64.6 72.3
OJ GERICKE 37
2.7.27 The precipitation data for a 14 year period at station A is given in the Table
below, together with the average precipitation measured each year at a
group of six base stations. Use this information and prepare a double
mass curve. It is known that station A was moved during this 14 year
period. Can you detect the year in which this move was made? [1985/ 86]
Year Station Base stations
1980 134.7 124.9
1981 95.7 131.0
1982 112.9 112.5
1983 115.1 115.4
1984 117.2 125.7
1985 125.2 129.5
1986 203.2 125.6
1987 195.6 152.1
1988 182.2 141.2
1989 177.3 131.8
1990 152.1 134.8
1991 186.2 142.4
1992 175.1 131.5
1993 160.8 95.6
2.7.28 Define the following:
Precipitation intensity.
Recurrence interval.
Probable Maximum Precipitation.
2.7.29 Describe and compare three methods of extrapolating gauge precipitation
to area.
2.7.30 Compute the average precipitation on a catchment by making use of the

Arithmetic mean and Thiessen method respectively. Information regarding
the catchment is given below.
Station Area (km²) Precipitation (mm)
1 254 110
2 59 107
3 250 115
4 68 118
5 150 133
6 64 121
[117.33mm & 116.83mm]
Station A B C D E
Precipitation (mm) 65 99 39 85 73
% Area 25 32 8 15 20
[72.20mm & 78.40mm]
OJ GERICKE 38
2.7.31 Compute the average annual precipitation, in millimetres depth, on the

catchment area in the Figure below by means of the (a) Arithmetic mean,
(b) Thiessen method and (c) Isohyet method.
[29.8mm; 31.265mm & 31.095mm]
2.7.32 For Kimberley in the Northern Cape, determine the following:

MAP
Precipitation region
1:50 Design storm point precipitation, storm duration ½ an hour.
1:50 Design storm point precipitation, storm duration 1 hour.
1:50 Design storm point precipitation, storm duration 2 hours.
2.7.33 The size of a culvert in a provincial road in the Bloemfontein area must be
determined. In order to do so, the design point precipitation must be
determined. The catchment area has properties that require a time of
concentration and hence a storm duration of two hours.
2.7.34 What is the average precipitation over an area of 160 km2 during a storm
lasting 160 minutes with a frequency of once in 10 years in (a)
Bloemfontein and (b) Cape Town?
OJ GERICKE 39
2.8 REFERENCES
 Linsley, RK, Kohler, MA & Paulhus, JLH. 1988. Hydrology for Engineers.
SI Metric Ed. McGraw-Hill Book Company, ISBN 0071005994. Singapore.
 Technikon SA. 2003. Water Engineering III. 2nd Ed. Technikon South
Africa, Florida, South Africa.
 Technikon SA. 2000. Hydrology IV. 1st Ed. Technikon South Africa,
Florida, South Africa.
 Viessman, W, Lewis, GL & Knapp, JW. 1989. Introduction to Hydrology.
3rd Ed. Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. New York, USA.
 Wilson, EM. 1990. Engineering Hydrology. 4th Ed. The Macmillan Press
Ltd, ISBN 0333517172. London, United Kingdom.
OJ GERICKE 40
UNIT 3: EVAPORATION & TRANSPIRATION

3.1 FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION
Evaporation is important in all water resource studies and has an influence or
affect on the following:
Yield of river basins
Capacity of reservoirs
Size of pumping plant
Consumptive use of water by crops
Yield of groundwater
Evaporation is difficult to measure accurately. Evaporation from a water surface

can be estimated by making use of the following formula, which is the water
balance approach and forms the basis of the various methods commonly used in
measuring evaporation and transpiration:
E = P- R + SF – SI (mm) (13)
Solar radiation: The process of evaporation is the most active under direct
radiation from the sun and in cloudy conditions there’s less heat energy (latent
heat) available and then the whole evaporation process is slowed down.
Wind: Plays an important role in the movement/ circulation of saturated- and dry
air in the boundary layer, thus the process of evaporation.
Relative humidity: As the air’s humidity rises, its ability to absorb more water
vapour decreases and the rate of evaporation slows down.
Temperature: An energy input is necessary for evaporation to proceed. High
ambient temperatures of the ground and air: Evaporation proceeds rapidly, due to
more heat energy available. The capacity of the air to absorb water vapour
increases as the temperature rises. Air temperature has double the effect on how
much evaporation takes place.
Transpiration: Transpiration is water in the form of vapour which is released into
the air from plants and other vegetation. The process proceeds almost entirely
during day under solar radiation, because the stomata or pores of plants close
during night and a very little moisture leaves the plant surfaces.
OJ GERICKE 41
Evapotranspiration: The loss of water in the form of water vapour from vegetation
and soil (land). Due to the fact that it is difficult to distinguish between
evaporation and transpiration under field conditions, the term evapotranspiration
is used.
Evapotranspiration is dependent on the following factors:
Precipitation
Climatic factors (temperature & humidity)
Type and practices of cultivation
Extent of vegetation
3.2 DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION

Evaporation pans are used to measure evaporation directly. The Class A and
Symons Pan are being used in South Africa for the direct measurement of
evaporation.
In South Africa evaporation is measured by the following institutions:
Department of Water Affairs & Forestry (Hydrology, DWAF)
South African Weather Service
Department of Agriculture
Institute for Soil, Climate & Water
As with a precipitation gauge the evaporation pan must be placed away from
obstructions and in such a way that sun and wind can move around it freely. Only
direct precipitation must fall in the pan but it must also not be screened off. The
pan must never be in the shadow. The Symons pan is not recommended for
measuring evaporation for irrigation.
3.2.1 Class A-evaporation pan

Circular pan made of galvinised iron with an inner and outer diameter of 1181mm
and 1220mm respectively. Depth: 254mm, normally filled to a depth of 180-
203mm. Set on a timber grillage with the pan bottom 150mm above the ground
level. Bird screen/ mesh cover the pan to prevent any interference by animals.
Temperature more constant compared to the Symons pan.
OJ GERICKE 42
Figure 3.1: Erection of a Class A-evaporation pan
Advantages: Class A:
The raised A-pan can be easily emptied and cleaned
Leakage’s can be easily detected and rectified
Disadvantage: Class A:
Due to the fact that the Class A pan is raised above the ground, it tends to
create its own thermal- and aerodynamic environment. The side walls
absorb radiation, thus increasing the amount of energy available for
evaporation
Eddies are also created around the pan resulting into an increase in air
turbulence
3.2.2 Symons evaporation pan

This evaporation pan was in use in RSA from 1925. Square pan of 1829 x
1829mm. Depth of 610mm normally filled to depth of 550mm. The pan is set in
the ground so that the rim of the pan is 76mm higher than the surrounding ground
level.
Advantages: Symons:
The sunken pan is set within the ground; the effects of absorption of
radiation by the walls and turbulence are eliminated
The pan also gives better estimates of open water evaporation, since the
manner of its exposure simulates the conditions obtainable in a natural body
of water
Disadvantages: Symons:
It is more costly to install and maintain than the Class A pan
OJ GERICKE 43
It is difficult to detect leakages

Dirt and debris are gathered easier and it is also more subjected to in-and-
out-splashing and inwashing of surface runoff
“Oasis effect”: This term refers to the fact that measured evaporation values from
evaporation pans can somewhat be exaggerated, thus pan factors must be used
to reduce these values and convert it to actual evaporation from open water
surfaces.
3.2.3 Calibrating the scale

A stilling basin which is connected to the main pan by a hole is provided around
the scale. When water is added to the pan, it takes about a minute for the water
in the stilling basin to reach the same level, therefore wait a few minutes before
taking a reading. The scale is calibrated as follows: Once the pan has been
positioned on the framework, it is filled with water until the metal pointer at H (see
Figure 3.2) is just submerged. The right hand side of the scale is then adjusted
with the nuts at B until the water surface at G gives a scale reading of 138, and
locked in position. Then the pan is filled until the scale reading is approximately
50mm.
3.2.4 Reading the scale

As with all weather readings, the evaporation is measured at 08:00. The position
where the scale cuts the water surface is wetted by finger before reading the
scale. The reading at the contact point is then taken. Note that the white lines on
the scale indicate even values (e.g. 70, 72, 74, 76, 78) while the blue lines
indicate uneven values (e.g. 71, 73, 75, 77, 79). The value to be recorded from
the enlarged part of Figure 3.2 is 73. Regularly make sure that the connecting
hole between the pan and stilling basis is not blocked. The evaporation for a
specific day is determined by subtracting the reading for that day from the value
from the previous day, dividing the difference by two and adding it to the
precipitation for the day. The unit is millimeters. Evaporation pan readings are
divided by two to allow for the enlarged scale used in the class A-evaporation
pan.
OJ GERICKE 44
Figure 3.2: Class A-evaporation pan scale
3.2.5 Maintenance
It is imperative that the pan regularly be cleaned once per month. The following
procedure is followed:
Record the scale reading.
Invert the pan and remove all accretions, silt, duckweed, etc. Ensure that the
connecting hole between the pan and stilling basin is open. Rinse the whole
pan thoroughly.
Inspect the pan, especially the base and seams for possible leakages and
rust spots. When rusting becomes severe, the A-pan must be painted with
aluminum bituminous paint.
Always clean the openings between the upper beams to ensure good
ventilation
Re-erect the pan level as close as possible to the previous position on the
frame. Fill with water and calibrate the scale.
Fill the pan to the starting reading prior to cleaning.
OJ GERICKE 45
Actual evaporation = Pan factor x potential evaporation

Ea = PF x EP (mm/ day) (14)
Potential evaporation = Precipitation – Actual evaporation
EP = P - Ea (mm/day) (15)
Symons Pan: Example 3.1

The Table below shows the results of observations from a Symons pan. The
observations were taken daily at 08:00. Determine the daily potential evaporation.
Dates (June) Daily observations
Precipitation (mm) Water level (mm)
2 1.1 19.1
3 - 18.1
4 8.8 26.3
5 6.6 32.4
6 - 31.2
7 - 30.1
8 - 29.2
Solution:
EP = P - Ea
Dates (June) Precipitation (mm) Water level (mm) Ep (mm)
2 1.1 19.1 1.0
3 - 18.1 0.6
4 8.8 26.3 0.5
5 6.6 32.4 1.2
6 - 31.2 1.1
7 - 30.1 0.9
8 - 29.2 -
3.3 DETERMINATION OF EVAPORATION

Evaporation can be estimated by way of calculation. The following three methods
are of concern:
3.3.1 Water budget approach
A balance sheet is drawn up of all the water entering (precipitation, surface inflow
& subsurface inflow) and water leaving (subsurface drainage, surface outflow &
transpiration) a specific catchment.
E = P+I ± U – O ± S (mm) (16)
E = Evapotranspiration
P = Total precipitation
OJ GERICKE 46
I = Surface Inflow
U = Underground outflow
O = Surface outflow
S = Change in storage
3.3.2 Energy budget approach

All the sources of thermal energy are listed, with evaporation being left as the
only unknown. This method is costly when all the required instrumentation
required is taken into consideration. Some factors influencing the rates of
evaporation and transpiration are not considered.
3.3.3 Empirical formulae

3.3.3.1 Penman’s theory
Penman’s theory is used for the estimation of evaporation from weather data.
The theory is based on the following requirements:
There must be a supply of energy to provide for the latent heat of
evaporation.
There must be some mechanism for removing the vapour once produced.
The amount of short-wave radiation arriving at the earth’s surface depends
on: Latitude, season of the year, time of day and degree of cloudiness.
Eo = Evaporation from open water
n
= Cloudiness ratio (actual/ possible hours of sunshine)
D
Ra = Angot’s value of solar radiation
Table 3.1: Angot’s values of short-wave radiation (g cal/cm²/ day)

Latitude Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec Year
N 90 0 0 55 518 903 1077 944 605 136 0 0 0 3540
80 0 3 143 518 875 1060 930 600 219 17 0 0 3660
60 86 234 424 687 866 983 892 714 494 258 113 55 4850
40 358 538 663 847 930 1001 941 843 719 528 397 318 6750
20 631 795 821 914 912 947 912 887 856 740 666 599 8070
Equator 844 963 878 876 803 803 792 820 891 866 873 829 8540
20 970 1020 832 737 608 580 588 680 820 892 986 978 8070
40 998 963 686 515 358 308 333 453 648 817 994 1033 6750
60 947 802 459 240 95 50 77 187 403 648 920 1013 4850
80 981 649 181 9 0 0 0 0 113 459 917 1094 3660
S 90 995 656 92 0 0 0 0 0 30 447 932 1110 3540
OJ GERICKE 47
3.3.3.2 Rijkoort nomogram

This nomogram is used to determine evaporation (Eo) from free water surfaces.
The rate of evaporation from bare soil surfaces (Eb) is about 90% of that from
open water surfaces. The rate of evaporation from grassed surfaces (Et) varies
between 0.6 and 0.75*Eo.
Eo = E1+E2+E3+E4 (mm) (17)
Where E1 to E4 are functions of:
n n
E1 (t, ), E2 (t, Ra, )
D D
n
E3 (t, , h), E4 (t, u2, h) (u2 = wind speed)
D
Rijkoort nomogram: Example 3.2

The temperature is 18°C with a cloudiness ratio of 0.4. Angot’ value is 800g
cal/cm². The relative humidity is 60% and the relative wind speed is 3m/s @ 2m.
Determine the total evaporation (Eo) from the free water surface:
Eo = E1+E2+E3+E4, thus according to the nomogram:
E1 = -2.28 mm/day
E2 = 3.30 mm/day
E3 = 1.12 mm/day
E4 = 1.52 mm/day, thus
Eo = E1+E2+E3+E4
= 3.660mm/day

Use the Rijkoort nomogram to predict the daily total evapotranspiration from a
field crop at an altitude 40°N in April, under the following conditions: Mean air
temperature= 20°C, humidity= 70%, sky cover = 60%, average wind speed=
2.5m/sec and the ratio of potential evapotranspiration to potential evaporation=
0.7. Determine the total evaporation (Eo) from the free water surface and from the
crop field:
Ra = 0.7 (given)
= 847 (Table 3.1)
Eo = E1+E2+E3+E4, thus according to the nomogram:
OJ GERICKE 48
E1 = -2.45 mm/day, E2 = 3.57 mm/day

E3 = 1.4 mm/day, E4 = 1.05 mm/day, thus
Eo = E1+E2+E3+E4
= 3.570mm/day (free surface water)
Eo = 2.499mm/ day (crop field)

Determine the evaporation from a free water surface using the Penman equation
nomogram for the following cases:
Locality Month Temperature Humidity n/D U2 EO mm/d

52°N July 18°C 0.5 0.5 1.2 4
47°N January 4°C 0.8 0.3 1.5 0.05
16°N June 30°C 0.2 1 0.9 6.2

A large reservoir is located in latitude 40°N. Compute monthly and annual lake
evaporation from the given data using the nomogram of Penman’s theory. If the
Class A evaporation at the reservoir for the year is 1143mm, compute the pan
coefficient. Assuming that the precipitation on the lake is as given and that the
runoff represents unavoidable spillage to this precipitation during floods, what is
the net annual anticipated loss from the reservoir per square kilometre of surface
in cubic metres per day? What would the change in evaporation be for the month
of July if the reservoir was at 40°S? The temperature, dew-point temperature,
wind speed and cloudiness-ratio are all given data.
Solution:
Month Temperature (t, °C) (Given) Dew-Point (td, °C) (Given)

October 14.4 7.8
November 8.3 1.7
December 3.9 2.2
January 2.2 1.9
February 2.2 1.4
March 4.4 1.1
April 8.9 3.3
May 15 10
June 20 15.6
July 23.9 16.7
August 22.8 17.8
September 17.8 12.8
OJ GERICKE 49
es (Table 2.1) e (Table 2.1) h=e/es U2 (m/s) (Given) n/D (Given)

12.96 7.93 0.61 0.8 0.41
8.21 5.18 0.63 1.3 0.28
6.06 5.37 0.89 1.7 0.05
5.37 5.25 0.98 2.1 0.13
5.37 5.07 0.94 2.2 0.37
6.27 4.96 0.79 1.3 0.49
9.14 5.8 0.63 1.1 0.66
12.78 9.2 0.72 0.9 0.74
17.53 13.28 0.76 0.8 0.8
22.23 14.26 0.64 0.75 0.9
20.8 15.27 0.73 0.7 1
15.27 11.08 0.73 0.75 0.85
Ra (Table 3.1) Eo (mm/d) E (mm/m) P (mm) (Given) Runoff (mm) (Given) Gain (+) Loss (-)
528 1.54 47.740 51 3.26
397 0.98 29.400 99 23 46.6
318 0.35 10.850 102 43 48.15
358 0.21 6.510 117 58 52.49
538 0.86 24.080 91 20 46.92
663 1.46 45.260 69 12 11.74
847 2.90 87.000 51 -36
930 4.02 124.620 28 -96.62
1001 5.24 157.200 3 -154.2
941 5.72 177.320 0 -177.32
843 5.07 157.170 0 -157.17
719 3.30 99.000 20 8 -87
Annual E (mm) 966.150 Annual Gain/ loss 209.16 -708.31
966.150
Pan factor =
1143
PF = 0.845
Nett water loss
= 0.499 x 106/365
= 1367.534 m3/km²/day
At 40°S:
July: Ra = 333 (Table 3.1)
Monthly Eo = 40.900mm (Rijkoort’s nomogram)
Evaporation difference
= 177.32-40.90
= 136.420 mm Less
OJ GERICKE 50
3.4 HYDROLOGICAL BUDGETING

The hydrological cycle can be studied on various scales from global through to
sub-national regions. The area which is studied is called the catchment or
drainage basin. A balance sheet can be drawn for all the water entering and
leaving a particular catchment and can be presented in the form of an equation:
Hydrological budgeting: Example 3.6
A catchment has an area of 23330km². The average annual precipitation is
400mm/year. Only one cycle of hydrological budgeting is of concern. The surface
outflow (O) equals 145m3/s. Determine the evapotranspiration (E):
Make an assumption: Storage (S) = 0
E = P+I ± U – O ± S
E = (0.4 x 23330*106m²) - (145 x 60 x 60 x 24 x 365)
E = 4.75928 *109m3

An earth dam has a catchment-area of 62ha. The surface inflow and -outflow is
0.57m3/s and 0.45m3/s respectively. Infiltration is 2.3cm. The precipitation is
45mm for the month of April. Evaporation is 105mm.
Determine the fluctuation in storage (S):
E = P+I ± U – O ± S
S = P+I-O-E-I
S = (0.045x62*104) + (0.57x3600x24x30)-(0.45x3600x24x30)-
(0.105x 62*104) - (0.023x62*104)
S = 25.9580*104m3
A dam has a catchment-area of 51800ha. The surface inflow and -outflow is zero
and 325 mm/year. The annual precipitation is 875mm. Evapotranspiration is
21.75*106 m3/year. The consumptive use from boreholes is 591*106litre/day.
Determine the surplus amount of ground water available for infiltration (Δ I):
E = P+I ± U – O ± S
ΔI = P+I-O-E-I
ΔI = (0.875x51800*104)+(0)-(0.325x51800*104)-(21.75*106)-(365x
0.591*106)
ΔI = 4743.500*104m3
OJ GERICKE 51

A reservoir has an inflow of 18.5m3/s, and experience seepage losses of
132m3/minute. The precipitation and evaporation averages are 23mm and 3.7mm
respectively in 24 hours for that specific period. If 7.2m 3/s is pumped out for
irrigation purposes and another 17.25 x 10 6 litre/hour for domestic usage, what
would be the outflow? Take an average water surface area of 14.5km² and
provide the answers in m3/s.
Area (A) = 14.5 x 106m²
Inflow (I) = 18.5 m3/s.

Useepage = (132 m3/min)/60
= 2.2m3/s
Precipitation (P)
= (0.023 x 14.5*106)/ (24*3600)
= 3.860m3/s
Evaporation (E)
= (0.0037 x 14.5*106)/ (24*3600)
= 0.621 m3/s.
Oirrigation = 7.2 m3/s.
Odomestic = (17.25*106)/3600*1000
= 4.792m3/s
ΔS = P- E+I – Oirrigation – Odomestic - Useepage

= 3.860- 0.621+ 18.5- 7.2- 4.792- 2.2
= 7.547m3/s

At a certain reservoir site the total amount of evaporation recorded over a period
of nine days was 30mm. During that period two storms occurred with the
measured precipitation being 24mm and 2mm respectively. The average inflow to
the reservoir is 30m3/s. If the average area of the water surface in the reservoir
was 15km² for the nine-day period, calculate the change in storage (S) over the
nine days. Assume the outflow to be zero.
Area (A) = 15 x 106m²
Inflow (I) = 30 x (3600 x 24 x 9) +0.026 x (15 x 106)

= 23.718 x 106 m3/ 9 days
OJ GERICKE 52
Evaporation (E)
= (0.030 x 15*106)
= 0.450 x 106m3
ΔS =I–E
= 23.718 x 106 – 0.450 x 106
= 23.268 x 106m3
3.5 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION AND TRANSPIRATION

3.5.1 General
Evapotranspiration: Evaporation from the earth’s surface, water bodies and
vegetation. Evapotranspiration can be determined by applicable equations, but is
most accurately done by Lysimeters. There are two types of Lysimeters, the
weighing- and drainage Lysimeter.
Only a small part of the water which a plant absorbs from the soil is taken up by
the plant cells. By far the largest part of the water is released through the stoma
to the atmosphere by transpiration. A plant's water consumption varies during the
season and with a crop increase, the water requirement also increases to a point.
Plant water absorption is also higher with a high groundwater level.
ET =E+T (18)
Where:
ET = Evapotranspiration (mm/period)
E = Evaporation from ground surface (mm/period)
T = Transpiration of growing plant (mm/period)
The estimated evapotranspiration values are very important regarding the
following:
Determination of amount of irrigation water required for optimal plant growth.
Planning of irrigation schemes.
Design of drainage systems.
Development planning of river systems.
Determination of dam capacities.
General catchment area management
OJ GERICKE 53
3.5.2 Daily and seasonal evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration is at its highest during the middle of the day and lowest during
the night. Seasonal evapotranspiration is used to determine the amount of water
required for irrigation during one season.
Figure 3.3: Typical seasonal evapotranspiration.
3.5.3 Peak periods of evapotranspiration

The peak period is the plant's growth stage with the highest average
evapotranspiration. This peak consumption period usually occurs when plants
start to produce their crops.
3.5.4 Factors influencing evapotranspiration

The rate of groundwater withdrawal by the evapotranspiration process is mainly
determined by:
Climate
Groundwater storage
Irrigation practice
Soil texture
Tilling practice
Type of natural plant or crop being cultivated
Salinity of soil or irrigation water
OJ GERICKE 54
3.5.5 Determination of crop-evapotranspiration

Various methods are used worldwide to determine crop-evapotranspiration, but
only those used in South Africa will be treated in this section.
A-pan evaporation with crop factors:

This method assumes that, for a given period, crop-evapotranspiration (ETc) is
directly proportional to the A-pan evaporation (Eo). The standard method currently
in use in South Africa is based on the average monthly A-pan evaporation and
crop factors. The place and vicinity where the A-pan is erected is important in
obtaining a true reflection of the evaporation. Different crops have different crop
factors which vary during the growth season. The equation to determine crop-
evapotranspiration (ETc) directly from A-pan evaporation is as follows:
ETC = fEo (19)
Where:
ETc = Crop-evapotranspiration (mm/period)
f = Crop factor for direct use with A-pan evaporation (fraction)
Eo = A-pan evaporation (mm/period)
The crop factor may be determined by the following equation:
f =kpkc (20)
Where:
f = Crop factor for direct use with A-pan evaporation (fraction)
kp = Pan coefficient (fraction)
kc = Crop coefficient (fraction)
Figure 3.4: Direct determination of crop-evapotranspiration by using A-pan

evaporation and crop factors
OJ GERICKE 55
Penman-Monteith method (short grass reference):

The alternative method for the calculation of crop-evapotranspiration depends on
the use of climate data from weather stations and the amended Penman-
Monteith equation. Crop-evapotranspiration can be calculated by means of the
following equation:
ETc = kcETo (21)
Where:
ETc = Crop-evapotranspiration (mm/period)
kc = Crop coefficient (fraction) and
ETo = reference evapotranspiration (mm/period)
Figure 3.5: The calculation of crop-evapotranspiration with the aid of a weather

station
Weighing Lysimeter: Consists of a tank filled with soil and vegetation similar to
that of the surroundings and supported by a weighing mechanism. Changes in
the weight of the soil-vegetation system are indicative of the evapotranspiration
values. Normally used to measure actual evapotranspiration and are therefore
not necessarily kept at field capacity.
Drainage Lysimeter: Based on a simple water balance. Evapotranspiration can

be determined if the amount of precipitation, runoff and percolation in a plant/ soil
OJ GERICKE 56
system is known. Used to measure rates of potential evapotranspiration on a

daily basis by making use of the following formula:
Potential evapotranspiration = Water input – Water output

PE =I–O (22)
The drainage Lysimeter is costly to install and leakages can be a problem. Since
the soil structure is disturbed during installation, at least two Lysimeters must be
used and measurement should not commenced until all soil particles have
settled.
Vegetation
Tank filled with the soil

of the environment
Layer of gravel for

drainage
Drainage pipe
Water drain in container to be

measured
Figure 3.6: Cross-section through drainage Lysimeter.
Relationship between short grass reference evapotranspiration (ETo) and A-

pan evaporation (Eo):
Evapotranspiration for a short grass veld is determined with the aid of Lysimeters
and the values are brought into relation statistically with meteorological data. The
Penman-Monteith equation has proved that it gives accurate evapotranspiration
values for short grass under all climatic conditions and the values can then be
used for all crops in the surrounding area. Evaporation from a free water level in
OJ GERICKE 57
an A-evaporation pan does not have the same characteristics as transpiration

from a living plant. It has an inherent fault when the A-pan evaporation is used for
determining crop-evapotranspiration, except if the crop factor (f) is adapted
accordingly for the local conditions.
Figure 3.7: The relation between ETo and Eo
By using reference evapotranspiration from a short grass, it takes seasonal

phases of the crop as well as climatic conditions into consideration. With this self-
compensating reference values as basis, the crop coefficient (k c) can be used
more universally. The crop coefficient also differs from crop to crop and also for
the growing season. For any specific weather station, the E To values are normally
lower than the Eo values. In the case of hot, arid regions, the ETo values may
even be half of Eo values in January. The ETo:Eo relation is therefore 0,5. The
relation varies during the season as well as over the region and a standard
conversion factor cannot be used per season.
The ETo:Eo relation is numerically equal to the pan coefficient (kp) so that the
following equation can be used to convert A-pan evaporation to reference
evapotranspiration (ETo):
ETo = kpEo (23)
OJ GERICKE 58
Where:
ETo = Reference evapotranspiration (mm/period)
kp = Pan coefficient (fraction)
Eo = A-pan evaporation (mm/period)
Values are available for ETo (calculated from weather data with the Penman-
Monteith equation) as well as Eo and it is now possible to adapt crop factors (f) for
use with A-pan evaporation for different climatic zones.
Penman-Monteith method: Example 3.11:

Calculate the expected crop-evapotranspiration for table grapes in Kakamas in
December with both the A-pan- and Penman-Monteith methods. Assume that an
A-pan evaporation of 12mm/day has been measured and use a crop factor of 0.4
and a pan coefficient of 0.67. The average daily reference evapotranspiration at
Kakamas is 9.4mm/day.
A-pan method:
ETc = f Eo
Eo = 12 × 31
= 372 mm/month
ETc = 0.4 × 372
= 148 mm/month
Penman-Monteith method:
ETc = kcETo
ETo = 9.4 × 31
= 291.4 mm/month
ETc = 0.67 × 291.4
= 195.2 mm/month
The difference between the answers of the two methods must be further
investigated to interpret it. The use of local rather than general crop factors and
coefficients will probably result in a smaller difference between answers.
OJ GERICKE 59
3.5.6 Thornthwaites formulae

Thornthwaites used Lysimeters to study the correlation between temperature and
evapotranspiration from vegetation areas/ land surfaces.
tn = Average monthly temperature (°C).
j = Monthly heat-index, where
= 0.09tn3/2 (24)
J = Yearly heat-index for 12 months.
= j (25)
a = Constant
= 0.016J + 0.5 (26)
PEx = Potential evapotranspiration/ month
a
10t
PEx = 16 (27)
J
PE = Actual potential evaporation/ month (mm)
DT
PE = PE x (28)
360
D = Number of days in the month.
T = Average number of hours between sunrise and sunset.
Thornthwaites: Example 3.12
Compute the potential evapotranspiration according to Thornthwaite for two
locations A & B where the local climate yields the following tabulated data:
Determine PE at A for April and November
Determine PE at B for June and October.
Month Location A (°C) Location B (°C) Daylight hrs/ year: A (%)

January -5 -2 6
February 0 2 7
March 5 3 7.5
April 10 7 8.5
May 13 10 10
June 17 20 11
July 19 16 11
August 17 14 10
September 13 10 8.5
October 9 8 7.5
November 3 3 7
December 0 0 6
OJ GERICKE 60
Solution:
Monthly heat-index Monthly heat-index

Month (j):A (j):B aA aB
January 1.064 0.966
February 0.000 0.255 1.064 0.966
March 1.006 0.468 1.064 0.966
April 2.846 1.667 1.064 0.966
May 4.218 2.846 1.064 0.966
June 6.308 8.050 1.064 0.966
July 7.454 5.760 1.064 0.966
August 6.308 4.714 1.064 0.966
September 4.218 2.846 1.064 0.966
October 2.430 2.036 1.064 0.966
November 0.468 0.468 1.064 0.966
December 0.000 0.000 1.064 0.966
Yearly heat-index (J) 35.257 29.110
Month PEA PEB Hours/month Hours/day PE PE

January 259.2 8.361
February 0.000 11.135 302.4 10.800 0.000 9.354
March 23.204 16.472 324.0 10.452 20.884 14.825
April 48.518 37.336 367.2 12.240 52.561 38.083
May 64.143 52.690 432.0 13.935 76.972 63.228
June 85.334 102.908 475.2 15.840 112.641 120.059
July 96.056 82.958 475.2 15.329 126.794 109.505
August 85.334 72.921 432.0 13.935 102.401 87.505
September 64.143 52.690 367.2 12.240 65.426 53.744
October 43.372 42.475 324.0 10.452 39.035 36.576
November 13.474 16.472 302.4 10.080 10.105 13.837
December 0.000 0.000 259.2 8.361 0.000 0.000
Total 606.819 546.716
3.5.7 Transpiration
Transpiration: Transpiration is water in the form of vapour which is released into
the air from plants and other vegetation. The process proceeds almost entirely
during day under solar radiation, because the stomata or pores of plants close
during night and a very little moisture leaves the plant surfaces.
Consumptive use: Evaporation and transpiration from vegetation-covered land

areas only, influenced by the following factors: Climate, soil moisture, growing
vegetation, type of soil and land management practices.
OJ GERICKE 61
3.6.1 Define the following:

Evapotranspiration
Lysimeter
Consumptive use
3.6.2 The information in the following Table is from observations taken at a

Symons evaporation pan.
Determine the potential evaporation for day two. [1.1mm]
If the pan factor is 0.8, calculate the actual evaporation on day two.
[0.880mm]
Day Precipitation (mm) Water level (mm)
1 9.3 15.4
2 - 14.0
3 39.4 52.3
3.6.3 Calculate the actual evaporation from a dam surface on 8 March with the
aid of the following information:
Pan water level reading on 8 March: 276mm.
Precipitation gauge reading on 8 March: 7mm.
Pan water level on 9 March: 279mm
Precipitation gauge reading on 9 March: 12mm
Pan factor: 0.7 [6.3mm]
3.6.4 Discuss the four most important factors influencing evaporation.
3.6.5 Describe the differences between the Symons- and Class A evaporation
pans.
3.6.6 Discuss the working of evaporation pans and give a detailed sketch of the
Class A pan.
3.6.7 Explain the concept of evaporation pans under the following headings:
Operation.
Performance.
Advantages and disadvantages.
3.6.8 Differentiate between the three methods of determining evaporation.
OJ GERICKE 62
3.6.9 Discuss in detail Penman’s approach in estimating values of open water

evaporation.
3.6.10 Use the nomogram for the solution of Penman’s equation to predict the
daily potential evapotranspiration from a field crop at latitude 24 S in April,
under the following conditions: The Psychrometer gave a wet-bulb
temperature reading of 19 C and the corresponding vapour pressure was
21.892 mbar. The relative humidity was 41.8% and the saturation deficit
equal to 16.68 mmHg. The wind speed at 10m was 5.45m/s. Sky cover =
40% cloud. Ratio of potential evapotranspiration to potential evaporation =
0.85 [t = 28.231°C, Ra = 692.6, n/d = 0.6, u2 = 4.302m/s, E1 = -4.0, E2 =
4.18, E3 = 2.28, E4 = 3.68, E0 = 6.14mm/d & Ecrop = 5.219mm/d]
3.6.11 Make a neat sketch with inscriptions of a section through a drainage
Lysimeter and explain the method and use thereof.
3.6.12 Discuss the factors that influence the rate of evapotranspiration over a
given area under the following two categories: climatological and non-
climatological factors.
3.6.13 Compute the potential evapotranspiration according to Thornthwaite for
February 2000, if the climate yielded the following data. The average
number of hours between sunrise and sunset for the month of February
was 12 hours. [J = 115.111, a = 2.342, PEFeb = 119.723mm]
Month Temperature Month Temperature
March 1999 28 September 16
April 22 October 19
May 19 November 26
June 16 December 32
July 12 January 31
August 15 February 2000 28
3.6.14 Compute the potential evapotranspiration according to Thornthwaite for

April 1996, if the climate yielded the following data. The average number
of hours between sunrise and sunset for the month of April was 12 hours.
Month Temperature Month Temperature
January 1996 30 July 10
February 29 August 14
March 27 September 18
April 25 October 23
May 22 November 26
June 15 December 1996 32
OJ GERICKE 63
3.6.15 It is proposed to develop a reservoir in a mountainous region for water

supply. It is at latitude 20°N. June appears to be the critical month and
mean June values of various parameters are as follows:
Air temperature: 24°C & Relative humidity: 60%
Wind speed @ 2m: 2.5m/s & Cloud cover: 10%
The reservoir has surface area of 300 km². A river flows into the reservoir and its
long term average inflow for June is 28m 3/s. Calculate the net inflow to the
reservoir for an average June. [n/d = 0.9, Ra = 947, E1 = -4.88, E2 = 6.90, E3 =
2.92, E4 = 1.52, E0 = 6.460mm/d & ΔS= 5.570m3/s or 14.436 x 106 m3]
3.6.16 Determine the irrigation requirement for 2ha of peas if the life cycle starts
in June and ends in December. The crop coefficient for the growing cycle
of the reference crop (krc), alfalfa, for the same period is also given. The
monthly totals of the Class A-evaporation, determined from the average
values over the past 20 years are listed in the Table below [3070.4m3].
Month Crop coefficient Class A-evaporation Precipitation (mm)
(mm)
June 0.18 86 12
July 0.25 64 3
August 0.41 67 0
September 0.67 73 10
October 0.86 89 39
November 0.82 96 64
December 0.60 89 35
3.6.17 Determine the irrigation requirement for 30ha of wheat if losses due to
deep water infiltration and irrigation efficiency are 30%. The life cycle
starts in middle May and ends in middle December. The crop coefficient
for the growing cycle of the reference crop (krc), alfalfa, for the same period
is also given. The monthly totals of the Class A-evaporation, determined
from the average values over the past 20 years are listed in the Table
below [187.545mm & 73142.550m3].
OJ GERICKE 64
Month Crop coefficient Class A-evaporation Precipitation (mm)

(mm)
May 0.16 62 12
June 0.25 58 8
July 0.37 51 0
August 0.49 62 15
September 0.68 85 51
October 0.87 76 21
November 0.95 105 27
December 0.45 125 12
3.7 REFERENCES
 Burger, JH et al. 2003. Irrigation Design Manual. 2nd Ed. ARC-Institute for
Agricultural Engineering, ISBN 1-919849-24-6. Pretoria, South Africa.
OJ GERICKE 65
UNIT 4: INFILTRATION AND PERCOLATION

4.1 INFILTRATION CAPACITY OF SOIL
Infiltration: The movement of water from the soil surface though to the subsurface
soil, thus the downward penetration of water into the soil.
Percolation: The movement of infiltrated water due to gravitational to the zone of
saturation at the phreatic zone.
Infiltration rate: The sum of percolation and water entering storage above the
groundwater table. The infiltration rate may be regarded as the rate at which the
water penetrates the soil. If a dry soil is wetted, the infiltration rate is initially high,
but it decreases rapidly as the soil is wetted. (Figure 4.1 refers).
Figure 4.1: Infiltration curve
Field capacity: This is the point when free water in saturated soil (due to
persistent precipitation) can be sustained against gravity, thus no draining take
place.
OJ GERICKE 66
Initial soil moisture affects the infiltration capacity and the runoff in the initial
stages of a storm. The -Index is used to illustrate the relationship between
runoff and infiltration, but it is only based on average values. The antecedent
precipitation index and estimated soil-moisture deficit methods can be used to
provide more accurate answers, but these methods requires a lot of data and are
not widely used.
4.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING INFILTRATION CAPACITY

Factors such as structure, texture, exchangeable sodium percentage, drop size,
density and soil moisture content of the soils will influence the infiltration rate.
Field observations indicated that crust formation is a determining factor. This
crust is formed mainly due to the external energy of precipitation and irrigation
droplets which break down the soil particles and rearrange them during wetting.
To summarize, infiltration capacity of soil is not constant and is a function of:
Type of soil: Clay soils are relatively impermeable, the coarser the soil
particles, the higher the infiltration capacity or permeability.
Soil structure/ texture: The term structure refers to the aggregation or
composition of various primary soil particles in groups or secondary
particles, which are separated from bordering aggregates by planes of
weakness. The visible macro-structure is undoubtedly dependent on the
nature of the arrangement of primary particles, or texture, which cannot be
differentiated clearly with the naked eye. This influences the rate with which
water and air penetrate the soil and move through the profile. Root
penetration and production ability are also influenced. The structure of the
soil can be changed by plant action (formation of structure) and cultivation
(destruction of structure). Soil structure types are a classification of soil
structures based upon the size of the aggregates or peds, and their
arrangement in the profile. In general, reference is made to the soil structure
types as plate, prismatic, columnar, block, or granular. A ped is a unit of soil
particles sticking together as an aggregate, crumb, prism, block or grain,
which has been formed by natural processes (as opposed to clods, which
are formed artificially).
OJ GERICKE 67
Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP): Water containing large quantities

of sodium destroys structure through the dispersion or extinction of clay
particles. The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) is determined by the ratio of Na
to Ca and Mg (Na:(Ca + Mg)) in soils. A high SAR-value may indicate
sodium problems in the soil. The SAR of a soil is approximately equal to (1
to 2 times) the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of the soil. The ESP
gives a very good indication of the structural stability of a soil and the
physical reaction that can be expected when the soil is irrigated.
Deflocculation and dispersion may be described as the separation of the
various components from the combined particles (e.g. soil aggregates)
through physical and/or chemical processes. Apart from the unfavourable
effect that the ESP will have on the physical properties of the soil, it will also
have a negative effect on the infiltration capacity of the soil.
Slope of the soil surface: Low infiltration rates are associated with steeper
slopes.
Initial soil moisture content: Dry soil has a high infiltration capacity. High soil
moisture contents are related to lower infiltration capacities.
Vegetation cover: Dense vegetative cover improvises the infiltration capacity
of soil by retaining the surface water and minimising the runoff.
Precipitation intensity: Runoff occurs when the precipitation intensity is
higher than the infiltration rate of the soil.
Depth of water: When water collects into a pool of water, the pressure height
above the surface of the ground increases with subsequent increase of
infiltration capacity.
4.3 METHODS: DETERMINATION OF INFILTRATION CAPACITY

Infiltrometers
Drainage basin precipitation-runoff analysis
-Index method
Antecedent precipitation index
OJ GERICKE 68
4.3.1 Ring Infiltrometer

The values obtained on the same soils with different methods, differ widely.
Double ring, single ring, furrow and Infiltrometer are the best known methods for
measuring infiltration.
The ring Infiltrometer consists of two cylinders, one inside the other and forming
two concentric rings on the outside. The infiltration rate is determined by the inner
ring, while the outer ring reduces the border effects of the inner ring. The
infiltration capacity of the soil is measured by the amount of water needed in the
inner cylinder to maintain a constant level. The cylinder is normally driven a few
centimeters into the ground to prevent leakage.
Water addition to find the

infiltration capacity of the soil
Inner cylinder
Constant
water level
Outer cylinder
Infiltration of
water
Figure 4.2: Ring Infiltrometer
4.3.2 Infiltrometer
Description of apparatus:
The Infiltrometer consists of a sprinkler with a V-nozzle which rotates within a
shield. Water is siphoned from 400 ℓ containers, with a flexible pipe into the
circulation container which also forms the base. Water is drawn from the
circulation container and delivered to the H½U 80 - 100 V-nozzle sprinkler
through a stand pipe, by a self-priming pump with a capacity of 3.6 m3/h and a
OJ GERICKE 69
pressure of 65kPa. The sprinkler rotates within a shield with a flow slot which
wets a representative area.
Water deflected from the inside of the shield is fed back to the circulation
container. The application rate which varies with distance from the Infiltrometer is
measured by means of a stopwatch and four rain gauge tops and recorded
directly on the given nomogram. The Infiltrometer is a compact, portable unit with
a total mass of less than 20 kg.
Choice of test site:

The test should be done on the dominating soil types of the farming unit with the
soil surface and moisture contents the same as before irrigation. The worked soil
should have been irrigated twice or more or had rain, the reason being that crust
formation and its influence on crust forming soils and the ground-water status
with non-crust-forming soils should be taken into account with these tests. The
results of the soil with the weakest infiltration ability are then used as the criteria.
Preparation of test site:

As crust formation dictates infiltration ability with crust-forming soils, it should
already have taken place or been artificially created before the test. An artificial
crust can be created by wetting a previously worked area of at least 3m × 3m with
15 litres of water per m2. This can be done with a hose pipe. Wait 7 days before
performing the test as a hard crust will form with drying. The test may also be
carried out before 7 days have passed if the upper 10-20mm has dried out
completely. To get the initial feeling of how a crust should be formed, it may be
necessary to create an artificial crust on a site which has already had rain. Two
infiltration tests are then performed and the results compared ― one on the
undisturbed soil (precipitation only) and one on the artificial crust.
Setting up the Infiltrometer:

The infiltrometer's application rate decreases with an increase in distance from
the apparatus as shown in Figure 4.3. This phenomenon creates the opportunity
to evaluate the soil's accumulative infiltration at a number of points. Erect the
apparatus directly next to the chosen test site with the slot facing in the wind
OJ GERICKE 70
direction. Place base-sealed rain gauge tops at 0.5m spacing as shown in

Figure 4.4. Use one or two sprinklers and fill the sealed container with water. The
test may now begin. Use one or two V-nozzles (two nozzles produce a higher
application rate) although one V-nozzle should be sufficient for most soils. The
test may begin when the circulation container has siphoned full of water.
Figure 4.3: Typical application by infiltrometer
Figure 4.4: Infiltrometer set-up
OJ GERICKE 71
Test procedure:
Record the time and activate the pump. The working pressure must be 65kPa.
After a certain time a wetting front forms, which moves away from the apparatus.
This coincides with the forming of surface water. As soon as the front passes the
water shadow (see Figure 4.5) of the first measuring points, the time is recorded
and the application measured. The other measuring points will be treated in the
same way. At least three measuring points are required for a reliable test result,
the last measuring point test lasting at least thirty minutes. The results are then
directly recorded on the given nomogram and the accumulative infiltration curve
fitted.
Figure 4.5: Schematic representation of the infiltrometer set-up
4.3.3 -Index method

Defined as the average precipitation intensity (mm/h) above which the volume of
precipitation equals the volume of runoff. The average precipitation intensity (y-
axis) is plotted against time (x-axis). The shaded area above the dashed line
represents the measured runoff over the catchment area. The unshaded area
below the line represents all the losses, including surface detention storage,
evaporation and infiltration. Infiltration is much the largest loss of water in any
catchment.
OJ GERICKE 72
Figure 4.6: -Index method
The formula to determine the -Index is as follows:

P Q
I = (mm/h) (29)
t
Where:
P = Sum of all precipitation that was more than the infiltration capacity
(excess precipitation; mm)
Q = Total runoff from the catchment, measured during the storm.
t = Time period during which excess precipitation did occur.
-Index method: Example 4.1

The Table below gives the hourly precipitation of three storms that give rise to
runoff equivalent of 14, 23 and 18mm respectively. Determine the -Index for the
catchment.
OJ GERICKE 73
Solution: (Storms 1, 2 & 3):
Hour Storm 1(mm) Index 1 Hour Storm 1(mm) Index 1
0 0 3.667 5 5 3.667
1 2 3.667 6 4 3.667
2 6 3.667 7 4 3.667
3 7 3.667 8 2 3.667
4 10 3.667 8 0 3.667
Hour Storm 2(mm) Index 2 Hour Storm 2(mm) Index 1
0 4 4.500 3 12 4.500
1 9 4.500 4 5 4.500
2 15 4.500 5 5 4.500
Hour Storm 3(mm) Index 3 Hour Storm 3 (mm) Index 3
0 3 4.15 4 12 4.15
1 8 4.15 5 3 4.15
2 11 4.15 6 3 4.15
3 4 4.15 6 0 4.15
INFILTRATION-INDEX
11
10 STORM 1(mm)
9 INDEX 1
INTENSITY (mm/h)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
TIME (h)
Figure 4.7: -Index: Storm 1
OJ GERICKE 74
INFILTRATION-INDEX
16
15
14
STORM 2 (mm)
13
INDEX 2
12
INTENSITY (mm/h)
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
TIME (h)
INFILTRATION-INDEX
14
13 STORM 3 (mm)
12
11 INDEX 3
INTENSITY (mm/h)
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
TIME (h)
Storm 1:
P Q
-Index =
t
= (36-14)/6
= 3.667mm/h
OJ GERICKE 75
Storm 2:
P Q
-Index =
t
= (41-23)/4
= 4.500mm/h
Storm 3:
P Q
-Index =
t
= (31-18)/3
= 4.333mm/h
-IndexAvg = 4.167mm/h

The Table below gives the hourly precipitation of one storm that gives rise to
runoff equivalent of 43mm. Determine the Ø-index for the catchment.
Time (h) Storm (mm) Index-line Time (h) Storm (mm) Index-line
0 0 7.8 5 15 7.8
1 3 7.8 6 8 7.8
2 16 7.8 7 4 7.8
3 19 7.8 8 2 7.8
4 24 7.8 8 0 7.8
Storm:
P Q
-Index =
t
= (82- 43)/5
= 7.800mm/h
OJ GERICKE 76
INFILTRATION-INDEX
30
STORM 1(mm)
25
INDEX-LINE
INTENSITY (mm/h)
20
15
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
TIME (h)
Figure 4.10: -Index – Storm 1

Use the precipitation data below to determine the -Index for a catchment that is
2.3 km² where the runoff volume is 282000 m3.
Time (hour) Precipitation (mm/h)
0–2 27
2–5 60
5–7 26.8
7 – 10 16.8
10 – 12 7.2
Solution:
Runoff depth = Runoff volume/ catchment area
Q = 282000/ 2.3 x 106
= 122.609mm
Assume: 16.8 < < 60:

P Q
I =
t
= [(27 x2 + 60 x 3 + 26.8 x 2) – (122.609)]/ 7
= 23.570mm/h; OK!
OJ GERICKE 77
4.3.4 Antecedent precipitation index

The basis of this index is that the soil moisture content is depleted at a rate
proportional to the amount of moisture in storage in the soil. The relationship is
exponential and can be expressed as follows:
It = Iokt (30)
Where:
Io = Initial value of the index
It = Index value t days later
k = Recession constant with a value between 0.85 and 0.98.
If t = 1, any value of It will be the previous day’s index. The daily decline in the
value of the index is due to evapotranspiration. The latter has a seasonal
tendency, thus the constant k will vary in a similar fashion.
Antecedent precipitation index: Example 4.4

The antecedent precipitation index for a station was 44mm on 23 September.
75mm Precipitation fell on 27 September; 12mm on 29 September and 24mm on
30 September. The value of k for the spring season is 0.93. Determine the
antecedent precipitation index for 5 October if:
a) No precipitation occurred after 30 September.
b) A further 30mm precipitated on 3 October and 24mm more on 4 October.
c) No precipitation occurred from 23 September to 5 October?
Solution:
a)
The time increment has to be unity, since the index calculated by equation 28 is
being recharged by precipitation. Now, set up a table with the index for the
beginning of each morning in a column, the daily precipitation in another column
and in the last column the index after having depleted during that day and after
being recharged by whatever precipitation occurred during that same day.
Thus, equation 28 becomes:
It = Iokt + P (31)
OJ GERICKE 78
Date Index (@ 00h01) Precipitation Index (@23h59)

09/23 N/A N/A 44
09/24 44 40.920
09/25 40.920 38.056
09/26 38.056 35.392
09/27 35.392 75 107.914
09/28 107.914 100.360
09/29 100.360 12 105.335
09/30 105.335 24 121.962
10/01 121.962 113.424
10/02 113.424 105.485
10/03 105.485 98.101
10/04 98.101 91.234
10/05 91.234 84.847
b)
Date Index (@ 00h01) Precipitation Index (@23h59)

09/23 N/A N/A 44
09/24 44 40.920
09/25 40.920 38.056
09/26 38.056 35.392
09/27 35.392 75 107.914
09/28 107.914 100.360
09/29 100.360 12 105.335
09/30 105.335 24 121.962
10/01 121.962 113.424
10/02 113.424 105.485
10/03 105.485 30 128.101
10/04 128.101 24 143.134
10/05 143.134 133.115
c)
If no precipitation occurred for the total period, the value of precipitation (P) is
zero for the whole period. Thus, by using equation 28:
It = Iokt
= 18.418mm
Where:
Io = 44mm, t = 12 days and k = 0.93
OJ GERICKE 79
4.4.1 Discuss four factors influencing infiltration.

4.4.2 Make a neat sketch with inscriptions of section through a ring Infiltrometer.
Explain how this item should be operated to get realistic results.
4.4.3 Infiltration rate may be determined by measurement or by estimation.
Describe in detail the methods of measuring infiltration rate.
4.4.4 Distinguish between infiltration and percolation.
4.4.5 Describe in short three methods of measuring soil moisture.
4.4.6 Give a detailed definition for the term -index.
4.4.7 The given Table gives the hourly precipitation of a storm over a catchment
that gave rise to a runoff equivalent of 20mm. The evaporation measured
during the 8 hour storm was 2mm. Calculate the infiltration rate in mm/h.
[Nett runoff = 18mm, Range 2 < <9& -Index = 2.833mm/h]
Duration (hours)
11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00
12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00
Precipitation (mm)
2 6 7 9 5 4 4 2
4.4.8 The following Table gives the hourly precipitation of two storms on a
catchment that gave rise to run-off equivalent of 23 and 18.5mm
respectively. Determine the -index for the catchment. [Storm1: 5< < 15
& -Index = 4.333mm/h, Storm2: 4 < < 12 & -Index = 4.167mm/h,
-Indexavg = 4.25mm/h]
Hour
11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00
12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
Storm 1: Precipitation (mm)
4 9 15 12 5
3 8 11 4 12 3
4.4.9 The table below gives the hourly precipitation of two storms that gave rise
to run-off equivalent of 11 and 9.5 mm respectively. Determine the -index
for the catchment. [Storm1: 9< < 15 & -Index = 10.750mm/h,
Storm2: 8 < < 12 & -Index = 9.125mm/h, -Indexavg = 9.938mm/h]
OJ GERICKE 80
Hour
11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 21:00
13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 21:00 23:00
4 9 15 12 5
3 8 11 4 12 3
4.4.10 Discuss the influence of slope of a catchment and precipitation intensity on

infiltration rates under constant precipitation.
4.4.11 Why is the method of subtracting infiltration rates from precipitation
intensities to compute hydrographs of runoff not applicable to large natural
river basins?
4.4.12 The following Table contains hourly precipitation of four storms that
resultant in the equivalent runoff of 24, 32, 18 and 41mm respectively.
Determine the -index for the catchment.
Hour Storm 1 (mm) Storm 2 (mm) Storm 3 (mm) Storm 4 (mm)
1 3 3 2 7
2 9 12 8 14
3 15 16 11 30
4 21 17 14 22
5 12 30 16 15
6 10 27 15 6
7 12 13 12 3
8 6 5 8 2
9 3 3
4.4.13 The antecedent precipitation index for a station is 56mm for 6 July. The
seasonal value for the recession constant is 0.86 for the winter months.
On 8 July 14mm of precipitation occurred, 25mm on 11 July, 18mm on 15
July, 59mm on 20 July and 12mm on 23 July. What is the antecedent
precipitation index for 31 July?
4.4.14 For the above-mentioned catchment area station in 4.4.13, what would the
antecedent precipitation index have been if no precipitation occurred
through the whole month of July and the index for 6 July still was 56mm?
OJ GERICKE 81
4.5 REFERENCES
 Viessman, W, Lewis, GL & Knapp, JW. 1989. Introduction to Hydrology.
3rd Ed. Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. New York, USA.
OJ GERICKE 82
UNIT 5: GROUNDWATER
5.1 OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER
The use of groundwater for domestic water supply in rural areas and irrigation
should be approached with care, as the stability of the supply from the source
over an extended period is unknown. Groundwater originates from precipitation,
and also forms part of the hydrological cycle. Groundwater is supplemented by
water which slowly percolates down through the upper layer until it reaches an
impermeable layer. Here, it may form a dam, or flow through a fissure into the
next area.
In areas where there are no fissures, the water may rise to a level underground,
known as the water table. The exploitation of groundwater is usually achieved via
the use of boreholes, sand extraction points and springs. The availability and
volume of groundwater is very dependent on the volume of precipitation, the
geology of the environment and the abstraction of water from the underground in
surrounding areas.
All groundwater users were supposed to register their existing usage as

recognized under the previous Water Act, with the Department of Water Affairs
and Forestry. Any new source development also has to be registered at this
Department. The registration revolves around the use of water to be registered
with the source in mind. Registration forms must indicate the source and co-
ordinates. If the subsurface source in a certain region is over-utilised, the
licensing of the use of water from a borehole for irrigation- water supply purposes
can be accompanied by certain limitations and conditions. The registration of
licensing of a borehole is the duty of the owner.
5.1.2 Terminology
Groundwater: Precipitation that infiltrates the soil and penetrates the underlying
strata. The quantity of water that can be accommodated under the surface
depends on the porosity of the sub-surface strata.
OJ GERICKE 83
Water table: Locus of points in unconfined material where hydrostatic pressure

equals the atmospheric pressure.
Vadose zone: Above the water table where soil pores contain either air or water,
sometimes called the zone of aeration.
Phreatic zone: Below the water table, interstices are filled with water, known as
the zone of saturation.
Static or rest level: This is the level to which the water will rise in the borehole
before pumping is started.
Dynamic or pump water-level: This term denotes the level to which the water will
drop while the pump is operating. The rate of abstraction would thus indicate that
it is equal to the rate of supplementation of water from the environment.
Borehole depth: This indicates the total depth of the hole, i.e. the distance from
the surface of the ground to the bottom, or lowest point of the hole.
Hydraulic gradient: This is an imaginary line linking all the major pressure points
next to a pipeline or aquifer. The water may be static or flowing.
The radius of influence: The borehole can only draw water from an area within a
certain distance of the centre of the borehole. In other words, this is the distance
from the borehole at which water will no longer flow towards the borehole.
Drawdown: This is the difference between the static water-level and the dynamic
water-level.
Supplementation rate: This gives an indication of the rate at which water will flow
through a vertical section, one meter wide, over the entire depth of the aquifer. It
may give an indication of the borehole’s ability to supply water. Thus, for
example, a borehole with a supplementation rate of 70 litres per day is only
suitable for household use. Aquifers may have supplementation rates of as high
as 70 000 litres per day per meter.
OJ GERICKE 84
Borehole development: This is a process used on both new and existing

boreholes to remove drilling residue and silty deposits, for example.
Permeability: The rate of water transmission or penetration through a geological

material at a constant hydraulic gradient. Is a function of porosity, structure and
geological history of the material. Defined by the coefficient of permeability, k,
which is indicative of the ease of water transmission in a geological material.
5.1.2 Factors of influence

Groundwater flow is usually laminar, with a low Reynolds number. The following
factors have an influence on groundwater flow:
Density (Varies with temperature).
Viscosity (Measure of the shear strength of a liquid, the lower the viscosity,
the more mobile or penetrating is the liquid).
The porosity of the media (Porosity is defined as the volume of voids (V v)
divided by the total volume (Vt) and ranges from a few % to about 90%.
Permeability and compressibility are also of importance).
5.2 AQUIFERS
Aquifer: Geological formation which contains water and transmits it from one
point to another in quantities sufficient to permit economic development.
Aquiclude: Formation which contains water but cannot transmit it rapidly enough
to furnish a significant supply to a well or spring.
Aquifuge: No interconnected openings and cannot hold or transmit water.

Primary aquifer: Present in relative young geological formations, such as sand.
Secondary aquifer: Present in dolomites and carbonate.
Confined aquifer/ artesian: Groundwater is overlain by an impervious stratum; the

groundwater is under pressure due to the weight of the overburden and the
hydrostatic head. Low permeability.
OJ GERICKE 85
Flowing well: The water penetrates the confined layer of an artesian at the
Piezometric level equivalent/ above to the water table.
5.3 DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY (K)

Permeability is measured with Permeameter, where the geological- or soil
material is subjected to a certain water head for certain period of time. It can be
determined by the following methods:
Field techniques: Introducing of salt into the aquifer at one well and timing
its movement to the downstream well. Fluorescence dye and radioactive
materials can also be used as tracer materials. Chemical reactions
between the tracer elements and the geological formations and diffusion
are some of the typical identified problem areas in field estimations.
Pumping tests
Constant- or descending Permeameter test: The variation in water head
( H) must be limited to < L/2, where L is the length of soil sample. The R e-
number < 10, thus laminar flow. The particle size is determined according
to the maximum particle size. The inflow = outflow to ensure that all the air
is replaced.
Constant-permeability:
QL
K = (32)
A H
Where V = cm3 and K = cm/s.
Descending-permeability:
2
dt L ho
K = 2
ln (33)
dc t h
Where:
dt = Internal diameter of manometer
dc = Diameter of soil sample.
L = Length of soil sample.
ho = Initial water level in manometer
h = Final stabilised water level
OJ GERICKE 86
Water supply
Overflow to maintain
constant head
Discharge (Q)
Head (Δ H)
Screens
Sample area (A)
Valve
Figure 5.1: Constant head Permeameter
Permeability: Example 5.1

A constant head Permeameter are used to determine the permeability. The
particle size of a soil is 4cm. The length of the soil sample (L) = 35cm. The
volume of water = 12cm3. The time (t) = 15 minutes and the variation in head
( H) =10cm. Determine the permeability in cm/sec. and m/day.
πd 2
A = Volume = 12cm3
4
= 12.566cm² Time = 900sec.
VL
K = Per day:
tA H
= 3.714 * 10- 3cm/sec. K = 3.209m/day

Determine the permeability of a granular soil yielding the following data:
Discharge: 234mm/10 minutes. Length of sample: 4cm. Cross-sectional area:
78.5cm². Head causing flow: 15cm.
Constant-Permeability:
OJ GERICKE 87
QL
K =
A H
= 13.248 * 10-3cm/sec.

Determine the permeability of a cohesive soil yielding the following data: Falling
head tube diameter: 0.5cm. Sample diameter: 4cm. Length of sample: 40cm.
Initial head: causing flow: 15cm. Fall of head: 1.2cm/ 300 min.
h = ho - 1.2cm
= 13.800cm
Descending-Permeability:
2
dt L ho
K = 2
ln
dc t h
= 2.895*10-6cm/s.
5.4 GROUNDWATER FLOW: DARCY’S LAW

Darcy’s Law: The rate of flow per unit area of an aquifer is proportional to the
hydraulic gradient of the potential head measured in the direction of flow. There is
a relationship between permeability (K) and the velocity of flow.
v = Ki (cm/s) (34)
Q = KiA (Q=vA) (cm3/s) (35)
Where:
v = Velocity
K = Permeability
H
i = Hydraulic gradient ( )
L
5.4.1 Darcy’s experiment

Method: Cylindrical tube with a fixed cross-sectional area filled with sand was
used. The variation in pressure head ( H) is influenced by the inclination of
above-mentioned cylindrical tube, thus the hydraulic gradient. The length (L) of
the cylindrical tube between the two manometers can vary, but for the experiment
the length and hydraulic gradient were constant.
OJ GERICKE 88
Water was added to the cylindrical tube until equilibrium was reached, thus all
pores was filled with water and the inflow= outflow. The discharge of flow was
measured at specific time intervals and the corresponding volume of water was
measured. Conclusions: v H, Q H and v 1/L
Darcy’s velocity (v): This is the velocity as determined by the equation v = Ki and
not truly representative of the pore- or seepage-velocity through the pores of the
geological material or soil. The cross-sectional areas are different and the path of
flow is also longer.
Pore/ seepage-velocity (vs): The relationship between Darcy’s velocity and the
porosity-index of the soil.
v
Vs = (36)
n
Where:
n = Porosity-index (decimal) and
Vv
n =
Vt
Vv =Volume of pores (cm3) & Vt = Total volume.
Reynolds number (Re): Laminar groundwater flow: 10 Re and turbulent

groundwater flow Re > 10.
ρvd 50
Re = (37)
μ
Where:
d50 = Average particle size
μ
v = (kinematic viscosity)
ρ
Darcy’s experiment: Example 5.4
A suspected spill has occurred from a storage tank. To obtain a preliminary
assessment of the problem, it may be assumed that the contaminant plume will
move at the same rate as the ground water flow. The permeability (K) is 1.5*10 -3
cm/sec. The topographic gradient of the terrain is 0.025 m/m. The porosity of the
OJ GERICKE 89
soil is 0.35. Although the plume will spread in the aquifer, an average cross-
sectional area of 20*10m may be assumed. Determine:
The discharge velocity through the aquifer:
v = Ki
= 3.75*10-5cm/s.
The volumetric rate through the plume:
Q =KiA A = 2*106cm²
= 75cm3/s.
Seepage velocity:
v
Vs =
n
= 1.071*10-4cm/s.
The distance the plume may be expected to move in a year:

Distance = vs/100 x (60*60*60*24*365)
= 33.789m
5.5 ABSTRACTION OF GROUNDWATER

Groundwater exists over more than 80% of South Africa’s surface area.
Weathered and fissured water bearing layers with a low permeability extend from
just below natural ground level to depths less than 50 m. Unweathered rock
formations is deeper down and have a low groundwater production rate. Large
amounts of groundwater can be extracted from dolomite formations, but
sinkholes pose a problem to the usage of this source to its full potential. Layers
are usually about 150m deep.
5.5.1 Locating boreholes

There are various methods which are used for locating a site for a future
borehole. These include guessing, divining and scientific methods. Scientific
indication, using electrical resistance, electromagnetism, seismic refraction and
the magnetic and gravimetric methods are commonly used. The latter methods
are also known as the geophysical methods. The abstraction rates of other
boreholes in the areas nearby the intended drilling site may give a good
indication of what might be expected.
OJ GERICKE 90
For the indication of possible borehole sites, consultants registered with the SA
Council of Natural Sciences may be used. A list of recommended consultants
may be obtained from the Directorate of Geohydrology of the Department of
Water Affairs and Forestry.
5.5.2 Borehole development and stimulation

The method chosen to abstract groundwater will be determined by the local
geohydrology. Borehole development is not practised on a large scale in the RSA
as a result of a lack of knowledge and application guidelines, as well as high
short-term costs.
Horisontal extensions: Open collecting ditch or underground tunnel. Aquifer

thickness is small and the drawdown (cone of depression) is limited, e.g. when a
layer of fresh water overlies a layer of salt water.
Vertical extensions: Aquifer of sufficient thickness, at least 6m below ground
level. Shaft acts as a reservoir for short-term, high-rate abstractions.
The main methods of borehole development are:
Over-pumping: In this way, the borehole is exploited at a rate which is

considerably higher than the expected supply. As a result, the pores are washed
clean because of the difference of pressure between the water-carrying formation
and the “empty” borehole. The material that is washed out must then be removed
from the borehole.
Back-washing: Here, the water is allowed to flow back into the hole just after it
has begun to supply water in full stream. This washes away the sediment sticking
to the sides of the borehole. The back-flow of the water must be as fast as
possible in order to get the best results.
Waving: In this method, a round implement with a diameter equal to that of the
lining is used. The plug is moved up and down in the borehole. There is only a
small pressure reduction hole in the disc in order to achieve a reduction in
OJ GERICKE 91
pressure. This oscillating motion washes the sides of the borehole clean. Good
results have been achieved with this method.
Air pump: Here, an air pump is used to pump a stream of air to the bottom of the
borehole to get the material into suspension and, by raising the air pipe; the
muddy water is “pumped” out. The process is repeated until the water is relatively
clean.
High pressure jets: Water or air under high pressure is directed perpendicularly
against the sides of the borehole. A special nozzle is needed for the process.
Drilling residue is washed off the sides of the borehole and may be removed by
scooping or pumping it out.
Borehole stimulation is not applied as part of borehole development as a result of

the following:
The high capital cost of the necessary equipment
The results of efforts cannot be guaranteed
Up to now, the process has only been applied to marginal boreholes (500
l/h) in the RSA.
The two main kinds of stimulation applied are:
Blasting- of underground chambers: Results achieved with this method showed

improvements in supply of 8% to 500%. The location and type of explosive used
require the co-operation of geohydrologists, registered explosive operators and
drilling contractors.
Hydro breaking: In this process, air-filled cushions are placed above the water
level and water is then pumped in by high pressure pumps, at ± 1 200bar, below
the sealing cushions. The cushions must be able to withstand the pressure and
uneven shape of the borehole. The cost of the associated equipment and the
commercial feasibility makes this process questionable.
Borehole pumps are classified as reciprocating-, rotating vertical shaft
(submersible, centrifugal- or rotary positive displacement) and jet & air lift pumps.
OJ GERICKE 92
To conclude, the groundwater of South Africa is water in mostly the secondary

bearers with limited extractable amounts available. The quality of the
groundwater of the inland regions of RSA is mostly average to bad, with good
quality groundwater at high-precipitation areas.
Q
Ground surface
r r
Piezometric
surface before
pumping
s
After pumping
Flow H Flow
Figure 5.2: Well pumping from a confined aquifer
Q Ground surface
r
Phreatic
surface before
ro pumping
After pumping
H
Flow h Flow
ho
Figure 5.3: Well pumping from an unconfined aquifer
OJ GERICKE 93
Cement grout
Outer casing
Inner casing
Delivery main
Aquifer
Multi-stage pump
Strainer & intake

Gravel pack
Well screen
Motor
Figure 5.4: Bottom of a typical water-supply borehole
5.6 YIELD OF WELLS/ TEST PUMPING

5.6.1 Testing of boreholes
Before the pump is chosen and the associated abstraction rate of a borehole is
determined, the borehole must first be tested. It is recommended that the testing
of the borehole yield should be handled by experts.
For the best indication of how much water there is in an aquifer, test holes are
drilled at certain distances from the hole being tested and the water level in these
holes is monitored. However, this test is expensive and is normally only used on
boreholes for municipal use.
OJ GERICKE 94
The Borehole Water Association of South Africa recommends that step and
constant supply tests should be conducted on boreholes. The step withdrawal
test is conducted by drawing water for one hour at a rate lower than the drilling
contractor’s blow test. This is followed by three similar hourly tests at increased
rates. During the tests, the supply, the drop in water level and the elapsed time
are noted. These readings are plotted on a log-linear scale. This graph gives an
idea of the abstraction rate of the water from the borehole, as well as the
accompanying drop in water level.
Table 5.1 gives an indication of the constant abstraction tests for certain times
(running time) for which water is pumped for use. During these tests, the water is
drawn for the times indicated in the table. The water levels are noted
continuously and, after switching off the pump, the time is measured for the water
to rise to 90% of the level at the start.
Table 5.1: Recommended times for testing of boreholes

Service time (hours/day) Testing time (hours)
0-2 4
2-4 6
5-11 24
12-17 48
17-24 168
5.6.2 Steady confined flow

Drawdown is denoted by s and is measured from the undisturbed piezometric
surface before pumping. The horizontal co-ordinate is measured radially from the
well and is denoted by r, since the flow is also radial to the well.
Transmissibility (T): Defined as the movement of groundwater through the
thickness of a whole aquifer. Defined by the equation, T=Kh, where K =
Permeability and h = aquifer-thickness.
Darcy’s well-equation:
s
Q = k 2πrH (38)
r
OJ GERICKE 95
Where:
Q = Discharge (m3/day)
2 rH = Area of well (m²)
S = Fluctuation in water level (m)
r = Distance between two observation or test wells (m)
Theim’s equation:
2πKH h2 h1
Q = (39)
r
ln 2
r1
Q r2
KH = * ln (40)
2π s1 s 2 r1
Where:
Q = Discharge (m3/day)
K = Permeability (m/s)
H = Thickness of aquifer (m)
h & s = Fluctuation in water levels (m)
R = Distance between wells (m)
KH = T (Transmissibility)
Theim’s formula is applicable to most of the underground flow regimes and is
normally used where there are one production well and two observation wells.
Theim’s equation: Example 5.5

Steady confined conditions are applicable to the aquifer test. The pumping
discharge is 788m3/day. Three observation wells are situated at distances (r) of
30m, 90m and 215m from the production well. The fluctuation (decrease) in the
water level of the three observation wells are, respectively, 1.088m, 0.716m and
0.250m. Determine the average Transmissibility of the three wells.
Q r2
T = * ln
2π s1 s 2 r1
= [788/2 (1.088-0.716)]*[ln(90/30)]
= 370.434m²/s
OJ GERICKE 96
Q r2
T = * ln
2π s1 s 2 r1
= [788/2 (1.088-0.250)]*[ln(215/30)]
= 294.740m²/s
Q r2
T = * ln
2π s1 s 2 r1
= [788/2 (0.716-0.250)]*[ln(215/90)]
= 234.410m²/s
Average T = 299.861 m²/s
5.6.3 Steady unconfined flow

The drawdown (cone of depression) is higher as in the case of steady confined
flow and therefore the falling water level reduces the area of the transmitting
aquifer.
Cooper-Jacob equation: One observation well:

2.25Tt o
s = (41)
r2
2.303Q
T = (42)
4π s
y 2 y1
s = (43)
log x 2 log x1
Cooper-Jacob equation: Three/ more observation wells:

2.25Tt
s = 2
(44)
ro
2.303Q
T = (45)
2π s
2.303Q 2.25Tt
s = log 2 (46)
4πT r s
Units: T (m²/day); t (days); Q (m3/day) and r & s (m).
OJ GERICKE 97
Cooper-Jacob (one well): Example 5.6

The discharge is 788m3/day. The distance between the production and
observational well is 30m. The following data are available:
Time (minutes) S (m) Time (minutes) S (m)

1 0.23 18 0.68
1.4 0.28 41 0.779
1.9 0.33 59 0.82
2.8 0.39 80 0.855
4 0.45 139 0.915
6.8 0.54 245 0.966
10 0.6 300 0.99
18 0.68 360 1.007
Solution:
Plot the tabulated data on 3-cycle semi-logarithmic graph paper
Plot s on the y-axis and t on the x-axis
Plot the best linear line
Determine s by calculating the slope of the graph
Read t0 from the x-axis
y 2 y1
s =
log x 2 log x1
= (0.57 – 0.23)/ (log10 – log1)
= 0.340m
t0 = 0.22 minutes
= 1.528*10-4days
2.303Q
T =
4π s
= 424.700m²/day
2.25Tt o
s =
r2
= 1.622*10-4m
OJ GERICKE 98
VARIATION IN WATER LEVEL vs TIME

1.1
S (Decreasing level) (m)

1
Log. (S (Decreasing level) (m))
0.9
y = 0.1321Ln(x) + 0.2617
0.8
0.7
0.6
S (m)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1 1 10 100
Time (minutes)
Figure 5.5: Variation in water level versus time

The discharge is 788m3/day. The diameter of the production well is 200mm. The
distance to the observation well is 90m. The following data is available:

1.5 0.015 30 0.364
2.16 0.023 60 0.444
3 0.054 90 0.494
5.5 0.133 120 0.528
9 0.206 180 0.569
15 0.275 301 0.614
18 0.305
Determine T & S
Determine the decrease in the water level of the observation well after
400 minutes
Determine the maximum discharge in litre/ second of the production well if
the water level in the production well decrease not lower than 2.4m
OJ GERICKE 99
Solution:
y 2 y1
s =
log x 2 log x1
= (0.495 – 0.210)/ (log100 – log10)
= 0.285m
t0 = 1.388*10-3days
2.303Q
T =
4π s
= 506.719m²/day
2.25Tt o
s =
r2
= 1.954*10-4m
2.303Q 2.25Tt
s = log 2
4πT r s
= 0.656m
2.303Q 2.25Tt
s = log 2
4πT r s
2.4 = 2.303(Q)/4 (506.719).log 2.25(506.719) (0.27778)/(0.1)²(1.954-4)
= 808.287174m3/d
= 9.355litre/s
OJ GERICKE 100

1
S (Decreasing level) (m)

0.9
Log. (S (Decreasing level) (m))
0.8
y = 0.1211Ln(x) - 0.0581
0.7
0.6
S (m)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1 10 100 1000
Time (minutes)

A production well is pumped at a rate of 800m 3/day. The data are listed in the
Table below. The diameter of the well is 500mm. The observational well is 53m
from the production well.
Time (min) S (m) Time (min) S (m)

3 0.1 50 2.6
5 0.51 70 2.8
10 1.2 100 3.15
20 1.8 200 3.6
30 2.15 500 4.3
Determine the transmissibility (T) and fluctuation (S) in water level. Make
use of the 3-cycle semi-logarithmic graph paper provided.
Determine the decrease of the water level in the observation well after
5 days at the above-mentioned discharge rate.
At what distance from the production well will the decrease in water level be
less than 0.5 m after 400 minutes?
OJ GERICKE 101
Solution:
y 2 y1
s =
log x 2 log x1
= (3.000 – 1.200)/ (log100 – log10)
= 1.800m
t0 = 0.0015972days
2.303Q
T =
4π s
= 81.452m²/day
2.25Tt o
s =
r2
= 1.042 *10-4m
2.303Q 2.25Tt
s = log 2
4πT r s
= 6.292m
2.303Q 2.25Tt
s = log 2
4πT r s
0.5 = 2.303Q/4 T.log 2.25Tt/r²s
r = 507.857m
OJ GERICKE 102

5
4.5 S (Decreasing level) (m)
4 Log. (S (Decreasing level) (m))
y = 0.8286Ln(x) - 0.7359
3.5
3
S (m)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Time (minutes)
Cooper-Jacob (three wells): Example 5.9

The discharge is 788m3/day. Three observational wells are situated at distances
(r) of 30m, 90m and 215m from the production well. The fluctuation (decrease) in
the water level of the three observational wells is respectively 0.915m, 0.540m
and 0.140m. Time (t) = 140minutes.
Determine T & S

1.5 0.015 30 0.364
2.16 0.023 60 0.444
3 0.054 90 0.494
5.5 0.133 120 0.528
9 0.206 180 0.569
15 0.275 301 0.614
18 0.305
Solution:
Plot the tabulated data on 3-cycle semi-logarithmic graph paper
Plot s on the y-axis and r on the x-axis
OJ GERICKE 103
Plot the best linear line

Determine s by calculating the slope of the graph
Read r0 from the x-axis
t = 0.0972 days
y 2 y1
s =
log x 2 log x1
= (1.340 – 0.460)/ (log100 – log10)

= 0.880m
r0 = 320m
2.303Q
T =
2π s
= 328.214 m²/day
2.25Tt
s = 2
ro
= 7.010 x 10-4m
VARIATION IN WATER LEVEL vs DISTANCE (r)

1
0.9 s (m)
Log. (s (m))
0.8
y = -0.3913Ln(x) + 2.2626
0.7
0.6
S (m)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
r (m)
Figure 5.8: Variation in water level versus distance (r)
OJ GERICKE 104
Cooper-Jacob (three wells): Example 5.10

A production well is pumped at a rate of 6.9litre/s. The diameter of the well is
0.5m. Four observational wells are situated at distances (r) of 7m, 20m, 110m
and 500m from the production well. The fluctuation (decrease) in the water level
of the four observational wells is respectively 5.7m, 4.15m, 2.25m and 1.10m.
Time (t) = 2 days.
Determine T & S
Determine the discharge when the allowable decrease in the water level of
the production well after 2 days in order to ensure that the decrease must be
less than 4 m
Solution:
t = 2 days
y 2 y1
s =
log x 2 log x1
= (5.150 – 2.600)/ (log100 – log10)
= 2.550m
r0 = 1000m
2.303Q
T =
2π s
= 85.691m²/day
2.25Tt
s = 2
ro
= 3.856 x 10-4m
2.303Q 2.25Tt
s = log 2
4πT r s
4 = 2.303(596.160)/4 (85.691).log 2.25(85.691) (2)/(0.25)²s
= 259.614859m3/d
= 3.005 litre/s
OJ GERICKE 105
VARIATION IN WATER LEVEL vs DISTANCE (r)

6
s (m)
Log. (s (m))
5
y = -1.0728Ln(x) + 7.5529
4
S (m)
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
r (m)
Figure 5.9: Variation in water level versus distance (r)
5.7 MANAGEMENT OF GROUNDWATER

It is the duty of every borehole owner to keep record of:
Geological description of borehole samples.
Date of drilling and installation.
Borehole specifications, such as depth, supply, section/profile, type of pump,
lining specifications and length of pipes.
Surplus water height at the end of the drilling process.
Blow test supply during the drilling process.
Results of pump test.
To help ensure a constant supply over a long period, the following measurements
should also be taken:
Water level readings.
Daily rainfall records.
Volume of water pumped over time.
Position of other boreholes in nearby areas.
OJ GERICKE 106
By keeping records, graphs may be compiled which could, for example, give a
timeously indication of the danger of falling water levels. This information may
serve as a good data source for the creation of models on the aquifer supply for
future boreholes. These models are used by geohydrologists to determine the
groundwater potential for an area.
The Borehole Water Association of South Africa recommends that borehole

pumps should only draw water at 40% to 60% of the tested supply so as not to
exceed the borehole’s yield and, in doing so, to apply long-term resource
conservation.
5.8 GROUNDWATER CHEMISTRY

The natural chemistry of groundwater varies depending on the nature of the
subsoil and rocks it passes through. Groundwater is usually considered to be
pure and safe to drink as it undergoes a filtering and cleansing process through a
subsoil cover and rock medium. This does not guarantee ground water purity;
problems can arise either due to natural conditions or human activities.
5.8.1 Natural groundwater quality problems

Hardness
Iron and manganese
Hydrogen sulphide
Sulphate
Sodium chloride
 Read Chapter 4 (p. 214-215) of Environmental Engineering (G Kiely)
5.8.2 Industrial contributions to groundwater pollution

Pesticides
Industrial solvents
Refined mineral oils
OJ GERICKE 107
5.8.3 Indicators of groundwater contamination

There is a tendency to analyse groundwater samples for a limited number of
constituents. A complete analysis of all the major cations and anions are used to
assess pollution incidents and it enables the following:
Ionic balance, thus checking the reliability of the analysis
Proper assessment of the water quality and chemistry
Identify possible indicators of the source of contamination
The following contamination indicators can be identified:
Faecal Bacteria and Viruses
Nitrate
Ammonia
Potassium
Chloride and Iron and manganese
5.8.4 Groundwater vulnerability to pollution

Vulnerability: Term used to represent the intrinsic geological- and hydrogeological
characteristics that determine the ease with which groundwater may be
contaminated by human activities.
Groundwater depends on the time of travel of groundwater, quantity of

contaminants and contaminant attenuation capacity of the geological materials.
Groundwater is hydraulically connected to the land surface and the effectiveness
of this connection determines the relative vulnerability to contamination. The
travel time, attenuation capacity and quantity of contaminants are a function of
the following natural attributes of any area:
Subsoil's that overlie the groundwater
Recharge type: Point or diffuse
Thickness of the unsaturated zone (sand/ gravel)
The topsoil (diffuse pollution sources)
Hydraulic conductivity
Read Chapter 4 (p. 219-221) of Environmental Engineering (G Kiely)
OJ GERICKE 108

5.9.1 Define the following terms related to Groundwater:
Water table.
Vadose zone.
Phreatic zone.
Aquifer.
Permeability.
Transmissibility.
5.9.2 Define Darcy’s law and discuss Darcy’s experiment by addressing the
method, velocities, conclusions and applicable formulas used.
5.9.3 Describe the two methods used to determine permeability by referring to a
constant- and descending head. Make use of sketches to illustrate the
applicable instrumentation used during the experiment.
5.9.4 A constant head Permeameter is used to determine the permeability. The
particle size of a soil is 4 cm. The length of the soil sample (L) = 35cm.
The volume of water =12cm3. The time (t) =15 minutes and the variation
in head ( H) =10cm. Determine the permeability in cm/sec. and m/day.
[3.714 * 10 -3 cm/s or 3.209 m/day]
5.9.5 Name the advantages and disadvantages of groundwater as a source of
water supply.
5.9.6 Discus the properties of an ideal tracer.
5.9.7 Explain the phenomenon of groundwater flow in aquifers, discussing eight
important points. Your answer must include sketches.
5.9.8 Compute the permeability of a soil (m/day) yielding the following data from
a constant-head Permeameter test:
Discharge through the sample, 23.4 ml in 10 minutes;
Length of sample 400 mm;
Cross section of sample, 100 mm; and
Head causing flow, 15 cm.
Make a neat sketch of the test apparatus.
[1.144m/d]
OJ GERICKE 109
Time
(hours/
days) CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, FS CWE21/2AI
5.10 REFERENCES
 Kiely, G. 1997. Environmental Engineering. 1st Ed. McGraw-Hill
International, ISBN 0077091272. London, United Kingdom.
OJ GERICKE 110

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CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, FS CWE21/2AI

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGY

Hydrology as profession: Hydrology is a profession because the hydrologist

Skills/ knowledge/ characteristics of hydrologist

Hydrologists are concerned with mainly three issues:

1.2 HYDROLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

1.3 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Atmosphere Atmosphere Atmosphere

Depression Water on Overland Reservoir

Root zone Channel

Figure 1.1: Schematic layout of the hydrological cycle

SOIL Reduced soil water WATER

Rising river bed

Increased flood flows

Figure 1.2 (a): Destructive influence of man on the hydrological cycle

MAN Improved food or Fodder VEGETATION

Soil conservation Improved soil

Figure 1.2 (b): Constructive influence of man on the hydrological cycle

1.3.1 Proportional distribution of water on earth

Rivers 2120km3 (0.0002%)

1.3.2 Transport- and rock cycles

1.3.3 Carbon cycle

1.4 CLIMATE AND WATER DISTRIBUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA

Hyper-arid areas: < 25mm/ year

South Africa’s climate ranges from semi-arid to hyper-arid. Mean Annual

1.4.2 Types and distribution of water bodies in South Africa

1.5 WATER ON EARTH

1.6 WATER AS A PHYSICAL SUBSTANCE

SOLID STATE LIQUID STATE

Figure 1.3: Various forms of water

1.7 DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROLOGY

1.8 HYDROLOGICAL UNITS

UNIT 2: METEOROLOGICAL DATA

The hydrology of a region depends primarily on its climate, second on its

Saturation vapour pressure (es): Source of heat energy is available and

Dew-point temperature (td): No change in humidity and the atmospheric pressure

(ew-e) = (t-tw) (3)

Figure 2.1: Saturation vapour pressure of water in air

Table 2.1: Saturation vapour pressure as a function of temperature

Humidity: Example 2.1

Actual vapour pressure in mbar & mmHg

Humidity: Example 2.2

Humidity: Example 2.3

Mean daily temperature: Average of the maximum- and minimum daily

Vertical temperature gradient: Rate of change in temperature with height is called

Dry-adiabatic lapse rate: Temperature change due to decompression is about

Temperature: Example 2.4

Mean daily temperature:

uo = Wind speed at zo (2m)

Wind: Example 2.6

Wind: Example 2.7

Wind: Example 2.8

Predict the speed for the 2m level

Crystal process: Ice crystals and water exist together at sub-freezing

The upward movement of air is caused by:

2.6.1 Types of precipitation

2.6.2 Measurement of precipitation

Removable top cylinder

Bottom cylinder encased