Concepts of

SECOND EDITION

Sylvia S. Mader

TM

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 TM

CONCEPTS OF BIOLOGY, SECOND EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2011 by
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Mader, Sylvia S.
Concepts of biology / Sylvia S. Mader. — 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-07-340348-9 — ISBN 0-07-340348-2 (hard copy : alk. paper)
1. Biology—Textbooks. I. Title.
QH308.2.M234 2011
570—dc22
2010017189
www.mhhe.com

mad03482_FM_i-xxvi, 1.indd ii 02/08/10 1:33 PM

 Brief Contents
Preface iv
Applications xxvii

1 Biology, the Study of Life 2

PART I PART IV
Organisms Are Composed of Cells 22 Plants Are Homeostatic 429
2 Basic Chemistry and Cells 24 21 Plant Organization and Homeostasis 430
3 Organic Molecules and Cells 42 22 Transport and Nutrition in Plants 450
4 Structure and Function of Cells 62 23 Control of Growth and Responses in Plants 468
5 Dynamic Activities of Cells 84 24 Reproduction in Plants 488
6 Pathways of Photosynthesis 104
7 Pathways of Cellular Respiration 122 PART V
Animals Are Homeostatic 505
PART II
25 Animal Organization and Homeostasis 506
Genes Control the Traits 26 Coordination by Neural Signaling 524
of Organisms 140 27 Sense Organs 548
8 Cell Division and Reproduction 142 28 Locomotion and Support Systems 568
9 Patterns of Genetic Inheritance 168 29 Circulation and Cardiovascular Systems 588
10 Molecular Biology of Inheritance 190 30 Lymph Transport and Immunity 608
11 Regulation of Gene Activity 210 31 Digestive Systems and Nutrition 626
12 Biotechnology and Genomics 228 32 Gas Exchange and Transport in Animals 648
33 Osmoregulation and Excretion 664
PART III 34 Coordination by Hormone Signaling 680
Organisms Are Related and Adapted 35 Reproduction and Development 698
to Their Environment 246
13 Darwin and Evolution 248 PART VI
14 Speciation and Evolution 270 Organisms Live in Ecosystems 724
15 The Evolutionary History of Life on Earth 290 36 Population Ecology 726
16 Evolution of Microbial Life 308 37 Behavioral Ecology 742
17 Evolution of Protists 332 38 Community and Ecosystem Ecology 758
18 Evolution of Plants and Fungi 350 39 Major Ecosystems of the Biosphere 780
19 Evolution of Animals 378 40 Conservation Biology 798
20 Evolution of Humans 410

iii

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 Preface: What Sets Mader Apart?

Focus on Key Biological Concepts

Biology—like no other discipline—uses concepts as a way to understand ourselves and the world
we live in, and an understanding of biological principles should be within the grasp of all those
who decide to study biology. Sylvia Mader is motivated by the desire to help science-shy students
gain a conceptual understanding of biology.
Concepts of Biology was written not only to present the major concepts of biology clearly and
concisely but also to show the relationships between the concepts at various levels of complexity.
Emphasis on biological concepts begins in the introductory chapter. In this edition, the first
chapter discusses the scientific process and then proceeds to an overview of the five major concepts
of biology. These key concepts have become the part titles for the book:
Part I: Organisms Are Composed of Cells
Part II: Genes Control the Traits of Organisms
Part III: Organisms Are Related and Adapted to Their Environment
Part IV: Plants Are Homeostatic
Part V: Animals Are Homeostatic
Part VI: Organisms Live in Ecosystems

Mader Writing Style

Well-known for its clarity and simplicity, the Mader writing style makes the content accessible
to students. Mader’s writing appeals to students because it meets them where they are and helps
them understand the concepts with its clear “take-home messages” and relevant examples.

“This book uses everyday language to immerse the student into the world
of science.” —Michael P. Mahan, Armstrong Atlantic State University

About the Author

Dr. Sylvia S. Mader has authored several nationally recognized biology texts published by McGraw-Hill.
Educated at Bryn Mawr College, Harvard University, Tufts University, and Nova Southeastern University, she
holds degrees in both Biology and Education. Over the years she has taught at University of Massachusetts,
Lowell, Massachusetts Bay Community College, Suffolk University, and Nathan Mathew Seminars. Her
ability to reach out to science-shy students led to the writing of her first text, Inquiry into Life, that is
now in its thirteenth edition. Highly acclaimed for her crisp and entertaining writing style, her books have
become models for others who write in the field of biology.
Although her writing schedule is always quite demanding, Dr. Mader enjoys taking time to visit and explore the various
ecosystems of the biosphere. Her several trips to the Florida Everglades and Caribbean coral reefs resulted in talks she has given
to various groups around the country. She has visited the tundra in Alaska, the taiga in the Canadian Rockies, the Sonoran
Desert in Arizona, and tropical rain forests in South America and Australia. A photo safari to the Serengeti in Kenya resulted
in a number of photographs for her texts. She was thrilled to think of walking in Darwin’s steps when she journeyed to the
Galápagos Islands with a group of biology educators. Dr. Mader was also a member of a group of biology educators who
traveled to China to meet with their Chinese counterparts and exchange ideas about the teaching of modern-day biology.

For My Children —Sylvia Mader

iv

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 Applications HOW LIFE CHANGES

13B Sometimes Mutations Are Beneficial

Application

Imagine trying to redesign a vital mechanical part of an airplane, natural selection. Particularly in plants, many examples of gene
Applications are used throughout Concepts of Biology to while still keeping that plane in flight. Sounds nearly impossible,
doesn’t it? This was one of the puzzles facing early evolutionary
duplication have been found—for example, the wild mustard
plant has undergone at least two duplications of all its chromo-

show how biological concepts relate to students’ lives. biologists. After all, mutations are the main way in which new
traits and features arise during evolution, and yet most mutations
somes in the past, as well as duplication of several individual
genes at various times in history.
cause damage. If a feature is important, how can it be altered An intriguing example of gene duplication involves the
while still allowing an organism and its offspring to survive? sweet-tasting proteins. Of the thousands of proteins studied so

• NEW How Life Changes applications emphasize Geneticists have shown one possible way mutations can
accumulate without impairing present function: gene duplication
far, most have no noticeable flavor—but about half a dozen have
an intensely sweet taste. These rare, sweet-tasting proteins are
(Fig. 13B.1). An extra (and possibly unused) copy of a gene may found in plants and plant products from several different conti-
evolution as the unifying theme of biology and result from errors during cell division, efforts to repair breakage
to DNA, or other mechanisms. The surprising idea here is that
nents: The protein “curculin” is found in the fruit of a Malaysian
herb (Fig. 13B.2); “mabinlin” can be extracted from a traditional
these seeming accidents actually can provide raw material for Chinese herb; “thaumatin” is found in the fruit of a West African
how it pertains to students’ lives. rain forest shrub; and “brazzein” comes from a fruit that grows
wild in Gabon, Cameron, and Zaire. Each of these proteins tastes
sweet only to humans and certain monkeys. From the plant’s
• How Biology Impacts Our Lives single
g copypy of gene
g
point of view, the proteins likely provided an advantage: Sweeter
fruits would be eateneate more mo often and their seeds distributed
more widely, ensuring ng the growth of more plants with genes for
n
applications examine issues that making sweet proteins.
unusual proteins come
ns. A question still remains: How did these
n
me about?
m ab
H O W B I O L O G Y I M PAC T S O U R L I V E S duplicate copies of gene
Application
affect our health and environment. 8B Tissues Can Be Grown in
FIGURE 13B.1
the Lab
Duplication of a
No one yet knows ws exa
w
gene duplication is a like
exactly how these proteins originated, but
likely answer. The proteins look nothing
alike, are found in unrelated
unrela
u plants, and clearly did not come
gene followed by
Most people are now aware that stem cells can undergoathe cell cycle
mutation in one them a human embryo must be destroyed. Embryos fromaresome
some-ancient sshared plant gene. Each protein, however,
• How Science Progresses and generate tissues for the cure of devastating human
such as diabetes, cancer, brain disorders, and heart
diseases,
of the genes is a
way ailments
mutated copy of gene
times “left over” at fertility clinics, but even so many
for complexity reject the use of ES cells because it means the destruction
does resemble
people other proteins
Brazzeinofand a mabinlin,
prote
liin, for
normally found in healthy plants.
fo example, closely resemble “protein-
(Fig. 8B). For many years, scientists have known abouttotwo types
Theofnew potential human life. Adult stem cells are difficult to ase inhibitors,”
glean from proteins
eeins thatt can help prevent further damage
applications discuss scientific stem cells: embryonic stem (ES) cells and adult stem cells.
Embryonic stem cells are simply the cells of an early embry-
arise:
protein might
function diff erently
the human body, and they do not multiply readily in when a plant is injured.
the labora-
protein
ured. Interestingly, however, neither sweet
u
has that function.
ttion. Similar stories are true of most sweet-
tory. Also, their potential to become all different types of tissues

research and advances that have onic stage. These cells can stay alive longer and are
producing different tissues than adult stem cells, but
thanbetter
one.
the original
to acquire
at is not as great as that of ES cells. One drawback to both
proteinstem
and adult product
cells is the dangerproteinofproduct
rejection by the
tastingESproteins:
ordinary
cells Theyy closely
functions, b
recipient. but
clos resemble other plant proteins with
the sequences necessary for those other
ut th
Remember the many different types of proteins thatfunctions occur in the seem to bee missing
mis or mutated. It’s as though pre-
helped us gain valuable biological plasma membrane? Some of those mark the cell as existing
us, and if a transplanted tissue or organ carries different
belonging
Presumably
genes
to were recycled
eecycle to become genes for sweet proteins.
mark-a gene duplication
uplica
u in the distant past resulted in an
ers, our body works against them until they die. This “extra” gene that could
is called lld mutate
mu freely, while still leaving a “good”
knowledge. rejection of the transplant. copy of the gene to ssuppo
extra copy of the genee acq
support the plant’s functions. In time, the
acquired mutations that happened to pro-
Breakthrough vide a sweet taste, and nd pla
n plants with that mutation gained a spe-
human embryo human skin
cialtoappeal
becomefor local diners.
diners
d
All applications end with several By now, scientists are experienced at coaxing stem cells
specialized cells, but research would really benefit from an unlim-
ited source of stem cells in order to achieve the goal of replacing
F O R M YO U R O P I N I O N
Form Your Opinion questions that can diseased or damaged tissues in the human body. The scientific
community is now hopeful that such a source has been found, 1. Humans
H and perhaps apes and mon-
Stem cells thanks to a little-known Japanese scientist who worked alone for keys
k like sweet foods. How does
serve as a basis for class discussion. embryonic induced pluripotent
ten years in a tiny laboratory. Through patient research, Shinya
Yamanaka was able to discover why ES cells are pluripotent—able
this
t benefit plants containing sweet
proteins?
p
stem cells (ES) stem cells (iPS)
to become any type of tissue in the body. He hypothesized that 2. Are
A humans influencing the evolution
pluripotent cells produce certain proteins that specialized cells do of
o plants when they propagate them?
See page xxvii for a complete listing of not produce. Yamanaka worked with mouse skin cells until he
knew that only four particular genes do the trick of making cells
When
W they genetically modify them
Different and
a then propagate them?

application topics. treatments

A Curculigo plant
pluripotent. In 2006 he published his results in the journal Cell.
Just five months later, United States scientists induced human skin
The fruits develop at base of leaves.
3. In
I what way is artificial selection
harmful
h to the plants and animals
FIGURE 13B.2 The cellssweet
to become
protein pluripotent by supplying
curculin is present them
in the fruit of awith active
Curculigo forms
plant. selected
s to reproduce?
of the four genes. These skin cells are termed iPS (induced pluripo-
262 tent stem) cells. For every cell that became pluripotent,
PART 3 Organisms Are Related and Adapted to Their Environment thousands
of skin cells are treated. But the inefficiency doesn’t matter because
Types scientists have access to millions of skin cells. Such cells can even
of cells be obtained by simply swabbing the inside of a person’s mouth!
Researchers are still improving their technique and resolving vari-
ous safety issues, but they feel confident they will be able to make
pancreatic cell n
nerve celll cardiac cell
tissues for human transplant. If replacement tissues are produced
using the p patient’s own skin cells, rejection should not be a prob-
However, scientists hope that eventually labs can stockpile so
lem. Howe
HOW SCIENCE PROGRESSES Application
different types of tissues, a good match will be available for
many diffe
most every person. Because spinal cord injuries should be treated
29E Leeches, a Form of Biotherapy
Types of within a few
fe hours, there isn’t time to use the patient’s own skin
Although it may seem more like an episode of a popular TV tissuess
improved. When reattaching a finger, for example, it is easier to cells to pro produce replacement nerve cells.
show than a real-life medical treatment, the U.S. Food and Drug suture together the thicker-walled arteries than the thinner-
Administration has approved the use of leeches as medical walled veins. Poorly draining blood from veins can pool in the F O R M YO Y UR OPINION
“devices” for treating conditions involving poor blood supply to appendage and threaten its survival. Leech saliva contains 1. Curren
Currently, the main safety issue with iPS cells is that they
various tissues. chemicals that dilate blood vessels and prevent blood from clot- might cause cancer. If you were 75 and had Alzheimer dis-
Leeches are blood-sucking, aquatic creatures, whose closest ting by pancreatic
blocking tissue nervous
the activity of tissue
thrombin. These cardiac effects
tissue can ease, would you be willing to take the chance of cancer in
living relatives are earthworms (Fig. 29E). Prior to modern improve the circulation to the body part. Another substance in order to correct this condition?
FIGURE 8B ES (embryonic stem) cells and iPS (induced
times, medical practitioners fre- leech saliva actually anesthetizes the bite wound. In a natural Imagine that you are a scientist who worked all alone for
2. Imagin
pleuripotent stem) cells both produce many diff fferent types of
quently applied leeches to patients, setting, cells
specialized this and
allows theinleech
tissues to Safety
the lab. feast on theneed
issues blood to supply
be of its years to reach a breakthrough. Should you be allowed
ten ye
mainly in an attempt to remove the victimbut
resolved, undetected,
eventually but in a medical
scientists setting,
believe that it makes
iPS tissues will bethe whole patent your “invention,” or should it be available to
to pat
bad “humors” that they thought were experience
available to curemore
human tolerable,
ills. at least physically. Mentally, how- everyone?
everyo
responsible for many diseases. This ever, the application of leeches can still be a rather unsettling
practice was abandoned, thankfully, experience, and patient acceptance is a major factor limiting CHAPTER 8 Cell Division and Reproduction
C 151
in the nineteenth century when peo- their more widespread use.
ple realized that the “treatment”
F O R M YO U R O P I N I O N
often harmed the patient.
True to their tenacious nature, 1. Would you be willing to let leeches feast for a few minutes
however, leeches are making a come- on your hand to improve the changes of recovering from an
back in twenty-first–century medi- injury?
FIGURE 29E Leeches cine. By applying leeches to tissues 2. At one time, leeches were used to remove blood from a
can attach to the body that have been injured by trauma or patient. How might physicians have gotten the idea that
and suck out blood. disease, blood supply can be removing blood could help cure illnesses?

CHAPTER 29 Circulation and Cardiovascular Systems 603

CONNEC TING THE CONCE PTS

In the second edition, the “Connecting the Concepts” Energy from the sun flows through all liv-
ing things with the participation of chlo-
Photosynthesis Cellular respiration
roplasts and mitochondria. Through the process of
feature appears at the end of each chapter. This feature photosynthesis, chloroplasts in plants and algae
capture solar energy and use it to produce carbo- sun carbohydrate

includes narrative and several questions to help students hydrates, which are broken down to carbon dioxide
and water in the mitochondria of nearly all organisms.
The energy released when carbohydrates (and other organic
O2

understand how the concepts in the present chapter are molecules) are oxidized is used to produce ATP molecules.
When the cell uses ATP to do cellular work, all the captured
energy dissipates as heat.

related to one another and to those in other chapters. During cellular respiration, oxidation by removal of
hydrogen atoms (e– + H+) from glucose or glucose prod-
chloroplast
heat
mitochondrion
ucts occurs during glycolysis, the prep reaction, and the Krebs
cycle. The prep reaction and Krebs cycle release CO2. The elec-
heat
trons are carried by NADH and FADH2 to the electron transport
chain (ETC) in the cristae of mitochondria. Oxygen serves as the CO2+H2O
final acceptor of electrons, and H2O is produced. The pumping of
hydrogen ions by the ETC into the intermembrane space leads to ATP
ATP production.
PUT THE PIECES TOGETHER
2. Explain the statement, “if chloroplasts and mitochondria
1. Tell how the pre-eukaryotic cell must have produced ATP. What are descended from a free-living common ancestor it would
event in the history of life would have allowed cellular respira- explain their structural similarities.” What are some structural
tion to evolve? Explain. similarities?

PREFACE v

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 Instructional Art
Outstanding photographs and dimensional illustrations, vibrantly colored,
are featured throughout Concepts of Biology. Accuracy and instructional
value were primary considerations in the development of each figure.

Multilevel Perspective
Illustrations depicting complex structures
show macroscopic and microscopic views
to help you see the relationships between
increasingly detailed drawings.

Combination Art
Drawings of structures are paired with micrographs to
give you the best of both perspectives: the realism of
photos and the explanatory clarity of line drawings.

“The illustrations support the text strongly.”

—Anju Sharma, Stevens Institute of Technology

vi PREFACE

mad03482_FM_i-xxvi, 1.indd vi 02/08/10 1:33 PM

 3 developing 4
Developing sporophyte: sporophyte The sporophyte:
 The sporophyte embryo  The dependent sporophyte has a foot buried in female
is retained within the gametophyte tissue, a stalk, and an upper capsule (the
archegonium, where sporangium), where meiosis occurs and windblown spores
it develops, becoming a are produced.
mature sporophyte.

Sporangium
Process Figures
Complex processes are broken down into a series of
Mitosis
smaller steps that are easy to follow. Numbers guide
stalk
Sporophyte you through the process.
zygote
In process figures, numbered steps are coordinated with
diploid (2n)
FERTILIZATION
haploid (n)
MEIOSIS the narrative for an integrated approach to learning.
2 Fertilization:
Flagellated sperm egg Spores
sperm 5 Spore dispersal: 
produced in
Mitosis Spores are released
antheridia swim in
external water to when they are most 
archegonia, each likely to be dispersed 
onia
Archegonia
bearing a single egg. by air currents.
archegonium buds

Antheridia

1 The mature  6 The immature 

gametophytes: gametophyte:
In mosses, the dominant  A spore germinates
gametophyte shoots into the first
bear either antheridia stage of the male
or archegonia, where  and the female
gametes are gametophytes. “The art, fi gures, and photos
produced by mitosis.
antheridium
are excellent.”
Gametophytes —Larry Szymczak,
Chicago State University

10.6 During translation, polypeptide synthesis occurs one amino acid at a time
Although we often speak of protein synthesis, some proteins
have more than one polypeptide, so it is more accurate to recog- amino acid methionine large ribosomal subunit
nize that polypeptide synthesis occurs at a ribosome. Polypep-
tide synthesis involves three events: initiation, elongation, and met
E site P site A site
termination. Enzymes are needed so that each of the three events
will occur, and both initiation and elongation also require an
input of energy.
U A
5ʹ A U C mRNA met
Initiation During initiation all translation components come G

together. Proteins called initiation factors help assemble a small

ribosomal subunit, mRNA, initiator tRNA, and a large ribosomal
subunit for the start of a polypeptide synthesis. 3ʹ U A C
A U G
Initiation is shown in Figure 10.6A. In prokaryotes, an small ribosomal subunit
mRNA binds to a small ribosomal subunit at the mRNA bind- 5ʹ start codon 3ʹ

TRANSCRIPTION ing site. The start codon AUG is at the P site. The fi
TRANSLATION rst, or initia-
first,
1 DNA in nucleus serves as
a template for mRNA. tor, tRNA pairs with this codon because its anticodon is UAC. An mRNA binds to a small The large ribosomal subunit
As you can see by examining Figure 10.4B, AUG is the codon ribosomal subunit. An initiator completes the ribosome.
for methionine. Methionine is always the3fi
DNA mRNA moves intoof a tRNA with the anticodon UAC Initiator tRNA occupies the
rst
first amino acid
2 mRNA is processed large and small cytoplasm and pairs with the mRNA start P site. The A site is ready
polypeptide. After the small ribosomal
ribosomal subunits 5′ unit has attached,
becomes associated a codon AUG. for the next tRNA.
before leaving the nucleus.
mRNA large ribosomal subunit joins to the small with subunit. Although
ribosomes.
introns
primary similar in many ways, initiation in eukaryotes is much more
mRNA 3′ complex. FIGURE 10.6A Participants in the initiation event assemble as
mature amino shown. The first amino acid is typically methionine.
4 tRNAs with
mRNA acids
nuclear pore anticodons carry
amino acids
to mRNA.
ribosome tRNA
U A
U A C C

polypeptide
5′ A U G 3′
anticodon Color Consistency
codon
5 During initiation, anticodon-codon
Consistent use of color organizes
8 During termination, a
CC
C
complementary base pairing
begins as the ribosomal subunits ribosome reaches a stop information and clarifies concepts.
come together at a start codon. codon; mRNA and
ribosomal subunits
anticodon
5′
C C C UG G U U U disband.
G G G A C C A A A G U A

3′

6 During elongation, polypeptide

synthesis takes place one
amino acid at a time.
7 Ribosome attaches to
rough ER. Polypeptide enters
the ER interior, where it folds
and is modified.

PREFACE vii

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 The Mader Learning System
Each chapter features numerous learning aids that were carefully
developed to help students grasp challenging concepts.

Cell Division and

8 Cancer Is a Genetic Disorder
W e often think of diseases in terms of organs, and therefore it
is customary to refer to colon cancer, or lung cancer, or pan-
creatic cancer. But actually cancer is a cellular disease. Cancer is
present, when abnormal cells have formed a tumor. Exceptions
are cancers of the blood, in
which abnormal cells
are coursing through
the bloodstream.
Reproduction The cells of a tumor
share a common

A Chapter Outline lists the chapter C H A P T E R O U T LI N E

ancestor—the fi rst
cell to become
cancerous.
Chromosomes Become Visible During Cell Division Uncontrolled
concepts and the topics (numbered) that 8.1 A karyotype displays the chromosomes 144
8.2 The eukaryotic cell cycle has a set series of
growth leading to a tumor
is characteristic of multicellular
Cancer
cell dividing
stages 145 organisms, not unicellular ones.
will be discussed in the chapter. Mitosis Maintains the Chromosome Number
8.3 Following mitosis, daughter cells have the same
The very mechanism that allows
our bodies to grow and repair tissues is the one that turns on us
chromosome count as the parent cell 146 and allows cancer to begin. Cancer is uncontrolled cell division.
Applications are also listed. 8.4 Mitosis has a set series of phases 148
8.5 Cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm 150
Usually, cell division is confined to just certain cells of the
body, called adult stem cells. For example, skin can replenish
itself because stem cells below the surface have the ability to
Cancer Is Uncontrolled Cell Division divide. In embryos all cells can divide. How else could a new-
8.6 Cell cycle control is lacking in cancer cells 152 born arise from a single fertilized egg? But something happens
Meiosis Reduces the Chromosome Number as development progresses: The cells undergo specialization
8.7 Homologous chromosomes separate during and become part of a particular organ. A mature multicellular
meiosis 155 organism contains many kinds of specialized cells in many
8.8 Synapsis and crossing-over occur during
meiosis I 156
8.9 Sexual reproduction increases genetic surface blebs
variation 156
8.10 Meiosis requires meiosis I and meiosis II 158
8.11 Life cycles are varied 160
8.12 Meiosis can be compared to mitosis 161

“The organization of the text around the Chromosome Anomalies Can Be Inherited
8.13 Nondisjunction causes chromosome number
anomalies 162
major theories of Biology is a wise path 8.14 Chromosome number anomalies can be
observed 163
8.15 Chromosome structure anomalies can also be
to follow; it integrates the chapters into observed 164

APPLI C AT I O N S
themes and points out the development HOW LIFE CHANGES
Evolution of the Spindle Apparatus 147
HOW BIOLOGY IMPACTS OUR LIVES
of a theory. . . . Tissues Can Be Grown in the Lab 151
HOW BIOLOGY IMPACTS OUR LIVES
Protective Behaviors and Diet Help Prevent Cancer 154 Colon cancer cell

—Paul E. Wanda, Southern Illinois

University, Edwardsville
142

Meiosis Reduces the Chromosome Number

Learning Outcomes
Learning Outcomes are listed at the start of each major ▶ Describe three ways genetic variation is ensured in the next generation. (8.7–8.9)
▶ Describe the phases of meiosis, and compare the occurrence of meiosis in the life cycle of various organisms. (8.10–8.11)
▶ Compare the process and the result of meiosis to those of mitosis. (8.12)
section to provide students with an overview of what Meiosis is necessary to sexual reproduction, the type of reproduction that requires two parents. In animals, the two parents are called a
male and a female. The results of meiosis cause the offspring to be different from each other and from either parent. Exactly where meiosis

they are to know. occurs in the life cycle of organisms determines the adult chromosome number. Even though meiosis is different from mitosis, the two
processes bear certain similarities.

8.7 Homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis

Meiosis is reduction division. Because meiosis involves two
divisions, four daughter cells result. Each of these daughter cells centromere homologous
has one of each kind of chromosome and, therefore, half as nucleolus chromosomes

Section Introductions orient students to concepts in a many chromosomes as the parent cell.
In Figure 8.7, the diploid (2n) number of chromosomes is four,
and there are two pairs of chromosomes. The short chromosomes
centrioles
homologous 2n = 4
chromosomes

short, easy-to-understand manner. are one pair, and the long chromosomes are another. They are
homologous chromosomes (also called homologues) because they
look alike and carry genes for the same traits, such as finger length.
However, one homologue could call for short fingers and the other CHROMOSOME DUPLICATION
for long fingers.
Prior to the first division, called meiosis I, DNA replication has synapsis
occurred, and the chromosomes are duplicated. During meiosis I,
the homologous chromosomes come together and line up side by
side. This so-called synapsis results in an association of four chro-
matids that stay in close proximity during the first two phases of 2n = 4
meiosis I. Also, because of synapsis, there are pairs of homologous sister
chromosomes at the equator during meiosis I. (Keep in mind that chromatids
only during meiosis I is it possible to observe paired chromosomes

Figure Legends have been expanded in this edition at the equator.) Synapsis leads to a reduction in the chromosome
number because it permits orderly separation of homologous chro-
MEIOSIS I
Duplicated
homologous pairs
mosomes. The daughter nuclei are haploid because they receive

to reinforce the discussion and to improve student only one member of each pair. The haploid (n) nature of each
daughter cell can be verified by counting its centromeres. Each
synapse and
then separate.

chromosome, however, is still duplicated, and no replication of

learning. DNA occurs between meiosis I and meiosis II. The period of time
between meiosis I and meiosis II is called interkinesis.
During meiosis II, the sister chromatids of each chromo-
some separate, becoming daughter chromosomes that are dis- MEIOSIS II
tributed to daughter nuclei. In the end, each of four daughter Sister chromatids
cells has the n, or haploid, number of chromosomes, and each separate, becoming
daughter chromosomes.
chromosome consists of one chromatid.
In humans, the daughter cells mature into gametes (sex
cells—sperm and egg) that fuse during fertilization. Fertiliza-
tion restores the diploid number of chromosomes in the zygote,
the first cell of the new individual. If the gametes carried the
diploid instead of the haploid number of chromosomes, the
Check Your Progress questions at the end of chromosome number would double with each fertilization. After
several generations, the zygote would be nothing but
n=2 n=2

chromosomes. FIGURE 8.7 Meiosis produces daughter cells that are genetically

each section help students assess and/or apply 8.7 Check Your Progress At the completion of meiosis I, are the
different from the parent cell. Four daughter cells result because
meiosis includes two divisions: During meiosis I, the homologous
chromosomes separate, and during meiosis II the chromatids
cells diploid (2n) or haploid (n)? Explain.
separate, becoming daughter chromosomes.
their understanding of a concept.
CHAPTER 8 Cell Division and Reproduction 155

viii PREFACE

mad03482_FM_i-xxvi, 1.indd viii 02/08/10 1:35 PM

 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW
A bulleted and illustrated Summary is organized according to the
chapter concepts and helps students review the chapter. New to SUMMARY
8.4 Mitosis has a set series of phases
• The spindle poles of animal cells have centrioles and an aster.
Plant cells have poles but no centrioles or asters.
Chromosomes Become Visible During Cell Division • Nuclear envelope fragments and chromosomes attach to
this edition, the boldface terms are included in the summary as an 8.1 A karyotype displays the chromosomes
• A karyotype shows that eukaryotes have homologous pairs
spindle fibers by kinetochores (prophase) and align at the
equator (metaphase); sister chromatids separate and become
of chromosomes. chromosomes (anaphase), and daughter nuclei re-form

aid to learning these terms in a nonthreatening way. • Humans have 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex
chromosomes. A Y chromosome is shorter than an X
chromosome. Males are XY and females are XX.
(telophase).
• In plants and animals, mitosis allows growth and repair. In
humans, adult stem cells undergo mitosis to replace worn-out
• Following DNA replication, each chromosome has two sister cells.
chromatids held together at a centromere. Kinetochores 8.5 Cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm
which develop at centromeres function during cell division.
• In animal cells, cytokinesis involves a cleavage furrow.
• Homologus chromosomes have genes for the same trait—e.g.,
• In plant cells, cytokinesis involves the formation of a new
type of hairline. Sister chromatids have exact genes—e.g.,
plasma membrane and cell wall at a cell plate.
widow’s peak.
8.2 The eukaryotic cell cycle has a set series of stages Cancer Is Uncontrolled Cell Division
• In the cell cycle, interphase (G1, S, G2 stages) precedes the M 8.6 Cell cycle control is lacking in cancer cells
stage, which includes mitosis and cytokinesis. • Checkpoint G1 involves cell cycle control; checkpoint G2
ensures that DNA replicated properly; checkpoint M ensures
G0 that chromosomes are distributed accurately to daughter cells.
• In general, if the cell cycle is unable to continue, apoptosis
occurs. Apoptosis initiated by p53 is programmed cell death
Int orchestrated by unleashed enzymes.
er
G1 p h • Due to mutations, carcinogenesis occurs and cancer is
Cyto (growth)

as
kine present when cells divide uncontrollably and a tumor

e
sis
S
develops. Cell cycle control and apoptosis are lacking.

tosis
M (DNA synthesis) • Cancer cells have abnormal characteristics: lack
differentiation, have abnormal nuclei, form tumors,

Mi
undergo metastasis (formation of tumors distant from
G2
primary tumor), and promote angiogenesis (formation of
(growth) new blood vessels).

Meiosis Reduces the Chromosome Number

8.7 Homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis
• In G1 cells can make a commitment to divide; in S DNA • Meiosis is reduction division. Each of four daughter cells has
replication results in duplicated chromosom
chromosomes; anand in G2 only one of each kind of chromosome.
proteins are made to form microtubules. • Meiosis requires one DNA replication and two cell divisions,
• Embryonic cells and adult stem cells dividee all th
the time; cells called meiosis I and meiosis II. The period of time between
in the G0 stage have dropped out of the cell cycle and do not meiosis I and meiosis II is called interkinesis.
• Independent assortment occurs because the paired • Homologous chromosomes come together during synapsis and
homologous chromosomes align during meiosis I with either TESTING YOURSELF divide until stimulated to do so.
Testing Yourself offers another way to review the chapter homologue facing either pole.
• Fertilization brings together genetically different gametes that
Mitosis Maintains the Chromosome Number
Chromosomes Become Visible During Cell Division
mber
8.3 Following mitosis, daughter cells have the he sam
h same
then separate during meiosis I; sister chromatids separate during
meiosis II. The daughter cells are haploid.
• In humans, the daughter cells become gametes (egg and
fuse to form a zygote. 1. Which of these statements is incorrect? Just count
before as
mitosis in sperm) with the haploid number of chromosomes. The diploid
chromosome the parent cell
concepts. Included are objective multiple-choice questions 8.10 Meiosis requires meiosis I and meiosis II
• Meiosis I: prophase I—homologues pair and crossing-over
a eukaryotic cell,
• Mitosis is duplication division; the parent ccell an
a. homologous pairs of chromosomes can be seen.
daughter cells all have the same number aand
b. each chromosome has two sister chromatids.
and the
kinds of
nd kin
number is restored with fertilization.
8.8 Synapsis and crossing-over occur during meiosis I
occurs; metaphase I—homologue pairs align at equator chromosomes because the identical chromatidsaatids of each • During meiosis I, synapsis (pairing of homologues to form
and Thinking Conceptually questions that ask students to independently; anaphase I—homologues separate;
telophase I—daughter cells are haploid.
• Interkinesis is the time period between meiosis I and
c. one chromatid came from the father and one came from
the mother.
duplicated chromosome separate and become
chromosomes.
d. each sister chromatid carries the same genes.
• The parent cell can be diploid (2n) or haploid
daughter
me dau
m

(n), depending
lloid (n
a tetrad) and crossing-over (exchange of genetic material)
between nonsister chromatids occurs.
2. Which is a correct contrast between autosomes and sex 8.9 Sexual reproduction increases genetic variation
apply their understanding of a concept. meiosis II. No DNA replication occurs.
• Meiosis II: During stages designated by the Roman numeral
II, the chromatids of duplicated chromosomes from meiosis I
chromosomes in humans?
a. 22 pairs—one pair
on the species.
• The number of centromeres equals the number
chromosomes a cell has.
mber of
m • Crossing-over recombines genetic information and increases
the variability of genetic inheritance on the chromosomes.
separate, producing a total of four daughter cells for meiosis. b. control gender—control enzymes • The gametes contain all possible combinations of
• Centrosomes form the spindle apparatus, which w helps ensure
c. are always duplicated—are always single chromosomes because of independent assortment.
8.11 Life cycles are varied orderly separation of chromatids.
d. are always visible—are never visible
• Asexual reproduction results in offspring that are genetically 3. In the cell cycle,
identical to the single parent. a. mitosis cannot occur without interphase.
• In the haploid life cycle, asexual reproduction occurs when b. the single event during interphase is chromosome CHAPTER 8 Cell Division and Reproduction 165
a haploid parent produces offspring by mitosis that are also duplication.
haploid. In sexual reproduction, only the zygote is diploid and c. cells are metabolically inactive during interphase.
undergoes meiosis to produce haploid offspring. Algae and d. a DNA double helix divides in two.
fungi often have the haploid life cycle.
• In the alternation of generations life cycle, which usually Mitosis Maintains the Chromosome Number
occurs in plants, the diploid sporophyte produces spores by 4. The two identical halves of a duplicated chromosome
meiosis. A spore undergoes mitosis to become a gametophyte, a. always stay together. c. become daughter chromosomes.
which produces gametes. When the gametes fuse, the diploid b. are different sizes. d. are called homologues.
zygote becomes a sporophyte.
• In the diploid life cycle, which usually takes place in animals, For questions 5–8, match each description to a phase of mitosis in
the diploid adult produces gametes by meiosis, which are the key.
the only haploid part of the life cycle. Mitosis is involved in
“It would be fun to teach and growth.
8.12 Meiosis can be compared to mitosis
KEY:
a. prophase
b. metaphase
c. anaphase
d. telophase

learn using this book.” • See Figure 8.12 and note that homologous chromosomes
only pair during metaphase I of meiosis and that four haploid
5. The nucleolus disappears, and the nuclear envelope
breaks down.
6. The spindle disappears, and the nuclear envelopes form.
daughter cells result from meiosis but not mitosis.

—Brian W. Schwartz, Chromosome Anomalies Can Be Inherited

7. Sister chromatids separate.
8. Chromosomes are aligned on the spindle equator.
9. Mitosis in animal cells but not plant cells
8.13 Nondisjunction causes chromosome number anomalies

Columbus State University • A polyploid has a multiple of the haploid number of

chromosomes; an aneuploid is a monosomy (2n–1) or a
a. maintains the chromosome number.
b. uses a spindle apparatus.
c. has centrioles at the poles.
trisomy (2n+1).
• Aneuploidy is due to nondisjunction when homologues do d. produces two unequal daughter cells.
not separate during meiosis I or when chromatids do not 10. Label this diagram of a cell in early prophase of mitosis:
separate during meiosis II.
8.14 Chromosome number anomalies can be observed
• A syndrome is due to the inheritance of a set of physical
characteristics that can be overcome with proper medical care a. d.
and support. b.
• Down syndrome is an autosomal trisomy. Turner syndrome
c.
and Klinefelter syndrome result from sex chromosome
anomalies.
8.15 Chromosome structure anomalies can also be observed
• Deletion: A segment of a chromosome is missing.
• Duplication:
up cat o : A segment
seg e t occurs
occu s twice
t ce on
o the
t e same
sa
chromosome.
chromosome Cancer Is Uncontrolled Cell Division
• Inversion: A segment has turned 180 degrees.
eees. 11. Which of these is an incorrect statement?
• Translocation: Segments have moved between
ween
w a. Checkpoints allow the cell cycle to continue if all is normal.
nonhomologous chromosomes. b. A DNA abnormality can cause apoptosis to occur.
c. The cell cycle stages take place in the order dictated by c. homologues separate—chromatids separate
external signals. d. daughter cells are diploid—daughter cells are haploid
d. Mutations can cause the cell cycle to occur repeatedly.
166 PART 2 Genes Control the Traits of Organisms
Orga
12. Which of the following is typical of normal cells, but not Chromosome Anomalies Can Be Inherited
typical of cancer cells? 19. An individual can have too many or too few chromosomes as
a. Cell cycle control is always present. a result of
b. The cells have enlarged nuclei. a. nondisjunction. d. amniocentesis.
c. The cells stimulate the formation of new blood vessels. b. Barr bodies. e. cell cycle control.
d. The cells are capable of traveling through blood and lymph. c. mitosis.
20. Which of the following could cause a chromosome anomaly?
Meiosis Reduces the Chromosome Number a. inheritance of an extra chromosome 21
13. Which are ways that meiosis increases genetic variation? b. deletion in chromosome 7
a. Homologues align independently at the equator. c. the inheritance of 23 pairs of chromosomes
b. Daughter cells always have the same combination of father d. translocation between chromosomes 2 and 20
and mother chromosomes. e. All but c are correct.
c. Following crossing-over, sister chromatids carry different 21. Turner syndrome (X0) can only result if nondisjunction
genes. occurred during
e. Both a and c are correct. a. mitosis. c. meiosis II.
14. At the equator during metaphase II of meiosis, there are b. meiosis I. d. All of these are correct.
a. single chromosomes.
b. unpaired duplicated chromosomes.
c. homologous pairs.
d. always 23 chromosomes.
THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY
1. Genetic testing shows that Mary has only 46 chromosomes,
Thinking Scientifically questions end the chapter.
15. During which phase of meiosis do homologous chromosomes
separate?
a. prophase II
b. telophase I
d. anaphase I
e. anaphase II
but both members of one homologous pair came from her
father. In which parent did nondisjunction occur? Explain.
2. Criticize the hypothesis that it would be possible to clone an
These questions apply directly to the chapter and
c. metaphase I individual by using an egg and a sperm with the exact genetic
16. THINKING CONCEPTUALLY Use the events of meiosis to briefly
explain why you and a sibling with the same parents have
makeup as those that produced the individual.
ask students to design an experiment or explain
different characteristics.
17. When a haploid alga reproduces asexually by mitosis, the
a. offspring are genetically identical to the parent.
b. offspring undergo meiosis and become diploid.
ONLINE RESOURCE
some part of a hypothetical experiment.
www.mhhe.com/maderconcepts2
c. offspring number more than four.
d. Both a and c are correct. Enhance your study with animations
18. Which is an incorrect comparison between meiosis and that bring concepts to life and practice tests to assess your
mitosis? understanding. Your instructor may also recommend the
a. four daughter cells—two daughter cells interactive eBook, individualized learning tools, and more.
b. crossing-over occurs—crossing-over does not occur

CONNEC TING THE CONCE PTS

All cells receive DNA from preexisting cells through

the process of cell division. Cell division ensures that
Genetic variations
which is discussed in
Connecting the Concepts feature at the end of the chapter shows
ons are essential to the process of evolution,
n Part III. In the meantime, Chapter 9 reviews
DNA is passed on to the next generation of cells and to the next
generation of organisms.
The end product of ordinary cell division (i.e., mitosis) is two
the fundamental laws
how the concepts of the chapter are related, and how they relate
ws of genetics established by Gregor Mendel.
Although Mendel had no knowledge of chromosome behavior,
modern students have ve the advantage of being able to apply their
new cells, each with the same number and kinds of chromosomes knowledge of meiosis sis to their understanding of Mendel’s laws.
as the parent cell. Mitosis is part of the cell cycle, and negative con-
sequences result if the cell cycle becomes unsynchronized. Knowing to concepts in other chapters. “Put the Pieces Together” questions
Mendel’s laws are fundamental
undamental to understanding the inheritance of
particular alleles on the chromosomes.
how the cell cycle is regulated has contributed greatly to our knowl-
PUT THE PIECES TOGETHER
edge of cancer and other disorders.
In contrast to mitosis, meiosis is part of the production of gam-
etes, which have half the number of chromosomes as the parent
allow students to test their reasoning ability.
1. Synapsis during meiosis is necessary to crossing-over and inde-
pendent assortment
ment of chromosomes. Explain.
cell. Through the mechanics of meiosis, which involves synapsis, 2. What other process
cess aside from those mentioned in question 1
sexually reproducing species have a greater likelihood of genetic result in increased
ed variation among offspring?
variations among offspring than otherwise. However, meiosis brings
with it the risk of chromosome anomalies.
3. Create a scenario
mitosis. All questions are answered in the Appendix.
io by which meiosis could have evolved from

CHAPTER 8 Cell Division and Reproduction 167

PREFACE ix

mad03482_FM_i-xxvi, 1.indd ix 02/08/10 1:35 PM

 What’s New to the Second Edition
of Concepts of Biology

The second edition of Concepts of Biology continues to pre- Part III: Organisms Are Related and Adapted to Their
sent concepts clearly and make biology relevant through the Environment The evolution chapters include extensive revi-
use of excellent writing, instructional art, and effective ped- sions. Chapter 14, Speciation and Evolution, now includes real-
agogical tools. This new edition also includes life examples of various processes that can cause speciation.
• Significant content changes, as outlined below. The influence of regulatory genes during development helps
explain how species can share the same genes but have differ-
• Enhanced evolutionary coverage, including extensive
ent phenotypes. Chapter 15, The Evolutionary History of Life on
updates to the evolution chapters and the addition of
Earth, will help instructors introduce their students to cladis-
How Life Changes applications.
tics. It explains the rationale behind the replacement of Lin-
• Media integration, including a robust set of teaching and nean classification with that of cladistics in a way that allows
learning tools through McGraw-Hill’s Connect™ Biology. instructors to be up-to-date, while not overburdening begin-
ning students. Chapter 17, Evolution of Protists, introduces a
Content Changes new evolutionary tree of protists based on molecular data. The
Chapter 1, Biology, the Study of Life, was rewritten. It begins chapter still emphasizes the biological and ecological relevance
with a discussion of the scientific process and proceeds to of each type of protist. Chapter  18, Evolution of Plants and
an overview of the major concepts of biology (cell theory, Fungi, employs a new evolutionary tree based in part on molec-
gene theory, theory of evolution, theory of homeostasis, and ular data. Land plants and stoneworts, which are charophytes,
theory of ecosystems). Basic evolutionary principles are pre- share a common green algal ancestor. All land plants protect the
sented, and a depiction of the Tree of Life introduces the embryo, and thereafter each of four innovations can be associ-
three domains of life and the various types of eukaryotes. ated with a particular group of land plants. Chapter 19, Evolu-
Part I: Organisms Are Composed of Cells Chapter 4, tion of Animals, introduces the new evolutionary tree of
Structure and Function of Cells, presents an improved dis- animals based on molecular and developmental data. The biol-
cussion on cell structure and two new tables. Table 4.4 sum- ogy of each group is discussed as before. Chapter 20, Evolution
marizes the differences between plant and animal cells, and of Humans, was rewritten to include a description and impor-
Table 4.16 summarizes the eukaryotic cell structures and tance of the newly studied fossil Ardipithicus ramidus.
their functions. A new figure (Fig. 4.13) stresses that plant Part IV: Plants Are Homeostatic Chapter 21, Plant Orga-
cells have both mitochondria and chloroplasts. Chapter 5, nization and Homeostasis, includes a rewrite of Section 21.1
Dynamic Activities of Cells, includes sharpened energy to better explain the overall organization of a plant and the
transformation analogies with references to everyday occur- functions of roots, stems, and leaves. This supports a rewrite
rences (see Figs. 5.1, 5.3B, and 5.5A). Cell communication of Section 21.8 which discusses more authoritatively how
was stressed with the addition of a new section (Section plants maintain homeostasis. Chapter 22, Transport and
5.13). Chapter 7, Pathways of Photosynthesis, provides an Nutrition in Plants, includes a reorganization of Sections 22.4
improved discussion of mitochondrial structure. Changes to and 22.6 to increase student understanding of phloem struc-
Figures 7.4 and 7.7B offer views from the whole cell to par- ture and function, and root structure and function. Chap-
ticles on the mitochondrial inner membrane. ter 24, Reproduction in Plants, was reorganized and rewritten
Part II: Genes Control the Traits of Organisms All to better present an overview of the flowering plant life cycle
chapters in Part II were rewritten to present concepts at a and place it in an evolutionary context.
student-friendly pace, and thereby increase student interest Part V: Animals Are Homeostatic Chapter 26, Coordina-
and learning. Modern genetics has been updated. Chapter 11, tion by Neural Signaling, was reorganized and begins with
Regulation of Gene Activity, is now at an appropriate level an overview of the structure and function of the human ner-
and explains how humans can make do with far fewer pro- vous system, before comparing this system to that of other ani-
tein-coding genes than expected. Chapter 12, Biotechnology mals. Chapter 30, Lymph Transport and Immunity, includes
and Genomics, offers a short, but complete, discussion of the an updated and rewritten discussion of immunity to be con-
human genome, including the several types of DNA sequences sistent with current immunity literature. Chapter 32, Gas
that are not protein-coding genes. Exchange and Transport in Animals, provides a discussion

mad03482_FM_i-xxvi, 1.indd x 02/08/10 1:35 PM

 on the transport of gases and exchange of gases that is more ture of a population. These same principles are more clearly
clearly related to external and internal respiration. Chap- applied to the human population at the end of the chapter.
ter 33, Osmoregulation and Excretion, places osmoregulation Chapter  37, Behavioral Ecology, better applies the genetic
in fishes versus terrestrial animals in an evolutionary con- control of behavior and the process of sexual selection to
text, showing that physiology in other animals is relevant behavior in general and to human behavior in particular.
to understanding kidney function in humans. Chapter 34, Chapter 38, Community and Ecosystem Ecology, includes
Coordination by Hormone Signaling, was expanded to better an updated discussion of ecological succession to clearly
stress the role of negative feedback in hormonal control and show the  difference between primary and secondary suc-
the role of the pituitary gland in humans. cession. Chapter 40, Conservation Biology, includes a new
section on sustainability. This section stresses that it is not
Part VI: Organisms Live in Ecosystems Chapter 36, too late for humans to plan for and bring about sustainabil-
Population Ecology, was reorganized to show the relation- ity so that future generations will have a comparable stand-
ship between growth rate, survivorship, and the age struc- ard of living to our own.

Teaching and Learning Tools

McGraw-Hill Connect™ Biology LearnSmart™
www.mhhe.com/maderconcepts2 LearnSmart™ is available as an integrated feature of McGraw-
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as standalone.

xi

mad03482_FM_i-xxvi, 1.indd xi 02/08/10 1:35 PM

 Presentation Tools Instructor’s Manual
Everything you need for outstanding presentations in The instructor’s manual contains chapter outlines, lecture
one place! enrichment ideas, and discussion questions.
www.mhhe.com/maderconcepts2
Laboratory Manual
• FlexArt Image PowerPoints—including every piece of art The Concepts of Biology Laboratory
that has been sized and cropped specifically for supe- Manual is written by Dr.  Sylvia
rior presentations, as well as labels that can be edited Mader. With few exceptions, each
and flexible art that can be picked up and moved on chapter in the text has an accompa-
key figures. Also included are tables, photographs, and nying laboratory exercise in the
unlabeled art pieces. manual. Every laboratory has been
• Lecture PowerPoints with Animations—animations illus- written to help students learn the
trating important processes are embedded in the lecture fundamental concepts of biology
material. and the specific content of the chap-
• Animation PowerPoints—animations only are provided ter to which the lab relates, as well as gain
i a better
b under-
d
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• Labeled Jpeg Images—Full-color digital fi les of all illus-
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The Mader: Concepts of Biology companion website allows
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• Chapter-level quizzing with pretest and posttest
• Bio Tutorial animations
• Vocabulary flashcards
• Virtual Labs
Biology Prep, also available on the companion website, helps
students to prepare for their upcoming coursework in biology.
This website enables students to perform self assessments,
conduct self-study sessions with tutorials, and perform a post-
assessment of their knowledge in the following areas:
Presentation Center • Introductory Biology Skills
In addition to the images from your book, this online digital • Basic Math Review I and II
library contains photos, artwork, animations, and other • Chemistry
media from an array of McGraw-Hill textbooks that can be
• Metric System
used to create customized lectures, visually enhanced tests
and quizzes, compelling course websites, or attractive • Lab Reports and Referencing
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tion or give it online. have evolved into carnivores.

xii TEACHING AND LEARNING TOOLS

mad03482_FM_i-xxvi, 1.indd xii 02/08/10 1:35 PM

 Acknowledgments

M any dedicated and talented individuals assisted in the

development of Concepts of Biology. I am very grateful for
the help of so many professionals at McGraw-Hill who were
The many discussions we have about the minutest detail to the
gravest concept are invaluable to me.
I am very much indebted to the contributors and reviewers
involved in bringing this book to fruition. In particular, let me whose suggestions and expertise were so valuable as I developed
thank Janice Roerig-Blong and Michael Hackett, the publisher Concepts of Biology.
and editor who steadfastly encouraged and supported this
project. The developmental editor was Rose Koos, who was
very devoted, and lent her talents and advice to all those who
360° Development
worked on this text. The project manager, Jayne Klein, faith- McGraw-Hill’s 360° Development Process is an
fully and carefully steered the book through the publication ongoing, never-ending, market-oriented approach
process. Tamara Maury, the marketing manager, tirelessly to building accurate and innovative print and digi-
promoted the text and educated the sales representatives on tal products. It is dedicated to continual large-scale
its message. and incremental improvement driven by multiple customer feed-
The design of the book is the result of the creative talents back loops and checkpoints. This is initiated during the early
of Laurie Janssen and many others who assisted in deciding the planning stages of our new products, and intensifies during the
appearance of each element in the text. Electronic Publishing development and production stages, then begins again upon
Services followed my guidelines as they created and reworked publication in anticipation of the next edition.
each illustration, emphasizing pedagogy and beauty to arrive This process is designed to provide a broad, comprehensive
at the best presentation on the page. Evelyn Jo Hebert and Lori spectrum of feedback for refinement and innovation of our
Hancock did a superb job of fi nding just the right photographs learning tools, for both student and instructor. The 360° Devel-
and micrographs. opment Process includes market research, content reviews,
As always, my family was extremely patient with me as I course- and product-specific symposia, accuracy checks, and art
remained determined to meet every deadline on the road to pub- reviews. We appreciate the expertise of the many individuals
lication. My husband, Arthur Cohen, is also a teacher of biology. involved in this process.

Contributors Stephanie Songer Kristin Byrd Robert Harms

North Georgia College Tarrant County St. Louis Community
Lisa Bonneau and State University College—Northeast College at Meramec
Metropolitan Community
College—Blue River Lecture Outlines Marc DalPonte Jill Harp
Brenda Leady Lake Land College Winston Salem State University
Jane Caldwell
Washington and Jefferson College University of Toledo Tammy D. Dennis Barbara Hasek
Bishop State Community College Baton Rouge Community College
Susan Fisher FlexArt
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Phil Gibson University of Wisconsin—
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Nebraska Wesleyan University Jennifer Burtwistle Tammy R.Gamza Judith Kjellman
Shelley Jansky Northeast Community College Arkansas State University—Beebe Yakima Valley
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Second Edition Reviewers Chicago State University Dale Lambert
Michael Thompson Tarrant County
Middle Tennessee State University Muhammad Ashraf Mian Michaela Gazdik
Rust College Ferrum College College—Northeast
Ellen Baker Sandra Gibbons Yevgeniya Lapik
Ancillary Authors Harry S. Truman College
Santa Monica College Moraine Valley
Instructor’s Manual Community College David Loring
Mary K. Beals
Kimberly Lyle-Ippolito Southern University A&M Jared Gilmore Johnson County
Anderson University Community College
Cheryl Boice San Jacinto College—Central
Test Bank Lake City Community College James Hampton John McCastlain
Jo Wen Wu Salt Lake Community College ASU—Heber Springs
Lisa Bryant
Fullerton College Arkansas State University—Beebe

xiii

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 Melissa Meador Andrei L. Barkovskii Arnold J. Karpoff Frank H. Osborne
Arkansas State University—Beebe Georgia College and University of Louisville Kean University
Beth Miller State University Dawn G. Keller John C. Osterman
Pulaski Technological College Lori Bean Hawkeye Community College University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Linda Moore Monroe County Community College Diane M. Kelly Surindar Paracer
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Community College Young Harris College Community College Jay Pitocchelli
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First Edition Reviewers Young Harris College Jeanne Mitchell Bob Wise
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Gloucester County College Broome Community College Brenda Moore Michael L. Womack
H. Bruce Johnston Truman State University Macon State College
Kathy Pace Ames
Illinois Central College Fresno City College Allan D. Nelson Lan Xu
Jacqueline A. Jordan Tarleton State University South Dakota State University
Jason E. Arnold
Hopkinsville Community College Clayton State University Jonas E. Okeagu Alan Yauck
Martin A. Kapper Fayetteville State University Middle Georgia College,
Dave Bachoon
Georgia College and Central Connecticut Nathan Okia Dublin Campus
State University State University Auburn University—Montgomery

xiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

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 General Biology Symposia
Every year McGraw-Hill conducts several General Biology It also offers a forum for the attendees to exchange ideas and
Symposia, which are attended by instructors from across the experiences with colleagues they might not have otherwise
country. These events are an opportunity for editors from met. The feedback we have received has been invaluable, and
McGraw-Hill to gather information about the needs and chal- has contributed to the development of Concepts of Biology and
lenges of instructors teaching nonmajor-level biology courses. its ancillaries.
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Broward Community College University of Wisconsin– Fiona Qualls University of Illinois–Columbia
Jan Coles Stevens Point Jones County Junior College Michael Windelspecht
Kansas State University Sandra Johnson Eric Rabitoy Appalachian State University
Marian Wilson Comer Middle Tennessee State University Citrus College Mary Wisgirda
Chicago State University Tina Jones Karen Raines San Jacinto College,
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University of Utah Arnold Karpoff Kirsten Raines Tom Worcester
Lewis Deaton University of Louisville San Jacinto College Mount Hood Community College
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at Lafayette Irvine Valley College Virginia Commonwealth South Dakota State University
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University of North Morgan State University Chris Robinson Georgia Southern University
Carolina at Chapel Hill Todd Kostman Bronx Community College Victoria Zusman
JodyLee Estrada-Duek University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh Robin Robison Miami Dade College
Pima Community Steven Kudravi Northwest Mississippi
College, Desert Vista Georgia State University Community College

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv

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 Contents

Preface iv Atoms React with One Another to Form Molecules 29

Applications xxvii 2.3 After atoms react, they have a completed outer shell 29
2.4 An ionic bond occurs when electrons are
1 Biology, the Study of Life 2 transferred 30
2.5 A covalent bond occurs when electrons are shared 31
Viewpoint Fire Ants Have a Good Defense 2 2.6 A covalent bond can be nonpolar or polar 32
Science Helps Us Understand the Natural World 4 2.7 Hydrogen bonds can occur between polar
1.1 Scientists use a preferred method 4 molecules 32
1.2 Control groups allow scientists to compare The Properties of Water Benefit Life 33
experimental results 6 2.8 Water molecules stick together and to other
Organisms Are Composed of Cells 9 materials 33
1.3 Cells are the fundamental unit of living things 9 2.9 Water warms up and cools down slowly 34
2.10 Water dissolves other polar substances 34
Genes Control the Traits of Organisms 10
2.11 Frozen water is less dense than liquid water 35
1.4 Organisms have a genetic inheritance 10
Living Things Require a Narrow pH Range 36
Organisms Are Homeostatic 11
2.12 Acids and bases affect living things 36
1.5 Organisms regulate their internal environment 11
2.13 The pH scale measures acidity and basicity 37
Organisms Live in Ecosystems 12 2.14 Buffers help keep the pH of body fluids relatively
1.6 The biosphere is divided into ecosystems 12 constant 37
Organisms Are Related and Adapted
to Their Environment 13
1.7 The ancestry of species can be determined 13
3 Organic Molecules and Cells 42
1.8 Evolutionary relationships help biologists group Viewpoint Plants and Animals Are the
organisms 14 Same but Different 42
1.9 Evolution through natural selection results in The Variety of Organic Molecules Makes Life Diverse 44
adaptation to the environment 16 3.1 The chemistry of carbon makes diverse molecules
1.10 Evolution from a common ancestor accounts for the possible 44
characteristics of life 18 3.2 Functional groups add to the variety of
biomolecules 45
3.3 Molecular subunits can be linked to form varied large
PART I biomolecules 46
Organisms Are Composed Carbohydrates Are Energy Sources and
Structural Components 47
of Cells 22
3.4 Simple carbohydrates provide quick energy 47
2 Basic Chemistry and Cells 24 3.5 Complex carbohydrates store energy and provide
structural support 48
Viewpoint Life Depends on Water 24
Lipids Store Energy and Have Other Functions 49
Matter Is Composed of Atoms 26 3.6 Fats and oils are rich energy-storage molecules 49
2.1 Six types of atoms are basic to life 26 3.7 Other lipids have structural, hormonal, or protective
2.2 Atoms contain subatomic particles 27 functions 50

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 Proteins Have Many Vital Functions 52 Enzymes Speed Chemical Reactions 90
3.8 Proteins are the most versatile of life’s molecules 52 5.5 Enzymes speed reactions by lowering activation
3.9 Each protein is a sequence of particular amino acids 52 barriers 90
3.10 The shape of a protein is necessary to its function 53 5.6 Enzyme speed is affected by local conditions 91
Nucleic Acids Are Information Molecules 56 5.7 Enzymes can be inhibited noncompetitively and
competitively 92
3.11 DNA stores coded information 56
3.12 Genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to The Plasma Membrane Has Many
proteins 57 and Various Functions 93
3.13 Genetic mutations can result in altered proteins 58 5.8 The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with
3.14 The nucleotide ATP is the cell’s energy carrier 58 embedded proteins 93
5.9 Proteins in the plasma membrane have numerous
4 Structure and Function of Cells 62 functions 94
The Plasma Membrane Regulates the Passage
Viewpoint Cells: What Are They? 62
of Molecules Into and Out of Cells 96
Cells Are the Basic Units of Life 64 5.10 Diffusion across a membrane requires no energy 96
4.1 All organisms are composed of cells 64 5.11 Active transport across a membrane requires a
4.2 Metabolically active cells are small in size 65 transporter and energy 98
4.3 Prokaryotic cells evolved first 67 5.12 Bulk transport involves the use of vesicles 98
4.4 Eukaryotic cells contain specialized organelles:
In Multicellular Organisms, Cells Communicate 99
An overview 68
5.13 Extracellular material allows cells to join together and
Protein Synthesis Is a Major Function of Cells 70 communicate 99
4.5 The nucleus contains the cell’s genetic
information 70
4.6 The ribosomes carry out protein synthesis 71
6 Pathways of Photosynthesis 104
4.7 The endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes and Viewpoint Color It Green 104
transports proteins and lipids 72 Photosynthesis Produces Food and
4.8 The Golgi apparatus modifies and repackages Releases Oxygen 106
proteins for distribution 73
6.1 Photosynthesizers are autotrophs that produce their
Vacuoles and Vesicles Have Varied Functions 74 own food 106
4.9 Lysosomes digest biomolecules and cell parts 74 6.2 In eukaryotes, chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis 107
4.10 Peroxisomes break down long-chain fatty acids 74 6.3 Photosynthesis involves two sets of reactions: the light
4.11 Vacuoles are common to plant cells 74 reactions and the Calvin cycle reactions 108
4.12 Vesicles allow the organelles of the endomembrane The Light Reactions Capture Solar Energy 109
system to work together 75 6.4 Solar energy is absorbed by pigments 109
A Cell Carries Out Energy Transformations 76 6.5 Solar energy boosts electrons to a higher energy
4.13 Chloroplasts and mitochondria have opposite level 110
functions 76 6.6 Electrons release their energy as ATP forms 110
The Cytoskeleton Is Dynamic 78 6.7 A noncyclic flow of electrons produces ATP and
NADPH 111
4.14 The cytoskeleton maintains cell shape and assists
movement 78 6.8 A thylakoid is highly organized for its task 113
4.15 Cilia and flagella permit movement 79 The Calvin Cycle Reactions Synthesize Carbohydrates 114
Cell Structures Work Together 80 6.9 ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions
Table 4.16 Eukaryotic Cell Structures 80 are needed to produce a carbohydrate 114
6.10 In photosynthesizers, a carbohydrate is the starting
5 Dynamic Activities of Cells 84 point for other molecules 115
C3, C4, and CAM Photosynthesis Thrive
Viewpoint Life’s Energy Comes from the Sun 84 Under Different Conditions 116
Living Things Transform Energy 86 6.11 C3 photosynthesis is negatively affected by the
5.1 Energy makes things happen 86 presence of oxygen 116
5.2 Two laws apply to energy and its use 87 6.12 C4 photosynthesis boosts CO2 concentration for RuBP
5.3 Cellular work is powered by ATP 88 carboxylase 116
5.4 ATP breakdown is coupled to energy-requiring 6.13 CAM photosynthesis is another alternative to C3
reactions 89 photosynthesis 117

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 7 Pathways of Cellular Respiration 122
Chromosome Anomalies Can Be Inherited
8.13 Nondisjunction causes chromosome number
162

Viewpoint ATP Is Universal 122 anomalies 162

Glucose Breakdown Releases Energy 124 8.14 Chromosome number anomalies can be observed 163
7.1 Cellular respiration is a redox reaction that requires 8.15 Chromosome structure anomalies can also be
O2 124 observed 164
7.2 Cellular respiration involves the cytoplasm and
mitochondria 125
9 Patterns of Genetic Inheritance 168
The Chemical Energy of Glucose Becomes
Viewpoint Troubles With Dog Breeding 168
the Chemical Energy of ATP 126
7.3 Glycolysis: Glucose breakdown begins 126 Gregor Mendel Deduced Laws of Inheritance 170
7.4 The preparatory reaction occurs before the 9.1 A blending model of inheritance existed prior to
Krebs cycle 128 Mendel 170
7.5 The Krebs cycle generates much NADH 129 9.2 Mendel designed his experiments well 170
7.6 The electron transport chain captures energy for ATP Single-Trait Crosses Reveal Units of Inheritance
production 130 and the Law of Segregation 172
7.7 The ATP synthase complex produces ATP 131 9.3 Mendel’s law of segregation describes how gametes
7.8 The ATP payoff can be calculated 132 pass on traits 172
Fermentation Is Inefficient 133 9.4 The units of inheritance are alleles of genes 173
7.9 When oxygen is in short supply, the cell switches to Two-Trait Crosses Support the Law of
fermentation 133 Independent Assortment 174
Metabolic Pathways Cross at Particular Substrates 135 9.5 Mendel’s law of independent assortment describes
7.10 Organic molecules can be broken down and
d inheritance of multiple traits 174
synthesized as needed 135 9.6 Mendel’s results are consistent with the rules of
probability 175
9.7 Testcrosses support Mendel’s laws and indicate the
PART II genotype 176
Mendel’s Laws Apply to Humans 178
Genes Control the Traits 9.8 Pedigrees can reveal the patterns of inheritance 178
of Organisms 140 9.9 Some human genetic disorders are autosomal
recessive 179
8 Cell Division and Reproduction 142 9.10 Some human genetic disorders are autosomal
dominant 180
Viewpoint Cancer Is a Genetic Disorder 142
Complex Inheritance Patterns Extend the
Chromosomes Become Visible During Cell Division 144
Range of Mendelian Genetics 182
8.1 A karyotype displays the chromosomes 144
9.11 Incomplete dominance still follows the law of
8.2 The eukaryotic cell cycle has a set series of stages 145
segregation 182
Mitosis Maintains the Chromosome Number 146 9.12 A gene may have more than two alleles 182
8.3 Following mitosis, daughter cells have the same 9.13 Several genes and the environment can influence a
chromosome count as the parent cell 146 multifactorial characteristic 183
8.4 Mitosis has a set series of phases 148 9.14 One gene can influence several characteristics 184
8.5 Cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm 150 The Sex Chromosomes Also Carry Genes 185
Cancer Is Uncontrolled Cell Division 152 9.15 Traits transmitted via the X chromosome have a
8.6 Cell cycle control is lacking in cancer cells 152 unique pattern of inheritance 185
Meiosis Reduces the Chromosome Number 155 9.16 Humans have X-linked recessive disorders 186
8.7 Homologous chromosomes separate during
meiosis 155
8.8 Synapsis and crossing-over occur during meiosis I 156
10 Molecular Biology of Inheritance 190
8.9 Sexual reproduction increases genetic variation 156
Viewpoint Arabidopsis Is a Model Organism 190
8.10 Meiosis requires meiosis I and meiosis II 158 DNA Structure Suits Its Function 192
8.11 Life cycles are varied 160 10.1 DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides 192
8.12 Meiosis can be compared to mitosis 161 10.2 DNA is a double helix 194

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 DNA Replication Is a Duplication 196 The Human Genome Can Be Studied 238
10.3 DNA replication is semiconservative 196 12.6 The human genome has been sequenced 238
Genes Specify the Primary Structure of a Protein 198 12.7 The genome contains coding and noncoding DNA 239
10.4 Transcription is the first step in gene expression 198 12.8 Functional and comparative genomics are active
fields of study 240
10.5 Translation is the second step in gene expression: An
overview 200
10.6 During translation, polypeptide synthesis occurs one PART III
amino acid at a time 202
10.7 Let’s review gene expression 203 Organisms Are Related and
Mutations Are Changes in the Adapted to Their Environment 246
Sequence of DNA Bases 204
10.8 Mutations alter genetic information and 13 Darwin and Evolution 248
expression 204
Viewpoint The “Vice Versa” of Animals and Plants 246
Darwin Developed a Natural Selection Hypothesis 250
11 Regulation of Gene Activity 210 13.1 Darwin made a trip around the world 250
Viewpoint Moth and Butterfly Wings Tell a Story 210 13.2 Artificial selection mimics natural selection 252
Proteins Regulate Transcription of mRNA 212 13.3 Darwin formulated natural selection as a mechanism
for evolution 252
11.1 DNA-binding proteins usually turn genes off in
13.4 Wallace independently formulated a natural selection
prokaryotes 212
hypothesis 253
11.2 DNA-binding proteins usually turn genes on in
eukaryotes 213 The Evidence for Evolution Is Strong 255
11.3 Histones regulate accessibility of DNA for 13.5 Fossils provide a record of the past 255
transcription 214 13.6 Fossils are evidence for common descent 256
11.4 Hox proteins are DNA-binding proteins active during 13.7 Anatomic evidence supports common descent 257
development 216 13.8 Biogeographic evidence supports common
RNAs Regulate Gene Expression descent 258
Following Transcription 218 13.9 Molecular evidence supports common descent 258
11.5 Alternative mRNA splicing results in varied gene Population Genetics Tells Us When
products 218 Microevolution Occurs 259
11.6 Small RNAs function in several ways to affect gene 13.10 The human population is diverse 259
expression 218 13.11 A Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is not expected 260
Regulation of Gene Expression Also 13.12 Both mutations and sexual recombination produce
Occurs in the Cytoplasm 220 variations 261
11.7 Both the activity of mRNA and the protein product are 13.13 Nonrandom mating and gene flow can contribute to
regulated 220 microevolution 261
11.8 Let’s summarize gene expression control in 13.14 The effects of genetic drift are unpredictable 263
eukaryotes 221 13.15 Natural selection can be stabilizing, directional, or
disruptive 264
Lack of Genetic Control Causes Cancer 222
13.16 Stabilizing selection can help maintain the
11.9 Two types of genes ordinarily control the cell cycle 222
heterozygote 266
11.10 Cancer and malignancy develop gradually 223

14 Speciation and Evolution 270

12 Biotechnology and Genomics 228 Viewpoint Hybrid Animals Do Exist 270
Viewpoint Witnessing Genetic Engineering 228
Evolution of Diversity Requires Speciation 272
Cloning Can Produce an Organism or Tissues 230 14.1 Species have been defined in more than one way 272
12.1 A cloned product has the donor’s DNA 230 14.2 Reproductive barriers maintain genetic differences
Recombinant Technology Clones a Gene 232 between species 274
12.2 Genes can be acquired and cloned in bacteria 232 Origin of Species Usually Requires
12.3 Plants can be genetically modified 234 Geographic Separation 276
12.4 Animals can be genetically modified 236 14.3 Allopatric speciation utilizes a geographic barrier 276
12.5 A person’s genome can be modified 237 14.4 Adaptive radiation produces many related species 278

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 Origin of Species Can Occur in One Place 279 16.13 The cyanobacteria are ecologically important
14.5 Speciation occasionally occurs without a geographic organisms 324
barrier 279 16.14 Some archaea live in extreme environments 325
Macroevolution Involves Changes at the 16.15 Prokaryotes have medical and environmental
Species Level and Beyond 281 importance 326
14.6 Speciation occurs at different tempos 281
14.7 Development plays a role in speciation 284 17 Evolution of Protists 332
14.8 Speciation is not goal-oriented 286
Viewpoint Protists Cause Disease Too 332
Protists Represent the Oldest Eukaryotic Cells 334
15 The Evolutionary History of Life 17.1 Eukaryotic organelles arose by endosymbiosis 334
on Earth 290 17.2 Protists are a diverse group 335
Viewpoint Motherhood Among Dinosaurs 290 Protozoans Are Heterotrophic Protists with
The Fossil Record Reveals the History Various Means of Locomotion 338
of Life on Earth 292 17.3 Protozoans called flagellates move by flagella 338
15.1 The geologic timescale is based on the 17.4 Protozoans called amoeboids move by
fossil record 292 pseudopods 339
15.2 Continental drift has affected the history of life 294 17.5 Protozoans called ciliates move by cilia 340
15.3 Mass extinctions have affected the history of life 295 17.6 Some protozoans are not motile 341
Linnaean Systematics Has Long Been in Use 296 Some Protists Are Commonly Called “Molds” 342
15.4 Organisms can be classified into categories 296 17.7 The diversity of protists includes slime molds and
15.5 The three-domain system divides all organisms into water molds 342
three large groups 297 Algae Are Photosynthetic Protists of
15.6 Linnaean classification helps build Environmental Importance 343
evolutionary trees 298 17.8 The diatoms and dinoflagellates are significant algae
Systematics Today Utilizes Cladistics 300 in the oceans 343
15.7 Cladograms reflect evolutionary history 300 17.9 Red algae and brown algae are multicellular 344
15.8 Certain types of data are used to trace 17.10 Green algae are ancestral to plants 345
phylogeny 303
18 Evolution of Plants and Fungi 350
16 Evolution of Microbial Life 308 Viewpoint Some Plants Are Carnivorous 350
Viewpoint At Your Service: Viruses and Bacteria 308 The Evolution of Plants Spans 500 Million Years 352
Viruses Reproduce in Living Cells 310 18.1 Plants have a green algal ancestor 352
16.1 Viruses have a simple structure 310 18.2 Plants have an alternation of generations
16.2 Some viruses reproduce inside bacteria 311 life cycle 354
16.3 Viruses are responsible for a number of plant 18.3 Sporophyte dominance was adaptive to a dry land
diseases 312 environment 354
16.4 Viruses also reproduce inside animal cells and cause Plants Are Adapted to the Land Environment 356
animal diseases 314 18.4 Bryophytes protect the embryo and have
16.5 HIV (the AIDS virus) exemplifies retroviruses 315 apical growth 356
The First Cells Originated on Early Earth 317 18.5 Lycophytes have vascular tissue for transport 358
16.6 Experiments show how small organic molecules may 18.6 Ferns have large leaves called megaphylls 359
have first formed 317 18.7 Most gymnosperms bear cones on which the seeds
16.7 RNA may have been the first polymer 318 are “naked” 362
16.8 Protocells preceded the first true cells 319 18.8 Angiosperms have flowers in which the seeds are
“covered” 365
Both Bacteria and Archaea Are Prokaryotes 320
16.9 Prokaryotes have unique structural features 320 Fungi Have Their Own Evolutionary History 370
16.10 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission 321 18.9 Fungi differ from plants and animals 370
16.11 How genes are transferred between bacteria 322 18.10 Fungi have mutualistic relationships with algae and
16.12 Prokaryotes have various means of nutrition 323 plants 371
18.11 Land fungi occur in three main groups 372

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 19 Evolution of Animals 378
Today’s Humans Belong to One Species
20.8 Humans have different ethnicities 424
424

Viewpoint The Secret Life of Bats 378

Animals Evolved from a Protistan Ancestor 380
19.1 Animals have distinctive characteristics 380 PART IV
19.2 The protistan ancestor of animals was flagellated 381
Plants Are Homeostatic 428
8
19.3 The phylogenetic tree of animals is based on
molecular and anatomic data 382
Most Invertebrates Are Aquatic 385
21 Plant Organization and
Homeostasis 430
19.4 Sponges are multicellular animals 385
19.5 Cnidarians are radially symmetrical with two tissue Viewpoint Plants Fuel You (and Soon Your Car) 429
layers 386 Plants Have Three Vegetative Organs 432
19.6 Flatworms are trochozoa without a coelom 387 21.1 Flowering plants typically have roots, stems,
19.7 Some flatworms are parasitic 388 and leaves 432
19.8 A coelom gives complex animals certain 21.2 Flowering plants are either monocots or eudicots 434
advantages 390
The Same Plant Cells and Tissues Are
19.9 Molluscs have a three-part body plan 391 Found in All Plant Organs 436
19.10 Annelids are the segmented worms 392
21.3 Plants have specialized cells and tissues 436
19.11 Roundworms are nonsegmented and plentiful 393
21.4 The three types of plant tissues are present in each
19.12 Arthropods have jointed appendages 394 organ 438
19.13 Arthropods are diverse 395
Plant Growth Is Either Primary or Secondary 440
19.14 Insects, the largest group of arthropods, are adapted
to living on land 396 21.5 Primary growth lengthens the root and shoot
systems 440
19.15 Echinoderms are radially symmetrical as adults 397
21.6 Secondary growth widens roots and stems 442
Several Groups of Vertebrates Live on Land 398
Foliage Leaves Are Adapted to Photosynthesize 444
19.16 Four features characterize chordates 398
21.7 Leaves are organized to carry on photosynthesis 444
19.17 Vertebrates share an ancestor with the invertebrate
chordates 398 Plants Maintain Internal Equilibrium 445
19.18 Jaws, a bony skeleton , and lungs evolved among the 21.8 Various mechanisms help plants maintain
fishes 400 homeostasis 445
19.19 Amphibians are tetrapods that can move on land 401
19.20 Reptiles have an amniotic egg and can reproduce on
land 402
22 Transport and Nutrition in Plants 450
19.21 Mammals have hair and mammary glands 404 Viewpoint Reach for the Stars 450
Plants Are Organized to Transport
20 Evolution of Humans 410 Water and Solutes 452
22.1 Transport begins in both the leaves and the roots of
Viewpoint Meet Ardi 410 plants 452
Humans Share Characteristics with Xylem Transport Depends on the
All the Other Primates 412 Properties of Water 454
20.1 Primates are adapted to live in trees 412 22.2 Water is pulled up in xylem by evaporation
20.2 All primates evolved from a common ancestor 415 from leaves 454
Humans Have an Upright Stance and 22.3 Guard cells regulate water loss at leaves 456
Eventually a Large Brain 416 Phloem Function Depends on
20.3 The early humanlike hominins could stand Membrane Transport 458
upright 416 22.4 Pressure flow explains phloem transport 458
20.4 Australopithecines had a small brain 418
Plants Require Good Nutrition and
20.5 Early Homo had a larger brain 419
Therefore Good Soil 460
Homo sapiens Is the Last Twig on the 22.5 Certain nutrients are essential to plants 460
Primate Evolutionary Bush 422 22.6 Roots are specialized for the uptake of water
20.6 Cro-Magnons replaced the other Homo species 421 and minerals 462
20.7 Cro-Magnons were socially advanced 422 22.7 Adaptations of plants help them acquire nutrients 464

CONTENTS xxi

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 23 Control of Growth and Responses PART
RT V
in Plants 468 Animals Are
Viewpoint Plastic Trees 468 Homeostatic 504
Plant Hormones Regulate Plant Growth
and Development 470 25 Animal Organization
23.1 Plant hormones act by utilizing signal transduction and Homeostasis 506
pathways 470
Viewpoint Staying Warm, Staying Cool 506
23.2 Auxins promote growth and cell elongation 470
23.3 Gibberellins control stem elongation 472 The Structure of Tissues Suits Their Function 508
23.4 Cytokinins stimulate cell division and 25.1 Levels of biological organization are evident in
differentiation 473 animals 508
23.5 Abscisic acid suppresses growth of buds and closes 25.2 Epithelial tissue covers organs and lines body
stomata 474 cavities 508
23.6 Ethylene stimulates the ripening of fruits 475 25.3 Connective tissue connects and supports other
tissues 510
Plants Respond to the Abiotic Environment 476
25.4 Muscular tissue is contractile and moves body parts 512
23.7 Plants have many ways of responding to their abiotic
25.5 Nervous tissue communicates with and regulates the
environment 476
functions of the body’s organs 513
23.8 Tropisms occur when plants respond to stimuli 476
23.9 Turgor and sleep movements are complex Organs, Composed of Tissues, Work
responses 478 Together in Organ Systems 515
25.6 Each organ has a specific structure and function 515
Plants Respond to the Photoperiod 480
23.10 Response to the photoperiod requires All Organ Systems Contribute to
phytochrome 480 Homeostasis in Animals 516
23.11 Flowering is a response to the photoperiod in some 25.7 Several organs work together to carry out the
plants 481 functions of an organ system 516
25.8 Homeostasis is the relative constancy of the internal
Plants Also Respond to the Biotic Environment 482
environment 518
23.12 Plants respond to other organisms in the
25.9 Homeostasis is achieved through negative feedback
environment 482
mechanisms 519

24 Reproduction in Plants 488 26 Coordination by Neural

Viewpoint With a Little Help 488 Signaling 524
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants Is Viewpoint Getting a Head 524
Suitable to the Land Environment 490 Functions of the Nervous System Are
24.1 Plants have a sexual life cycle called alternation of Carried Out by Neurons 526
generations 490 26.1 Vertebrates have well-developed central and
24.2 Pollination and fertilization bring gametes together peripheral nervous systems 526
during sexual reproduction 494 26.2 Axons conduct nerve impulses 528
Seeds Contain a New Diploid Generation 496 26.3 Propagation of a nerve impulse is speedy 529
24.3 A sporophyte embryo and its cotyledons develop as a 26.4 Communication between neurons occurs
seed matures 496 at synapses 530
24.4 The ovary becomes a fruit, which assists in 26.5 Neurotransmitters can be excitatory or inhibitory 530
sporophyte dispersal 497 The Central Nervous System (CNS) Consists
24.5 With seed germination, the life cycle is of the Spinal Cord and the Brain 534
complete 498 26.6 The spinal cord communicates with the brain 534
Plants Can Also Reproduce Asexually 499 26.7 The cerebrum performs integrative activities 535
24.6 Plants have various ways of reproducing 26.8 The other parts of the brain have specialized
asexually 499 functions 536
24.7 Cloning of plants in tissue culture assists 26.9 The limbic system is involved in memory and learning
agriculture 500 as well as in emotions 538

xxii CONTENTS

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 The Vertebrate Peripheral Nervous System The Mammalian Skeleton Is a Series of
(PNS) Consists of Nerves 539 Bones Connected at Joints 572
26.10 The peripheral nervous system contains cranial and 28.3 The bones of the axial skeleton lie in the midline of the
spinal nerves 539 body 572
26.11 The somatic system can respond quickly to stimuli 540 28.4 The appendicular skeleton consists of bones in the
26.12 The autonomic system controls the actions of internal girdles and limbs 574
organs 541 28.5 Bones are composed of living tissues 576
Drug Therapy and Drug Abuse Affect 28.6 Joints occur where bones meet 577
Neurotransmitter Concentrations 542 Vertebrate Skeletal Muscles Have
26.13 Certain neurotransmitters are known to affect Various Functions 579
behavior and emotional attributes 542 28.7 Skeletal muscles are attached to the bones of
26.14 Certain drugs are more likely to be abused 543 the skeleton 579
Skeletal Muscles Are Innervated 580
27 Sense Organs 548 28.8 Skeletal muscles work in pairs 580

Viewpoint The Eyes Have It 548 Skeletal Muscle Cells Contract Individually 582
28.9 A muscle cell contains many myofibrils 582
Sensory Receptors Respond to Stimuli 550
28.10 Sarcomeres shorten when muscle cells contract 582
27.1 Sensory receptors can be divided into five
28.11 Axon terminals bring about muscle cell contraction 583
categories 550
28.12 A muscle cell has three sources of ATP
27.2 Sensory receptors communicate with the CNS 551
for contraction 584
Chemoreceptors Are Sensitive to Chemicals 552 28.13 Some muscle cells are fast-twitch and some are slow-
27.3 Chemoreceptors are widespread in the animal twitch 584
kingdom 552
27.4 Mammalian taste receptors are located in the
mouth 552
29 Circulation and Cardiovascular
27.5 Mammalian olfactory receptors are located in
Systems 588
the nose 553 Viewpoint Not All Animals Have Red Blood 588
Photoreceptors Are Sensitive to Light 554 A Circulatory System Helps Maintain Homeostasis 590
27.6 The vertebrate eye is a camera-type eye 554 29.1 A circulatory system serves the needs of cells 590
27.7 The lens helps bring an object into focus 555 The Mammalian Heart Has Four Chambers 592
27.8 The retina sends information to the visual cortex 556 29.2 The mammalian heart is a double pump 592
Mechanoreceptors Are Involved in 29.3 The heartbeat is rhythmic 594
Proprioception and Sense of Touch 558 Blood Vessels Transport Blood 595
27.9 Proprioceptors are located in skeletal muscles, and
29.4 The structure of blood vessels is suited to their
touch receptors are located in skin 558
function 595
Mechanoreceptors Are Involved in 29.5 Blood vessels form two circuits in mammals 598
Hearing and Balance 559 29.6 Blood pressure is essential to the flow of blood in each
27.10 The mammalian ear has three well-developed circuit 599
regions 559
Blood Has Vital Functions 600
27.11 Hearing receptors are in the inner ear 560
29.7 Blood is a liquid tissue 600
27.12 Balance receptors are also in the inner ear 562
29.8 Exchanges between blood and tissue fluid occur at
capillaries 602
28 Locomotion and Support 29.9 Blood clotting involves platelets 603
Systems 568 29.10 Blood types must be matched for transfusions 604

Viewpoint Skeletal Remains Reveal All 568

Animal Skeletons Support, Move,
30 Lymph Transport and Immunity 608
and Protect the Body 570 Viewpoint HIV/AIDS: A Global Disaster 608
28.1 Animal skeletons can be hydrostatic, external, The Lymphatic System Functions in
or internal 570 Transport and Immunity 610
28.2 Mammals have an endoskeleton that serves many 30.1 Lymphatic vessels transport lymph 610
functions 571 30.2 Lymphatic organs defend the body 611

CONTENTS xxiii

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 The Body’s First Line of Defense Against
Disease Is Innate Immunity 612
32 Gas Exchange and Transport
30.3 Barriers to entry, protective proteins, and white blood in Animals 648
cells are first responders 612 Viewpoint Free-Diving Is Dangerous 648
30.4 The inflammatory response is a localized response to Animals Have Gas-Exchange Surfaces 650
invasion 614
32.1 Respiration involves several steps 650
The Body’s Second Line of Defense Against 32.2 Gills are an efficient gas-exchange surface in water 652
Disease Is Adaptive Immunity 615 32.3 The tracheal system in insects permits direct gas
30.5 Adaptive immunity targets a specific antigen 615 exchange 653
30.6 Adaptive immunity can be active or passive 615 32.4 The human respiratory system utilizes lungs as a gas-
30.7 Lymphocytes are directly responsible for adaptive exchange surface 654
immunity 616
Ventilation Precedes Transport 656
30.8 Antibody-mediated immunity involves B cells 617
32.5 Breathing brings air into and out of the lungs 656
30.9 Cell-mediated immunity involves several types
32.6 Our breathing rate can be modified 657
of T cells 618
32.7 External and internal respiration require no energy 658
Abnormal Immune Responses Can Have
Health Consequences 621
30.10 Tissue rejection makes transplanting organs 33 Osmoregulation and Excretion 664
difficult 621 Viewpoint Do Coral Reef Animals Regulate? 664
30.11 Autoimmune disorders are long-term illnesses 621
Metabolic Waste Products Have
Different Advantages 666
31 Digestive Systems and 33.1 The nitrogenous waste product of animals varies
according to the environment 666
Nutrition 626
33.2 Many invertebrates have organs of excretion 667
Viewpoint How to Tell a Carnivore from a Herbivore 626
The Urinary System Produces and Excretes Urine 670
Animals Obtain and Process Their Food 628 33.3 The urinary system includes kidneys that contain
31.1 Animals have various ways to obtain food before tubules 670
processing occurs 628 33.4 The kidney tubules produce urine 672
Digestion Begins in the Mouth 632 The Kidney Is an Organ of Homeostasis 674
31. 2 Some digestion occurs before food reaches 33.5 The kidneys can concentrate urine to maintain water-
the stomach 632 salt balance 674
Most Digestion Occurs in the Stomach 33.6 Lungs and kidneys maintain acid-base balance 675
and Small Intestine 634
31.3 Digestion also takes place in the stomach and small
intestine 634
34 Coordination by Hormone
Signaling 680
The Large Intestine Receives Undigested Food 636
Viewpoint Pheromones Among Us 680
31.4 The large intestine absorbs water and prepares wastes
for elimination 636 The Endocrine System Utilizes Chemical Signals 682
The Pancreas and the Liver Are 34.1 The endocrine and nervous systems work together 682
Organs of Homeostasis 638 34.2 Hormones affect cellular metabolism 684
31.5 The pancreas and the liver contribute to chemical The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Are
digestion 638 Central to the Endocrine System
A Balanced Diet Leads to Better Health 639 34.3 The hypothalamus is a part of the nervous
31.6 Carbohydrates are nutrients that provide immediate and endocrine systems 686
energy as well as fiber 639 Hormones Regulate Metabolism and Homeostasis 688
31.7 Lipids are nutrients that supply long-term 34.4 Growth hormone controls the height
energy 640 of an individual 688
31.8 Proteins are nutrients that supply building blocks for 34.5 The thyroid regulates development and increases the
cells 640 metabolic rate 689
31.9 Minerals have various roles in the body 641 34.6 The thyroid and the parathyroids regulate the blood
31.10 Vitamins help regulate metabolism 642 calcium level 689

xxiv CONTENTS

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 34.7 The adrenal glands respond to stress 690 36.3 The growth rate results in population size
34.8 The pancreas regulates the blood sugar level 692 changes 730
34.9 The pineal gland is involved in biorhythms 693 36.4 Patterns of population growth can be described
graphically 732
35 Reproduction and Development 698 Environmental Interactions Influence
Population Size 733
Viewpoint How to Do It on Land 698
36.5 Density-independent factors affect population
Reproduction in Animals Is Varied 700 size 733
35.1 Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur among 36.6 Density-dependent factors affect large populations
animals 700 more 734
Humans Are Adapted to Reproducing on Land 702 The Life History Pattern Can Predict Extinction 735
35.2 Testes are the male gonads 702 36.7 Life history patterns consider several population
35.3 Production of sperm and male sex hormones occurs characteristics 735
in the testes 703
Many Human Populations Continue
35.4 Ovaries are the female gonads 704
to Increase in Size 737
35.5 Production of oocytes and female sex hormones
36.8 World population growth is exponential 737
occurs in the ovaries 705
35.6 The ovarian cycle drives the uterine cycle 706
Chordates Have Similar Early Developmental 37 Behavioral Ecology 742
Stages and Processes 710 Viewpoint For the Benefit of All 742
35.7 Cellular stages of development precede tissue
Both Innate and Learned Behavior Can Be
stages 710
Adaptive 744
35.8 Tissue stages of development precede organ
37.1 Inheritance influences behavior 744
stages 711
37.2 Learning can also influence behavior 746
35.9 Organ stages of development occur after tissue
37.3 Associative learning links behavior to stimuli 747
stages 712
35.10 Cellular differentiation begins with cytoplasmic Social Behavior Can Be Adaptive 748
segregation 713 37.4 Territoriality increases fitness 748
35.11 Morphogenesis involves induction also 714 37.5 Societies increase fitness 750
Human Development Is Divided into Embryonic Modes of Communication Vary with
Development and Fetal Development 715 the Environment 752
35.12 Extraembryonic membranes are critical 37.6 Communication with others involves the senses 752
to human development 715
35.13 Embryonic development involves tissue and organ
formation 716
38 Community and Ecosystem
35.14 Fetal development involves refinement and weight Ecology 758
gain 718 Viewpoint Ridding the Land of Waste 758
35.15 Pregnancy ends with the birth of the newborn 720
A Community Contains Several Interacting
Populations in the Same Locale 760
38.1 Competition can lead to resource partitioning 760
PARTVI
38.2 Predator-prey interactions affect both
Organisms Live in populations 762
38.3 Parasitism benefits one population at another’s
Ecosystems 726 expense 764

36 Population Ecology 726

38.4 Commensalism benefits only one population 764
38.5 Mutualism benefits both populations 766
Viewpoint When a Population Grows Too Large 726 A Community Develops and Changes Over Time 767
Ecology Studies Where and How Organisms 38.6 During ecological succession, community
Live in the Biosphere 728 composition and diversity change 767
36.1 Ecology is studied at various levels 728 An Ecosystem Is a Community Interacting
Populations Are Not Static—They Change Over Time 729 with the Physical Environment 770
36.2 Density and distribution are aspects of population 38.7 Ecosystems have biotic and abiotic
structure 729 components 770

CONTENTS xxv

mad03482_FM_i-xxvi, 1.indd xxv 02/08/10 1:36 PM

 38.8 Energy flow and chemical cycling characterize
ecosystems 771 40 Conservation Biology 798
38.9 Energy flow involves food webs and food chains 772 Viewpoint Trouble in Paradise 798
38.10 Ecological pyramids are based on trophic levels 773 Conservation Biology Wants to Understand
38.11 Chemical cycling includes reservoirs, exchange pools, and Protect Biodiversity 800
and the biotic community 774 40.1 Conservation biology is a practical science 800
38.12 The phosphorus cycle is sedimentary 774 40.2 Biodiversity has levels of complexity 800
38.13 The nitrogen cycle is gaseous 775
Biodiversity Has Direct Value and
38.14 The carbon cycle is gaseous 776
Indirect Value for Humans 802
40.3 The direct value of biodiversity is becoming better
39 Major Ecosystems of the recognized 802
Biosphere 780 40.4 The indirect value of biodiversity is immense 804

Viewpoint Life Under Glass 780 The Causes of Today’s Extinctions Are Known 805
40.5 Habitat loss is a major cause of wildlife extinctions 805
Climate Is Dictated by Temperature and Rainfall 782
40.6 Introduction of alien species contributes to
39.1 Solar radiation and winds determine climate 782 extinctions 806
39.2 Topography and other effects also influence 40.7 Pollution contributes to extinctions 807
climate 783
40.8 Overexploitation contributes to extinctions 809
39.3 Ocean currents affect climate 784
40.9 Disease contributes to extinctions 809
On Land, the Biosphere Is Organized
Habitat Preservation and Restoration Require
into Terrestrial Ecosystems 785
Much Effort and Expertise 810
39.4 Major terrestrial ecosystems are characterized
40.10 Habitat preservation is of primary importance 810
by particular climates 785
40.11 Habitat restoration is sometimes necessary 811
39.5 The tundra is cold and dark much of the year 786
39.6 Coniferous forests are dominated by A Sustainable Society Is Achievable 813
gymnosperms 786 40.12 A sustainable society will preserve resources 813
39.7 Temperate deciduous forests have abundant life 788 40.13 Energy sources should be renewable 814
39.8 Temperate grasslands have extreme seasons 788 40.14 Water sources should be conserved 815
39.9 Savannas have wet-dry seasons 789 40.15 Agriculture can be more diverse 816
39.10 Deserts have very low annual rainfall 789 Appendix
39.11 Tropical rain forests are warm with abundant Answer Key A-1
rainfall 790
Fresh Water and Salt Water Are Organized Glossary G-1
into Aquatic Ecosystems 791
Credits C-1
39.12 Fresh water flows into salt water 791
Index I-1
39.13 Marine ecosystems include those of the coast and
the ocean 792

xxvi CONTENTS

mad03482_FM_i-xxvi, 1.indd xxvi 02/08/10 1:36 PM

 Applications
H O W B I O L O G Y I M PAC T S O U R L I V E S
Organic Farming 6 Eloy Rodriguez Has Discovered Many
Harmful Effects of Acid Rain 38 Medicinal Plants
lants 484
Controlling Obesity 51 Will Nerve Regeneration
eneration Reverse a
Enzyme Inhibitors Can Spell Death 92 Spinal Cord Injury? 514
Malfunctioning Plasma Membrane Proteins 95 Protect Your Eyes from the Sun 555
Fermentation Helps Produce Numerous Food Products 134 The Inability to Form a Clear Image Can Be Corrected 556
Exercise Burns Fat 136 Protect Your Ears from Loud Noises 561
Tissues Can Be Grown in the Lab 151 You Can Avoid Osteoporosis 578
Protective Behaviors and Diet Help Prevent Cancer 154 Exercise Has Many Benefits 581
Genetic Disorders May Now Be Detected Early On 181 Cardiovascular Disease 596
DNA Replication in a Test Tube 197 Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease 596
Environmental Mutagens Can Cause Cancer 206 Blood Doping 601
A BRCA Female Tells Her Story 224 A Fever Can Be Beneficial 613
Animal Cloning Has Benefits and Drawbacks 231 Allergic Reactions 622
Are Genetically Engineered Foods Safe? 235 Disorders Associated with Obesity 643
The Many Uses of Corn, an Allotetraploid 280 Eating Disorders 644
DNA Barcoding of Life 299 Questions About Tobacco, Smoking, and Health 655
Humans Suffer from Emergent Viral Diseases 313 Respiratory Disorders 660
Why Can You Catch Gonorrhea Over and Over Again? 327 Urinalysis Can Detect Drug Use 673
Disease-causing Microbes Can Be Biological Weapons 328 Glucocorticoid Therapy Can Lead to Cushing Syndrome 691
Flowering Plants Provide Many Services 368 The Hormone Melatonin 694
Land Fungi Have Economic and Medical Importance 374 Sexual Activity Can Transmit Disease 708
Many Vertebrates Provide Medical Treatments for Humans 406 Reproductive Technologies Are Available to
Monocots Serve Humans Well 435 Help the Infertile 709
Plants Can Clean Up Toxic Messes 457 Captive Breeding Programs 812

HOW LIFE CHANGES

Evolution’s Many Applications 17 Evolution of Seed Plants 492
Molecular Evolution—A New Endeavor 55 Evolution of Insect Pollination 493
How the Eukaryotic Cell Evolved 77 Evolution of Homeostasis 520
Evolution of the Plasma Membrane 100 Evolution of the Nervous System 532
Photosystem I Evolved Before Photosystem II 112 Evolution of the Mammalian Ear 564
Evolution of the Spindle Apparatus 147 What Our Limbs Tell Us About Our Past 575
The Theory of Natural Selection 177 Evolution of a Four-Chambered Heart 593
Regulatory Genes and the Origin of the Genus Homo 217 Evolution of a Complete Digestive Tract 630
We Are Closely Related to Chimpanzees 242 Evolution of Gas-Exchange Surfaces 650
Sometimes Mutations Are Beneficial 262 Evolution of Vertebrates and the Vertebrate Kidney 668
Viruses and the Invention of DNA 316 Wars Between the Sexes Result in Coevolution 701
The Eukaryotic Big Bang 337 Adaptability of Small Populations 736
Carboniferous Forests Became the Coal We Use Today 364 Sexual Selection 749
Nemertine Worms Are Closely Related to Whom? 389 Coevolution Between Parasite and Host 765
Biocultural Evolution Began with Homo 420 A Land of Beringia 787
Migration Patterns Start with Africa 423 Response of Organisms to Global Climate Change 808
The First Forests 443

HOW SCIENCE PROGRESSES

The Many Medical Uses of Radioactive Isotopes 28 Leeches, a Form of Biotherapy 603
Microscopes Allow Us to See Cells 66 Monoclonal Antibodies 620
Pulse-labeling Allows Observation of the Secretory Pathway 73 The Cause of Ulcers: Bacteria! 635
Tropical Rain Forest and Global Climate Change 118 An Ecosystem in Your Large Intestine 637
Transposons Cause Mutations 205 Treatment for Urinary Disorders 676
Natural Selection Can Be Witnessed 254 Sustainability of the U. S. Population 738
The Burgess Shale Hosts a Diversity of Life 282 Do Animals Have Emotions? 754
Cladistics Has Replaced Linnaean Systematics 302 Preservation of Community Composition and Diversity 769
Competition for Resources Is One Aspect of Biodiversity 453 Hurricane Patterns in the United States 794
If You Don’t Snooze, You’ll Lose! 537

mad03482_FM_i-xxvi, 1.indd 1 02/08/10 1:36 PM

 Biology, the
1 Fire Ants Have a Good Defense
F ire ants have a red to reddish-brown color, but even so, they
most likely take their name from the ability to STING. Their
stinger protrudes from the rear, but in a split second, they can
grab a person’s skin with their mandibles and position the
stinger between their legs to sting from the front. The stinger
injects a toxin into the tiny wound, and the result is a burning
sensation. The next day, the person has a white

Study of Life pustule at the site of the sting. The success of

this defense mechanism is clear because
most animals, including humans, try to
stay away from bees, wasps, and ants—
and any other animal that can sting.
C H AP T E R O U T LI N E Living usually in an open, grassy
Science Helps Us Understand the Natural World area, fi re ants sting in order to defend
1.1 Scientists use a preferred method 4 their home, which is a mound of soil
1.2 Control groups allow scientists to compare that they have removed from subterra-
experimental results 6 nean tunnels. They use the tunnels to
THE CELL THEORY: safely travel far afield when searching for
Organisms Are Composed of Cells food, which they bring back to their nest mates.
1.3 Cells are the fundamental unit of living things 9 The queen and many worker ants live in chambers within
the mound or slightly below it. The queen is much larger
THE GENE THEORY:
Genes Control the Traits of Organisms
1.4 Organisms have a genetic inheritance 10
THE THEORY OF HOMEOSTASIS:
Organisms Are Homeostatic
1.5 Organisms regulate their internal environment 11
THE THEORY OF ECOSYSTEMS:
Organisms Live in Ecosystems
1.6 The biosphere is divided into ecosystems 12
THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION:
Organisms Are Related and Adapted to Their
Environment
1.7 The ancestry of species can be determined 13
1.8 Evolutionary relationships help biologists group
organisms 14
1.9 Evolution through natural selection results in
adaptation to the environment 16
1.10 Evolution from a common ancestor accounts for
the characteristics of life 18

APPLI C AT I O N S
HOW BIOLOGY IMPACTS OUR LIVES
Organic Farming 6
HOW LIFE CHANGES
Evolution’s Many Applications 17

Fire ant mound

mad03482_ch01_002-021.indd 2 30/06/10 2:21 PM

 than the other members of the colony, and she has only one externally that influence the behavior and
purpose: to produce many thousands of small, white eggs. even the development of the ants. Fire ants,
The eggs develop into cream-colored, grublike larvae, which like other ants, produce several different
are lavishly tended by worker ants to keep them clean and pheromones that send messages when
well fed. When the larvae become encased by a hard cover- released into the air. The message could be
ing, they are pupae. Inside a pupa, an amazing transforma- “food is available” or “be alert for possible
tion takes place, and eventually an adult ant breaks out. danger.” The queen even releases pheromones that cause
Most of these adults are worker ants, but in the spring, a few workers to attend her.
are winged “sexuals,” which are male and female ants with Why does it work, in a biological sense, for these sisters
the ability to reproduce. The sexuals remain inside the col- to spend their lives slavishly working away, raising more
ony with nothing to do until the weather is cooperative sterile sisters and defending the colony with little regard
enough for them to fly skyward to mate. A few of the fertil- for their own safety? It works because the few sexual females
ized females manage to survive the perils of an outside exis- that survive their temporary existence on the outside pass
tence long enough to start another colony. the colony’s joint genes on to future generations in new and
All of the ants in a colony have the same mother, namely different places. Any social system that allows an organism
the queen ant who produces the eggs. The workers are sterile, to pass on its genes is a successful one from an evolutionary
closely related sister ants. Because of their genetic relation- point of view.
ship, we can view the members of a colony as a superorgan- In this chapter, we will fi rst learn how the scientific under-
ism. The queen serves as the reproductive system, while the standing of life progresses by making observations and doing
workers serve as the digestive and urinary systems, as well as experiments. Then we will examine the five scientific theories
all the other systems that keep the superorganism functioning. around which this book is organized. The theory of evolution
What fosters cooperation between the members of the super- is examined in particular detail because it is the unifying the-
organism? The answer is chemicals, pheromones secreted ory of biology.

queen

larvae

workers

eggs

A fire ant colony (Solenopsis invicta). Pustules caused by fire ants.

mad03482_ch01_002-021.indd 3 30/06/10 2:22 PM

 Science Helps Us Understand the Natural World
Learning Outcomes
▶ Divide the scientific method into four steps and discuss each one. (1.1)
▶ Describe an experimental design that contains a control group. (1.2)
Biology is the scientific study of life, and therefore it is appropriate for us to first consider what we mean by science. Science is a way of
making sense of the natural world around us. Religion, aesthetics, and ethics are all ways that human beings can find order in the natural
world. Science, unlike these other ways of knowing is testable. It also leads to improved technology and is responsible for the modern ways
in which we travel, communicate, farm, build our houses, and even how we conduct science.

1.1 Scientists use a preferred method

Despite the wide diversity of scientists and what they study cohesive whole. Chance alone can help a scientist arrive at an
(Fig.  1.1A), the usual four steps of the scientific method are: idea. The most famous case pertains to the antibiotic penicillin,
(1) making observations, (2) formulating a hypothesis, (3) per- which was discovered in 1928. While examining a petri dish of
forming experiments and making observations, and (4) coming bacteria that had accidentally become contaminated with the
to a conclusion (Fig. 1.1B). mold Penicillium, Alexander Fleming observed an area around
the mold that was free of bacteria. Fleming had long been inter-
Making Observations The scientific method begins with
ested in finding cures for human diseases caused by bacteria,
observation. We can observe with our noses that dinner is
and was very knowledgeable about antibacterial substances. So
almost ready, observe with our fingertips that a surface is
when he saw the dramatic effect of Penicillium mold on bacteria,
smooth and cold, and observe with our ears that a piano needs
he reasoned that the mold might be producing an antibacterial
tuning. Scientists also extend the ability of their senses by
substance. We call such a possible explanation for a natural
using instruments; for example, the microscope enables them
event a hypothesis. A hypothesis is based on existing knowl-
to see objects they could never see with the naked eye. Finally,
edge, so it is much more informed than a mere guess. Fleming’s
scientists may expand their understanding even further by tak-
hypothesis was supported by further observations. Sometimes a
ing advantage of the knowledge and experiences of other sci-
hypothesis is not supported, and must be either modified and
entists. For instance, they may look up past studies on the
subjected to additional study, or rejected.
Internet or at the library, or they may write or speak to others
All of a scientist’s past experiences, no matter what they
who are researching similar topics.
might be, may influence the formation of a hypothesis. But a
Formulating a Hypothesis After making observations and scientist only considers hypotheses that can be tested by experi-
gathering knowledge about a phenomenon, a scientist uses ments or further observations. Moral and religious beliefs, while
inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning occurs whenever a very important to our lives, differ between cultures and through
person uses creative thinking to combine isolated facts into a time, and are not always testable.

FIGURE 1.1A Biologists work in a variety of settings.

Scientist in an agricultural field Biochemist in a laboratory Ecologist examining an artificial reef

4 CHAPTER 1 Biology, the Study of Life

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 Performing Experiments and Making Observations
Scientists often perform an experiment, a series of procedures
Observation
to test a hypothesis. The manner in which a scientist intends to
conduct an experiment is called its design. A good experimental New observations
design ensures that scientists are testing what they want to test are made, and previous
data are studied.
and that their results will be meaningful. When an experiment
is done in a laboratory, all conditions can be kept constant except
for an experimental variable, which is deliberately changed.
One or more test groups are exposed to the experimental vari- Hypothesis
able, but one other group, called the control group, is not. If, by Input from various sources
chance, the control group shows the same results as the test is used to formulate a
group, the experimenter knows the results are invalid. testable statement.
Scientists often use a model, a representation of an actual
object. For example, modeling occurs when scientists use soft-
ware to decide how human activities will affect climate, or when Experiment/Observations Conclusion
they use mice instead of humans for, say, testing a new drug.
The hypothesis is The results are analyzed,
Ideally, a medicine that is effective in mice should still be tested tested by experiment and the hypothesis is
in humans. And whenever it is impossible to study the actual or further observations. supported or rejected.
phenomenon, a model remains a hypothesis in need of testing.
Someday, a scientist might devise a way to test it.
The results of an experiment or further observations are Scientific Theory
referred to as the data. Mathematical data are often displayed in
the form of a graph or table. Sometimes studies rely on statistical Many experiments and
observations support a
data. Let’s say an investigator wants to know if eating onions theory.
can prevent women from getting osteoporosis (weak bones).
The scientist conducts a survey asking women about their onion-
eating habits and then correlates these data with the condition
of their bones. Other scientists critiquing this study would want
FIGURE 1.1B Flow diagram for the scientific method.
to know: How many women were surveyed? How old were the
women? What were their exercise habits? What criteria were
used to determine the condition of their bones? And what is the
probability that the data are in error? Even if the data do suggest are accepted explanations (concepts) for how the world works.
a correlation, scientists would want to know if there is a specific The results of innumerable observations and experiments sup-
ingredient in onions that has a direct biochemical or physiologi- port a scientific theory. This text is organized around the fol-
cal effect on bones. After all, correlation does not necessarily lowing five basic theories of biology:
mean causation. It could be that women who eat onions eat lots
of vegetables, and have healthier diets overall than women who Theory Concept
do not eat onions. In this way scientists are skeptics who always
pressure one another to keep investigating. Cell All organisms are composed of cells, and new
cells only come from preexisting cells.
Coming to a Conclusion Scientists must analyze the data in Gene All organisms contain coded information that
order to reach a conclusion about whether a hypothesis is sup- dictates their form, function, and behavior.
ported or not. The data can support a hypothesis, but they do Evolution All organisms have a common ancestor, but
not prove it “true” because a conclusion is always subject to each is adapted to a particular way of life.
revision. On the other hand, it is possible to prove a hypothesis Homeostasis All organisms have an internal environment
false. Because science progresses, the conclusion of one experi- that must stay relatively constant within a
ment can lead to the hypothesis for another experiment as rep- range protective of life.
resented by the return arrow in Figure 1.1B. In other words, Ecosystem All organisms are members of populations that
results that do not support one hypothesis can often help a sci- interact with each other and with the physical
entist formulate another hypothesis to be tested. Scientists report environment within a particular locale.
their findings in scientific journals so that their methodology and
We will discuss these theories in detail later in the chapter,
data are available to other scientists. Experiments and observa-
but right now let’s turn our attention to an example of a scientific
tions must be repeatable—that is, the reporting scientist and any
experiment.
scientist who repeats the experiment must get the same results,
or else the data are suspect. 1.1 Check Your Progress You hypothesize that only the queen fire
Scientific Theory The ultimate goal of science is to under- ant produces eggs. What type of data would allow you to come to a
conclusion? What data would prove it false?
stand the natural world in terms of scientific theories, which

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 1.2 Control groups allow scientists to compare experimental results
Now that you are familiar with the common steps in the scien- possible to eliminate the influence of undetected differences in
tific method, let’s consider an actual study that utilizes these the test subjects.
steps. Because the use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer is harmful The investigators decided to grow the winter wheat in pots and
to the environment (as described in “Organic Farming” on this to have three sets of pots:
page), researchers decided to study the yield of winter wheat
Control Pots Winter wheat was planted in clay pots of
utilizing a winter wheat/pigeon pea rotation. The pigeon pea is
soil that received no fertilization treatment—that is, no
a legume, a plant that has root nodules where bacteria convert
nitrogen fertilizer and no preplanting of pigeon peas.
atmospheric nitrogen to a form plants such as winter wheat can
use. The scientists formulated this hypothesis:
Test Pots I Winter wheat was grown in clay pots in soil
Hypothesis A winter wheat/pigeon pea rotation will treated with synthetic nitrogen fertilizer.
cause winter wheat production to increase as well as or
better than the application of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer. Test Pots II Winter wheat was grown in clay pots follow-
ing pigeon pea plants grown in the summertime. The
This study had a good design because it included test groups and
pigeon pea plants were then turned over in the soil.
a control group. Having a control group allows researchers to
compare the results of the test groups. All environmental condi-
tions for all groups is kept constant, but the test groups are Results Figure 1.2 includes a color-coded bar graph that
exposed to an experimental variable, the factor being tested. The allows you to see at a glance the comparative amount of wheat
use of a control group also ensures that the data from the test obtained from each group of pots. After the first year, winter
groups are due to the experimental variable and not to some wheat yield was higher in test pots treated with nitrogen fertil-
unknown outside influence. Test groups should be as large as izer than in the control pots. To the surprise of investigators, test

H O W B I O L O G Y I M PAC T S O U R L I V E S Application

1A Organic Farming
Besides being health con- oxygen in the blood. In adults, nitrates are implicated in causing
scious, people who buy digestive tract cancers. Certainly they can cause an algal bloom,
organic may also be socially recognized as a green scum on the water’s surface.
conscious. Organic farming is In response to these problems, organic farmers severely limit
part of a movement to make the use of nitrogen fertilizers and instead rely on crop rotation,
agriculture sustainable by alternately planting a nitrogen-providing
using farming methods that legume and a nitrogen-requiring crop such
protect the health of people as wheat. Organic farmers also cut way
and ecosystems and preserve back on the use of herbicides and pesti-
the land so that it can be pro- cides, and this may be the primary reason
ductive for our generation and all future generations. you and others buy organic. The long-term
Modern agricultural methods have been dramatically suc- consumption of these chemicals has been
cessful at increasing yield, but at what price? We now know that associated with such health problems as
modern farming practices lead to topsoil depletion and ground- birth defects, nerve damage, and cancer.
water contamination. Without topsoil, the nutrient-rich layer Children may be especially sensitive to
that nourishes plants, agriculture is impossible, and yet modern health risks posed by pesticides; this is the FIGURE 1A
farming practices such as tilling the land and allowing it to lie chief reason lawns sprayed with pesticides Legume plants have
fallow (bare) allow topsoil to erode and disappear. One solution carry warning signs. We should all be nodules.
is to use a legume as a ground cover because it both protects and aware that we too can contribute to an
nourishes the soil (Fig. 1A). The researchers who did the study organic lifestyle by limiting the use of synthetic chemicals on our
described in Section 1.2 used pigeon peas as a way to enrich the lawns and gardens. In doing so, we improve our health and help
soil between winter wheat plantings. preserve the environment for ourselves and future generations.
Instead of growing legumes, farmers in recent years are
F O R M YO U R O P I N I O N
accustomed to making plants bountiful by applying more and
more synthetic nitrogen fertilizer. Unfortunately, nitrogen fertil- 1. The United States exports its current farming technology,
izers pollute wells used for drinking water and also huge bodies with all its long-range problems, to other countries. Should
of water, such as the Chesapeake Bay, the Gulf of Mexico, and this be continued?
the Great Lakes. Nitrates in the drinking water of infants leads 2. What circumstances might discourage a farmer from growing
to the “blue-baby” syndrome and possible death due to lack of food organically, and how might these obstacles be overcome?

6 CHAPTER 1 Biology, the Study of Life

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 Control pots Test pots
no treatment fertilization treatment

20
Control Pots
= no treatment
Test Pots
15 = fertilization treatment

Wheat Yield (grams/pot)

= pigeon pea/winter wheat rotation

10

0
year 1 year 2 year 3
The results

Control pots and test pots Test pots

of the experiment Pigeon pea/winter FIGURE 1.2 Design and results of the pigeon pea/winter wheat
wheat rotation rotation study.

pots preplanted with pigeon peas did not produce as high a yield Analysis of Results After two years, the yield from pots
as the control pots. treated with nitrogen fertilizer was less than it had been the first
year. Indeed, wheat yield in pots following a summer planting of
Conclusion The hypothesis was not supported. Wheat
pigeon peas was the highest of all the treatments. After three
yield following the growth of pigeon peas was not as great
years, wheat yield in pots treated with nitrogen fertilizer was
as that obtained with nitrogen fertilizer treatments.
greater than in the control pots but not nearly as great as the
yield in pots following summer planting of pigeon peas. Com-
Follow-Up Experiment and Results The researchers
pared to the first year, wheat yield increased almost fourfold in
decided to continue the experiment, using the same design and
pots having a pigeon pea/winter wheat rotation.
the same pots as before, to see whether the buildup of residual
soil nitrogen from pigeon peas would eventually increase wheat Conclusion The hypothesis was supported. At the end
yield to a greater extent than the use of nitrogen fertilizer. This of three years, the yield of winter wheat following a
was their new hypothesis: pigeon pea/winter wheat rotation was much better than
for the other types of test pots.
Hypothesis A sustained pigeon pea/winter wheat rota-
tion will eventually cause an increase in winter wheat To explain their results, the researchers suggested that the soil
production. was improved by the buildup of the organic matter in the pots
as well as by the addition of nitrogen from the pigeon peas.
They predicted that wheat yield following three years of pigeon
They published their results in a scientific journal,1 where their
pea/winter wheat rotation would surpass wheat yield following
experimental method and results would be available to the
nitrogen fertilizer treatment.
scientific community.

1.2 Check Your Progress What would your control group and test
groups be composed of if you were testing whether a parasite could
1
Bidlack, J. E., Rao, S. C., and Demezas, D. H. 2001. Nodulation, nitrogenase
activity, and dry weight of chickpea and pigeon pea cultivars using different
reduce the size of a fire ant colony?
Bradyrhizobium strains. Journal of Plant Nutrition 24:549–60.

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 FIGURE 1.3A Levels of biological organization.

Biosphere
Regions of the Earth’s crust,
waters, and atmosphere inhabited
by living things

Ecosystem
A community plus the physical environment

Community
Interacting populations in a particular area

Population
Organisms of the same species
in a particular area

Organism
An individual; complex individuals
contain organ systems

Organ System
Composed of several organs
working together

Organ
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things

Molecule
Union of two or more atoms
of the same or different elements

Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed of
electrons, protons, and neutrons

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 THE CELL THEORY
Organisms Are Composed of Cells
Learning Outcomes
▶ Explain the unique place of cells in biological organization. (1.3)
▶ Relate the reproduction of cells and organisms and also their need for materials and energy to the cell theory. (1.3)
From huge menacing sharks to miniscule exotic orchids, life is very diverse. Despite this diversity, biologists have concluded that life can be
understood in terms of the five theories that are emphasized in this text. The first theory we will discuss is the cell theory.

1.3 Cells are the fundamental unit of living things

Figure 1.3A illustrates very well why we will first discuss the is more complex. It begins with the pairing of a two cells—a
cell theory which says that cells are the fundamental unit of sperm from one partner and an egg from the other partner. The
living things. In a cell, atoms, the smallest portions of an ele- union of sperm and egg, followed by many cell divisions, results
ment, combine with themselves or other atoms to form mole- in an immature stage that grows and develops through various
cules. Although cells are composed of molecules, cells, and not stages to become an adult.
molecules, are alive. Some cells, such as unicellular paramecia,
live independently. Other cells, such as those of the alga Volvox,
Cells Use Materials and Energy Cells and organisms can-
not maintain their organization or carry on life’s activities with-
cluster together in microscopic colonies. An elephant is a multi-
out an outside source of nutrients and energy. Nutrients function
cellular organism in which similar cells combine to form a tissue;
as building blocks or for energy. Energy is the capacity to do
one common tissue in animals is nerve tissue. Tissues make up
work, and it takes work to maintain the organization of the cell
organs, as when various tissues combine to form the brain. Organs
and the organism. When cells use nutrients to make their parts
work together in organ systems; for example, the brain works
and products, they carry out a sequence of chemical reactions.
with the spinal cord and a network of nerves to form the nervous
Nerve cells and muscle cells also use energy as organisms move
system. Organ systems are joined together to form a complete liv-
about. The term metabolism encompasses all the chemical reac-
ing thing, or organism. Only a microscope can reveal that organ-
tions that occur in a cell.
isms are composed of cells (Fig. 1.3B).
The ultimate source of energy for nearly all life on Earth is
Later in this chapter, we will consider the higher levels of bio-
the sun. Plants and certain other organisms are able to capture
logical organization shown in Figure 1.3A.
solar energy and carry on photosynthesis, a process that trans-
Cells Come from Other Cells Cells come only from a previ- forms solar energy into the chemical energy of organic nutrients.
ous cell, and organisms come only from other organisms. In All life on Earth acquires energy by metabolizing nutrients made
other words, cells and organisms reproduce. Every type of living by photosynthesizers. This applies even to plants.
thing can reproduce, or make another organism like itself. Bac-
teria, protists, and other unicellular organisms simply split in 1.3 Check Your Progress Explain (a) how life has order, (b) how it
reproduces, and (c) how it acquires energy.
two. In most multicellular organisms, the reproductive process

cell

a. b. c.
FIGURE 1.3B Only micrographs (pictures taken microscopically), such as the one in (c), can reveal that organisms are composed of cells.
CHAPTER 1 Biology, the Study of Life 9

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 THE GENE THEORY
Genes Control the Traits of Organisms
Learning Outcomes
▶ Relate the gene theory to the diversity of life. (1.4)
▶ Describe several applications of the gene theory. (1.4)
The cell theory studied in Section 1.3 and the gene theory are intimately connected. Genes are housed in cells, and when cells divide, they
pass on genes to the next cell or organism. Genes code for proteins, and it is proteins that directly bring about the traits of organisms.

1.4 Organisms have a genetic inheritance

A nineteenth-century scientist named Gregor Mendel is
often called the father of genetics because he was the first
to conclude, following experimentation with pea plants,
that units of heredity now called genes are passed from
parents to offspring. Later investigators, notably James
Watson and Francis Crick, discovered that genes are
composed of the molecule known as DNA (deoxyribo- DNA
nucleic acid). The work of these and many other investi-
gators allows us to state the first premise of the gene
theory: Genes are hereditary units composed of DNA. Our
increasing knowledge of DNA tells us that genes contain coded
information that controls the structure and function of cells and
organisms. The spiral staircase structure of DNA contains four
different types of molecules called nucleotides, each represented
by a different color (Fig. 1.4). DNA can mutate (undergo perma-
nent changes), and each type of organism, such as those depicted
in Figure 1.4, has its own particular sequence of these four nucleo-
tides. This is called coded information because a particular nucle-
otide sequence codes for a particular protein. Proteins are cellular
molecules that determine what the cell and the organism are like. Bacteria
The second premise of the gene theory is: Genes control the struc-
ture and function of cells and organisms by coding for proteins.
Paramecium
The gene theory has been extremely fruitful, meaning that
it has led to much experimentation and many applications. Every
field of biology and most aspects of our lives have changed
because of the ability to analyze and manipulate DNA. Here are
a few examples:
Basic Genetic Research
We can extract DNA and study metabolism at the molecular
level. Therefore, we will soon know how one cell type dif-
fers from another. Morel
We can also sequence the nucleotides in DNA and study how the
metabolism of DNA is regulated. One day we will know how Sunflower
this makes humans different from chimpanzees, for example.
Relationship of Species
Snow goose
DNA technology aids in discovering the history of life on Earth—
that is, who is related to whom. For example, a recent com- FIGURE 1.4 DNA differences account for the variety of life
parative study concluded that early humans did not on Earth as exemplified by these examples.
interbreed with the archaic humans known as Neandertals.
Wildlife biologists use DNA sequence data to determine how
best to conserve various species. Drugs for diabetes, blood disorders, vaccines, and many other
diseases are now made by utilizing DNA technology.
Medicine
Genetic testing can tell us what diseases we are prone to, and
doctors can use this information to prescribe drug therapy 1.4 Check Your Progress Explain how genetic inheritance is a
part of reproduction.
or tell us how best to protect ourselves.

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 THE THEORY OF HOMEOSTASIS
Organisms Are Homeostatic
Learning Outcomes
▶ State and explain the concept of homeostasis. (1.5)
▶ Describe how an organism’s ability to respond to stimuli relates to homeostasis. (1.5)
To survive, cells and organisms must maintain a state of biological balance, or homeostasis. For example, temperature, moisture level,
acidity, and other physiological factors must remain within the tolerance range of cells.

1.5 Organisms regulate their internal environment

The theory of homeostasis tells us that cells and organisms have
an internal environment and that cells regulate this environment
so that it stays fairly constant. While individual cells are homeo-
static, most examples of homeostasis involve multicellular
organisms. Animals have intricate feedback and control mecha-
nisms that do not require any conscious activity. For example,
when a student is so engrossed in her textbook that she forgets
to eat lunch, her liver releases stored sugar to keep her blood
sugar level within normal limits. In this case, hormones regulate
sugar storage and release, but in other instances, the nervous
system is involved in maintaining homeostasis.
Many animals depend on behavior to regulate their internal
environment. The same student may realize that she is hungry
and decide to visit the local diner. Iguanas may raise their inter-
nal temperature by basking in the sun (Fig. 1.5A) or cool down
by moving into the shade. Similarly, fire ants move upward into
the mound when the warmth of the sun is needed and move
back down into their cooler subterranean passageways when the FIGURE 1.5B Plants respond to light by bending toward it.
sun is too hot.
We will see that plants are, to a degree, homeostatic. For
example, they bend toward sunlight and have mechanisms that contain the damage done by hungry insects to their leaves or
infections caused by bacteria and viruses.
Response to Stimuli The ability to respond to stimuli assists
the homeostatic ability of organisms. For example, only because
they can repond to the presence of predaceous insects can
plants protect their integrity. Even unicellular organisms can
respond to their environment. For some, the beating of micro-
scopic hairs, and for others, the snapping of whiplike tails
move them toward or away from light or chemicals. Mul-
ticellular organisms can manage more complex responses.
A vulture can detect a carcass a mile away and soar
toward dinner. A monarch butterfly can sense the
approach of fall and begin its flight south where
resources are still abundant.
When a plant bends toward a source of light
(Fig. 1.5B), it acquires the energy it needs for photosynthe-
sis, and when an animal darts safely away from danger, it
lives another day. All together, daily activities are termed the
behavior of the organism. Organisms display a variety of
behaviors as they search and compete for energy, nutrients,
shelter, and mates. Many organisms display complex communi-
cation, hunting, and defensive behaviors as well. The behavior
of an organism often assists homeostasis.

1.5 Check Your Progress Explain the relationship between

FIGURE 1.5A Iguanas bask in the sun to raise their body
homeostasis and response to a stimulus.
temperature.

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 THE THEORY OF ECOSYSTEMS
Organisms Live in Ecosystems
Learning Outcomes
▶ Describe the various levels of biological organization beyond the organism. (1.6)
▶ Describe how an ecosystem functions. (1.6)
The organization of life extends beyond the individual to the biosphere, the zone of air, land, and water at the Earth’s surface where living
organisms are found. Individual organisms belong to a population, all the members of a species within a particular area. The populations
within a community interact among themselves and with the physical environment (soil, atmosphere, etc.), thereby forming an
ecosystem.

1.6 The biosphere is divided into ecosystems

The theory of ecosystems says that organisms form units in
which they interact with the biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliv- Energy flow

ing) components of the environment. One example of an ecosys- Solar Chemical cycling
tem is a North American grassland, which is inhabited by energy
populations of rabbits, hawks, and many other animals, as well
as various types of grasses. These populations interact by form-
heat
ing food chains in which one population feeds on another. For
example, rabbits feed on grasses, while hawks feed on rabbits
and other organisms. producers
As Figure 1.6 shows, ecosystems are characterized by chem-
ical cycling and energy flow, both of which begin when plants,
such as grasses, take in solar energy and inorganic nutrients to heat
produce food (organic nutrients) by photosynthesis. Chemical
cycling (gray arrows) occurs as chemicals move from one popu-
consumers
lation to another in a food chain, until death and decomposition
allow inorganic nutrients to be returned to the photosynthesizers
once again. Energy (red arrows), on the other hand, flows from
the sun through plants and the other members of the food chain
as they feed on one another. The energy gradually dissipates and
returns to the atmosphere as heat. Because energy does not
cycle, ecosystems could not stay in existence without solar
energy and the ability of photosynthesizers to absorb it.
The Biosphere Climate largely determines where different
ecosystems are found in the biosphere. For example, deserts
exist in areas of minimal rain, while forests require much rain.
The two most biologically diverse ecosystems—tropical rain for-
ests and coral reefs—occur where solar energy is most abun- decomposers heat
dant. The human population tends to modify these and all
ecosystems for its own purposes. Humans clear forests or grass-
lands in order to grow crops; later, they build houses on what FIGURE 1.6 A grassland is a major ecosystem. Chemicals cycle
was once farmland; and finally, they convert small towns into because decomposers return inorganic nutrients to producers which
cities. As coasts are developed, humans send sediments, sewage, provide organic nutrients to consumers including decomposers. With
and other pollutants into the sea. each transfer of nutrients, energy is lost as heat.
Tropical rain forests and coral reefs are home to many organ-
isms. The canopy of the tropical rain forest alone supports a It has long been clear that human beings depend on healthy
variety of organisms, including orchids, insects, and monkeys. ecosystems for food, medicines, and various raw materials. We
Coral reefs, which are found just offshore in the Southern Hemi- are only now beginning to realize that we depend on them even
sphere, provide a habitat for many animals, including jellyfish, more for the services they provide. The workings of ecosystems
sponges, snails, crabs, lobsters, sea turtles, moray eels, and some ensure that environmental conditions are suitable for the contin-
of the world’s most colorful fishes. Like tropical rain forests, ued existence of humans.
coral reefs are severely threatened as the human population
increases in size. Aside from pollutants, overfishing and collec- 1.6 Check Your Progress Give a specific example to illustrate that
tion of coral for sale to tourists destroy the reefs. we depend on natural ecosystems.

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 THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION
Organisms Are Related and Adapted to Their Environment
Learning Outcomes
▶ Use a simple evolutionary tree to show how organisms are related. (1.7)
▶ List the major categories of classification, and explain how data are used to classify organisms. (1.8)
▶ Describe adaptation to the environment by the process of natural selection. (1.9)
▶ State seven characteristics that define life. (1.10)
Evolution explains the unity and diversity of life. All organisms share the same characteristics because they are descended from a common
source. During descent, however, life changes as different forms become adapted to their environment. Evolution is the unifying concept of
biology because it can explain so many aspects of life, including why organisms have shared characteristics despite their great diversity.

1.7 The ancestry of species can be determined

The theory of evolution says that organisms have shared char- flying dinosaurs. The reptiles that exist today include crocodiles,
acteristics because of common descent. Just as you and your lizards, snakes, and turtles and birds! The evolutionary tree in
close relatives can trace your ancestry to a particular pair of great Figure 1.7B traces the ancestry of Archaeopteryx to an early
grandparents, so species can trace their ancestry to a common reptilian ancestor.
source. An evolutionary tree is like a family tree. Just as a fam- In Section 1.8 we will examine an evolutionary tree of life
ily tree shows how a group of people have descended from one and consider how organisms are classified. Then in Section 1.9
couple, an evolutionary tree traces the ancestry of a group to a we will show that natural selection is the mechanism that
common ancestor. In the same way that one couple can have results in adaptation to the environment, such as the ability of
diverse children, a population can be a common ancestor to birds to fly. One important thing to remember is that only spe-
several other groups. Over time, diverse life-forms have arisen. cies (types of organisms) evolve and not individual organisms.
Biologists have discovered that it is possible to trace the Genetics can help you understand why. The genetic makeup
evolution of any group—and even life itself—by using molecular you inherited from your parents can mutate during your life-
data, the fossil record, the anatomy and physiology of organ- time and cause cellular changes, but this does not cause your
isms, and the embryonic development of organisms. The com- basic characteristics to change. On the other hand, mutations
mon ancestors for birds are known from the fossil record, and that show up in populations can be selected for increased rep-
Archaeopteryx, an early bird, clearly has reptile characteristics resentation in the next generation.
(Fig. 1.7A). Because the evidence is so clear, birds are now clas-
sified as reptiles. Some biologists call them 1.7 Check Your Progress Humans are not descended from apes;
they share a common ancestor with apes. Explain the difference.

Crocodilians
reptile characteristics
bird characteristics

feathers Dinosaurs
common
ancestor
(reptilian)

Dinosaurs

teeth
tail with vertebrae
Archaeopteryx
common ancestor

claws
Past Present
Time

FIGURE 1.7B An evolutionary tree shows how the ancestry of

FIGURE 1.7A This depiction of Archaeopteryx shows its bird and Archaeopteryx can be traced to a common ancestor with crocodiles
reptile characteristics. and dinosaurs. Each circle is an intervening common ancestor.

CHAPTER 1 Biology, the Study of Life 13

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 1.8 Evolutionary relationships help biologists group organisms
Despite their diversity, organisms share certain characteristics,
and this can be explained by evolution from a common source. TABLE 1.8 Levels of Classification
For example, all forms of life are composed of cells and use
Human Corn
DNA as their genetic material. Figure 1.8A is an evolutionary
tree that shows how major groups of organisms are related Domain Eukarya Eukarya
through evolution. Kingdom Animalia Plantae

Organizing Diversity Because life is so diverse, it is helpful Phylum Chordata Anthophyta

to group organisms into categories. Taxonomy is the discipline Class Mammalia Monocotyledones
of identifying and grouping organisms according to certain rules. Order Primates Commelinales
Taxonomy makes sense out of the bewildering variety of life on Family Hominidae Poaceae
Earth and is meant to provide valuable insight into evolution. As
Genus Homo Zea
more is learned about living things, including the evolutionary
relationships between species, taxonomy changes. DNA technol- Species* H. sapiens Z. mays
ogy is now being used to revise current information and to dis- *To specify an organism, you must use the full binomial name, such as Homo sapiens.
cover previously unknown relationships between organisms.
The basic classification categories, or taxa, going from least
inclusive to most inclusive, are species, genus, family, order, (Fig. 1.8B) can live in aquatic environments that lack oxygen or
class, phylum, kingdom, and domain (Table 1.8). The least are too salty, too hot, or too acidic for most other organisms.
inclusive category, species, is defined as a group of interbreeding Perhaps these environments are similar to those of the primitive
individuals. Each successive classification category above spe- Earth, and archaea are the least evolved forms of life, as their
cies contains more types of organisms than the preceding one. name implies. Bacteria (Fig.1.8C) are variously adapted to living
Species placed within one genus share many specific character- almost anywhere—in water, soil, and the atmosphere, as well as
istics and are the most closely related, while species placed in on our skin and in our mouths and large intestines.
the same kingdom share only gen-
eral characteristics with one another.
For example, all species in the genus BACTERIA
Pisum look pretty much the same—
that is, like pea plants—but species
in the plant kingdom can be quite
varied, as is evident when we com- common
ARCHAEA
pare grasses to trees. Species placed ancestor
in different domains are the most (first cells)
distantly related.
Domains Biochemical evidence Protists
suggests that there are only three
domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and photosynthetic
Eukarya. Figure 1.8A shows how protist
the domains are related. Both
Plants
domain Bacteria and domain cell with nucleus
Archaea evolved from the first com-
mon ancestor soon after life began.
EUKARYA
These two domains contain the uni-
cellular prokaryotes, which lack the Fungi
membrane-bounded nucleus found
in the eukaryotes of domain
Eukarya. However, the DNA of heterotrophic
archaea differs from that of bacteria, protist Animals
common ancestor
and their cell surface is chemically
more similar to eukaryotes than to Past Present
bacteria. So, biologists have con- Time
cluded that eukarya split off from
the archaeal line of descent. Pro- FIGURE 1.8A All species have a common ancestor that existed about four billion years ago.
karyotes are structurally simple but Domains Bacteria and Archaea were the first to appear. Domain Eukarya, which includes protists,
metabolically complex. Archaea plants, fungi, and animals, shares an ancestor with domain Archaea.

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 Taxonomists are in the process of deciding how to catego- avoid confusion. Common names tend to overlap and are often
rize the organisms within domains Archaea and Bacteria into in the language of a particular country. Scientific names are
kingdoms. Domain Eukarya, on the other hand, contains four based on Latin, a universal language that not too long ago was
major groups of organisms (Fig. 1.8D). Protists, which now well known by most scholars.
comprise a number of kingdoms, range from unicellular forms
to a few multicellular ones. Some are photosynthesizers, while 1.8 Check Your Progress a. Fire ants belong to what domain and
what kingdom? b. What types of data did biologists use to draw the
others must acquire their food. Common protists include algae,
tree of life depicted in Figure 1.8A?
the protozoans, and the water molds. Figure 1.8A shows that
plants, fungi, and animals evolved from protists. Plants (kingdom
Plantae) are multicellular photosynthetic organisms. Examples
of plants include azaleas, zinnias, and pines. Among the fungi Protists
(kingdom Fungi) are the familiar molds and mushrooms that,
along with bacteria, help decompose dead organisms. Animals • Algae, protozoans,
slime molds, and
(kingdom Animalia) are multicellular organisms that must ingest water molds
and process their food. Aardvarks, jellyfish, and zebras are • Complex single cell
representative animals. (sometimes filaments,
colonies, or even
Scientific Names Biologists use binomial nomenclature to multicellular)
• Absorb, photosynthesize,
assign each living thing a two-part name called its scientific 1 mm or ingest food
name. For example, the scientific name for mistletoe is Phora-
dendron tomentosum. The first word is the genus, and the sec- Paramecium, a unicellular protozoan
ond word is the specific epithet of a species within that genus.
The genus may be abbreviated (e.g., P. tomentosum), and if the
species is unknown it may be indicated by sp. (e.g., Phoraden- KINGDOM: Plants
dron sp.). Scientific names are universally used by biologists to
• Certain algae, mosses, ferns,
conifers, and flowering plants
• Multicellular, usually with
specialized tissues,
containing complex cells
• Prokaryotic cells • Photosynthesize food
of various shapes
• Adaptations to
extreme environments
• Absorb or Passiflora, passion flower, a flowering plant
chemosynthesize food
• Unique chemical
characteristics
KINGDOM: Fungi

• Molds, mushrooms, yeasts,

and ringworms
• Mostly multicellular filaments with
specialized, complex cells
• Absorb food
Methanosarcina mazei, an archaeon 1.6 mm

FIGURE 1.8B Domain Archaea.

Coprinus, a shaggy mane mushroom

• Prokaryotic cells
of various shapes
• Adaptations to
all environments KINGDOM: Animals
• Absorb, photosynthesize,
or chemosynthesize food • Sponges, worms, insects,
• Unique chemical fishes, frogs, turtles,
characteristics birds, and mammals
• Multicellular with
specialized tissues
containing complex cells
• Ingest food

Vulpes, a red fox

Escherichia coli, a bacterium 1.5 mm

FIGURE 1.8C Domain Bacteria. FIGURE 1.8D Domain Eukarya.

CHAPTER 1 Biology, the Study of Life 15

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 1.9 Evolution through natural selection results in adaptation to the environment
The phrase “common descent with modification” sums up the pro- Therefore, the plant with hairy leaves survives best and pro-
cess of evolution because it means that, as descent occurs from duces more seeds than most of its neighbors. As a result, genera-
common ancestors, modifications occur that cause these organisms tions later most plants of this species produce hairy leaves.
to be adapted (suited) to the environment. Through many observa- As with this example, Darwin realized that although all indi-
tions and experiments, Charles Darwin, the father of evolution, viduals within a population have the ability to reproduce, not all
came to the conclusion that natural selection is the process that do so with the same success. Prevention of reproduction can run
makes modification—that is, adaptation—possible. In other words, the gamut from an inability to capture resources, as when long-
the theory of evolution also states that, as evolution occurs, natural necked, but not short-necked, giraffes can reach their food source,
selection brings about adaptation to the environment. Adaptation to to an inability to escape being eaten because long legs, but not
various environments accounts for the diversity of life. short legs, can carry an animal to safety. Whatever the example,
it can be seen that living things having advantageous traits can
Natural Selection During the process of natural selection,
produce more offspring than those lacking them. In this way, liv-
some aspect of the environment selects which traits are more apt
ing things change over time, and these changes are passed on
to be passed on to the next generation. The selective agent can
from one generation to the next. Over long periods of time, the
be an abiotic agent (part of the physical environment, such as
introduction of newer, more advantageous traits into a population
altitude) or a biotic agent (part of the living environment, such
causes a species to become adapted to an environment.
as a deer). Figure 1.9A shows how deer could act as a selective
For example, rockhopper penguins (Fig. 1.9B) are adapted to
agent for a particular mutant. Mutations fuel natural selection
an aquatic existence in the Antarctic. An extra layer of downy
because mutations introduce variations among the members of
feathers is covered by short, thick feathers that form a waterproof
a population. In Figure 1.9A, a plant species generally produces
coat. Layers of blubber also keep the birds warm in cold water.
smooth leaves, but a mutation occurs that causes one plant’s
Most birds have forelimbs proportioned for flying, but penguins
leaves to be covered with small extensions or “hairs.” The plant
have stubby, flattened wings suitable for swimming. Their feet
with hairy leaves has an advantage because the deer (the selec-
and tails serve as rudders in the water, but their flat feet also allow
tive agent) prefer to eat smooth leaves rather than hairy leaves.
them to walk on land. Rockhopper penguins hop from one rock to
another and have a bill adapted to eating small shellfish. Penguins
also have many behavioral adaptations for living in the Antarctic.
They often slide on their bellies across the snow in order to con-
serve energy when moving quickly. Their eggs—one, or at most
two—are carried on the feet, where they are protected by a
pouch of skin. This allows the birds to huddle together for
warmth while standing erect and incubating eggs.

Some plants within a population exhibit variation in leaf structure.

1.9 Check Your Progress Explain how natural selection results in
the adaptations of a species.

Deer prefer a diet of smooth leaves over hairy leaves. Plants with
hairy leaves reproduce more than other plants in the population.

Generations later, most plants within the population have hairy

leaves, as smooth leaves are selected against.

FIGURE 1.9A Predatory deer act as a selective agent to bring FIGURE 1.9B Rockhopper penguins are adapted to swimming in
about change in a plant population. the icy waters of Antarctica.

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 HOW LIFE CHANGES Application

1B Evolution’s Many Applications

The principles of evolution not only increase our understanding to develop new drugs to kill them. Millions of possible drugs are
of how the world works but also help us solve practical prob- selected based on their ability to kill a particular pathogen. Then
lems that impact our lives. Many good examples can be cited in the best of these are tweaked chemically before this new patch
the fields of agriculture, medicine, and conservation. of chemicals are tested for their ability to kill the pathogen. This
selection process is repeated time and time again until a new
Agriculture drug has been developed. This drug is then tested in another
The fruit of the wild banana plant is small and tough with large mammal (e.g., mouse) or another primate (e.g., chimpanzee)
hard seeds. In contrast, the bananas we eat today are large, soft, that is closely related to humans through evolution. If the drug
sweet, and for practical purposes seed- has few harmful side effects, it is prescribed to humans to cure
less. Humans produced this type of the disease.
banana by using artificial selection; in
this case, humans were the selective agent Conservation
and not the environment. Most of the veg- A knowledge of evolution helps scientists decide which technolo-
etables we eat today, and our domesti- gies can help save the environment. For example, most of us still fill
cated animals including horses, dogs, and the tanks of our cars with gasoline derived from oil. Yet oil is a
cows, were produced in the same way. nonrenewable resource that will eventually be depleted. What we
Understanding the evolution of our agricultural plants helps need is a renewable resource that can be replaced over and over
us keep them healthy. For example, maize chlorotic dwarf virus again. Corn is a renewable resource that can be used to produce
(MCDV) causes an infection of young corn plants that makes ethanol, a fuel that substitutes for gasoline and is somewhat better
them sick and reduces yield. However, it’s known that our for the environment. Furthermore, some scientists believe that,
domesticated corn is derived from wild plants called teosinte, instead of using corn, which is food for animals and humans, bil-
and scientists have found teosinte species in the wild that are lions of tons of currently unused waste materials in the United
resistant to several viral diseases, including the one caused by States are available for ethanol production. By mocking the natural
MCDV. This gene has been transferred to corn plants so that they selection process as described above for perfecting a drug, the best
too are resistant. bacteria for changing waste to ethanol could be arrived at. Using
Farmers use pesticides to protect their crops from insects, or the natural selection process to
they grow plants that have been engineered to produce the pes- achieve the best drug or the best bac-
ticide. However, the pesticide is a selective agent for those mem- terium or to select anything for a par-
bers of the insect population that carry genes for the resistant ticular task is now described as using
trait. Because these insects reproduce more than nonresistant directed evolution.
insects, a large percentage of the insect population becomes A knowledge of evolution can
resistant. Understanding this process has caused scientists to also help us save endangered species
suggest that farmers make a part of their fields pesticide free. in the wild. For example, some popu-
This will allow nonresistant insects to also reproduce, and in lations of chinook salmon are listed
this way the percentage of resistant insects in the next genera- under the U.S. Endangered Species Act as either threatened or
tion will be reduced. endangered. To save them, it is possible to build hatcheries,
breed more fish, and introduce these fish into rivers where small
Medicine populations of wild chinook salmon now live. However, this will
In the presence of an antibiotic, resistant bacteria are selected to not work if the captive fish have inadvertently undergone selec-
reproduce over and over again, until the entire population of tion for reproduction in hatcheries but not in rivers. Therefore,
bacteria becomes resistant to the antibiotic. In 1959, a new anti- hatcheries should mimic as much as possible the selection pres-
biotic called methicillin became available sures that wild populations are exposed to. Only in that way can
to treat bacterial infections that were the introduced chinook salmon help save wild populations and
already resistant to penicillin. By 1997, our efforts will not have been wasted.
40% of hospital staph infections were
caused by MRSA (methicillin-resistant
F O R M YO U R O P I N I O N
Staphylococcus aureus). By now, the same
bacteria can spread freely through the 1. Give examples of how a knowledge of evolution can help
general population when people are in humans solve practical problems that impact their lives.
close contact. The infection is called CA- 2. Explain why it benefits farmers to set aside part of their
MRSA (community-acquired MRSA). fields where nonresistant insects can reproduce.
A knowledge of evolution has not only allowed scientists to 3. Give reasons why captive chinook salmon introduced into
understand how pathogens (e.g., bacteria and viruses) become the wild need to have been exposed to the same environ-
resistant to antibiotics, but has also helped them create a process mental pressures as wild populations.

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 1.10 Evolution from a common ancestor accounts for the characteristics of life
The diversity of life has been mentioned several times by now. members of a population that were homeostatic had more
With so much diversity, how can we possibly define life? The offspring than those that were less homeostatic.
best way we know to distinguish the living from the nonliving is 5. Life responds to stimuli. Organisms respond to internal stim-
to list the characteristics shared by all organisms. These charac- uli and external stimuli, and this allows them to maintain
teristics of life must have been present in the original common homeostasis. Response to stimuli also accounts for the behav-
ancestor or else they would not be present in all organisms. ior of organisms; see p. 11. Behavior evolves through natural
selection in the same manner as do anatomical features.
1. Life is organized. The levels of biological organization
6. Life forms ecosystems. Interactions are a hallmark of liv-
extend from cells to the biosphere; see p. 8. The first living
ing things. Cells interact within organisms, and populations
organisms were unicellular, and only later did multicellular
interact in ecosystems. We could not exist without food
forms arise. Once several different types of organisms arose,
produced by plants and without bacteria and fungi that
they interacted among themselves and became the biotic
decompose dead remains; see p. 12.
components of ecosystems.
7. Life evolves. The history of life began with a common
2. Life uses materials and energy. The metabolic pathways
source, but as life reproduces it passes on genes that can
that allow an organism to maintain its organization and to
mutate. Through mutations, advantages arise that are
grow are the same in all organisms; see p. 9. We will study
suited to the environment, and through natural selection
these metabolic pathways in future chapters because they
they become more prevalent in a population. Adaptation
are so critical to the lives of organisms.
to different environments accounts for the variety of life on
3. Life reproduces. Unicellular organisms simply divide when
Earth; see pp. 13–16.
they reproduce, but in multicellular forms, new life often
begins with a fertilized egg that grows and develops into a 1.10 Check Your
new organism. When organisms reproduce, genetic differ- Progress Describe
ences arise that allow evolution to occur; see pp. 9–10. how the hawk and her
4. Life is homeostatic. Regulatory mechanisms allow cells offspring illustrate the
and organisms to keep their internal environment relatively characteristics of life.
constant; see p. 11. Homeostasis evolved because those

THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW

utilizing the legume. After three years, however, a winter
SUMMARY wheat/pigeon pea rotation out-performed the control pots and
those that were fertilized with a synthetic nitrogen fertilizer.
Science Helps Us Understand the Natural World
1.1 Scientists use a preferred method Organisms Are Composed of Cells
• Biology is the scientific study of life. 1.3 Cells are the fundamental unit of living things
• The scientific method consists of four steps: • Biological organization extends from the molecules in cells to
• making observations using both our senses and special the organism and beyond.
instruments
• formulating a possible explanation, called a hypothesis, by
using inductive reasoning
• doing experiments that involve an experimental variable,
test groups, and a control group that is not exposed to the
experimental variable. Alternatively, scientists can simply
make further observations. When doing experiments,
scientists sometimes work with a model.
• coming to a conclusion based on data as to whether the
hypothesis is supported or not.
• A scientific theory is a major concept supported by many
observations, experiments, and data.
1.2 Control groups allow scientists to compare experimental
results
• In a scientific experiment involving the use of a synthetic • The cell theory states that cells, the fundamental units of
nitrogen fertilizer versus a legume (pigeon pea) to enrich life, come from other cells as reproduction of cells and the
the soil, the control pots produced a greater yield than those organism occurs.

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 • In cells, atoms combine to form molecules; similar cells make Organisms Are Related and Adapted to
up a tissue; and tissues compose organs that work together in Their Environment
organ systems. Organ systems work together in an organism.
1.7 The ancestry of species can be determined
• Cells and organisms acquire materials and energy from the
environment to maintain their organization. • The theory of evolution says that all species (living or
• Energy is the capacity to do work. extinct) can trace their ancestry to a common source.
• Metabolism carries out chemical reactions. • An evolutionary tree depicts the pattern of descent by way of
• Photosynthesis allows plants to capture solar energy and common ancestors.
produce nutrients that sustain all organisms. 1.8 Evolutionary relationships help biologists group
organisms
Genes Control the Traits of Organisms • Taxonomy is the classification of organisms according to the
1.4 Organisms have a genetic inheritance evolutionary relationships.
• The gene theory tells us that genes are hereditary units • The classification categories are species (least inclusive),
composed of DNA. genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, and domain
• Genes control the structure and function of cells and (most inclusive).
organisms by coding for cellular molecules (proteins). • There are three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
• Because genes can mutate, each organism has it own
particular sequence of DNA nucleotides.
• The gene theory has been very fruitful, yielding many
practical applications, such as those listed on page 10.

Organisms Are Homeostatic

1.5 Organisms regulate their internal environment
• The theory of homeostasis states that organisms and Bacteria Archaea Eukarya
cells have mechanisms that keep the internal environment
relatively constant. Only then can life continue.
• Homeostasis involves the use of sense receptors to monitor • Domain Archaea and domain Bacteria contain prokaryotes
the external and internal environment. (organisms without a membrane-bounded nucleus).
• Organisms can respond to changes in the environment. For • Domain Eukarya contains eukaryotes (organisms with a
example, when plants turn toward sunlight, they acquire the membrane-bounded nucleus).
energy they need to photosynthesize. • There are four major groups in domain Eukarya:
• Protists—unicellular to multicellular organisms with
Organisms Live in Ecosystems various modes of nutrition
1.6 The biosphere is divided into ecosystems • Fungi—molds and mushrooms
• Plants—multicellular photosynthesizers
• The theory of ecosystems says that within a local environment:
• Animals—multicellular organisms that ingest food
• The members of each species are a population.
• To classify an organism, two-part scientific names—binomial
• Populations form a community in which they interact with
nomenclature—are used, consisting of the genus name and
each other.
the specific epithet.
• In a community, chemicals cycle and energy flows but does
not cycle. 1.9 Evolution through natural selection results in adaptation
• Chemical cycling requires interaction with the physical to the environment
environment. • The theory of evolution also says that modifications are
introduced as evolution occurs, and if these modifications
assist adaptations, they become more common through
natural selection. The result is a wide variety of life-forms on
heat heat Earth, each adapted to a different environment.
Solar
1.10 Evolution from a common ancestor accounts for the
energy
characteristics of life
producers consumers
• Organisms have shared characteristics because of common
descent. Life is organized, uses materials and energy,
reproduces, is homeostatic, responds to stimuli, forms
ecosystems, and evolves.
chemicals decomposers

Energy flow TESTING YOURSELF

heat
Chemical cycling
Science Helps Us Understand the Natural World
1. Which of the following words would not be part of a
conclusion?
• Diverse ecosystems, including tropical rain forests and coral a. proof c. rejection
reefs, are being destroyed by human activities. b. support d. All can be part of a conclusion.

CHAPTER 1 Biology, the Study of Life 19

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 2. Which term and definition are mismatched? Organisms Live in Ecosystems
a. data—factual information
14. Which sequence represents the correct order of increasing
b. hypothesis—the idea to be tested
complexity?
c. conclusion—what the data tell us
a. biosphere, community, ecosystem, population
d. All of these are properly matched.
b. population, ecosystem, biosphere, community
3. Which of these describes the control group in the pigeon pea/
c. community, biosphere, population, ecosystem
winter wheat experiment? The control group was
d. population, community, ecosystem, biosphere
a. planted with pigeon peas.
15. In an ecosystem, energy
b. treated with nitrogen fertilizer.
a. flows and nutrients cycle.
c. not treated.
b. cycles and nutrients flow.
d. not watered.
c. and nutrients flow.
e. Both c and d are correct.
d. and nutrients cycle.
4. THINKING CONCEPTUALLY What’s the relationship between the
16. An example of chemical cycling occurs when
scientific method and the five theories on which this book is
a. plants absorb solar energy and make their own food.
based?
b. energy flows through an ecosystem and becomes heat.
c. hawks soar and nest in trees.
Organisms Are Composed of Cells
d. death and decay make inorganic nutrients available to plants.
5. The level of organization that includes cells of similar e. we eat food and use the nutrients to grow or repair tissues.
structure and function is 17. Energy is brought into ecosystems by which of the following?
a. an organ. c. an organ system. a. fungi and other decomposers
b. a tissue. d. an organism. b. cows and other organisms that graze on grass
6. Which sequence represents the correct order of increasing c. meat-eating animals
complexity in living systems? d. organisms that photosynthesize, such as plants
a. cell, molecule, organ, tissue e. All of these are correct.
b. organ, tissue, cell, molecule 18. THINKING CONCEPTUALLY How is a college campus, which is
c. molecule, cell, tissue, organ composed of buildings, students, faculty, and administrators,
d. cell, organ, tissue, molecule like an ecosystem?
7. All of the chemical reactions that occur in a cell are called
a. homeostasis. c. heterostasis. Organisms Are Related and Adapted to Their
b. metabolism. d. cytoplasm.
8. The process of turning solar energy into chemical energy is
Environment
called 19. Organisms are related because they
a. work. c. photosynthesis. a. all have the same structure and function.
b. metabolism. d. respiration. b. share the same characteristics.
c. can all trace their ancestry to a common source.
Genes Control the Traits of Organisms d. all contain genes.
20. An evolutionary tree
9. Genes are
a. shows common ancestors.
a. present in eukaryotes but not in prokaryotes.
b. depicts the history of a group of organisms.
b. composed of RNA and DNA.
c. is based on appropriate data.
c. passed on from cell to cell and from organism to organism.
d. shows how certain organisms are related.
d. All of these are correct.
e. All of these are correct.
10. Genes
21. Classification of organisms reflects
a. code for proteins.
a. similarities.
b. can mutate.
b. evolutionary history.
c. are always composed of four nucleotides.
c. Neither a nor b is correct.
d. All of these are correct.
d. Both a and b are correct.
11. THINKING CONCEPTUALLY What’s the relationship between genes
22. Which of these exhibits an increasingly more inclusive
and the diversity of life?
scheme of classification?
a. kingdom, phylum, class, order
Organisms Are Homeostatic b. phylum, class, order, family
12. Which of the following are a part of homeostasis? c. class, order, family, genus
a. Animals keep their internal temperature relatively constant. d. genus, family, order, class
b. Your blood cell count is always about the same. 23. Humans belong to the domain
c. Certain organs, such as the kidneys, excrete wastes. a. Archaea. c. Eukarya.
d. Plants are able to turn toward the sun. b. Bacteria. d. None of these are correct.
e. All of these are correct. 24. In which group are you most likely to find unicellular organisms?
13. To remain homeostatic, organisms need to a. Protists c. Plantae
a. be multicellular. b. Fungi d. Animalia
b. acquire material and energy from the environment. 25. The second word of a scientific name, such as Homo sapiens, is the
c. have a nervous system. a. genus. d. species.
d. respond to stimuli. b. phylum. e. family.
e. Both b and d are correct. c. specific epithet.

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 26. Modifications that make an organism suited to its way of life
are called Scientific Method Example
a. ecosystems. c. adaptations.
b. populations. d. None of these are correct. Observations a.
27. THINKING CONCEPTUALLY Give evidence to support the phrase
“Evolution is the unifying theory of biology.”
For questions 28–31, match each item to a characteristic of life in
Hypothesis b.
the key.

KEY:
a. is organized d. is homeostatic
Experiments and/or
b. uses materials e. responds to stimuli observations c.
and energy f. forms ecosystems
c. reproduces g. evolves
28. organisms exhibit behavior
29. populations interact Conclusion d.
30. giraffes produce only giraffes
31. common descent with modification

THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY ONLINE RESOURCE

1. An investigator spills dye on a culture plate and notices that
the bacteria live despite exposure to sunlight. He decides to www.mhhe.com/maderconcepts2
test whether the dye is protective against ultraviolet (UV) Enhance your study with animations
light. He exposes to UV light one group of culture plates that bring concepts to life and practice tests to assess your
containing bacteria and dye and another group containing
understanding. Your instructor may also recommend the
only bacteria. The bacteria on all plates die. Complete the
interactive eBook, individualized learning tools, and more.
following diagram to identify the steps of his investigation.
2. You want to grow large tomatoes and notice that a name-
brand fertilizer claims to yield larger produce than a generic
brand. How would you test this claim?

CONNEC TING THE CONCE PTS

The scientific method consists of making observa- composed of cells and that cells are the fundamental units of life.
tions, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypoth- The theory of homeostasis tells us that all organisms have mecha-
esis, and coming to a conclusion on the basis of the results (data). nisms that allow them to keep their internal environment rela-
The conclusions of many studies have allowed scientists to develop tively constant. The gene theory tells us all organisms have genes,
the five theories (cell theory, gene theory, theory of homeosta- hereditary units that undergo mutations leading to the variety of
sis, theory of ecosystems, and theory of evolution) on which this life. Even so, all life-forms share similar characteristics because
book is based. Theories are conceptual schemes that tell us how they can trace their ancestry to a common source as stated by the
the world works. All theories of biology are related. For example, theory of evolution. All life-forms live in ecosystems where inter-
the gene theory is connected to the theory of evolution because actions allow them to acquire the materials and energy they need
mutations create differences between the members of a popula- to continue their existence. Human beings are also dependent on
tion. Better-adapted members have the opportunity through natural ecosystems, and when they preserve the biosphere, they are pre-
selection to reproduce more, and in that way a species becomes serving their own existence as well.
adapted to its environment.
Any two theories are related. For example, evolution is also con-
PUT THE PIECES TOGETHER
nected to the theory of ecosystems because, as natural selection occurs,
species become adapted to living in a particular ecosystem. We can 1. Give your own example (not taken from this reading) to show
connect this observation to the cell theory because, if a gazelle’s nerve that two theories are related.
cells can conduct nerve impulses faster to its muscle cells than a lion’s 2. Explain in your own words how bacteria become resistant to an
nerve cells, the gazelle is more likely to escape capture. antibiotic.
In exploring the theories, we have also discussed the char-
acteristics of life. The cell theory taught us that all organisms are

CHAPTER 1 Biology, the Study of Life 21

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 Structure and
4 Cells: What Are They?
I magine that you have never taken a biology course, and you
are alone in a laboratory with a bunch of slides of plant and
animal tissues and a microscope. The microscope is easy to use,
and soon you are able to focus it and begin looking at the slides.
Your assignment is to defi ne a cell. In order not to panic,
you idly look at one slide after another, letting your mind
wander. Was this the way Robert Hooke felt back in the sev-
enteenth century, when he coined the word “cell”? What did
Function of Cells he see? Actually, Hooke was using a light microscope, as you
are, when he happened to look at a piece of cork. He drew
what he saw like this:

C H AP T E R O U T LI N E
Cells Are the Basic Units of Life
4.1 All organisms are composed of cells 64
4.2 Metabolically active cells are small in size 65
4.3 Prokaryotic cells evolved first 67
4.4 Eukaryotic cells contain specialized organelles:
An overview 68
Protein Synthesis Is a Major Function of Cells
4.5 The nucleus contains the cell’s genetic
information 70
4.6 The ribosomes carry out protein synthesis 71
4.7 The endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes and
transports proteins and lipids 72
4.8 The Golgi apparatus modifies and repackages
proteins for distribution 73
Vacuoles and Vesicles Have Varied Functions
4.9 Lysosomes digest biomolecules and cell parts 74
4.10 Peroxisomes break down long-chain fatty acids 74
4.11 Vacuoles are common to plant cells 74
Hooke saw almost nothing except for outlines, which we
4.12 Vesicles allow the organelles of the
endomembrane system to work together 75 know today are the cell walls of plant cells. Similarly, you can
make out the demarcations between onion root cells in the
A Cell Carries Out Energy Transformations micrograph on page 63. After comparing these to the nerve
4.13 Chloroplasts and mitochondria have opposite cells below, you might conclude that a cell is an entity, a unit
functions 76 of a larger whole.
The Cytoskeleton Is Dynamic
4.14 The cytoskeleton maintains cell shape and assists
movement 78
4.15 Cilia and flagella permit movement 79
Cell Structures Work Together
Table 4.16 Eukaryotic Cell Structures 80

APPLI C AT I O N S
HOW SCIENCE PROGRESSES
Microscopes Allow Us to See Cells 66
HOW SCIENCE PROGRESSES
Pulse-labeling Allows Observation of the Secretory
Pathway 73
HOW LIFE CHANGES
How the Eukaryotic Cell Evolved 77
Animal nerve cells

62

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 Once you had such a definition for a cell, you might be able Onion root cells
to conclude that cells are present in all the slides at your dis-
posal—as in all the micrographs on these pages. But it certainly
would take a gigantic leap to hypothesize that all organisms are
composed of cells, and this didn’t occur until almost 200 years
after Hooke used the term cell. You can appreciate that science
progresses slowly, little by little, and that a theory, such as the
cell theory, becomes established only when an encompassing
hypothesis is never found to be lacking. Indeed, it was only when
Matthias Schleiden always saw cells in plant tissues, and The-
odor Schwann always saw cells in animal tissues, that they
concluded, respectively, in the 1830s that plants and animals are
composed of cells.
This chapter begins with an explanation of the cell
theory and then considers the general characteristics of
cells. The cell theory was formulated before the elec-
tron microscope was invented and before the biochemi-
cal techniques now used to study cells were
developed. These improvements in technology
tells us how the structure of cells is suited to
carrying on the functions necessary to staying
alive. These activities are common to all cells,
and only in later chapters do we consider the
specific functions of specialized cells.

Rod-shaped bacteria Euglena, a protist

63

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 Cells Are the Basic Units of Life
Learning Outcomes
▶ Cite three tenets of the cell theory. (4.1)
▶ Explain why cells are so small. (4.2)
▶ Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. (4.3, 4.4)
All organisms are composed of cells, which are about the same small size whether present in an ant or a whale. Surface-to-volume
relationships explain why most cells can be measured in micrometers. The two major types of cells—prokaryotic and eukaryotic—differ in
complexity, but even so both contain DNA and have a cytoplasm bounded by a plasma membrane.

4.1 All organisms are composed of cells

The cell theory states that: under a microscope, you would see that it, too, is composed
of cells. Cells have distinct forms—a bone cell looks quite
1. A Cell Is the Basic Unit of Life This means that nothing
different from a nerve cell, and they both look quite different
smaller than a cell is alive. A unicellular organism exhibits
from the cell of a lilac leaf. Although cells are specialized in
the characteristics of life we discussed in Chapter 1. No
structure and function, they have certain parts in common.
smaller unit exists that is able to reproduce, respond to
This chapter discusses those common components.
stimuli, remain homeostatic, grow and develop, take in and
3. New Cells Arise Only from Preexisting Cells This state-
use materials from the environment, and adapt to the envi-
ment wasn’t readily apparent to early investigators, who
ronment. In short, life has a cellular nature. On this basis,
believed that organisms could arise from dirty rags, for
we can make two other deductions.
example. Today, we know you cannot get a new lilac bush
2. All Living Things Are Made Up of Cells While it may be
or a new rabbit without preexisting lilacs and rabbits. When
apparent that a unicellular organism is a cell, what about
lilacs, rabbits, or humans reproduce, a sperm cell joins with
more complex organisms? Lilacs and rabbits as well as other
an egg cell to form a zygote, which is the first cell of a new
visible organisms are multicellular. Figure 4.1A illustrates
multicellular organism.
that a lilac leaf is composed of cells, and Figure 4.1B illus-
trates that the intestinal lining of a rabbit is composed of cells. 4.1 Check Your Progress A cell is alive, but its parts are not alive.
Is there any tissue in these organisms that is not composed Explain.
of cells? For example, you might be inclined to say that bone
does not contain cells. But if you were to examine bone tissue

FIGURE 4.1B Rabbit, with a

photomicrograph of its
intestinal lining
below.

Lilac, a plant

Rabbit, an animal

50 mm
Micrograph of leaf reveals cells.

FIGURE 4.1A Lilac leaf, with a photomicrograph below. Micrograph of intestine reveals cells. 140 mm

64 PART 1 Organisms Are Composed of Cells

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 4.2 Metabolically active cells are small in size
Cells tend to be quite small. A frog’s egg, at about 1 millimeter
(mm) in diameter, is large enough to be seen by the human eye.
But most cells are far smaller than 1 mm; some are even as small
as 1 micrometer (μm)—one thousandth of a millimeter. Cell
structures and biomolecules that are smaller than a micrometer
are measured in terms of nanometers (nm). Figure 4.2A outlines
the visual range of the eye, the light microscope, and the electron
microscope. How Science Progresses on page 66 explains why
One 4-cm cube Eight 2-cm cubes Sixty-four 1-cm cubes
the electron microscope allows us to see so much more detail
than the light microscope does.
Why are cells so small? To answer this question, consider Total surface area
that a cell needs a surface area large enough to allow sufficient (height!width!number of sides!number of cubes)
nutrients to enter and to rid itself of wastes. Small cells, not 96 cm2 192 cm2 384 cm2
large cells, are more likely to have this adequate surface area Total volume
per volume. Consider a balloon: The air in the balloon is the (height!width!length!number of cubes)
volume, and the balloon’s skin is its surface area. A larger bal- 64 cm3 64 cm3 64 cm3
loon has more volume, as you can appreciate by trying to blow
Surface-area-to-volume ratio per cube
up a large balloon compared to a small balloon. How might you (surface area÷volume)
appreciate the amount of surface area per volume? Figure 4.2B 1.5:1 3:1 6:1
shows one way because it calculates the surface area per vol-
ume for different-sized cubes. Cutting a large cube into smaller FIGURE 4.2B Surface-area-to-volume relationships.
cubes provides a lot more surface area per volume. The calcula-
tions show that a 4-cm cube has a surface-area-to-volume Further, cells that specialize in absorption have modifica-
ratio of only 1.5:1, whereas a 1-cm cube has a surface-area-to- tions that greatly increase the surface-area-to-volume ratio of the
volume ratio of 6:1. cell. The cells along the surface of the intestinal wall have sur-
We would expect, then, that actively metabolizing cells face foldings called microvilli (sing., microvillus) that increase
would have to remain small. A chicken’s egg is several centime- their surface area. Nerve cells and some large plant cells are long
ters in diameter, but the egg is not actively metabolizing. Once and thin, and this increases the ratio of plasma membrane to
the egg is incubated and metabolic activity begins, the egg cytoplasm. Nerve cells are shown on page 62.
divides repeatedly without growth. Cell division restores the
amount of surface area needed for adequate exchange of 4.2 Check Your Progress Why is your body made up of multitudes
of small cells, instead of a single large cell?
materials.

0.1 nm 1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1 mm 10 mm 100 mm 1 mm 1 cm 0.1 m 1m 10 m 100 m 1 km

protein
chloroplast
plant and mouse rose
frog egg
animal
amino cells
acid
virus
ostrich
most bacteria human egg ant egg
atom
blue whale
electron microscope human

light microscope

human eye
FIGURE 4.2A The sizes of living things and their components. In the metric
system (see back endsheet), the units are based on the power of 10.
(1 meter = 102 cm = 103 mm = 106 μm = 109 nm.)

CHAPTER 4 Structure and Function of Cells 65

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 HOW SCIENCE PROGRESSES Application

4A Microscopes Allow Us to See Cells

Because cells are so small, it is best to study them microscopi- eye. The most commonly used compound light microscope is
cally. A magnifying glass containing a single lens is the simplest called a bright-field microscope, because the specimen, which is
version of a light microscope. However, such a simple device is typically stained, appears dark against a light background.
not powerful enough to be of much use in examining cells. The The compound light microscope is widely used in research,
compound light microscope is much more suitable. It has supe- clinical, and teaching laboratories. However, the use of light to
rior magnifying power because it uses a system of multiple produce an image means that the ability to view two objects as
lenses. As you can see in Figure 4Aa, a condenser lens focuses separate—the resolution—is not as good as with an electron
the light into a tight beam that passes through a thin specimen microscope. The resolution limit of a compound light micro-
(such as a unicellular amoeba, a drop of blood or a thin slice of scope is 0.2 μm, which means that objects less than 0.2 μm apart
an organ). An objective lens magnifies an image of the speci- appear as a single object. Although there is no limit to the mag-
men, and another lens, called the ocular lens, magnifies it yet nification that could be achieved with a compound light micro-
again. It is the image from the ocular lens that is viewed with the scope, there is a definite limit to the resolution.
The wavelength of light is an important consideration in
obtaining the best possible resolution with a compound light
microscope. The shorter the wavelength of light, the better the
ocular lens resolution. This is why many compound light microscopes are
equipped with blue filters. The shorter wavelength of blue light
compared to white light improves resolution.
An electron microscope can produce finer resolution than a
objective
lens light microscope because, instead of using light, it fires a beam
specimen of electrons at the specimen. Electrons have a shorter wave-
condenser length than does light. The essential design of an electron micro-
lens amoeba, LM 85 µm scope is similar to that of a compound light microscope, but its
light lenses are made of electromagnets, instead of glass. Because the
source human eye cannot see at the wavelengths of electrons, the
a. Compound light microscope (LM) images produced by electron microscopes are projected onto a
screen or viewed on a television monitor.
electron
There are two types of electron microscopes: the transmission
source
* condenser
electron microscope and the scanning electron microscope. These
lens system microscopes didn’t become widely used until about 1970. A trans-
electron mission electron microscope passes a beam of electrons through
beam a specimen (Fig. 4Ab). Because electrons do not have much pen-
specimen etrating ability, the section must be very thin—usually between 50
* objective and 150 nm. The transmission electron microscope can discern
lens
fine details, with a limit of resolution around 1.0 nm and a mag-
* projector nifying power up to 200,000 times larger than the actual size. A
pseudopod 200 nm
lens scanning electron microscope does not pass a beam through a
segment, TEM
photographic specimen; rather, it collects and focuses electrons that are scat-
plate
tered from the specimen’s surface and generates an image with a
b. Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
distinctive three-dimensional appearance (Fig. 4Ac).
Scientists often preserve microscopic images; these are
electron referred to as micrographs. A captured image from a light micro-
source
scope is termed a light micrograph (LM), or a photomicrograph.
* condenser There are also transmission electron micrographs (TEM) and
lenses scanning electron micrographs (SEM). The latter two are black-
electron and-white in their original form, but are often colorized for clar-
beam ity using a computer.
scanning
coil
F O R M YO U R O P I N I O N
* objective
amoeba, SEM 500 µm
lens 1. How would you convince a friend that what we see in
specimen micrographs actually exists?
2. TEMs are colorless but can have color added to them. Do
c. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) *electromagnetic lens
you think color enhancement of TEMs borders on misrepre-
FIGURE 4A Comparison of three microscopes. sentation? Why or why not?

66 PART 1 Organisms Are Composed of Cells

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 4.3 Prokaryotic cells evolved first
Fundamentally, two different types of cells exist. Prokaryotic
cells (pro, before, and karyon, nucleus) are so named because
they lack a membrane-bounded nucleus. The other type of cell,
called a eukaryotic cell, has a nucleus. Prokaryotic cells are
miniscule in size compared to eukaryotic cells (Fig. 4.3A).
Prokaryotes are present in great numbers in the air, in bodies of
water, in the soil, and also in and on other organisms.
As discussed on page 14, prokaryotic cells are divided into
two groups, largely based on DNA evidence. These two groups
are so biochemically different that they have been placed in
separate domains, called domain Bacteria and domain Archaea.
Figure 4.3B shows the generalized structure of a bacterium.
Like a eukaryotic cell, a bacterium is full of a semifluid sub-
stance called cytoplasm that is bounded by a plasma mem-
brane. The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer (see
Fig. 3.7) with embedded proteins. cell

protein flagellum
molecules

Eukaryotic cell Prokaryotic cell

FIGURE 4.3A Eukaryotic cells are much larger than prokaryotic

cells.
phospholipid
bilayer

The plasma membrane has the important function of regulat-

ing the entrance and exit of substances into and out of the cyto-
plasm. After all, the cytoplasm has a normal composition that needs
to be maintained. It contains thousands of ribosomes where pro-
tein synthesis ocurs. The long, looped chromosome of a prokaryotic
cell is located within a region of the cytoplasm known as a nucle-
oid. Bacteria reproduce by splitting in two, and each new cell gets ribosome
a copy of the chromosome. They can share DNA with other bacteria pili
by various means. Cyanobacteria (cyan, blue-green) are able to nucleoid
photosynthesize in the same manner as plants because they have
light-absorbing chlorophyll on their internal membranes.
plasma
In addition to the plasma membrane, bacteria have a cell membrane
wall, which helps maintain the shape of the cell. The cell wall cell wall
may in turn be surrounded by a capsule. Many short, hollow
protein rods called pili project through the cell wall. Pili attach capsule
the cell to solid substances and produce a slime that coats your
teeth, rocks at the bottom of lakes, and the hulls of ships, for
example. Motile bacteria usually have long, very thin flagella
(sing., flagellum), which rotate like propellers, rapidly moving
the bacterium in a fluid medium.
Bacteria are well known for causing serious diseases, such as
tuberculosis, anthrax, tetanus, throat infections, and gonorrhea.
However, they are important to the environment because they
decompose the remains of dead organisms and contribute to the flagellum
cycling of chemicals in ecosystems. Also, their great ability to syn-
thesize molecules can be put to use for the manufacture of all sorts
of products, from industrial chemicals to foodstuffs and drugs.

4.3 Check Your Progress Why can’t you define or recognize a cell
FIGURE 4.3B A prokaryotic cell is structurally simple but
by the presence of a nucleus?
metabolically complex.

CHAPTER 4 Structure and Function of Cells 67

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 4.4 Eukaryotic cells contain specialized organelles: An overview
Eukaryotic cells (eu, true, and karyon, nucleus) have a mem- prokaryotic cells, the plasma membrane is a phospholipid
brane-bounded nucleus, which houses their DNA. As depicted bilayer that contains proteins, shown in the circular blow-up of
in Figure 1.8D, protists, fungi, plants, and animals are the groups Figure 4.4A.
of organisms that have eukaryotic cells and are in the domain Eukaryotic cells are rich in membrane, and most organelles
Eukarya, the third domain of life. are membranous. Originally, the term organelle referred only to
Eukaryotic cells are much larger than prokaryotic cells, membranous structures, but we will use it to include any well-
and therefore they have less surface area per volume than pro- defined subcellular structure. By that definition, the little parti-
karyotic cells (see Fig. 4.2B). This disadvantage has been cles called ribosomes are also organelles. At first it might seem
solved because the cells are compartmentalized—they have difficult to learn the names and functions of all the structures in
compartments. Just like a house that has separate rooms, the plant and animal cells. One technique that will help is to have a
compartments of a eukaryotic cell are specialized for particular mental image of the structure and then discover its function. So
functions. In the kitchen of a house are utensils, appliances, in figures 4.4A and 4.4B, first look at the structure and then fol-
and counters necessary for preparing and serving meals, while low the leader back to its name and function. A well-known
a bedroom contains personal effects and furniture for sleeping truism in biology states, “Structure suits function.” Why might
and storing clothes. Similarly, a cell contains organelles (mean- that be? In the course of evolution, those organisms whose cells
ing “little organs”) that are specialized and only perform spe- possessed organelles suited to their function were more likely to
cific functions. The organelles are located within the cytoplasm, have surviving offspring, and slowly over time all organisms of
a semifluid interior bounded by a plasma membrane. As in that group had such cells and organelles.

Plasma membrane:
outer surface that
regulates entrance and FIGURE 4.4A Animal cell anatomy.
exit of molecules
protein
phospholipid
NUCLEUS: command center of cell
Nuclear envelope: double
membrane that encloses nucleus
Chromatin: diffuse threads
Cytoskeleton: protein fibers that containing DNA
maintain cell shape and assist Nucleolus: region that produces
movement of cell parts ribosomal subunits

*Centrioles: short ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER):

cylinders of microtubules
of unknown function Rough ER: studded with
ribosomes
Smooth ER: lacks
ribosomes, synthesizes
Centrosome: microtubule lipid molecules
organizing center that
contains a pair of centrioles
Ribosomes:
particles that carry
out protein synthesis
Cytoplasm: semifluid
substance outside nucleus Peroxisome: vesicle that
that contains organelles breaks down fatty acids

Mitochondrion: organelle
that carries out cellular
Vesicle: membrane-bounded respiration, producing
sac that stores and transports ATP molecules
substances
Polyribosome: string of
*Lysosome: vesicle that ribosomes
digests biomolecules
and even cell parts
Golgi apparatus: processes, packages,
*Not found in plant cells and secretes modified cell products

68 PART 1 Organisms Are Composed of Cells

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 In this chapter we are going to concentrate on aspects of
TABLE 4.4 Animal and Plant Cell Differences
structure and function common to both animal and plant cells.
Both types of cells have a nucleus that houses double stranded Structure Animal Cell Plant Cell
DNA as their genetic material and ribosomes that carry on pro- Cell wall No Yes
tein synthesis in the same manner, for example. The fundamen-
Chloroplast No Yes
tal aspects of cellular organization and function do not vary
Lysosomes Yes No
between the two types of cells. Still, we have an opportunity in
this chapter to point out how the two types of cells differ as Centrioles Yes No
listed in Table 4.4. The cell wall of plants is covered in chapter 5 Large central No Yes
because chapter 5 concerns the structure and function of cell vacuole
surfaces. However, Table 4.4 will assist you in learning the Shape Round Rectangular
major differences between animal and plant cells. The other cell
structures (plasma membrane, nucleus, centrosome, endoplas- particular have specialized cells and this leads to their diversity
mic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi,  peroxisomes, cytoskeleton) in form and capabilities.
are present in both plant and animal cells). It’s good to keep in mind as you study cell structures and
The various cells in your body have the structures depicted their functions that despite their small size cells display all the
in Figure 4.4A but many of your cells have additional structures characteristics of life we studied in chapter 1. This chapter tells
and modifications to carry on particular functions. Similarly, the you how they can accomplish this feat.
plants in your garden and the trees in your yard have cells with
the structures shown in Figure 4.4B but they also have cells that 4.4 Check Your Progress Explain why early investigators were
unable to make out the detail illustrated in Figures 4.4A and 4.4B.
are specialized in different ways. Multicellular organisms in

FIGURE 4.4B Plant cell anatomy.

NUCLEUS: command center of cell *Central vacuole: large, fluid-filled

Nuclear envelope: double membrane sac that stores substances and
that encloses nucleus helps maintain turgor pressure
Nucleolus: produces ribosomal subunits Cell wall of adjacent cell
Chromatin: diffuse threads containing
DNA

Ribosomes: carry
out protein synthesis *Chloroplast: carries
out photosynthesis,
Centrosome:
producing sugars
microtubule organizing
center (lacks centrioles)

ENDOPLASMIC Mitochondrion: organelle

RETICULUM: that carries out cellular
respiration, producing
Rough ER: studded ATP molecules
with ribosomes
Smooth ER: lacks CYTOSKELETON: maintains
ribosomes, synthesizes cell shape and assists movement
lipid molecules of cell parts

Golgi apparatus: processes,

packages, and secretes
modified cell products Plasma membrane: surrounds
cytoplasm, and regulates entrance
and exit of molecules

Cytoplasm: semifluid matrix outside

nucleus that contains organelles

*Cell wall: outer surface that shapes,

supports, and protects cell

*Not found in animal cells

CHAPTER 4 Structure and Function of Cells 69

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 Protein Synthesis Is a Major Function of Cells
Learning Outcomes
▶ Describe the structure of the nucleus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus. (4.5–4.8)
▶ Explain how each of these organelles participates in protein synthesis. (4.5–4.8)
This part of the chapter discusses certain organelles of eukaryotic cells, namely the nucleus, the ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum,
and the Golgi apparatus, which are all involved in producing proteins that may serve necessary functions in the cell or may be secreted out
of the cell.

4.5 The nucleus contains the cell’s genetic information

The nucleus is a prominent structure, in an eukaryotic cell The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a double
(Fig. 4.5). It generally has an oval shape and is located near the membrane known as the nuclear envelope. Even so, the
center of a cell. The nucleus contains DNA, the genetic material nucleus communicates with the cytoplasm. The nuclear enve-
that is passed from cell to cell and from generation to generation. lope has nuclear pores of sufficient size to permit the passage
DNA dictates which proteins a cell is to synthesize and these of ribosomal subunits out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm,
proteins determine the cell’s structure and functions; therefore, and the passage of proteins from the cytoplasm into the
the nucleus is the command center of a cell. nucleus. High-power electron micrographs show nonmembra-
At the time of cell division, DNA and proteins are organized nous components associated with the pores that form a nuclear
into the several chromosomes of an eukaryotic cell. Following pore complex.
cell division, the chromosomes become extended into chromatin,
which looks grainy, but actually is a network of fine strands. A
nucleolus is a dark region of chromatin where the subunits of 4.5 Check Your Progress Which of the photomicrographs on
pages 62 and 63 are cells with nuclei? Explain.
ribosomes (discussed in Section 4.6) are produced.

FIGURE 4.5 The nucleus is the command center of the cell. It

is able to communicate with the cytoplasm because the nuclear
envelope has pores.

nuclear
envelope

nucleolus

Nuclear envelope: nuclear

inner membrane pore

outer membrane chromatin

nucleoplasm
nuclear pore

Fractured nuclear envelope

Nuclear pores, drawing Nuclear pores, TEM

70 PART 1 Organisms Are Composed of Cells

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 4.6 The ribosomes carry out protein synthesis
Ribosomes are non-membrane-bounded particles that are espe- attached to a ribosome. The mRNA copy of the gene indicates
cially abundant in cells that produce plentiful proteins. When the correct sequence of amino acids for the particular polypep-
you are going to make something, you usually need a surface on tide. Any slip-up in this process means the individual will have
which to do your work. In the same manner, a cell uses ribo- a nonworking protein and may become ill as a result!
somes as a workbench for producing proteins.
Attachment of Ribosomes to the ER Proteins synthesized
Ribosomes are measured in nanometers, which means they
by cytoplasmic ribosomes often enter other organelles. Those syn-
are quite small; eukaryotic ribosomes are slightly larger than
thesized by ribosomes attached to the ER end up in the interior of
those in prokaryotes. In both types of cells, ribosomes are com-
the ER. As shown in Figure 4.6 1 after the RNA copy of the gene
posed of two subunits, one large and one small.
leaves the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm, 2 it becomes
In eukaryotic cells, some ribosomes occur freely within the
attached to a ribosome, and polypeptide synthesis begins. 3 The
cytoplasm, either singly or in groups called polyribosomes. Other
ribosome becomes attached to the ER, and the polypeptide enters
ribosomes are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), a
the interior of the ER. 4 The polypeptide folds into the shape of
membranous system of flattened saccules (small sacs) and
the protein inside the ER. Recall from Figure 3.10 that a protein
tubules, which is discussed more fully in Section 4.7.
can have up to four levels of organization. The shape of a protein
Dressmakers usually use a pattern and directions that tell
is very important to its functioning appropriately.
them how to make a garment. Similarly, a messenger RNA
(mRNA) is a copy of a gene that tells a cell how to make the
particular polypeptide of a protein at a ribosome. An mRNA 4.6 Check Your Progress What two functions do the nuclear
leaves the nucleus by way of a nuclear pore and becomes pores play in protein synthesis?

Nucleus FIGURE 4.6 Polypeptide synthesis requires the participation of a

gene (DNA), an RNA copy of the gene, and a ribosome. A protein has
nuclear pore one or more polypeptides.

DNA

mRNA 1 mRNA (RNA copy of a gene) moves through

a nuclear pore into the cytoplasm.

Cytoplasm

mRNA
2 mRNA attaches to ribosome and
polypeptide synthesis begins.

3 Ribosome attaches to ER and

ribosome
polypeptide enters ER interior.

receptor

ER membrane

4 A protein forms and folds into

its final shape while in ER.
Interior of ER

protein

Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) 71

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 4.7 The endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes and transports proteins and lipids
The term endoplasmic reticulum is a difficult one but becomes Smooth ER (SER), which is continuous with rough ER, does
simpler if we break it down. Endoplasmic means “within the not have attached ribosomes. Therefore, it has a smooth appear-
plasm” of the cell and reticulum is an elegant way of saying ance in electron micrographs and more important it does not
“network”. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is physically con- participate in polypeptide synthesis. Smooth ER is abundant in
tinuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope. It gland cells, where it synthesizes lipids of various types. For
consists of membranous tubules and flattened sacs that typically example, cells that synthesize steroid hormones from cholesterol
account for more than half of the total membrane within an aver- have much SER. The SER houses the enzymes needed to make
age animal cell. The membrane of the ER is continuous and cholesterol and modify it to produce the hormones. In the liver,
encloses a single internal space. This space will be termed the SER, among other functions, adds lipid to proteins, forming the
interior of ER (Fig. 4.7). The ER twists and turns as it courses lipoproteins that carry cholesterol in the blood. Also, the SER of
through the cytoplasm like a long snake. This structure gives the the liver increases in quantity when a person consumes alcohol
ER much more membrane than if it were simply one large sac. If or takes barbiturates on a regular basis, because SER contains
you compare Figure 4.6 to Figure 4.7, you can see that Figure 4.6 the enzymes that detoxify these molecules.
shows only a small portion of the ER found in a cell. The RER and SER, working together, produce membrane,
Because many ribosomes attach themselves to the ER, it which is composed of phospholipids and various types of pro-
becomes the location where all the proteins are produced for the teins. Because the ER produces membrane, it can form the
many membranes inside a eukaryotic cell as well as most of the transport vesicles by which it communicates with the Golgi
proteins that are secreted from the cell. In humans, the protein apparatus. Proteins to be secreted from the cell are kept in the
insulin is secreted by the pancreas into the blood and then cir- interior of the ER, but the ones destined to become membrane
culates about the body. Aside from proteins, the ER also pro- constituents become embedded in its membrane. Transport
duces various lipids. vesicles pinch off from the ER and carry membranes, proteins,
and lipids, notably to the Golgi apparatus, where they undergo
Types of ER The ER is divided into the rough ER and the
further modification. The products of the Golgi apparatus are
smooth ER. Only the rough ER (RER) is studded with ribo-
utilized by the cell or repackaged in secretory vesicles that
somes. The ribosomes are attached to the side of the membrane
make their way to the plasma membrane where they are
that faces the cytoplasm. Figure 4.6 shows how a polypeptide
secreted (see Fig. 4.12).
enters the interior of the ER from an attached ribosome. Once
inside, a polypeptide is usually modified before it undergoes the
process of folding into the final shape of a protein. For example, 4.7 Check Your Progress Is it correct to say that all ribosomes
reside in the cytoplasm? Explain.
carbohydrate chains are often added to certain proteins.

FIGURE 4.7 Rough ER (RER) and smooth ER (SER).

ribosomes nuclear envelope

rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
(RER)

interior
of ER

smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
(SER)

0.08 µm

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 4.8 The Golgi apparatus modifies and repackages proteins for distribution
The Golgi apparatus is named for Camillo Golgi, who FIGURE 4.8
discovered its presence in cells in 1898. The Golgi Golgi apparatus
apparatus, or simply the Golgi, typically consists of a (gray-green) and
secretory vesicles. secretion
stack of three to twenty slightly curved, flattened sac-
cules whose appearance can be compared to a stack
of pancakes (Fig. 4.8). One side of the stack is
directed toward the ER, and the other side is directed
toward the plasma membrane. Vesicles can frequently be
seen at the edges of the saccules. saccules
The Golgi receives, processes, and packages proteins and
lipids, so that they may be sent to their final destination in the transport secretory
cell. In particular, it readies proteins for secretion. Protein-filled vesicle vesicles
vesicles that bud from the rough ER and lipid-filled vesicles that
bud from the smooth ER are received by the Golgi at its inner
outer face
face. Thereafter, the Golgi alters these substances as they move
through its saccules. For example, the Golgi contains enzymes
inner face
that modify the carbohydrate chains first attached to proteins in
the rough ER. To take an example, one sugar can be exchanged
for another sugar. In some cases, the modified carbohydrate
chain serves as a signal molecule that determines the protein’s
final destination in the cell.
The Golgi sorts and packages proteins and lipids in vesicles
that depart from the outer face. In animal cells, some of these
vesicles are lysosomes, which are discussed next. Secretory ves-
icles proceed to the plasma membrane, where they stay until a
signal molecule triggers the cell to release them. Then they
become part of the membrane as they discharge their contents
during secretion. Secretion is also called exocytosis because the Nucleus
substance exits the cytoplasm.

4.8 Check Your Progress How do proteins made by RER ribo-

somes become incorporated into a plasma membrane or secreted?
0.1 mm

HOW SCIENCE PROGRESSES Application

4B Pulse-labeling Allows Observation of the Secretory Pathway

The pathway of protein secretion was observed by George Palade
1 Radioactivity is 4 Radioactivity is at the
and his associates using a pulse-chase technique. The rough ER at rough ER. plasma membrane and
was pulse-labeled by letting cells metabolize for a very short time finally outside the cell.
with radioactive amino acids. Then the cells were given an
excess of nonradioactive amino acids. This chased the labeled
amino acids out of the ER into transport vesicles.
Electron microscopy techniques allowed these researchers
to trace the fate of the labeled amino acids, as shown in Figure
4B: 1 The labeled amino acids were found in the ER, then in
2 transport vesicles, and then in 3 the Golgi apparatus, before
appearing in 4 vesicles at the plasma membrane and finally
being released.
2 Radioactivity is in 3 Radioactivity is at
F O R M YO U R O P I N I O N transport vesicles. the Golgi apparatus.

1. Why would Palade have labeled sulfur and not carbon in FIGURE 4B The secretory pathway.
the amino acids? (See Fig. 3.9A.)
2. Where else might Palade have found the labeled amino
acids in the cell? (See Fig. 4.6.)

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 Vacuoles and Vesicles Have Varied Functions
Learning Outcomes
▶ Describe the structure and function of lysosomes and peroxisomes. (4.9, 4.10)
▶ Explain the varied functions of vacuoles and vesicles in protist, plant, and animal cells. (4.11–4.12)
Cells have various membranous sacs that look the same in electron micrographs but have different functions. Lysosomes contain powerful
hydrolytic enzymes that digest biomolecules, even if they form cell parts. Peroxisomes are more specialized and assist mitochondria by
breaking down lipids. Some of the vacuoles in protists and plants are unique to them and not found in other eukaryotes. Vesicles allow the
organelles of the endomembrane system to work together.

4.9 Lysosomes digest biomolecules and cell parts

Lysosomes are vesicles produced by the Golgi apparatus. They lysosome
have a very low internal pH and contain powerful hydrolytic mitochondrion
peroxisome
digestive enzymes. Lysosomes are important in recycling cellular
material and digesting worn-out organelles, such as old mito-
chondria (Fig. 4.9).
Sometimes biomolecules are engulfed (brought into a cell by
vesicle formation) at the plasma membrane. When a lysosome
fuses with such a vesicle, its contents are digested by lysosomal
enzymes into simpler subunits that then enter the cytoplasm.
Some white blood cells defend the body by engulfing bacteria,
which are then enclosed within vesicles. When lysosomes fuse
with these vesicles, the bacteria are digested.
Lysosomal storage diseases occur when a particular lyso- FIGURE 4.9 Lysosome fusing with and destroying spent organelles.
somal enzyme is nonfunctional. Tay Sachs disease is one such
condition, in which a newborn appears healthy but then gradu-
ally becomes nonresponsive, deaf, and blind before dying within 4.9 Check Your Progress Some white blood cells have granules,
a few months. The brain cells are filled with particles containing now known to be lysosomes. Why would it be beneficial for white
blood cells to have lysosomes for fighting viruses and bacteria?
a type of lipid that cannot be digested by lysosomes.

4.10 Peroxisomes break down long-chain fatty acids

Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bounded organelles that look plant. It is fair to say that peroxisomes contribute to the energy
very much like empty lysosomes. However, peroxisomes contain metabolism of cells.
their own set of enzymes and carry out entirely different func- Normally, peroxisome size and number increase or decrease
tions. Chiefly, peroxisomes bear the burden of breaking down according to the needs of the cell. On rare occasions, long-chain
excess quantities of long-chain fatty acids to products that can fatty acids accumulate in cells because they are unable to enter
be metabolized by mitochondria for the production of ATP. In peroxisomes for breakdown due to an inherited disorder. This
the process, they produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a toxic leads to dramatic deterioration of the nervous system. The 1992
molecule that is then broken down to oxygen and water. movie Lorenzo’s Oil told the true story of a boy who had this
Peroxisomes also help produce cholesterol and important condition.
phospholipids found primarily in brain and heart tissue. In ger-
minating seeds, peroxisomes convert fatty acids and lipids to 4.10 Check Your Progress Why would you expect to find
peroxisomes in the vicinity of mitochondria?
sugars. The sugars are used as a source of energy by a germinating

4.11 Vacuoles are common to plant cells

Like vesicles, vacuoles are membranous sacs, but vacuoles are red, blue, or purple colors of many flowers and some leaves. The
larger than vesicles. The vacuoles of some protists are quite spe- toxic substances help protect a plant from herbivorous animals.
cialized; they include contractile vacuoles for ridding the cell of Typically, plant cells have a large central vacuole that may
excess water and digestive vacuoles for breaking down occupy up to 90% of the volume of the cell (Fig. 4.11). This
nutrients. vacuole is filled with a watery fluid called cell sap and it gives
Vacuoles usually store substances. Plant vacuoles contain added support to cells and in that way helps a plant stay
not only water, sugars, and salts, but also water-soluble pig- upright, since plants don’t have a bony skeleton as many ani-
ments and toxic molecules. The pigments are responsible for the mals do.

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 The central vacuole stores needed substances and also
waste products. A system to excrete wastes never evolved in
plants, most likely because their metabolism is incredibly effi-
cient and they produce little metabolic waste. What wastes they
do produce are pumped into the central vacuole and stored there
permanently. As organelles age and become nonfunctional, they
fuse with the vacuole, where digestive enzymes break them
down. This function is carried out by lysosomes in animal cells.

4.11 Check Your Progress How is the central vacuole of plant

FIGURE 4.11 Central vacuole
cells similar to but different from the lysosomes of animal cells?
of a plant cell. 100 nm

4.12 Vesicles allow the organelles of the endomembrane system to work together
The endomembrane system includes various membranous saliva or when the pancreas produces digestive enzymes. Simi-
organelles that work together and communicate by means of larly, lipids move from the smooth ER to the Golgi apparatus and
transport vesicles. It includes the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), can eventually be secreted.
the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and the transport vesicles. 5 In animal cells, lysosomes produced by the Golgi appa-
Figure 4.12 shows how the components of the endomem- ratus 6 fuse with incoming vesicles from the plasma mem-
brane system work together: 1 Proteins, produced in the rough brane and digest biomolecules and debris. White blood cells
ER, are carried in 2 transport vesicles to 3 the Golgi appara- are well-known for engulfing pathogens (e.g., disease-causing
tus, which sorts the proteins and packages them into vesicles viruses and bacteria) that are then broken down in
that transport them to various cellular destinations. lysosomes.
4 Secretory vesicles take the proteins to the plasma mem-
brane, where they exit the cell when the vesicles fuse with the 4.12 Check Your Progress What parts of the cell are responsible
membrane. This is called secretion by exocytosis. For example, for producing and exporting the proteins found in the endomem-
brane system?
secretion into ducts occurs when the salivary glands produce

secretion
FIGURE 4.12 The organelles plasma
membrane
of the endomembrane system.
incoming vesicle

incoming vesicle
4 secretory vesicle

5
3 Golgi apparatus

lysosome

protein

2 transport vesicle
transport vesicle

lipid

1 rough endoplasmic
reticulum

smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
ribosome Nucleus

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 A Cell Carries Out Energy Transformations
Learning Outcome
▶ Compare and contrast the structure and function of chloroplasts and mitochondria. (4.13)
Chloroplasts transform solar energy into the energy of carbohydrates, which serve as organic food for themselves and all organisms in the
biosphere. Mitochondria transform the energy of carbohydrates to that of ATP molecules. All cells use ATP molecules as a source of energy
for metabolic reactions and processes.

4.13 Chloroplasts and mitochondria have opposite functions

We learned in Chapter 1 that all organisms must acquire energy How would you know that chloroplasts produce carbohy-
and nutrients from their environment. Plants, however, can use drates when the sun is shining? One way is to look for starch
solar energy and the inorganic nutrients water and carbon diox- grains to accumulate in plant cells when the sun is out. Set a
ide to make energy-rich carbohydrates during a process called plant in the dark and the starch grains disappear.
photosynthesis. Carbohydrates serve as organic food for plants; In contrast to chloroplasts, nearly all organisms and types of
therefore, we say that plants make their own food. Photosynthe- cells, including both plant and animal cells, contain mitochon-
sis not only takes in carbon dioxide but also releases oxygen. dria (Fig. 4.13). Mitochondria are indispensable to cells because
Plants can photosynthesize because their cells contain organ- they carry on cellular respiration, the process that transforms the
elles called chloroplasts. Each plant cell may contain as many as energy of carbohydrates to that of ATP molecules. It’s called cel-
100 chloroplasts, and a square millimeter of leaf can contain up to lular respiration because mitochondria take in oxygen and give
500,000 chloroplasts (Fig. 4.13). The green pigment chlorophyll off carbon dioxide. Because mitochondria produce ATP, they are
as well as other pigments are responsible for the ability of chloro- called the powerhouse of a cell.
plasts to absorb solar energy. Within a chloroplast, chlorophyll is Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are opposite reactions:
located in the membrane of flattened sacs called thylakoids.
carbohydrate + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water + energy
Chloroplasts are of great significance to the biosphere,
including humans, because they are the ultimate source of all For cellular respiration, read left to right and replace energy with
food for living things. Consider that you either feed directly on ATP. For photosynthesis, read right to left and replace energy
plants or on animals that have fed on plants. Another source of with solar energy.
food for the biosphere is carbohydrates made by cyanobacteria Cells use ATP, not glucose, as a direct source of metabolic
and algae, because they also use pigments to absorb solar energy energy—using a molecule of glucose would be energy-inefficient
and photosynthesize in the same manner as plants. and wasteful. You use change, not a dollar bill, to buy something

mitochondrion

200 nm
cristae

chloroplast

thylakoids
1.5 µm

FIGURE 4.13 Plant cells carry on photosynthesis in green leaves where chloroplasts absorb solar energy because they contain the green
pigment chlorophyll in thylakoid membranes. Mitochondria in plant and animal cells carry on cellular respiration, a process that produces ATP on
the membranous invaginations called cristae.
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 that costs five cents. In the same manner, an organism converts It is of great interest to scientists that both chloroplasts and
carbohydrates to many molecules of ATP and uses them as a source mitochondria provide evidence that they were once free-living
of energy for individual reactions, such as linking amino acids dur- prokaryotes. For example, they have their own DNA in a nucle-
ing protein synthesis. Mitochondria are most abundant in human oid region, and they make some of their own proteins. For a
cells that carry out energy-intensive activities. For example, ATP more thorough discussion of this topic, see How Life Changes on
provides the energy for muscle contraction and nerve conduction. this page.
Mitochondria are not as complex as chloroplasts but their inner
membrane does fold back and forth, forming the cristae that act as 4.13 Check Your Progress In what ways are chloroplasts and
mitochondria opposite, and in what ways are they similar?
shelves where ATP is formed. ATP exits mitochondria and enters
the cytoplasm where it is utilized as an immediate energy source.

HOW LIFE CHANGES Application

4C How the Eukaryotic Cell Evolved

Life’s history is written in the fossil record, which includes the
remains of past life, often encased by stone (see Fig. 14A.2). The
fossil record tells us that the prokaryotic cell was present about
3.5 BYA (billion years ago); the eukaryotic cell evolved in stages
(Fig. 4C). The nuclear envelope and nucleus may have arisen Endosymbiotic
around 2 BYA from an infolding of the plasma membrane, but origin of
1.0 BYA chloroplasts
what about the organelles such as mitochondria and chloro-
plasts? Much evidence supports the proposal that these organ-
elles were once free-living prokaryotes that were either prey to
or parasites of a eukaryotic cell. Their outer double membrane
tells us that the eukaryotic cell engulfed them—the outer mem-
brane is derived from the host plasma membrane, and the inner 1.5 BYA Endosymbiotic
membrane was their own outer surface. By now, they are endo- origin of
mitochondria
symbionts—organisms that live inside a host cell and are indis-
pensable to their host, the cell that engulfed them.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA—circular
like that of a prokaryote—and they carry on protein synthesis in
the same manner as bacteria. Interestingly, chemicals that can
2 BYA
poison and stop the metabolism in mitochondria and chloro-
plasts have no effect on cytoplasmic metabolism, and chemicals Origin of
that poison cytoplasmic enzymes have no effect on these organ- Eukaryotes
elles. Then, too, they reproduce by splitting as do bacteria,
and their reproduction occurs independently of host cell
reproduction.
2.5 BYA
The theory of endosymbiosis explains that since all cells Aerobic Photosynthetic
have mitochondria, aerobic bacteria entered the host cell first, prokaryote prokaryote
perhaps just when oxygen began to rise in the atmosphere due
to the advent of photosynthesis by free-living cyanobacteria (see
page 324). A host cell with an endosymbiont that used oxygen
3 BYA
and produced ATP molecules would have been a distinct evolu-
tionary advantage. Later, a cyanobacterium entered certain cells,
and these cells became capable of photosynthesis. Being able to
make your own food does away with the need to find it else-
where. Eventually the relationship between host cells and endo- Infolding of
symbionts became so beneficial that by now they cannot live plasma
separately from one another! membrane
3.5 BYA Origin of
F O R M YO U R O P I N I O N Prokaryotes

1. Explain the phraseology “the host had an evolutionary

advantage.” Be sure to mention comparative number of FIGURE 4C The eukaryotic cell was fully formed when a nucleated
offspring in your explanation. cell engulfed prokaryotes that became endosymbionts.
2. If you compared the structure of a cyanobacterium with that
of a chloroplast, what similarities would you expect to find?

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 The Cytoskeleton Is Dynamic
Learning Outcomes
▶ Discuss the function and composition of the cytoskeleton. (4.14)
▶ Compare and contrast the structure and function of fibers making up the cytoskeleton. (4.14)
▶ Explain the structure of cilia and flagella, and give examples of their importance to the body. (4.15)
As you know, bones and muscles give an animal structure and produce movement. Similarly, the fibers of the cytoskeleton maintain cell
shape and cause the cell and its organelles to move. Cilia and flagella are also instrumental in producing movement, so they are included in
this part of the chapter as well.

4.14 The cytoskeleton maintains cell shape and assists movement

All eukaryotic cells have a cytoskeleton, a network of protein the cytoskeleton has the dual function of support and move-
fibers within the cytoplasm. Even though both plant and animal ment, it is appropriately described as the “skeleton and muscles”
cells have a cytoskeleton, most of our discussion pertains to an of an animal cell.
animal cell. The cytoskeleton supports the animal cell and deter- If you could look closely at the cytoskeleton in an animal cell,
mines its shape. Remarkably, however, the protein fibers of the you would note three types of fibers: actin filaments, intermediate
cytoskeleton can assemble and disassemble rapidly, and this filaments, and microtubules. Because you can’t see these fibers
accounts for why the shape of some animal cells can change with a light microscope, scientists prepare fluorescent antibodies,
from moment to moment. Similarly, the cytoskeleton anchors each of which attaches to only one type of fiber and then they
the organelles in place but can also allow them to move, as when photograph the cells under fluorescent light (Fig. 4.14A).
a vesicle moves from the Golgi to the plasma membrane. Because Much has been learned about the structure and function of
each component of the cytoskeleton. The actin filaments are so
named because they contain two twisted strands of actin, a
actin fibrous protein. Bundles of actin filaments support the plasma
subunit membrane and other structures, such as the microvilli (short
projections) of intestinal cells. However, you can primarily asso-
ciate actin filaments with movement. For example, actin inter-
acts with another protein, myosin, when muscle contraction
occurs. Myosin is a motor molecule that functions just as you do
when participating in a tug of war: Myosin heads attach, detach,
and reattach further along the actin filament, and this pulls the
actin filament along:
Actin filaments
actin filament
fibrous
subunits
ATP myosin
molecules

tail head membrane

Also in conjunction with myosin, actin acts like purse strings

to pinch off and separate cells during cell division. On the other
hand, actin is working alone when white blood cells crawl along
and their projections (called pseudopods) engulf disease-causing
Intermediate filaments agents such as viruses and bacteria.
Intermediate filaments are intermediate in size between
actin filaments and microtubules. Although the specific protein
tubulin
subunit composition varies with the type of cell, intermediate filaments
always have a ropelike structure that provides mechanical
strength. Some intermediate filaments support the nuclear enve-
lope, whereas others support the plasma membrane and take
part in the formation of cell-to-cell junctions. Intermediate fila-
ments made of the protein keratin strengthen skin cells.
Microtubules, as their name implies, are short, cylindrical
structures composed of 13 rows of a protein called tubulin.
Microtubules
Assembly is under the control of a microtubule organizing center
FIGURE 4.14A The cytoskeleton contains these three types of (MTOC) located in the centrosome (see Fig. 4.4A). Microtubules
fibers that support the cell. radiate from the centrosome, helping to maintain the shape of

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 the cell and acting as tracks along which organelles can move
ATP (Fig. 4.14B). The motor molecules kinesin and dynein are asso-
vesicle ciated with microtubules.
Before a cell divides, microtubules disassemble and then
kinesin
kinesin receptor reassemble into a structure called a spindle, which distributes
chromosomes in an orderly manner. Plants have evolved various
types of poisons that help prevent them from being eaten by
herbivores. One of these, called colchicine, is a chemical that
binds to tubulin and blocks the assembly of microtubules so that
vesicle moves, not microtubule cell division is impossible.

FIGURE 4.14B The motor molecule kinesin is moving a vesicle 4.14 Check Your Progress A cell is dynamic. In general, what
along a microtubule track. accounts for the ability of cell contents to move?

4.15 Cilia and flagella permit movement

Cilia and flagella (sing., cilium, flagellum) are whiplike projections Centrioles Located in the centrosome, centrioles are short,
of cells. Cilia move stiffly, like an oar, and flagella move in an barrel-shaped organelles composed of microtubules. It’s possible
undulating, snakelike fashion. Cilia are short (2–10 μm), and fla- that centrioles give rise to basal bodies, which lie at the base of
gella are longer (usually no more than 200 μm). Unicellular protists and are believed to organize the microtubules in cilia and fla-
utilize cilia or flagella to move about. In our bodies, ciliated cells gella. It’s also possible that centrioles help organize the spindle,
are critical to respiratory health and our ability to reproduce. The mentioned earlier, which is so necessary to cell division.
ciliated cells that line our respiratory tract sweep debris trapped We have completed our study of eukaryotic organelles. In
within mucus back up into the throat, which helps keep the lungs the next part of the chapter, we review how cell structures work
clean. Similarly, ciliated cells move an egg along the oviduct, where together.
it can be fertilized by a flagellated sperm cell.
A cilium and a flagellum have the same organization of micro- 4.15 Check Your Progress How do cilia and flagella differ in struc-
tubules within a plasma membrane covering (Fig. 4.15, right). ture and movement?
Attached motor molecules, powered by ATP, allow the microtubules
in cilia and flagella to interact and bend, and thereby to move.
A particular genetic disorder illustrates the importance of
normal cilia and flagella (Fig. 4.15, left). Some individuals have central
microtubules
an inherited defect that leads to malformed microtubules in cilia
and flagella. Not surprisingly, they suffer from recurrent and microtubule
severe respiratory infections, because the ciliated cells lining doublet
their respiratory passages fail to keep their lungs clean. They are
dynein
also infertile due to the lack of ciliary action to move the egg in side arms Flagellum
a female, or the lack of flagellar action by sperm in a male. cross section

FIGURE 4.15 (right) The presence of microtubules and motor

molecules (dynein) allows a flagellum to move. (left) Micrograph of
cilia and flagella.
plasma
membrane

triplets Basal body

cross section

Flagellated sperm in oviduct lined by ciliated cells Flagellum Basal body

CHAPTER 4 Structure and Function of Cells 79

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 Cell Structures Work Together
Learning Outcome
▶ Discuss the function of cell parts according to four categories: protein synthesis and modification; storage, transport, and digestion;
energy transformations; and cell shape and movement.
Cell structures can be grouped into four categories according to their functions. Understanding how these structures function together for
the benefit of the cell facilitates learning them.

TABLE 4.16 Eukaryotic Cell Structures

Function Cell Structure Description Function
Protein Synthesis Nucleus Bounded by nuclear envelope with pores; Acts as control center of cell; specifies
and Modification contains DNA within chromosomes and protein synthesis
nucleolus

Ribosomes Small particles, each with two subunits Are sites of protein synthesis

Endoplasmic Network of membranous tubules and

reticulum (ER) flattened sacs
Rough ER: studded with ribosomes Carries out protein synthesis and
modification; forms transport vesicles
Smooth ER: lacks ribosomes Carries out lipid synthesis; forms
transport vesicles
Golgi apparatus Stack of flattened saccules Carries out processing and packaging
of proteins and lipids; forms secretory
vesicles

Storage, Transport, Vesicle Tiny membranous sac Stores and transports proteins and lipids
and Digestion

Vacuole Small to large membranous sac In plants, a large vacuole stores

substances including wastes

Lysosome A type of vesicle Digests biomolecules and cell parts

Peroxisome A type of vesicle Assists with lipid metabolism, breakdown

of poisons

Energy Chloroplast Bounded by a double membrane Carries on photosynthesis and produces

Transformations carbohydrate

Mitochondrion Bounded by a double membrane; inner Carries on cellular respiration and

membrane forms cristae produces ATP molecules

Cell Shape and Plasma Phospholipid bilayer with embedded Regulates entrance and exit of molecules
Movement membrane proteins into and out of cell

Cell wall In plant cells, outer layer of cellulose Helps maintain shape of cell, protects and
supports
Cytoskeleton Network of protein fibers Supports organelles, assists movement of
cell and its parts
Flagella and cilia Microtubule-containing cellular extensions Move the cell or move substances along
its surface

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 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW
4.8 The Golgi apparatus modifies
SUMMARY and repackages proteins for
distribution
Cells Are the Basic Units of Life • Enzymes modify carbohydrate
4.1 All organisms are composed of cells chains attached to proteins.
• The cell theory states the following: • Vesicles leave the Golgi apparatus
• A cell is the basic unit of life. and travel to the plasma
• All living things are made up of cells. membrane, where secretion
• New cells arise only from preexisting cells. occurs.
4.2 Metabolically active cells are small in size Vacuoles and Vesicles Have
• Cells must remain small in order to have an adequate Varied Functions
surface-area-to-volume ratio.
4.9 Lysosomes digest biomolecules and cell parts
4.3 Prokaryotic cells evolved first • Lysosomes, which are vesicles produced by the Golgi
• Prokaryotic cells have the following characteristics: apparatus, contain hydrolytic digestive enzymes.
• Lack a membrane-bounded nucleus; the chromosome is in
4.10 Peroxisomes break down long-chain fatty acids
a region called the nucleoid.
• Have a plasma membrane surrounding the cytoplasm • Peroxisomes, which are vesicles resembling lysosomes, break
(semifluid interior contains ribosomes), which in turn is down long-chain fatty acids.
bounded by a cell wall and a capsule. Pili allow the cell to 4.11 Vacuoles are common to plant cells
attach to solid substances. • Vacuoles, like vesicles, are membranous sacs.
• Are simpler and much smaller than eukaryotic cells. • Vacuoles are larger than vesicles and usually store substances.
• Are members of domains Archaea and Bacteria. • Plant cells have a large central vacuole that stores watery cell
4.4 Eukaryotic cells contain specialized organelles: sap and maintains turgor pressure.
An overview 4.12 Vesicles allow the organelles of the endomembrane system to
• Organisms in the domain Eukarya, have work together
eukaryotic cells with the following • The ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and transport vesicles
characteristics: make up the endomembrane system.
• A membrane-bounded nucleus.
• Organelles, structures specialized to A Cell Carries Out Energy Transformations
perform specific functions.
4.13 Chloroplasts and mitochondria have opposite functions
• Compartmentalization through
the presence of membranous • Chloroplasts carry on photosynthesis and produce
organelles, allowing a eukaryotic cell to carbohydrates.
be larger than a prokaryotic cell. • In chloroplasts, thylakoids (containing chlorophyll) capture
solar energy.
Protein Synthesis Is a Major Function of Cells • Mitochondria carry on cellular respiration and break down
carbohydrates.
4.5 The nucleus contains the cell’s genetic information
• In mitochondria, the cristae produce ATP, and therefore they
• Genes, composed of DNA, are located within chromatin that are the power house of the cell.
become organized as chromosomes when nuclear division
occurs. cristae
thylakoid
• Nuclear pores in the nuclear envelope permit
communication between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
• The nucleolus produces ribosomal subunits.
4.6 The ribosomes carry out protein synthesis
• Ribosomes in the cytoplasm and on the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) synthesize proteins.
• The proteins synthesized at the ribosomes enter the interior of
the ER where the protein takes on its final shape.
4.7 The endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes and transports The Cytoskeleton Is Dynamic
proteins and lipids 4.14 The cytoskeleton maintains cell shape and assists
• The ER produces proteins (rough ER) and lipids (smooth ER) movement
that become incorporated in membrane or are secreted from • Actin filaments are organized in bundles or networks.
the cell. • Intermediate filaments are ropelike assemblies of polypeptides.
• Transport vesicles from the ER carry proteins and lipids to • Microtubules are made of the globular protein tubulin. They
the Golgi apparatus. act as tracks for organelle movement.

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 • The microtubule organizing center (MTOC) regulates Protein Synthesis Is a Major Function of Cells
microtubule assembly and is located in the centrosome.
9. What is synthesized by the nucleolus?
4.15 Cilia and flagella permit movement a. mitochondria c. transfer RNA
• Cilia (short) and flagella (long) are projections from the cell b. ribosomal subunits d. DNA
that allow the cell to move. 10. Ribosomes are found
• Cilia and flagella grow from basal bodies, perhaps derived a. at the Golgi apparatus.
from centrioles. b. in the cytoplasm and on the rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
Cell Structures Work Together c. in the nucleus and nucleolus.
• See Table 4.16. d. at the plasma membrane releasing proteins.
e. All of these are correct.
11. The organelle that can modify a protein and determine its
TESTING YOURSELF destination in the cell is the
a. ribosome. c. Golgi apparatus.
Cells Are the Basic Units of Life b. vacuole. d. lysosome.
12. Which of these is not involved in protein synthesis and
1. The cell theory states secretion?
a. cells form as organelles and molecules become grouped a. smooth ER c. plasma membrane
together in an organized manner. b. nucleus d. All of these are correct.
b. the normal functioning of an organism depends on its 13. THINKING CONCEPTUALLY Communication is critical in cells. How
individual cells. does the nucleus communicate with the cytoplasm, and how
c. the cell is the basic unit of life. does the rough ER communicate with the Golgi?
d. only eukaryotic organisms are made of cells.
2. When you examine a cell using a light microscope, which Vacuoles and Vesicles Have Varied Functions
might you be able to see?
14. The central vacuole of plant cells may contain
a. the nucleus only
a. flower color pigments.
b. the nucleus and the nucleolus
b. toxins that protect plants against herbivorous animals.
c. the nucleus, the nucleolus, and the threads of chromatin
c. sugars.
d. all of these plus the DNA double helix
d. All of these are correct.
3. The small size of cells best correlates with
15. __________ are produced by the Golgi apparatus and contain
a. their ability to reproduce.
__________.
b. their prokaryotic versus eukaryotic nature.
a. Lysosomes, DNA
c. an adequate surface area for exchange of materials.
b. Mitochondria, DNA
d. their vast versatility.
c. Lysosomes, enzymes
e. All of these are correct.
d. Nuclei, DNA
4. Which size relationship is incorrect?
16. Vesicles from the ER most likely are on their way to
a. The Golgi apparatus is smaller than a mitochondrion.
a. the rough ER.
b. The nucleus is smaller than a chloroplast.
b. the lysosomes.
c. The entire endoplasmic reticulum is larger than the cell.
c. the Golgi apparatus.
d. The area of the plasma membrane is larger than that of the
d. the plant cell vacuole only.
cytoskeleton.
e. the location suitable to their size.
e. All of these are incorrect.
17. Which organelle in the endomembrane system is incorrectly
5. Which of the following structures are found in both plant and
matched with its function?
animal cells?
a. Nucleus—contains genetic information regarding the
a. centrioles
sequence of amino acids in proteins
b. chloroplasts
b. Transport vesicles—the way the nucleus communicates
c. cell wall
with the ER
d. mitochondria
c. Golgi apparatus—involved in modification and packaging
e. All of these are found in both types of cells.
of proteins
6. Eukaryotic cells compensate for a low surface-to-volume
d. Lysosomes—digest biomolecules and cell parts
ratio by
e. All of these associations are correct.
a. taking up materials from the environment more efficiently.
18. THINKING CONCEPTUALLY A concept is an encompassing
b. lowering their rate of metabolism.
idea tested by the scientific method. The concept of the
c. compartmentalizing their activities into organelles.
endomembrane system is based on what data?
d. reducing the number of activities in each cell.
7. The cell wall and capsule of bacteria
a. are located inside the plasma membrane. A Cell Carries Out Energy Transformations
b. compensate for the lack of a plasma membrane. 19. Mitochondria
c. provide easy access to the cytoplasm. a. are involved in cellular respiration.
d. have projections called pili. b. break down ATP to release energy for cells.
e. Both b and c are correct. c. contain stacks of thylakoid membranes.
8. THINKING CONCEPTUALLY What evidence would best convince you d. are present in animal cells but not in plant cells.
that bacteria are on your skin? e. All of these are correct.

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 20. The products of photosynthesis are KEY:
a. glucose and oxygen. a. endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
b. oxygen and water. b. peroxisomes and lysosomes
c. carbon dioxide and water. c. chloroplast and mitochondria
d. glucose and water. d. centrosome and microtubules
21. Why are mitochondria but not chloroplasts called the e. nucleus and ribosomes
powerhouses of the cell? 26. Carbohydrate metabolism resulting in ATP formation
a. Mitochondria form glucose, but chloroplasts break it down. 27. Contain enzymes for breaking down substances
b. Mitochondria but not chloroplasts have their own genetic 28. Protein formation and secretion
material. 29. Protein production as DNA dictates
c. Mitochondria but not chloroplasts capture solar energy. 30. Movement of the cell and its parts
d. Mitochondria but not chloroplasts directly provide ATP to
the cell.
e. Both a and b are correct.
22. THINKING CONCEPTUALLY Both chloroplasts and mitochondria are
THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY
critical to your existence. How so?
1. Utilizing Palade’s procedure, described on page 73, you decide
The Cytoskeleton Is Dynamic to label and trace the base uracil. What type of molecule are
you labeling, and where do you expect to find it in Figure 4B?
23. Which of these are involved in movement of the cell or the 2. After publishing your study from question 1, you are criticized
cell contents? for failing to trace uracil from mitochondria. Why might you
a. actin filaments c. basal bodies have looked for uracil in mitochondria, and what comparative
b. microtubules d. All of these are correct. difference between the nuclear envelope and the mitochondrial
24. Which of these statements is not true? double membrane might justify your study as is?
a. Actin filaments are found in muscle cells.
b. Microtubules radiate from the ER.
c. Intermediate filaments sometimes contain keratin.
d. Motor molecules that are moving organelles use
ONLINE RESOURCE
microtubules as tracks.
25. Plant cells lack centrioles, and this correlates with their lack of www.mhhe.com/maderconcepts2
a. mitochondria. c. a large central vacuole. Enhance your study with animations
b. flagella. d. All of these are correct
that bring concepts to life and practice tests to assess your
Cell Structures Work Together understanding. Your instructor may also recommend the
interactive eBook, individualized learning tools, and more.
For questions 26–30, match the functions to the organelles in the key.

CONNEC TING THE CONCE PTS

Our knowledge of cell anatomy has been gathered by Table 4.16 shows you other ways to group the organelles.
studying micrographs of cells. This has allowed cytol- Lysosomes and peroxisomes are vesicles with digestive functions:
ogists (biologists who study cells) to arrive at a generalized picture Lysosomes digest various biomolecules while peroxisomes break
of cells, such as those depicted for an animal and a plant cell in Sec- down lipids.
tion 4.4. Eukaryotic cells, taken as a whole, contain several types of The origin of the eukaryotic cell links together what you know
organelles, and the learning outcomes for the chapter suggest that about the structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells because the
you should know the structure and function of each one. A concept endosymbiotic theory says that mitochondria and chloroplasts were
to keep in mind is that “structure suits function.” For example, ribo- once free-living prokaryotes.
somal subunits move from the nucleus to the cytoplasm; therefore, In Chapter 5, we continue our general study of the cell by con-
it seems reasonable that the nuclear envelope has pores. Finding sidering some of the functions common to all cells. For example, all
relationships between structure and function will give you a deeper cells exchange substances across the plasma membrane, and they
understanding of the cell and boost your memory capabilities. also carry out enzymatic metabolic reactions, which either release
Also, realizing that the organelles work together is helpful. If you or require energy.
wanted to describe the involvement of cell parts to make a protein,
you would start with the nucleus because chromosomes contain DNA,
which specifies the order of amino acids in a particular protein. From
PUT THE PIECES TOGETHER
there, you would mention the ribosomes at the rough endoplasmic 1. Use the structure of the prokaryotic cell to support the endo-
reticulum (RER), transport vesicles, the Golgi apparatus, and a possi- symbiotic theory.
ble final destination for the protein. Analogies can help. For example, 2. Explain how the structure of the endoplasmic reticulum suits
the endomembrane system can be compared to a post office: Proteins its function.
(the letters) are deposited into the RER (the local post office), which 3. Microtubules are a part of the cytoskeleton and are found in
sends them to a Golgi (the regional sorting center) from which they cilia and flagella. What function of the cytoskeleton is consis-
are sent to their correct destinations. The pulse-labeling technique, tent with the presence of microtubules in these structures?
described in Section 4B, provides evidence to support this analogy.

CHAPTER 4 Structure and Function of Cells 83

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 Part III

Enhanc
Enhance
a c your understanding of evolution and
diversit
diversity through media and applications!
Media
Chapter 13 Darwin and Evolution
Animations Evolution of Homologous Genes
Genetic Drift
Video Finches—Natural Selection
Virtual Lab Dinosaur Dig
Chapter 14 Speciation and Evolution
Videos Finches—Adaptive Radiation
Cichlid Specialization
Chapter 15 The Evolutionary History of Life on Earth
Animations Geological History of Earth
Breakup of Pangaea
Three Domains
Phylogenetic Tree
Video Prehistoric Hurricanes
Virtual Lab Classifying Using Biotechnology
Chapter 16 Evolution of Microbial Life
Animations How the HIV Infection Cycle Works
Prion Diseases
Binary Fission
Bacterial Spore Formation
Bacterial Transformation
Bacterial Conjugation: Transfer of a Plasmid
Videos Virus Lytic Cycle
Virus Crisis
How Viruses Attack
Cranberries vs. Bacteria
Chapter 17 Evolution of Protists
Animations Endosymbiosis
Malaria: Life Cycle of Plasmodium
Video Plankton Diversity
Chapter 18 Evolution of Plants and Fungi
Videos Carnivorous Plants
Spore Dispersal
Christmas Tree Threat
Chapter 19 Evolution of Animals
Animation Early Vertebrates
Videos Portuguese Man-of-War
Clam Locomotion
Sea Urchin Reproduction
Frog Reproduction
Walking Catfish
Trials of a Tadpole
Leaf-Tailed Gecko
Bird Radar
Mom Grizzly Teaches Her Cubs
Virtual Labs Earthworm Dissection
Classifying Arthropods
Virtual Frog Dissection
Chapter 20 Evolution of Humans
Video Tool Use by Chimps
246

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 Organisms Are Related and
Adapted to Their Environment
Applications
Chapter 13 Darwin and Evolution
HOW SCIENCE PROGRESSES Natural Selection Can Be
Witnessed 254
HOW LIFE CHANGES Sometimes Mutations Are
Beneficial 262
Chapter 14 Speciation and Evolution
HOW BIOLOGY IMPACTS OUR LIVES The Many Uses of
Corn, an Allotetraploid 280
HOW SCIENCE PROGRESSES The Burgess Shale Hosts a
Diversity of Life 282
Chapter 15 The Evolutionary History of Life on Earth
HOW BIOLOGY IMPACTS OUR LIVES DNA Barcoding of
Life 299
HOW SCIENCE PROGRESSES Cladistics Has Replaced
Linnaean Systematics 302
Chapter 16 Evolution of Microbial Life
HOW BIOLOGY IMPACTS OUR LIVES Humans Suffer
from Emergent Viral Diseases 313
HOW LIFE CHANGES Viruses and the Invention of
DNA 316
HOW BIOLOGY IMPACTS OUR LIVES Why Can You
Catch Gonorrhea Over and Over Again? 327
HOW BIOLOGY IMPACTS OUR LIVES Disease-causing
Microbes Can Be Biological Weapons 328
Chapter 17 Evolution of Protists
HOW LIFE CHANGES The Eukaryotic Big Bang 337
Chapter 18 Evolution of Plants and Fungi
HOW LIFE CHANGES Carboniferous Forests Became the
Coal We Use Today 364
HOW BIOLOGY IMPACTS OUR LIVES Flowering Plants
Provide Many Services 368
HOW BIOLOGY IMPACTS OUR LIVES Land Fungi Have
Economic and Medical Importance 374
Chapter 19 Evolution of Animals
HOW LIFE CHANGES Nemertine Worms Are Closely
Related to Whom? 389
HOW BIOLOGY IMPACTS OUR LIVES Many Vertebrates
Provide Medical Treatments for Humans 406
Chapter 20 Evolution of Humans
HOW LIFE CHANGES Biocultural Evolution Began with
Homo 420
HOW LIFE CHANGES Migration Patterns Start with
Africa 423

247

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 13
Darwin and
The “Vice Versa” of Animals
and Plants
A daptations provide powerful evidence for evolution. Bacte-
ria that are able to survive and reproduce in the presence
of an antibiotic have become adapted to their environment.
Penguins are birds adapted to swimming in the ocean, and bats
are mammals that can fly due to wings made of skin stretched
over long fi ngers.
Evolution Insects are adapted to taking nectar from particular plants.
It might seem as if bees go to all flowers, but they don’t. They
prefer sweet-smelling flowers with ultraviolet shadings that
lead them to where nectar, a surgery liquid that serves as food,
C H AP T E R O U T LI N E can be found. The bee feeding apparatus is a long, specialized
Darwin Developed a Natural Selection Hypothesis tongue, called a proboscis, that is just the right size to reach
13.1 Darwin made a trip around the world 250 down into a narrow floral tube where the nectar is located. As
13.2 Artificial selection mimics natural selection 252 the bee goes about the business of feeding, pollen clings to its
13.3 Darwin formulated natural selection as a hairy body, and then as the bee moves from flower to flower of
mechanism for evolution 252 the species to which it is adapted, the pollen is distributed.
13.4 Wallace independently formulated a natural Why does a flower provide the bee with nectar? By providing
selection hypothesis 253 bees with nectar, flowers are helping to ensure their
reproduction.
The Evidence for Evolution Is Strong
The orchid Ophrys apifera has a unique appearance that
13.5 Fossils provide a record of the past 255
causes a bumblebee to visit it. The center of the flower looks
13.6 Fossils are evidence for common descent 256
like a female bumblebee is resting there. Actually, this is due
13.7 Anatomic evidence supports common
to a petal that resembles a bumblebee. Occasionally, a male bee
descent 257
tries to mate with the petal, and when it does, it gets dusted
13.8 Biogeographic evidence supports common
descent 258 with pollen, which the male bee takes to the next flower of
13.9 Molecular evidence supports common this species.
descent 258 Butterfl ies tend to feed from colorful composite flowers
that provide them with a fl at landing platform. Each indi-
Population Genetics Tells Us When
vidual flower of the composite has a floral tube that allows
Microevolution Occurs
13.10 The human population is diverse 259
13.11 A Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is not
expected 260 proboscis of
honey bee
13.12 Both mutations and sexual recombination
produce variations 261
13.13 Nonrandom mating and gene flow can contribute
to microevolution 261
13.14 The effects of genetic drift are unpredictable 263
13.15 Natural selection can be stabilizing, directional, or
disruptive 264
13.16 Stabilizing selection can help maintain the
heterozygote 266

APPLI C AT I O N S landing platform

HOW SCIENCE PROGRESSES
Natural Selection Can Be Witnessed 254 floral tube

HOW LIFE CHANGES

Sometimes Mutations Are Beneficial 262

Honey bee pollinated flower

248

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 flat landing
packet of pollen platform

Butterfly-
pollinated
flower

petal resembles
a female bumblebee

Bumblebee-pollinated flower,
Ophrys elegans
long thin beak

hummingbirds
hover
the long, thin butterfly proboscis to reach the nectar. Hum-
mingbirds fl ap their wings rapidly—called hovering—in
order to remain in one spot while they feed during the day
from odorless, red flowers that curve backward. A humming-
bird’s long, thin beak can access the nectar through a slender
floral tube.
Moth-pollinated flowers are white, pale yellow, or pink—
colors that are visible at night, when moths are active. The flow- floral tube with
ers give off a strong, sweet perfume that attracts moths, which curved back margins
hover as they extend a long, thin proboscis to gather the nectar
at the base of a floral tube. The Madagascar star orchid (Angrae- Hummingbird-pollinated flower
cum sesquipedale) has a very long floral tube that holds its nec-
tar much like a long, thin goblet would hold a drink. When
Darwin fi rst saw a picture of this orchid, he exclaimed, “What
insect could suck it?” Later, he said in his book on orchids, “In
Madagascar there must be moths with proboscises capable of
an extension to ten and eleven inches [25.4 cm–27.7 cm]!” Many
were skeptical, but Darwin was vindicated when in 1903, the
zoologists Lionel Walter Rothschild and Karl Jordan discovered proboscis
a large hawk moth living in Madagascar that has a proboscis
25–30 cm in length. As the hawk moth approaches the flower, it
unrolls its proboscis and inserts it into the floral tube in order
to feed.
We begin our study of evolution in this chapter by exam-
ining the work of Charles Darwin, who provided evidence
that evolution consists of descent from a common ancestor hawk moth hovers
and adaptation to the environment. Further, Darwin offered
a mechanism for evolution he called natural selection. He
called it natural selection because the environment, in a Hawk moth
sense, chooses which members of a population reproduce, pollinated flower
and in that way, adaptation to the environment is eventually
achieved.

249

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 Darwin Developed a Natural Selection Hypothesis
Learning Outcomes
▶ Name two early biologists who attempted to explain evolution but lacked a suitable mechanism. (13.1)
▶ Describe Darwin’s trip aboard the HMS Beagle and some of the observations he made. (13.1)
▶ Give examples of artificial selection carried out by human beings. (13.2)
▶ Explain Darwin’s hypothesis for natural selection. (13.3)
▶ Tell how Wallace’s contribution paralleled that of Darwin’s. (13.4)
Other scientists before Darwin hypothesized that evolution occurs, but developed no mechanism. Darwin concluded that evolution occurs
after taking a trip around the world as a naturalist aboard the HMS Beagle. After studying artificial selection and the work of Thomas
Malthus, Darwin—and later Alfred Wallace—suggested natural selection as a mechanism for evolution.

13.1 Darwin made a trip around the world

Biologists before Darwin had suggested that evolution occurs. characteristics has never been substantiated by experimentation.
Georges Cuvier, who founded the science of paleontology, the For example, if acquired characteristics were inherited, people
study of fossils, knew that fossils showed a succession of differ- who use tanning machines would have tan children, and people
ent life-forms through time (Fig. 13.1A). He hypothesized that a who have LASIK surgery to correct their vision would have chil-
series of past catastrophes (local extinctions) had occurred and dren with perfect vision.
that after each one, a region was repopulated by species from However, in December 1831, a new chapter in the history of
surrounding areas. The result of all these catastrophes was biology began. A 22-year-old naturalist, Charles Darwin (1809–
change appearing over time. 1882), set sail on the journey of a lifetime aboard the British
In contrast to Cuvier, Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, an inverte- naval vessel HMS Beagle (Fig. 13.1C). Darwin’s primary mission
brate biologist, concluded on the basis of fossil evidence that on this journey around the world was to expand the navy’s
more complex organisms are descended from less complex knowledge of natural resources in foreign lands. The captain of
organisms. To explain the process of adaptation to the environ- the Beagle, Robert Fitzroy, also hoped that Darwin would find
ment, Lamarck offered the idea of inheritance of acquired char- evidence to support the biblical
acteristics, which proposes that use and disuse of a structure can account of creation. Con-
bring about inherited change. One example Lamarck gave—and trary to Fitzroy’s wishes, FIGURE 13.1B
the one for which he is most famous—is that the long neck of a Darwin amassed observa- Lamarck thought
the long neck
giraffe developed over time because animals stretched their tions that would eventually
of a giraffe was
necks to reach food high in trees and then passed on a longer support another way of thinking
due to continued
neck to their offspring (Fig. 13.1B). and change the history of science stretching in each
Neither Cuvier nor Lamarck arrived at a satisfactory expla- and biology forever. generation.
nation for the evolutionary process. The inheritance of acquired During the trip, Darwin
made numerous observations.
For example, he noted that the
rhea of South America was
suited to living on a plain and
looked like the ostrich that lived
in Africa. However, the rhea was
not an ostrich. Why not? Because
the rhea evolved in South America,
while the ostrich evolved in Africa.
Darwin also found that species var-
ied according to whether they lived
in the Patagonian desert or in a lush
tropical rain forest. Then, too, unique
animals lived only on the Galápagos
Islands, located off the coast of South
America, not on the mainland.
A marine iguana had large claws that
allowed it to cling to rocks and a snout
that enabled it to eat algae off rocks.
One type of finch, lacking the
FIGURE 13.1A One of the animals that Cuvier reconstructed from long bill of a woodpecker,
fossils was the mastodon. used a cactus spine to

250 PART 3 Organisms Are Related and Adapted to Their Environment

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 Rhea Patagonian desert Earth’s strata contain fossils

Great
Britain
Europe
North
America
ATLANTIC
OCEAN

PACIFIC Africa
OCEAN
Galápagos INDIAN
Islands South OCEAN
America

Australia

Charles Darwin, age 31

HMS Beagle

Tropical rain forest Woodpecker finch Marine iguana

FIGURE 13.1C Middle: Charles Darwin and the route of the HMS Beagle. Circles pinpoint highlights of Darwin’s trip.

probe for insects. Why were these animals found only in the often contain fossils, are uplifted from below sea level to
Galápagos Islands? Had they evolved there? form land. Lyell’s book went on to support a uniformitarian-
When Darwin explored the region that is now Argentina, ism hypothesis, which states that geologic changes occur at
he saw raised beaches for great distances along the coast. He a uniform rate. This idea of slow geologic change is still
thought it would have taken a long time for such massive accepted today, although modern geologists have concluded
movements of the Earth’s crust to occur. While Darwin was that rates of change have not always been uniform. Darwin
making geologic observations, he also collected fossils that was convinced that the Earth’s massive geologic changes are
showed today’s plants and animals resemble, but are not the result of slow processes and that, therefore, in contrast to
exactly like, their forebears. Darwin had brought Charles thought at that time, the Earth was old enough to have
Lyell’s Principles of Geology on the Beagle voyage. This book allowed evolution to occur.
said that weathering causes erosion and that, thereafter, dirt
and rock debris are washed into the rivers and transported to 13.1 Check Your Progress Look again at Figure 1.1B, a diagram
that illustrates the scientific method. Which part of the diagram
oceans. When these loose sediments are deposited, layers of
applies to Darwin’s approach so far?
soil called strata (sing., stratum) result. The strata, which

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 13.2 Artificial selection mimics natural selection
Darwin made a study of artificial selection, a process by which
humans choose, on the basis of certain traits, the animals and
plants that will reproduce. For example, foxes are very shy and
normally shun the company of people, but in 40 years time, Rus-
sian scientists have produced silver foxes that now allow them-
selves to be petted and even seek attention (Fig. 13.2A). They did
this by selecting the most docile animals to reproduce. The scien-
tists noted that some physical characteristics changed as well. The
legs and tails became shorter, the ears became floppier, and the
coat color patterns changed. Artificial selection is only possible Chinese cabbage Brussels sprouts Kohlrabi
because the original population exhibits a range of characteristics,
allowing humans to select which traits they prefer to perpetuate.
To take another example, several varieties of vegetables can
be traced to a single ancestor that exhibits various characteris-
tics. Chinese cabbage, brussels sprouts, and kohlrabi are all
derived from one species of wild mustard (Fig. 13.2B). Cabbage
was produced by selecting for reproduction only plants that had
overlapping leaves; brussels sprouts came from crossing only
plants with certain types of buds; and kohlrabi was produced by
crossing only the plants that had enlarged stems.
Wild mustard

FIGURE 13.2B These three vegetables came from the wild

mustard plant through artificial selection.

Darwin thought that a process of selection might occur in

nature without human intervention. Using the process of artifi-
cial selection helped him arrive at the mechanism of natural
selection, which allows evolution to occur.
In Section 13.3, we see that Darwin was also influenced by
Thomas Malthus when he formulated natural selection as a
mechanism for evolution.

13.2 Check Your Progress If you wanted to use artificial selection

to achieve a particular type of flower, would you allow the flower to
FIGURE 13.2A Artificial selection has produced domesticated
pollinate naturally?
foxes.

13.3 Darwin formulated natural selection as a mechanism for evolution

Darwin was very much impressed by an essay written by Thomas What members might those be? The members that have some
Malthus about the reproductive potential of human beings. Mal- advantage and are best able to compete successfully for limited
thus had proposed that death and famine are inevitable because resources.
the human population tends to increase faster than the supply of Applying Darwin’s thinking to giraffes, we can see that long-
food. Darwin applied this concept to all organisms and saw that necked giraffes would be better able to feed off leaves in trees
available resources were insufficient for all members of a popu- than short-necked giraffes. The longer neck gives giraffes an
lation to survive. For example, he calculated the reproductive advantage that, in the end, would allow them to produce more
potential of elephants. Assuming a life span of about 100 years offspring than short-necked giraffes. So, eventually, all the mem-
and a breeding span of 30–90 years, a single female probably bers of a giraffe population (individuals of a species in one
bears no fewer than six young. If all these young survive and locale) would have long necks. Or, what about bacteria living in
continue to reproduce at the same rate, after only 750 years, the an environment of antibiotics? The few bacteria that can survive
descendants of a single pair of elephants would number about in this environment have a tremendous advantage, and therefore
19 million! Each generation has the same reproductive potential their offspring will make up the next generation of bacteria, and
as the previous generation. Therefore, Darwin hypothesized, this strain of bacteria will be resistant to the antibiotic.
there is a constant struggle for existence, and only certain mem- Darwin called the process by which organisms with an
bers of a population survive and reproduce in each generation. advantage reproduce more than others of their kind natural

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 selection because some aspect of the environment acts as a
selective agent and chooses the members of the population
with the advantageous phenotype to reproduce more than the
other members.
Natural selection has these essential components:
• The members of a population have inheritable variations.
For example, a wide range of differences exists among the
members of a population. Many of these variations are
inheritable. Inheritance of variations is absolutely essential
to Darwin’s hypothesis, even though he did not know the
means by which inheritance occurs.
• A population is able to produce more offspring than the envi-
ronment can support. The environment contains only so
much food and water, places to live, potential mates, and so
forth. The environment can’t support all the offspring that a
FIGURE 13.3 The brightly colored tree frog can hide among
population can produce, and each generation is apt to be too tropical plants where the large red eyes confuse predators. The frog
large for the environment to support. climbs trees and other plants assisted by toes with suction cups.
• Only certain members of the population survive and repro-
duce. Certain members have an advantage suited to the Now it is possible to form a definition of evolution. Evolution con-
environment that allows them to capture more resources sists of changes in a population over time due to the accumulation of
than other members, as when long-necked giraffes are bet- inherited differences. Evolution explains the unity and diversity of
ter able to browse on tree leaves. This advantage allows organisms. “Unity” means organisms share the same characteristics
these members of the population to survive and produce of life because they share a common ancestry, traceable even to the
more offspring. This is called differential reproduction first cell or cells. “Diversity” comes about because each type of organ-
because the members of a population differ as to how many ism (each species) is adapted to one of the many different environ-
surviving offspring they will have. ments in the biosphere (e.g., oceans, deserts, mountains, etc.).
• Natural selection results in a population adapted to the Independently, Alfred Wallace also arrived at natural selec-
local environment. In each succeeding generation, an increas- tion as a mechanism for evolution, as explained next.
ing proportion of individuals will have the adaptive
characteristics—the characteristics suited to surviving and 13.3 Check Your Progress Why is it advantageous for a plant to
reproducing in that environment (Fig. 13.3). have a flower structure suited to a particular pollinator?

13.4 Wallace independently formulated a natural selection hypothesis

Like Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) was a natural- Darwin told his friend and colleague Charles Lyell that Wallace’s
ist. While he was a schoolteacher at Leicester in 1844–1845, he ideas were so similar to his own that even Wallace’s “terms now
met Henry Walter Bates, a biologist who interested him in stand as heads of my chapters” in the book he had begun
insects. Together, they went on a collecting trip to the Amazon in 1856.
that lasted several years. Wallace’s knowledge of the world’s Darwin suggested that Wallace’s paper be published imme-
flora and fauna was further expanded by a tour he made of the diately, even though he himself had nothing in print yet. Lyell
Malay Archipelago from 1854 to 1862. Later, he divided the and others who knew of Darwin’s detailed work substantiating
islands into a western group and an eastern group on the basis the process of natural selection suggested that a joint paper be
of their different plants and animals. The dividing line between read to the Linnean Society. The title of Wallace’s section was
these islands is a narrow but deep strait now known as the Wal- “On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the
lace Line. Original Type.” Darwin allowed the abstract of a paper he had
Just as Darwin had done, Wallace wrote articles and books written in 1844 and an abstract of his book On the Origin of Spe-
that clearly showed his belief that species change over time and cies to be read. This book was published in 1859.
it was possible for new species to evolve. Later, he said he had By now, evolution by natural selection has been supported
pondered for many years about a mechanism to explain the by so many observations and experiments that it is considered
origin of a species. He, too, had read Malthus’s essay on human a theory rather than a hypothesis. Modern investigators have
population increases, and in 1858, while suffering an attack of shown that it is possible to observe the process of natural
malaria, the idea of “survival of the fittest” came upon him. He selection, as described in the How Science Progresses on the
quickly completed an essay outlining a natural selection pro- next page.
cess, which he chose to send to Darwin for comment. Darwin
was stunned upon its receipt. Here before him was the hypoth- 13.4 Check Your Progress Did the work of Wallace lend support
to the natural selection hypothesis? Explain.
esis he had formulated as early as 1844, but never published.

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 HOW SCIENCE PROGRESSES Application

13A Natural Selection Can Be Witnessed

Darwin formed his natural selection hypothesis, in part, by observ-
ing the adaptations of tortoises and finches on the Galápagos
Islands. Tortoises with domed shells and short necks live on well-
watered islands, where grass is available. Those with shells that
flare up in front have long necks and are able to feed on tall cacti.
They live on arid islands, where treelike prickly-pear cactus is the
main food source. Similarly, the islands are home to many different
types of finches (Fig. 13A.1). The heavy beak of the large, ground-
dwelling finch is suited to a diet of seeds. The beak of the warbler- A ground-dwelling finch
A cactus-finch probes flowers
feeds on seeds.
finch is suited to feeding on insects found among ground vegetation for nectar.
or caught in the air. The longer, somewhat more pointed beak and
FIGURE 13A.1 Finches
split tongue of the cactus-finch are suited for probing cactus flow- on the Galápagos Islands.
ers for nectar.

Beak Size and Natural Selection

Today, investigators, such as Peter and Rosemary Grant of Prince-
ton University, are actually watching natural selection as it occurs.
In 1973, the Grants began a study of the various finches on
Daphne Major, near the center of the Galápagos Islands. The A warbler-finch feeds on insects.
weather swung widely back and forth from wet years to dry years,
and they found that the beak size of the medium ground finch,
Geospiza fortis, adapted to each weather swing, generation after
generation (Fig. 13A.2). These finches like to eat small, tender wet year
seeds that require a smaller beak, but when the weather turns dry,
they have to eat larger, drier seeds, which are harder to crush.
Then, the birds that have a larger beak depth have an advantage
dry year dry year dry year
Beak Depth

and produce more offspring. Dry weather acts as a selective agent

for a G. fortis beak size that has more depth than in the previous
generation.

Silent Crickets and Natural Selection medium

ground finch
A research team led by Marlene Zuk, a professor of biology,
reported that prior to 2001 the Hawaiian field cricket population 1977 1980 1982 1984
(Teleogryllus oceanicus) on the island of Kauai contained very
few silent males. Chirping males have a wing structure that FIGURE 13A.2 The beak size of a ground finch varies from
generation to generation, according to the weather.
produces the chirping sound that attracts females. By 2006,
over 90% of male crickets were silent because their wings were
flat and unable to produce the chirping sound. In just 20 gen- maggot
erations, the population had undergone this dramatic evolu-
tionary change due to a particular selective agent that caused
the silent phenotype to be advantageous. A deadly parasitic fly
(Ormia ochracea) uses the male crickets’ chirping as a way to FIGURE 13A.3 Maggots
locate them. The fly deposits her eggs on a male cricket’s back, feeding on a cricket. cricket
and they develop into maggots. Over a week’s time, the mag-
gots eat the cricket’s internal organs and then emerge from its
dead body to undergo metamorphosis into adult flies. The
F O R M YO U R O P I N I O N
silent males were not parasitized and increased in number
because many of them mated with females and passed on their 1. Cite some examples of natural selection that involve resis-
genes. How did they do it? The silent males wait near any tance to drugs or pesticides. Now that we know how pow-
remaining chirping males and intercept incoming females. Nor- erful natural selection can be, how can we keep resistance
mally, female crickets will not accept a male until he completes from happening?
a final mating song, but even that is beginning to change and 2. Today’s drug designers biochemically create drugs for a
females will now accept silent males, thereby allowing them to particular purpose, and then they keep testing and selecting
increase in number. which ones to improve. Is this natural selection at work?

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 The Evidence for Evolution Is Strong
Learning Outcomes
▶ Tell why fossils offer powerful evidence for common descent. (13.5–13.6)
▶ Discuss anatomic, biogeographic, and molecular evidence for common descent. (13.7–13.9)
The evidence for evolution is categorized according to its source. Evidence for common descent is based on fossils, comparative anatomy,
biogeography, and molecular observations.

13.5 Fossils provide a record of the past

The best evidence for evolution comes from fossils, the physical FIGURE 13.5B
remains of organisms that lived on Earth between 10,000 and Fossils are carefully
billions of years ago. Usually when an organism dies, the soft cleaned, and
parts are either consumed by scavengers or decomposed by bac- organisms are
teria. This means that most fossils consist of hard parts, such as reconstructed.
shells, bones, or teeth, because these are usually not consumed
or destroyed. Fossils are also the traces of past life, such as trails,
footprints, burrows, worm casts, or even preserved droppings.
Or fossils can also be such items as pieces of bone, impressions
of plants pressed into shale, organisms preserved in ice, and
even insects trapped in tree resin (which we know as amber).
More and more fossils have been found because paleontolo-
gists have been out in the field looking for them (Fig. 13.5Aa).
Weathering and erosion of rocks produces an accumulation of par-
ticles that vary in size and nature and are called sediment. This
process, called sedimentation, has been going on since the Earth Darwin relied on fossils to formulate his theory of evolution,
was formed, and can take place on land or in bodies of water. Sedi- but today we have a far more complete record than was available
ment becomes a stratum, a recognizable layer in a sequence of to Darwin. The record tells us that, in general, life has pro-
layers. Any given stratum is older than the one above it and younger gressed from the simple to the complex. Unicellular prokaryotes
than the one immediately below it (Fig. 13.5Ab). For a fossil to be are the first signs of life in the fossil record, followed by unicel-
encased by rock, the remains are first buried in sediment; then the lular eukaryotes and then multicellular eukaryotes. Among the
hard parts are preserved by a process called mineralization; and latter, fishes evolved before terrestrial plants and animals. On
finally, the surrounding sediment hardens to form rock. land, nonflowering plants preceded the flowering plants, and
Usually, paleontologists remove fossils from the strata to amphibians preceded the reptiles, including the dinosaurs. Dino-
study them in the laboratory (Fig. 13.5B), and then they may saurs are directly linked to the evolution of birds, but only indi-
decide to exhibit them. The fossil record is the history of life rectly linked to the evolution of mammals, including humans.
recorded by fossils and the most direct evidence we have that
evolution has occurred. The species found in ancient sedimen- 13.5 Check Your Progress Why would it be difficult to find fossils
of flowers?
tary rock are not the species we see about us today.

b.
FIGURE 13.5A a. Paleontologists carefully remove and study fossils. b. The deeper
the stratum, the older the fossils found there.
a.

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 13.6 Fossils are evidence for common descent
Darwin used the phrase “descent with modification” to explain
evolution. Because of descent, all living things can trace their
ancestry to an original source. For example, you and your cous-
ins have a common ancestor in your grandparents and also in
your great grandparents, and so forth. In the end, one cou-
ple can give rise to a great number of descendants.
A transitional fossil is either a common ancestor for
two different groups of organisms or an individual closely related
to the common ancestor for these groups. Transitional fossils
allow us to trace the descent of organisms. Even in Darwin’s day,
scientists knew of the Archaeopteryx lithographica fossil, which
is an intermediate between reptiles and birds. The dinosaurlike
skeleton of these fossils has reptilian features, including jaws
with teeth, and a long, jointed tail, but Archaeopteryx also had
feathers and wings. Figure 13.6A shows a fossil of Archaeop-
teryx along with an artist’s representation of the animal based on
FIGURE 13.6B Ambulocetus natans, an ancestor of the modern
FIGURE 13.6A Fossil of Archaeopteryx and an artist’s toothed whale, and its fossil remains.
representation.

the fossil remains. Many more prebird fossils have been discov-
tail head ered recently in China. These fossils are progressively younger
wing than Archaeopteryx: The skeletal remains of Sinornis suggest it
had wings that could fold against its body like those of modern
birds, and its grasping feet had an opposable toe, but it still had
a tail. Another fossil, Confuciusornis, had the first toothless
feet
beak. A third fossil, called Iberomesornis, had a breastbone to
which powerful flight muscles could attach. Such fossils show
how the bird of today evolved.
Scientists had always thought whales had terrestrial ancestors.
wing Now, fossils have been discovered that support this hypothesis (see
Fig. 14.1A). Ambulocetus natans (meaning “the walking whale that
swims”) was the size of a large sea lion, with broad, webbed feet
on its forelimbs and hindlimbs that enabled it to both walk and
Archaeopteryx fossil swim. It also had tiny hoofs on its toes and the primitive skull and
teeth of early whales. Figure 13.6B is an artist’s re-creation, based
on fossil remains of Ambulocetus, which lived in freshwater
streams. An older genus, Pakicetus, was primarily terrestrial, and
reptile characteristics
yet also had the dentition of an early toothed whale. A younger
bird characteristics
genus, Rodhocetus, had reduced hindlimbs that would have
been no help for either walking or swimming, but may have
been used for stabilization during mating.
feathers
The origin of mammals is also well documented. The
synapsids are proto-mammals whose descendants diversi-
fied into different types of premammals. Slowly, mammal-like
fossils acquired skeletal features that adapted them to live more
efficiently on land. For example, the legs projected down-
ward rather than to the side as in reptiles. The earliest true
mammals were shrew-sized creatures that have been
unearthed in fossil beds about 200 million years old.
teeth Section 13.7 discusses the evidence for common descent
based on comparative anatomy.
tail with vertebrae
13.6 Check Your Progress Suppose fossils of hummingbirds indi-
claws cated they had shorter, thicker beaks than at present. What would you
expect to find about the flowers they pollinated?

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 13.7 Anatomic evidence supports common descent
Anatomic similarities exist between fossils and between living Pig embryo
organisms. Darwin was able to show that a common descent
hypothesis offers a plausible explanation for anatomic similarities
among organisms. Structures that are anatomically similar
because they are inherited from a recent common ancestor are
called homologous structures. In contrast, analogous structures
are structures that serve the same function but are not constructed
similarly, nor do they share a recent common ancestor. The wings
of birds and insects and the eyes of octopuses and humans are
analogous structures. The presence of homology, not analogy, is
evidence that organisms are closely related. Studies of compara-
pharyngeal postanal
tive anatomy and embryologic development and increasingly pouches tail
genetic data reveal homologous structures. For example, we now
know that the gene Pax6 (see Section 11.4, p. 216.) initiates the
development of the eye in diverse organisms. Does this mean that
all eyes are homologous structures instead of analogous ones?
Comparative Anatomy Vertebrate forelimbs are used for
flight (birds and bats), orientation during swimming (whales
and seals), running (horses), climbing (arboreal lizards), or
swinging from tree branches (monkeys). Yet, despite their dis-
similar functions all vertebrate forelimbs contain the same sets
of bones organized in similar ways (Fig. 13.7A). The most plau-
sible explanation for this unity is that the basic forelimb plan
belonged to a common ancestor for all vertebrates, and then the Chick embryo
plan was modified as each type of vertebrate continued along its
FIGURE 13.7B Vertebrate embryos have features in common,
own evolutionary pathway.
even though they have different appearances as adults.
Vestigial structures are fully developed in one group of
organisms but reduced and possibly nonfunctional in similar
groups. For example, modern whales have a vestigial pelvic gir-
dle and legs because their ancestors walked on land. Similarly,
bird humerus snakes have no use for hindlimbs, and yet some have remnants
ulna
radius
of a pelvic girdle and legs. Humans have a tailbone but no tail.
metacarpals The presence of vestigial structures can be explained by the com-
phalanges mon descent hypothesis: Vestigial structures occur because
organisms inherit their anatomy from their ancestors; they are
traces of an organism’s evolutionary history.
Embryological Evidence The homology shared by verte-
bat
brates extends to their embryologic development. At some time
during development, all vertebrates have a postanal tail and
paired pharyngeal pouches (Fig. 13.7B). In fishes and amphib-
ian larvae, these pouches develop into functioning gills. In
whale cat horse human
humans, the first pair of pouches becomes the cavity of the
middle ear and the auditory tube. The second pair becomes the
tonsils, while the third and fourth pairs become the thymus and
parathyroid glands. Why do terrestrial vertebrates develop and
then modify structures such as pharyngeal pouches that have
lost their original function? The most likely explanation is that
terrestrial vertebrates can trace their ancestry to amphibians and
then to fishes. Similarly, embryonic evidence tells us that echi-
noderms and vertebrates share a common ancestor because they
both have the same early pattern of development (see Fig. 19.3).

13.7 Check Your Progress What type of ancestry would explain

FIGURE 13.7A Despite differences in structure and function,
why two species of flowers have exactly the same type of floral tube?
vertebrate forelimbs have the same bones.

CHAPTER 13 Darwin and Evolution 257

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 13.8 Biogeographic evidence supports common descent
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of plants and ani- In the history of our planet, South America, Antarctica, and
mals in different places throughout the world. Because life-forms Australia were originally one continent. Marsupials (pouched
evolved in a particular locale, you would expect a different mix mammals) arose at around the time Australia separated and
of plants and animals whenever geography separates continents, drifted away on its own. Isolation allowed marsupials to diver-
islands, or seas. As mentioned, Darwin noted that South America sify into many different forms suited to various environments of
lacked rabbits. He concluded that no rabbits lived in South Australia. They were free to do so because there were few, if any,
America (even though the environment was quite suitable for placental (modern) mammals in Australia. In South America,
them) because rabbits evolved somewhere else and had no where there are placental mammals, marsupials are present but
means of reaching South America. Instead, the Patagonian hare they are not as diverse. This supports the hypothesis that evolu-
resembles a rabbit in anatomy and behavior but has the face of a tion is influenced by the mix of plants and animals in a particular
guinea pig, from which it probably evolved in South America. continent—that is, by biogeography, not by design.
To take another example, both cactuses and euphorbia are Section 13.9 discusses the molecular evidence for common
succulent, spiny, flowering plants adapted to a hot, dry environ- descent.
ment. Why do cactuses grow in North American deserts and
euphorbia grow in African deserts, when each would do well on 13.8 Check Your Progress Explain the observation that the Galá-
the other continent? It seems obvious that they just happened to pagos Islands host many species of finches that are not found on the
mainland.
evolve on their respective continents.

13.9 Molecular evidence supports common descent

Almost all organisms use the same basic biochemical molecules,
including DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), ATP (adenosine triphos- Species
phate), and many identical or nearly identical enzymes. Further,
all organisms use the same DNA triplet code and the same 20 51
amino acids in their proteins. Since the sequences of DNA bases
yeast
in the genomes of many organisms are now known, it has
become clear that humans share a large number of genes with
much simpler organisms. Also of interest, evolutionists who 30
study development have found that many developmental genes
moth
are shared by animals ranging from worms to humans. It appears
that life’s vast diversity has come about largely by differences in
the regulation of genes. The result has been widely divergent
20
types of bodies. For example, a similar gene in arthropods and
vertebrates determines the dorsal-ventral axis. Although the fish
base sequences are similar, the genes have opposite effects.
Therefore, in arthropods, such as fruit flies and crayfish, the
18
nerve cord is ventral, whereas in vertebrates, such as chicks and
Cytochrome c is a small protein
humans, the nerve cord is dorsal. The nerve cord eventually turtle that plays an important role in
gives rise to the spinal cord and brain. the electron transport chain
within mitochondria of all cells.
When the degree of similarity in DNA base sequences or the 11
degree of similarity in amino acid sequences of proteins is exam-
ined, the data are consistent with our knowledge of evolutionary duck
descent through common ancestors. Cytochrome c is a molecule
9
that is used in the electron transport chain of many organisms.
Data show that the amino acid sequence of cytochrome c in a pig
monkey differs from that in humans by only two amino acids, from
2
that in a duck by 11 amino acids, and from that in a yeast by 51
amino acids (Fig. 13.9), as you might expect from anatomic data. monkey
This completes our study of the evidence supporting evolu- 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
tion. The next part of the chapter discusses how it is possible to Number of amino acid differences
determine that evolution, on a small scale, has occurred. compared to human cytochrome c.

13.9 Check Your Progress Explain the observation that all organ-
FIGURE 13.9 Biochemical differences indicate degrees of
isms use DNA as their genetic material.
relatedness among organisms.

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 Population Genetics Tells Us When Microevolution Occurs
Learning Outcomes
▶ Tell how the human population has microvariations. (13.10)
▶ Use the Hardy-Weinberg principle to explain when microevolution occurs. (13.11)
▶ Explain how mutations, nonrandom mating, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection contribute to the process of
microevolution. (13.12–13.15)
▶ Name three kinds of natural selection, and discuss the effect of each on a population. (13.15)
▶ Give an example to show that stabilizing selection can maintain heterozygotes in a population. (13.16)
Microevolution is evolution beneath the species level. The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele frequencies in a population,
calculated by using the equation p2 + 2 pq + q2, will stay constant generation after generation, unless evolution occurs. Usually evolution,
defined as an allele frequency change, does occur.

13.10 The human population is diverse

Darwin stressed that diversity exists among the members of a not result in a changed amino acid sequence may still cause regu-
population. A population is all the members of a single species latory differences. Therefore, SNPs are now thought to be an
occupying a particular area at the same time; even the human important source of genetic diversity among humans. Another
population has local populations (Fig. 13.10). All humans are the interesting finding is that humans inherit patterns of base
same species, as can be witnessed by the fact that any two ethnici- sequence differences now called haplotypes (from the terms hap-
ties can reproduce and produce healthy offspring. Genomic stud- loid and genotype). To take an example, if a chromatid has a G
ies have allowed investigators to discover that much of the rather than a C at a particular location, this change is most likely
genomic diversity of humans is due to microvariations such as accompanied by other base differences near the G. Researchers
single nucleotide polymorphisms (differences), or SNPs (pro- are in the process of discovering the most common haplotypes
nounced “snips”). These are DNA sequences that differ by a sin- among African, Asian, and European populations. They want to
gle nucleotide. For example, compare ACGTACGTA to ACGTACCTA link haplotypes to the risk of specific illnesses, hoping this will
and notice that there is only a single base difference between the lead to new methods of preventing, diagnosing, and treating dis-
two sequences. Investigators would say that the SNP has two ease. Also, certain haplotypes may respond better than others to
alleles—in this case, G and C. SNPs generally have two alleles. particular medicines, vaccines, and other treatment strategies.
SNPs that occur within a protein-coding DNA sequence may
or may not result in a changed sequence of amino acids, due to 13.10 Check Your Progress Why is it important for the members
of a population to be both genetically similar but also different?
the redundancy of the genetic code (see Fig. 10.4B). SNPs that do

FIGURE 13.10 The HapMap project compares DNA sequences among African, Asian, and European populations to discover unique base
sequence differences.

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 13.11 A Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is not expected
Not until the 1930s were population geneticists able to apply
F1 generation
the principles of genetics to populations and thereafter develop
a way to recognize when microevolution has occurred. The
gene pool of a population is composed of all the alleles in all DD Dd dd
Genotypes:
the individuals making up the population. When the allele
frequencies for a population change, microevolution has Genotype frequencies: 0.04 0.32 0.64
occurred. Microevolution does not necessarily result in a visi- Allele and gamete frequencies: D = 0.20 d = 0.80
ble change but let’s take an example that does.
eggs
A peppered moth can be light-colored or dark-colored. Sup-
pose you research the literature and find that the color of pep- F2 generation
0.20 D 0.80 d
pered moths is controlled by a single set of alleles, and you
decide to use the following key: D = dark color and d = light
color. Furthermore, you find that in one Great Britain popula- 0.20
tion, only 4% (0.04) of the moths are homozygous dominant D
(DD), 32% (0.32) are heterozygous (Dd), and 64% (0.64) are

sperm
0.04 DD 0.16 Dd
homozygous recessive (dd). From these genotype frequencies,
you can calculate the allele frequencies, in the population:
0.80
d
genotypes DD Dd dd
frequency of genotypes 0.04 0.32 0.64 0.16 Dd 0.64 dd
in the population Offspring

frequency of alleles and

0.04 + 0.16 0.16 + 0.64 Genotype frequencies: 0.04 DD + 0.32 Dd + 0.64 dd = 1
gametes in the population p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
0.20 D 0.80 d
p2 = frequency of DD genotype (dark-colored) = (0.20)2 = 0.04

The frequency of the gametes (sperm and egg) produced by this 2pq = frequency of Dd genotype (dark-colored) = 2(0.20)(0.80) = 0.32
population will necessarily be the same as the allele frequencies.
q2 = frequency of dd genotype (light-colored) = (0.80)2 = 0.64
Assuming random mating (all possible gametes have an equal
chance to combine with any other), we can use these gamete 1.00
frequencies to calculate the ratio of genotypes in the next genera- FIGURE 13.11 Calculating gene pool frequencies for F1 and F2.
tion by using a Punnett square (Fig. 13.11).
There is an important difference between a Punnett square succeeding generation of a sexually reproducing population as
that represents a cross between individuals and the one shown long as five conditions are met:
in Figure 13.11. In Figure 13.11, we are using the gamete frequen-
cies in the population to determine the genotype frequencies in 1. No mutations: Allele changes do not occur, or changes in one
the next generation. As you can see, the results show that the direction are balanced by changes in the opposite direction.
genotype frequencies (and therefore the allele frequencies) in 2. No gene flow: Migration of alleles into or out of the popula-
the next generation are the same as they were in the previous tion does not occur.
generation. In other words, the homozygous dominant moths 3. Random mating: Individuals pair by chance, not according
are still 0.04; the heterozygous moths are still 0.32; and the to their genotypes or phenotypes.
homozygous recessive moths are still 0.64 of the population. 4. No genetic drift: The population is very large, and changes
This remarkable finding tells us that sexual reproduction alone in allele frequencies due to chance alone are insignificant.
cannot bring about a change in genotype and allele frequencies. 5. No natural selection: No selective agent favors one geno-
Also, the dominant allele need not increase from one generation type over another.
to the next. Dominance does not cause an allele to become a In real life, these conditions are rarely met, if ever, and allele
common allele. frequencies in the gene pool of a population do change from one
The potential constancy, or equilibrium state, of gene pool generation to the next. For example, when the trees darken due
frequencies was independently recognized in 1908 by G. H. Hardy, to industrial pollution, gene pool frequencies change because
an English mathematician, and W. Weinberg, a German physi- predatory birds (the selective agent) can find and therefore eat
cian. They used the binomial equation (p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1) to light-colored moths. The dark melanic color becomes common
calculate the genotype and allele frequencies of a population, as among moth populations. This is called industrial melanism.
illustrated in Figure 13.11. From their findings, they formulated
the Hardy-Weinberg principle, which states that an equilibrium 13.11 Check Your Progress How do you know when microevolu-
of allele frequencies in a gene pool will remain in effect in each tion has occurred?

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 13.12 Both mutations and sexual recombination produce variations
The Hardy-Weinberg principle recognizes mutation as a force that recessive genotype arises. The importance of recessive alleles
can cause allele frequencies to change in a gene pool and cause increases if the environment is changing; it’s possible that the
microevolution to occur. Mutations, which are permanent genetic homozygous recessive genotype could be helpful in a new envi-
changes, are the raw material for evolutionary change because, ronment, if not the present one. It’s even possible that natural
without mutations, there could be no inheritable phenotypic varia- selection will maintain a recessive allele if the heterozygote has
tions among members of a population. The rate of mutations is advantages (see Section 13.16).
generally very low—on the order of one per 100,000 cell divisions. In sexually reproducing organisms, sexual recombination is
Also, it is important to realize that evolution is not goal-oriented, just as important as mutation in generating phenotypic differ-
meaning that no mutation arises because the organism “needs” one. ences, because sexual recombination can bring together a new
For example, the mutation that causes bacteria to be resistant was and different combination of alleles. This new combination
already present before antibiotics appeared in the environment. might produce a more successful phenotype. Success, of course,
Mutations are the primary source of genetic differences is judged by the environment and counted by the relative num-
among prokaryotes that reproduce asexually. Generation time is ber of healthy offspring an organism produces.
so short that many mutations can occur quickly, even though the Nonrandom mating and gene flow are possible causes of
rate is low, and since these organisms are haploid, any mutation microevolution, as discussed in Section 13.13.
that results in a phenotypic change is immediately tested by the
environment. In diploid organisms, a recessive mutation can 13.12 Check Your Progress Would you expect mutations to have
helped flowers become adapted to a particular pollinator? Explain.
remain hidden and become significant only when a homozygous

13.13 Nonrandom mating and gene flow can contribute to microevolution

Random mating occurs when individuals pair by chance. You populations or when pollen is distributed between species
make sure random mating occurs when you do a genetic cross on (Fig. 13.13B), gene flow has occurred. When gene flow brings a
paper or in the lab, and cross all possible types of sperm with all new or rare allele into the population, the allele frequency in the
possible types of eggs. Nonrandom mating occurs when only next generation changes. When gene flow between adjacent
certain genotypes or phenotypes mate with one another. Assorta- populations is constant, allele frequencies continue to change
tive mating is a type of nonrandom mating that occurs when until an equilibrium is reached. Therefore, continued gene flow
individuals mate with those having the same phenotype with tends to make the gene pools similar and reduce the possibility
respect to a certain characteristic. For example, flowers such as the of allele frequency differences between populations.
garden pea usually self-pollinate—therefore, the same phenotype Genetic drift is another possible cause of microevolution, as
has mated with the same phenotype (Fig. 13.13A). Assortative discussed in Section 13.14.
mating can also be observed in human society. Men and women
tend to marry individuals with characteristics such as intelligence 13.13 Check Your Progress Create a scenario in which assortative
mating causes flowers to become adapted to their pollinators.
and height that are similar to their own. Assortative mating causes
homozygotes for certain gene loci to increase in frequency and
heterozygotes for these loci to decrease in frequency.
Gene flow, also called gene migration, is the movement of
alleles between populations. When animals move between

gene flow

self-
pollination

Pisum arvense

stamen

stigma
FIGURE 13.13B Occasional
FIGURE 13.13A The anatomy cross-pollination between a
of the garden pea (Pisum sativum) population of Pisum arvense and a
ensures self-pollination and population of Pisum sativum is an
Pisum sativum nonrandom mating. example of gene flow. Pisum sativum

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 HOW LIFE CHANGES Application

13B Sometimes Mutations Are Beneficial

Imagine trying to redesign a vital mechanical part of an airplane, natural selection. Particularly in plants, many examples of gene
while still keeping that plane in flight. Sounds nearly impossible, duplication have been found—for example, the wild mustard
doesn’t it? This was one of the puzzles facing early evolutionary plant has undergone at least two duplications of all its chromo-
biologists. After all, mutations are the main way in which new somes in the past, as well as duplication of several individual
traits and features arise during evolution, and yet most mutations genes at various times in history.
cause damage. If a feature is important, how can it be altered An intriguing example of gene duplication involves the
while still allowing an organism and its offspring to survive? sweet-tasting proteins. Of the thousands of proteins studied so
Geneticists have shown one possible way mutations can far, most have no noticeable flavor—but about half a dozen have
accumulate without impairing present function: gene duplication an intensely sweet taste. These rare, sweet-tasting proteins are
(Fig. 13B.1). An extra (and possibly unused) copy of a gene may found in plants and plant products from several different conti-
result from errors during cell division, efforts to repair breakage nents: The protein “curculin” is found in the fruit of a Malaysian
to DNA, or other mechanisms. The surprising idea here is that herb (Fig. 13B.2); “mabinlin” can be extracted from a traditional
these seeming accidents actually can provide raw material for Chinese herb; “thaumatin” is found in the fruit of a West African
rain forest shrub; and “brazzein” comes from a fruit that grows
wild in Gabon, Cameroon, and Zaire. Each of these proteins
tastes sweet only to humans and certain monkeys. From the
plant’s point of view, the proteins likely provided an advantage:
single copy of gene Sweeter fruits would be eaten more often and their seeds distrib-
uted more widely, ensuring the growth of more plants with
genes for making sweet proteins. A question still remains: How
did these unusual proteins come about?
duplicate copies of gene
No one yet knows exactly how these proteins originated, but
FIGURE 13B.1 gene duplication is a likely answer. The proteins look nothing
Duplication of a
alike, are found in unrelated plants, and clearly did not come
gene followed by
a mutation in one
from some ancient shared plant gene. Each protein, however,
mutated copy of gene
of the genes is a does resemble other proteins normally found in healthy plants.
way for complexity Brazzein and mabinlin, for example, closely resemble “protein-
to arise: The new ase inhibitors,” proteins that can help prevent further damage
protein might when a plant is injured. Interestingly, however, neither sweet
function differently protein has that function. Similar stories are true of most sweet-
than the original tasting proteins: They closely resemble other plant proteins with
one. protein product protein product ordinary functions, but the sequences necessary for those other
functions seem to be missing or mutated. It’s as though pre-
existing genes were recycled to become genes for sweet proteins.
Presumably a gene duplication in the distant past resulted in an
“extra” gene that could mutate freely, while still leaving a “good”
copy of the gene to support the plant’s functions. In time, the
extra copy of the gene acquired mutations that happened to pro-
vide a sweet taste, and plants with that mutation gained a spe-
cial appeal for local diners.

F O R M YO U R O P I N I O N
1. Humans and perhaps apes and mon-
keys like sweet foods. How does
this benefit plants containing sweet
proteins?
2. Are humans influencing the evolution
of plants when they propagate them?
When they genetically modify them
and then propagate them?
3. In what way is artificial selection
A Curculigo plant The fruits develop at base of leaves. harmful to the plants and animals
FIGURE 13B.2 The sweet protein curculin is present in the fruit of a Curculigo plant. selected to reproduce?

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 13.14 The effects of genetic drift are unpredictable
Genetic drift refers to changes in the allele frequencies of a gene
pool due to chance rather than selection by the environment.
Therefore, genetic drift does not necessarily result in adaptation
to the environment, as does natural selection. For example, in
California, there are a number of cypress groves, each a separate
population. The phenotypes within each grove are more similar
to one another than they are to the phenotypes in the other
groves. Some groves have longitudinally shaped trees, and oth-
ers have pyramidally shaped trees. The bark is rough in some
colonies and smooth in others. The leaves are gray to bright
green or bluish, and the cones are small or large. The environ-
mental conditions are similar for all the groves, and no correla-
tion has been found between phenotype and the environment
across groves. Therefore, scientists hypothesize that these varia-
tions among the groves are due to genetic drift. We know of two
mechanisms by which genetic drift could produce phenotypic
similarities. They are called the bottleneck effect and the founder
effect. Both of these require a very small population.
Small Versus Large Populations Although genetic drift
occurs in populations of all sizes, a smaller population is more
likely to show the effects of drift. Suppose the allele B (for
brown) occurs in 10% of the members in a population of frogs. FIGURE 13.14B A rare form of dwarfism that is linked to
polydactylism is seen among the Amish in Pennsylvania.
In a population of 50,000 frogs, 5,000 will have the allele B. If a
hurricane kills off half the frogs, the frequency of allele B may
very well remain the same among the survivors. On the other
hand, 10% of a population with ten frogs means that only one neck of a bottle. This so-called bottleneck effect prevents the
frog has the allele B. Under these circumstances, a natural disas- majority of genotypes from participating in the production of the
ter could very well do away with that one frog, should half the next generation. The extreme genetic similarity found in chee-
population perish. Or, let’s suppose that five green frogs out of a tahs is believed to be due to a bottleneck effect. In a study of 47
ten-member population die. Now the frequency of allele B will different enzymes, each of which can have several different
increase from 10% to 20% (Fig. 13.14A). forms, the sequence of amino acids in the enzymes was exactly
Bottleneck and Founder Effects When a species is the same in all the cheetahs. What caused the cheetah bottle-
subjected to near extinction because of a natural disaster (e.g., neck is not known, but today cheetahs suffer from relative infer-
hurricane, earthquake, or fire) or because of overhunting, over- tility because of the intense inbreeding that occurred after the
harvesting, and habitat loss, it is as if most of the population has bottleneck. Even if humans were to intervene and the population
stayed behind and only a few survivors have passed through the were to increase in size, the cheetah could still become extinct
without genetic variation. Other organisms pushed to the brink
of extinction suffer a plight similar to that of the cheetah.
The founder effect is an example of genetic drift in which
rare alleles, or combinations of alleles, occur at a higher fre-
quency in a population isolated from the general population.
Founding individuals could contain only a fraction of the total
genetic diversity of the original gene pool. Which alleles the
founders carry is dictated by chance alone. The Amish of Lan-
10% of caster County, Pennsylvania, are an isolated group that was
population natural disaster kills begun by German founders. Today, as many as 1 in 14 individu-
five green frogs
als carries a recessive allele that causes an unusual form of
20% of dwarfism (affecting only the lower arms and legs) and polydac-
population tylism (extra fingers) (Fig. 13.14B). In the general population,
only one in 1,000 individuals has this allele.
Natural selection is a possible cause of microevolution, as
discussed in Section 13.15.

FIGURE 13.14A Chance events can cause allele frequency 13.14 Check Your Progress Could genetic drift have set back the
coevolution of flowers and their pollinators? Explain.
changes and genetic drift.

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 13.15 Natural selection can be stabilizing, directional, or disruptive
After outlining the process of natural selection earlier in this Human birth weight is another example of stabilizing selec-
chapter (see Section 13.3), we now wish to consider natural tion. Through the years, hospital data have shown that human
selection in a genetic context. Many traits are polygenic (con- infants born with an intermediate birth weight (3–4 kg) have a
trolled by many genes), and the continuous variation in pheno- better chance of survival than those at either extreme (either
types results in a bell-shaped curve. The most common phenotype
is intermediate between two extremes. When this range of phe-
notypes is exposed to the environment, natural selection favors 20 100
the one that is most adaptive under the present environmental
70

Percent of Births in Population

circumstances. Natural selection acts much the same way as a
50

Percent Infant Mortality

governing board that decides which applying students will be 15
admitted to a college. Some students will be favored and allowed 30
to enter, while others will be rejected and not allowed to enter. 20
Of course, in the case of natural selection, the chance to repro-
duce is the prize awarded. In this context, natural selection can 10 10
be stabilizing, directional, or disruptive (Fig. 13.15A).
Stabilizing selection occurs when an intermediate pheno- 7
type is favored (Fig. 13.15Aa). It can improve adaptation of the 5 5
population to those aspects of the environment that remain con-
3
stant. With stabilizing selection, extreme phenotypes are selected 2
against. As an example, consider that when Swiss starlings lay
four to five eggs, more young survive than when the female lays
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
more or less than this number. Genes determining physiological Birth Weight (in pounds)
characteristics, such as the production of yolk, and behavioral
characteristics, such as how long the female will mate, are FIGURE 13.15B Stabilizing selection as exemplified by human
involved in determining how many eggs are laid. birth weight.
Number of Individuals

Phenotype Range Phenotype Range Phenotype Range

a. stabilizing selection b. directional selection c. disruptive selection

Peak narrows. Peak shifts. Two peaks result.

Number of Individuals

Phenotype Range Phenotype Range Phenotype Range

FIGURE 13.15A Phenotype ranges before and after three types of selection. Blue represents favored phenotype(s).

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 No
predation
All guppies
are drab
and small Low

Amount of Color
predation

above waterfall

High
predation

0 4 8 12
below waterfall Months

a. Experimental site b. Result

FIGURE 13.15C Directional selection in guppies.

much less or much greater than usual). When a baby is small, In disruptive selection, two or more extreme phenotypes
its systems may not be fully functional, and when a baby is are favored over any intermediate phenotype (Fig. 13.15Ac,
large, it may have experienced a difficult delivery. Stabilizing right). For example, British land snails (Cepaea nemoralis) have
selection reduces the variability in birth weight in human popu- a wide habitat range that includes low-vegetation areas (grass
lations (Fig. 13.15B). fields and hedgerows) and forests. In forested areas, thrushes
Directional selection occurs when an extreme phenotype is feed mainly on light-banded snails, and the snails with dark
favored, and the distribution curve shifts in that direction. Such shells become more prevalent. In low-vegetation areas, thrushes
a shift can occur when a population is adapting to a changing feed mainly on snails with dark shells, and light-banded snails
environment (Fig. 13.15Ab). become more prevalent. Therefore, these two distinctly different
Two investigators, John Endler and David Reznick, both at phenotypes are found in the population (Fig. 13.15D).
the University of California, conducted a study of guppies, which Stabilizing selection, discussed in Section 13.16, maintains
are known for their bright colors and reproductive potential. the heterozygote, especially if it has an advantage over the
These investigators noted that on the island of Trinidad, when homozygote, as seen in sickle-cell disease.
male guppies are subjected to high predation by other fish, they
tend to be drab in color and to mature early and at a smaller size. 13.15 Check Your Progress If the flowers of a species are pres-
ently only one color and the pollinator prefers this color, is stabilizing
The drab color and small size are most likely protective against
selection occurring? Explain.
being found and eaten. On the other hand, when male guppies
are exposed to minimal or no predation, they tend to be colorful,
to mature later, and to attain a larger size.
Endler and Reznick performed many FIGURE 13.15D Disruptive
experiments, and one set is of particular selection in snails.
interest. They took a supply of guppies
from a high-predation area (below a Forested Low-lying
waterfall) and placed them in a low- areas vegetation
predation area (above a waterfall)
(Fig. 13.15Ca). The waterfall pre-
vented the predator fish (pike) from
entering the low-predation area.
They monitored the guppy popula-
tion for 12 months, and during that
year, the guppy population above the
waterfall underwent directional selection
(Fig. 13.15Cb). The male members of the
population became colorful and large in
size. The members of the guppy population
below the waterfall (the control popula-
tion) remained drab and small.

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 13.16 Stabilizing selection can help maintain the heterozygote
Variations are maintained in a population for any number of rea- of sickle-cell disease in Africa have found that the recessive
sons. Mutation still creates new alleles, and recombination still allele (HbS) has a higher frequency in regions (purple color)
recombines these alleles during gametogenesis and fertilization. where the disease malaria is also prevalent (Fig. 13.16). Malaria
Gene flow might still occur. If the receiving population is small is caused by a protozoan parasite that lives in and destroys the
and mostly homozygous, gene flow can be a significant source of red blood cells of the normal homozygote (HbAHbA). Individuals
new alleles. Genetic drift also occurs, particularly in small popu- with this genotype have fewer offspring, due to an early death
lations, and the end result may be contrary to adaptation to the or to debilitation caused by malaria.
environment. Natural selection never starts from scratch and People who are heterozygous (HbAHbS) have an advantage
therefore the result is often a compromise. An erect posture freed over both homozygous genotypes because they don’t die from
the hands of humans but subjected the spine to injury because it sickle-cell disease and they don’t die from malaria. The parasite
is imperfectly adapted. But the benefit of freeing the hands must causes any red blood cell it infects in these individuals to become
have been worth the risk of spinal injuries or it would not have sickle-shaped. Sickle-shaped red blood cells lose potassium, and
evolved. An inefficient selective agent can play a role in maintain- this causes the parasite to die. Heterozygote advantage causes
ing diversity; predatory birds never catch all the white moths all three alleles to be maintained in the population. It’s as if natu-
when pollutants darken the vegetation. A changing environment ral selection were a store owner balancing the advantages and
retains the ability of the medium ground finch on the Galapagos disadvantages of maintaining the recessive allele HbS in the
island to change its beak size as appropriate to the food supply. warehouse. As long as the protozoan that causes malaria is pres-
Clearly, the maintenance of variation among a population has ent in the environment, it is advantageous to maintain the reces-
survival value for the species. Here, we consider that heterozy- sive allele, as shown in the following table:
gote superiority in a particular environment can assist the main-
tenance of genetic, and therefore phenotypic, variations in future
Genotype Phenotype Result
generations.
Dies due to
Sickle-cell Disease Sickle-cell disease can be a devastating Hb A Hb A Normal malarial infection
condition. Patients may have severe anemia, physical weakness,
poor circulation, impaired mental function, pain and high fever, Lives due to
Hb A Hb S Sickle-cell trait
protection from both
rheumatism, paralysis, spleen damage, low resistance to disease,
and kidney and heart failure. In these individuals, the red blood
Sickle-cell Dies due to
cells are sickle-shaped and tend to pile up and block flow through Hb S Hb S disease sickle-cell disease
tiny capillaries. The condition is due to an abnormal form of
hemoglobin (Hb), the molecule that carries oxygen in red blood
cells. People with sickle-cell disease (HbSHbS) tend to die early Heterozygote advantage is also an example of stabilizing
and leave few offspring, due to hemorrhaging and organ destruc- selection because the genotype HbAHbS is favored over the
tion. Interestingly, however, geneticists studying the distribution two extreme genotypes, HbAHbA and HbSHbS. In the parts of
Africa where malaria is common, one in five individuals is
heterozygous (has sickle-cell trait) and survives malaria,
while only 1 in 100 is homozygous, HbSHbS, and dies of sickle-
cell disease.
What happens in the United States where malaria is not
prevalent? As you would expect, the frequency of the HbS allele
is declining among African Americans because the heterozygote
has no particular advantage in this country.
Cystic Fibrosis Stabilizing selection is also thought to have
influenced the frequency of other alleles. Cystic fibrosis is a
debilitating condition that leads to lung infections and digestive
difficulties. In this instance, the recessive allele, common among
individuals of northwestern European descent, causes the per-
son to have a defective plasma membrane protein. The agent
that causes typhoid fever can use the normal version of this
protein, but not the defective one, to enter cells. Here again,
malaria heterozygote superiority caused the recessive allele to be main-
sickle-cell tained in the population.
overlap of both
13.16 Check Your Progress Could heterozygote advantage be
used to show that natural selection does not always favor the domi-
FIGURE 13.16 Sickle-cell disease is more prevalent in areas of nant genotype?
Africa where malaria is more common.

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 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW
• Analogous structures have the same functions in different
SUMMARY organisms but are not anatomically similar.

Darwin Developed a Natural Selection Hypothesis

13.1 Darwin made a trip around the world
• Cuvier founded the science of paleontology and said that
catastrophes cause evolution to occur.
• Lamarck proposed the inheritance of acquired characteristics
as a mechanism of evolution. bat bird
• On his trip around the world, Darwin observed that species • Only homologous structures (not analogous structures)
change from place to place and through time. indicate that organisms have a recent common ancestor.
• In his book Lyell explained how fossils come to be in strata • Organisms have vestigial structures despite their being
and suggested the idea of uniformitarianism (geologic reduced and nonfunctional because they were once functional
changes occur at a uniform rate). The book and his in an ancestor.
observations of fossils convinced Darwin that the Earth had • All vertebrates share the same embryonic features but they are
existed long enough for evolution to have occurred. later modified for different purposes.
13.2 Artificial selection mimics natural selection 13.8 Biogeographic evidence supports common descent
• In artificial selection, humans (not the environment) select • Biogeography is the study of the distribution of organisms
certain characteristics to perpetuate. around the globe.
13.3 Darwin formulated natural selection as a mechanism for • Plants and animals evolved in particular locations, and
evolution therefore widely separated similar environments contain
• During natural selection, an environmental selective agent different but similarly adapted organisms.
selects which organisms will reproduce. 13.9 Molecular evidence supports common descent
• Natural selection has several components: • The degree of similarity of DNA base sequences or amino
• The members of a population have inheritable variations. acid sequences shows a pattern of relatedness consistent with
• A population is able to produce more offspring than the fossil record data.
environment can support.
• Certain members of a population survive and reproduce
more than other members because they have an advantage
Population Genetics Tells Us When Microevolution
suited to the environment.
• Natural selection results in a population adapted to its Occurs
environment. 13.10 The human population is diverse
• Evolution can be defined as changes in a population over • Microevolution refers to genetic changes below the species
time due to an accumulation of inherited differences. level.
• A population is composed of all the members of a species in
13.4 Wallace independently formulated a natural selection
a particular locale at the same time.
hypothesis
• The existence of SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms)
• Wallace was a naturalist who had also read Malthus and reveals the genetic diversity of humans.
arrived at conclusions similar to those of Darwin.
13.11 A Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is not expected
The Evidence for Evolution Is Strong • Microevolution is evidenced by changes in gene pool allele
13.5 Fossils provide a record of the past frequencies.
• Hardy and Weinberg showed that it was possible to calculate
• Fossils are hard parts of organisms or other traces of life
the genotype and allele frequencies of a population by using
found in sedimentary rock.
the following equation:
• Paleontologists find and study fossils.
• The fossil record indicates that life has progressed from
simple to complex. p 2 +2 pq +q 2 =1

13.6 Fossils are evidence for common descent

• During evolution, organisms share common ancestors just as • This equation predicts a Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The
you and your cousins share grandparents. Hardy-Weinberg principle states that microevolution does
• Transitional fossils have the characteristics of two not occur as long as mutations, gene flow, nonrandom
different groups and thus provide clues to the evolutionary matings, genetic drift, and natural selection do not occur.
relationships between organisms. • Generally, allele frequencies do change between
generations, and microevolution does occur. For example,
13.7 Anatomic evidence supports common descent dark moths become prevalent in moth populations
• Homologous structures are anatomical similarities due to when trees become dark due to pollution. This is called
common ancestry. industrial melanism.

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 13.12 Both mutations and sexual recombination produce b. short generation time
variations c. efficient seed dispersal
• Mutations are the primary source of genetic differences d. lean pork meat production
in prokaryotes. 4. Which of these is/are necessary to natural selection?
• Sexual recombination and mutations are equally important a. variations
in eukaryotes. b. differential reproduction
c. inheritance of differences
13.13 Nonrandom mating and gene flow can contribute to d. All of these are correct.
microevolution 5. Natural selection is the only process that results in
• Nonrandom mating occurs when only certain genotypes or a. genetic variation.
phenotypes mate with one another. b. adaptation to the environment.
• Assortative mating is a type of nonrandom mating in which c. phenotypic change.
individuals mate with those that have the same phenotype for d. competition among individuals in a population.
a particular characteristic. 6. THINKING CONCEPTUALLY The adaptive results of natural selection
• Gene flow results when alleles move between populations cannot be determined ahead of time. Explain.
due to migration.
13.14 The effects of genetic drift are unpredictable The Evidence for Evolution Is Strong
• Genetic drift refers to changes in allele frequency in a gene 7. The fossil record offers direct evidence for common descent
pool due to chance. because you can
• The bottleneck effect prevents the majority of genotypes from a. see that the types of fossils change over time.
participating in production of the next generation. b. sometimes find common ancestors.
• The founder effect occurs when rare alleles contributed by c. trace the ancestry of a particular group.
the founders of a population occur at a higher frequency in d. trace the biological history of living things.
isolated populations. e. All of these are correct.
8. Which of the following is not an example of a vestigial
13.15 Natural selection can be stabilizing, directional, or structure?
disruptive a. human tailbone c. pelvic girdle in snakes
• In stabilizing selection, extreme phenotypes are selected b. ostrich wings d. dog kidney
against while intermediate phenotypes are favored. 9. If evolution occurs, we would expect different biogeographic
• In directional selection, an extreme phenotype is favored. regions with similar environments to
• In disruptive selection, two or more extreme phenotypes are a. all contain the same mix of plants and animals.
favored over the intermediate phenotype. b. each have its own specific mix of plants and animals.
13.16 Stabilizing selection can help maintain the heterozygote c. have plants and animals with similar adaptations.
d. have plants and animals with different adaptations.
• Heterozygote advantage causes the sickle-cell allele to be
e. Both b and c are correct.
maintained in Africa, even though the homozygous recessive
10. DNA nucleotide differences between organisms
is lethal because the heterozygote is protective against malaria.
a. indicate how closely related organisms are.
• The recessive allele for cystic fibrosis is believed to have been
b. indicate that evolution occurs.
maintained because a faulty membrane protein doesn’t allow
c. explain why there are phenotypic differences.
the typhoid bacterium to enter cells.
d. are to be expected.
e. All of these are correct.
TESTING YOURSELF For questions 11–14, match the evolutionary evidence in the key to
the description. Choose more than one answer if correct.
Darwin Developed a Natural Selection Hypothesis
1. Why was it helpful to Darwin to learn that Lyell had KEY:
concluded the Earth was very old? a. biogeographic evidence c. molecular evidence
a. An old Earth has more fossils than a new Earth. b. fossil evidence d. anatomic evidence
b. It meant there was enough time for evolution to have 11. Islands have many unique species not found elsewhere.
occurred slowly. 12. All vertebrate embryos have pharyngeal pouches.
c. It meant there was enough time for the same species to 13. Distantly related species have more amino acid differences
spread into all continents. in cytochrome c.
d. Darwin said artificial selection occurs slowly. 14. Transitional links have been found between major groups
e. All of these are correct. of animals.
2. Which of these pairs is mismatched? 15. THINKING CONCEPTUALLY Why can researchers make decisions
a. Charles Darwin—natural selection about who is related to whom using only DNA base
b. Cuvier—series of catastrophes explains the fossil record sequence data? (See Section 13.9.)
c. Lamarck—uniformitarianism
d. All of these are correct. Population Genetics Tells Us When Microevolution
3. Which is most likely to be favored during natural selection, Occurs
but not artificial selection? For questions 16 and 17, consider that about 75% of white North
a. fast seed germination rate Americans can taste the chemical phenylthiocarbamide. The ability

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 to taste is due to the dominant allele T. Nontasters are tt. Assume
this population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY
16. What is the frequency of t? 1. You decide to repeat the guppy experiment described in
a. 0.25 d. 0.09 Section 13.15 because you want to determine what genotype
b. 0.70 e. 0.60 changes account for the results. What might you do to detect
c. 0.55 such changes?
17. What is the frequency of heterozygous tasters? 2. A cotton farmer applied a new pesticide against the boll
a. 0.50 c. 0.2475 weevil for several years. At first, the treatment was successful,
b. 0.21 d. 0.45 but then the insecticide became ineffective and the boll weevil
18. The offspring of better-adapted individuals are expected to rebounded. Did evolution occur? Explain.
make up a larger proportion of the next generation. The most
likely explanation is
a. mutations and nonrandom mating.
b. gene flow and genetic drift.
ONLINE RESOURCE
c. mutations and natural selection.
d. mutations and genetic drift. www.mhhe.com/maderconcepts2
19. The Northern elephant seal went through a severe population
Enhance your study with animations
decline as a result of hunting in the late 1800s. The
that bring concepts to life and practice tests to assess your
population has rebounded but is now homozygous for nearly
every gene studied. This is an example of understanding. Your instructor may also recommend the
a. negative assortative mating. d. a bottleneck. interactive eBook, individualized learning tools, and more.
b. migration. e. disruptive selection.
c. mutation.
20. When a population is small, there is a greater chance of
a. gene flow. d. mutations occurring.
b. genetic drift. e. sexual selection.
c. natural selection.

CONNEC TING THE CONCE PTS

Darwin took a trip around the world as the natural- Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (allele frequencies stay the same) if
ist aboard the HMS Beagle. During his trip, he col- mutation, gene flow, nonrandom mating, genetic drift, and natural
lected fossils and made several observations that made him think selection did not occur. However, these events do occur, and they
evolution occurs. Darwin was aware of artificial selection, and he are the agents of evolutionary change that lead to microevolution,
had read an essay by Malthus suggesting that the members of a recognizable by allele frequency changes. Mutations provide the
population compete with one another for resources. Darwin began raw material for evolution. Genetic drift results in allele frequency
to see that a competitive edge would allow certain members of a changes due to a chance event, as when only a few members of a
population to survive and reproduce more than other members of population are able to reproduce because of a natural disaster or
the population. Assuming that advantageous traits are inheritable, because they have founded a colony. Natural selection is the only
future generations would eventually acquire adaptations to the local agent of evolution that results in adaptation to the environment.
environment. Darwin called this process, by which a population Chapter 14 concerns macroevolution, the manner in which
adapts to its environment, natural selection because nature selects new species arise. The origin of new species is essential to the his-
which members of a population will reproduce to a greater extent. tory of life on Earth, which we consider in Chapter 15.
Natural selection is like artificial selection except the environment
PUT THE PIECES TOGETHER
instead of a breeder selects which plants or animals will reproduce.
Evolution explains the unity and diversity of life. Life is uni- 1. We now know that evolution by natural selection can be
fied because of common descent, and it is diverse because of observed over a short period of time (years, months). Give
adaptations to particular environments. Darwin used the expres- examples.
sion “descent with modification” to explain evolution. Support for 2. Why would you expect evolution to have a genetic basis? Use
common descent includes transitional fossils, anatomic features industrial melanism to support the genetic basis of evolution.
(homologous structures, vestigial structures, and embryologic simi- 3. Why would it be incorrect to say that bacteria became resistant
larities), biogeographic data, and molecular evidence. in order to escape being killed by antibiotics?
In the 1930s, biologists developed a way to apply the
principles of genetics to evolution. Populations would be in a

CHAPTER 13 Darwin and Evolution 269

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 14
Speciation
Hybrid Animals Do Exist
T he immense liger, an offspring of a lion father and a tiger
mother, really impressed Brian. Upon returning from the
show, he immediately began researching more information. To
his surprise, he found that ligers are one of many hybridized
species that have been recorded. His search led him to common
hybrid websites that discussed mules, zorses, zonkeys, and
beefalos. He also discovered several strange hybrids, such as
the wolphin, a cross between a false killer whale and a dolphin;
and Evolution a grolar, a cross between a grizzly bear and a polar bear; and a
cama, a cross between a camel and a llama. Usually, in naming
hybrids, the name of the male parent is used fi rst. Thus, a zorse
has a zebra father and a horse mother.
C H AP T E R O U T LI N E A hybrid results from breeding two closely related,
Evolution of Diversity Requires Speciation but distinct, species. Lions and tigers meet this crite-
14.1 Species have been defined in more than rion, but a hybrid between a cat and a rabbit would
one way 272 not exist because these animals are not
14.2 Reproductive barriers maintain genetic closely related. Hybrids are usually the
differences between species 274 result of human activities, either by
Origin of Species Usually Requires Geographic direct intervention or by placing
Separation related species in the same setting.
14.3 Allopatric speciation utilizes a geographic For example, humans have mated
barrier 276 female donkeys and male horses
14.4 Adaptive radiation produces many related to develop mules for centuries.
species 278 The vast majority of hybrids
Origin of Species Can Occur in One Place have been born in zoos as a
14.5 Speciation occasionally occurs without a
geographic barrier 279
Macroevolution Involves Changes at the Species Level
and Beyond
14.6 Speciation occurs at different tempos 281
14.7 Development plays a role in speciation 284
14.8 Speciation is not goal-oriented 286

APPLI C AT I O N S
HOW BIOLOGY IMPACTS OUR LIVES
The Many Uses of Corn, an Allotetraploid 280
HOW SCIENCE PROGRESSES
The Burgess Shale Hosts a Diversity of Life 282

Liger

270

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 result of bringing together related species from different conti-
nents. Afterall, lions live in Africa and tigers live in Asia. There-
fore, most ligers are born in captivity. Reports of ligers in zoos
can be traced back to the early 1800s.
Brian found that ligers are much larger than their parental
stock. In fact, they are the largest felines in the world, measur-
ing up to 12 feet tall when standing on their hind legs and
weighing as much as 1,000 pounds. Their coat color is usually
tan with tiger stripes on the back and hindquarters and lion
cub spots on the abdomen. A liger can produce both the “chuff”
sound of a tiger and the roar of a lion. Male ligers may have a
modest lion mane or no mane at all. Most ligers have an affi nity
for water and love to swim. Generally, ligers have a gentle dis-
position; however, considering their size and heritage, han-
dlers should be extremely careful. Brian also discovered tigons,
rare animals that have a tiger father and a lion mother. Gener-
ally, tigons are smaller than their parental stock.
Most hybrids are sterile. Mules inherit an uneven number
of chromosomes that cannot pair up during meiosis, making it
rarely possible for them to form gametes. Ligers have an even
number of chromosomes but males are infertile presumedly
because the pairing of the Y from a lion and the X from the tiger
is impossible during meiosis. Female ligers are fertile and in
recent years, Li-ligers (both parents are ligers), Li-tigons (father
is a liger, mother is a tigon), Ti-ligers (father is a tiger, mother
is a liger), and Ti-tigons (father is a tiger, mother is a tigon) have
been produced. These unusual hybrids display a variety of lion
and tiger traits.
This chapter is about speciation, the origin of species.
Without the origin of new species there would have been no
history of life on Earth. In this chapter we will see how specia-
tion occurs and how it may be observed during
Tigon
present times and in the fossil record.

Mules Zorse

271

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 Evolution of Diversity Requires Speciation
Learning Outcomes
▶ Compare and contrast the evolutionary species concept with the biological species concept. (14.1)
▶ List and give examples of five prezygotic isolating mechanisms and three postzygotic isolating mechanisms. (14.2)
Macroevolution is the evolution of species. A species can be defined using the evolutionary species or the biological species concept. In
order for a species to be biologically distinct, reproductive barriers are needed to maintain its genetic differences from other species. These
barriers consist of prezygotic and postzygotic isolating mechanisms.

14.1 Species have been defined in more than one way

In Chapter 13, we concluded that microevolution was any allele
frequency change within the gene pool of a population. Macroevo-
lution, which is observed best within the fossil record, requires
the origin of species, also called speciation. Speciation is the split-
ting of one species into two or more species, or the transformation
of one species into a new species over time. Speciation is the final
result of changes in gene pool allele and genotype frequencies.
The diversity of life we see about us is absolutely dependent on No hind limbs.
speciation, so it is important to be able to define a species and
to know when speciation has occurred. In Chapter 1 we
defined a species as a type of living thing, but now we want
to characterize a species in more depth. Orcinus orca
The evolutionary species concept recognizes that
every species has its own evolutionary history, at least part of
which is in the fossil record. As an example, consider that the
species depicted in Figure 14.1A are a part of the evolutionary
history of toothed whales. Binomial nomenclature, discussed
in Section 1.5, was used to name these ancestors of killer
whales as well as the other species of toothed whales living Rodhocetus
today. The two-part scientific name when translated from the kasrani
Latin often tells you something about the organism. For exam- Hind limbs too reduced
for walking or swimming.
ple, the scientific name of the dinosaur Tyrannosaurus rex
means “tyrant-lizard king.”
The evolutionary species concept relies on traits, called
diagnostic traits, to distinguish one species from another. As
long as these traits are the same, fossils are considered members
of the same species. Abrupt changes in these traits indicate the
evolution of a new species in the fossil record. In summary, the
evolutionary species concept states that members of a species
share the same distinct evolutionary pathway and that species Ambulocetus
can be recognized by diagnostic trait differences. natans
One advantage of the evolutionary species concept is that it Hind limbs used for
applies to both sexually and asexually reproducing organisms. walking and paddling.
However, a major disadvantage can occur when anatomic traits
are used to distinguish species. The presence of variations, such
as size differences in male and female animals, might make you
think you are dealing with two species instead of one, and the
lack of distinct differences could cause you to conclude that two
fossils are the same species when they are not. Pakicetus
attocki
The evolutionary species concept necessarily assumes
that the members of a species are reproductively isolated. If
members of different species were to reproduce with one Hind limbs used
another, their evolutionary history would be mingled, not sep- for walking.
arate. By contrast, the biological species concept relies pri-
marily on reproductive isolation rather than trait differences to
define a species. In other words, although traits can help us FIGURE 14.1A Evolution of the modern toothed whale.

272 PART 3 Organisms Are Related and Adapted to Their Environment

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 pit-see fitz-bew che-bek or che-bek

Acadian flycatcher, Empidonax virescens Willow flycatcher, Empidonax trailli Least flycatcher, Empidonax minimus

FIGURE 14.1B Three species of flycatchers. The call of each bird is given on the photograph.

distinguish species, the most important criterion, according to reproduce with one another; therefore, they are separate spe-
the biological species concept, is reproductive isolation—the cies. They live in different habitats. The Acadian flycatcher
members of a species have a single gene pool. While useful, inhabits deciduous forests and wooded swamps, especially
the biological species concept cannot be applied to asexually beeches; the willow flycatcher inhabits thickets, bushy pas-
reproducing organisms, to organisms known only by the fossil tures, old orchards, and willows; and the least fl ycatcher
record, or to species that interbred when they lived near one inhabits open woods, orchards, and farms. They also have dif-
another. The benefit of the concept is that it can designate spe- ferent calls. Conversely, when anatomic differences are appar-
cies even when trait differences may be difficult to find. The ent, but reproduction is not deterred, only one species is
flycatchers in Figure 14.1B are very similar, but they do not present. Despite noticeable variations, humans from all over
the world can reproduce with one another and
belong to one species. The Massai of East
Africa and the Eskimos of Alaska are kept
apart by geography, but we know that, should
they meet, reproduction between male and
female would be possible (Fig. 14.1C).
The biological species concept gives us a
way to know when speciation has occurred,
without regard to anatomic differences. As soon
as descendants of a group of organisms are able
to reproduce only among themselves, specia-
tion has occurred.
In recent years, the biological species con-
cept has been supplemented by our knowledge
of molecular genetics. DNA base sequence data
and differences in proteins can indicate the
relatedness of groups of organisms but it can’t
indicate when speciation has occurred. Macro-
evolution starts with speciation but anatomic
data such as the differences in the whales in
Figure 14.1A play a prominent role in decipher-
ing the history of life.

14.1 Check Your Progress Should hybrid ani-

mals such as ligers be given their own scientific
FIGURE 14.1C The Massai of East Africa (left) and the Eskimos of Alaska (right) belong
name and considered a separate species? Explain.
to the same species.

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 14.2 Reproductive barriers maintain genetic differences between species
As mentioned in the previous section, for two species to be sepa- for each (Fig. 14.2B), and because whenever there is an
rate, they must be reproductively isolated—that is, gene flow overlap, different breeding sites are used. For example,
must not occur between them. Isolating mechanisms that pre- wood frogs breed in woodland ponds or shallow water, leop-
vent successful reproduction from occurring are reproductive ard frogs in lowland swamps, and pickerel frogs in streams
barriers (Fig. 14.2A). In evolution, reproduction is successful and ponds on high ground.
only when it produces fertile offspring. Behavioral isolation Many animal species have courtship pat-
Prezygotic (before the formation of a zygote) isolating terns that allow males and females to recognize one another.
mechanisms are those that prevent reproductive attempts and The male blue-footed boobie in Figure 14.2C does a dance
make it unlikely that fertilization will be successful if mating is unique to the species. Male fireflies are recognized by females
attempted. Scientists have identified several types of isolation of their species by the pattern of their flashings; similarly,
that make it highly unlikely for particular genotypes to contrib- female crickets recognize male crickets by their chirping.
ute to a population’s gene pool: Many males recognize females of their species by sensing
chemical signals called pheromones. For example, female
Habitat isolation When two species occupy different habitats, gypsy moths have special abdominal glands from which they
even within the same geographic range, they are less likely secrete pheromones (see Section 27.3, p. 552) that are
to meet and attempt to reproduce. This is one of the reasons detected downwind by receptors on the antennae of males.
that the flycatchers in Figure 14.1B do not mate, and that red Mechanical isolation Inaccessibility of pollen to certain pollina-
maple and sugar maple trees do not exchange pollen. In tors can prevent cross-fertilization in plants, and the sexes
tropical rain forests, many animal species are restricted to a of many insect species have genitalia that do not match.
particular level of the forest canopy, and in this way they are When animal genitalia or plant floral structures are incom-
isolated from similar species. patible, reproduction cannot occur. Other characteristics can
Temporal isolation Several related species can live in the same also make mating impossible. For example, male dragonflies
locale, but if each reproduces at a different time of year, they have claspers that are suitable for holding only the females
do not attempt to mate. Five species of frogs of the genus of their own species.
Rana are all found at Ithaca, New York. The species remain Gamete isolation Even if the gametes of two different species
separate because the period of most active mating is different meet, they may not fuse to become a zygote. In animals, the

Prezygotic Isolating Mechanisms Postzygotic Isolating Mechanisms

Pre
Premating Mating Fertilization

Habitat isolation
Hab Zygote mortality
Species at same locale
Spec Fertilization occurs, but
occupy different habitats.
occu Mechanical isolation zygote does not survive.
species 1 Genitalia between hybrid
species are unsuitable offspring
Tem
Temporal isolation for one another. Hybrid sterility
Spec
Species reproduce at Hybrid survives but is
diff
diffe
different seasons or sterile and cannot
diff
fe
different times of day. reproduce.

Gamete isolation
species 2 Sperm cannot reach
Behavioral isolation
In animal species, or fertilize egg. F2 fitness
courtship behavior differs, Hybrid is fertile, but F2 hybrid
or individuals respond to has reduced fitness.
different songs, calls,
pheromones, or other
signals.

FIGURE 14.2A Reproductive barriers.

274 PART 3 Organisms Are Related and Adapted to Their Environment

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 high

g
g

fro
fro

rog
rog

rel

og
rd

nf
df
pa

ke

llfr
Mating Activity

ee
o
leo

pic
wo

bu
gr
low
March 1 April 1 May 1 June 1 July 1

FIGURE 14.2B Mating activity peaks at different times of the year

for these species of frogs.
FIGURE 14.2C Male blue-footed boobie doing a courtship dance
for a female.
sperm of one species may not be able to survive in the repro-
ductive tract of another species, or the egg may have recep- Parents
tors only for sperm of its species. In plants, pollen grains are
species-specific and will not form a pollen tube for another
species. Without a pollen tube, the sperm cannot success-
fully reach the egg.
Postzygotic (after the formation of a zygote) isolating mecha-
nisms prevent hybrid offspring from developing or breeding,
even if reproduction attempts have been successful.
Zygote mortality A hybrid zygote may not be viable, and so
it dies. A zygote with two different chromosome sets may
fail to go through mitosis properly, or the developing horse donkey
64 chromosomes mating
embryo may receive incompatible instructions from the 62 chromosomes
maternal and paternal genes so that it cannot continue to
exist.
Hybrid sterility The hybrid zygote may develop into a sterile
fertilization
adult. As is well known, a cross between a male horse and
a female donkey produces a mule, which is usually sterile—
mule (hybrid)
it cannot reproduce (Fig. 14.2D). Sterility of hybrids gener-
63 chromosomes
ally results from complications in meiosis that lead to an
inability to produce viable gametes. A cross between a cab-
bage and a radish produces offspring that cannot form gam-
etes, most likely because the cabbage chromosomes and the
radish chromosomes cannot align during meiosis (see Sec-
tion 14.5).
F2 fitness Even if hybrids can reproduce, their offspring may be Usually
mules cannot
unable to reproduce. In some cases, mules are fertile, but reproduce.
their offspring (the F2 generation) are not fertile. If an offspring
does result,
Having discussed how to define a species and what keeps it cannot
them separate, we will discuss in Section 14.3 how species gen- reproduce.
erally arise.

14.2 Check Your Progress a. Which of the prezygotic isolating

mechanisms apparently keeps lions and tigers from mating in the
wild? Explain. b. Which of the postzygotic isolating mechanisms is Offspring
still working to a degree to keep lions and tigers separate species?
FIGURE 14.2D Mules cannot reproduce due to chromosome
Explain.
incompatibility.

CHAPTER 14 Speciation and Evolution 275

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 Origin of Species Usually Requires Geographic Separation
Learning Outcomes
▶ Describe and give examples of allopatric speciation. (14.3)
▶ Describe and give examples of adaptive radiation. (14.4)
Geographic isolation fosters the genetic changes that result in allopatric speciation. Modern-day examples of allopatric speciation include
the evolution of distinct forms of Ensatina salamanders in California. Adaptive radiation occurs when an ancestral species evolves into
several new and different species, each adapted to a different environment. The evolution of a wide variety of honeycreepers on the
Hawaiian Islands is an example of adaptive radiation.

14.3 Allopatric speciation utilizes a geographic barrier

In 1942, Ernst Mayr, an evolutionary biologist, published the Ensatina eschscholtzi picta
book Systematics and the Origin of Species, in which he pro-
posed the biological species concept and this process by
which speciation could occur: 1 Members of a northern ancestral
population migrated southward.
• Two subpopulations of a species are experiencing
gene flow and therefore have a single gene pool.
• A geographic barrier appears and prevents any fur-
ther gene flow between the two populations. Ensatina eschscholtzi
• Genetic drift and different selection pressures cause oregonensis
divergence between the isolated gene pools.
• Reproductive isolation has occurred and continues even
2 Subspecies are separated by
when the geographic barrier is removed. California’s Central Valley. Some
• Speciation is now complete and two separate species exist. interbreeding between populations
does occur.
This process is termed allopatric speciation (allopatric means
“different country”) because it requires that the subpopulations Central
Valley
be separated by a geographic barrier.
Ensatina Salamanders Much data in support of allo-
patric speciation have since been discovered. Figure 14.3A Ensatina eschscholtzi platensis
features an example of allopatric speciation that has been
extensively studied in California. An ancestral population
Ensatina eschscholtzi
of Ensatina salamanders lives in the Pacific Northwest. xanthoptica Ensatina eschscholtzi
1   Members of this ancestral population migrated south- croceater
ward, establishing a series of subpopulations. Each subpopula-
tion was exposed to its own selective pressures along the coastal
mountains and the Sierra Nevada mountains. 2 Due to the
presence of the Central Valley of California, gene flow rarely
occurs between the eastern populations and the western
populations. 3 Genetic differences increased from north
to south, resulting in distinct forms of Ensatina salaman-
ders in southern California that differ dramatically in
color and no longer interbreed. Ensatina eschscholtzi
Geographic isolation is even more obvious in other eschscholtzii
examples. The green iguana of South America is believed to be
the common ancestor for both the marine iguana on the Galá- Ensatina eschscholtzi
3 Evolution has occurred, and in the klauberi
pagos Islands (to the west) and the rhinoceros iguana on His- south, subspecies do not interbreed
paniola, an island to the north. If so, how could it happen? even though they live in the same
Green iguanas are strong swimmers, so by chance, a few could environment.
have migrated to these islands, where they formed populations
separate from each other and from the parent population back in FIGURE 14.3A Allopatric speciation among Ensatina salamanders.
South America. Each population continued on its own evolution-
ary path as new mutations, genetic drift, and different selection Sockeye Salmon and Anolis Lizards A more detailed
pressures occurred. Eventually, reproductive isolation devel- example of allopatric speciation involves sockeye salmon in
oped, and the result was three species of iguanas that are repro- Washington state. In the 1930s and 1940s, hundreds of thou-
ductively isolated from each other. sands of sockeye salmon were introduced into Lake Washington.

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 River male
Lake male

River female
Lake female

FIGURE 14.3B Sockeye salmon at Pleasure Point Beach, Lake FIGURE 14.3C Sockeye salmon in Cedar River. The river connects
Washington. with Lake Washington.

Some colonized an area of the lake near Pleasure Point Beach effect to adaptive changes can be reproductive isolation.
(Fig. 14.3B). Others migrated into the Cedar River (Fig. 14.3C). Another example is seen among Anolis lizards, which court
Andrew Hendry, a biologist at McGill University, is able to tell females by extending a colorful flap of skin, called a “dew-
Pleasure Point Beach salmon from Cedar River salmon because lap.” The dewlap must be seen in order to attract mates.
they differ in shape and size due to the demands of reproducing Therefore, populations of Anolis in a dim forest tend to evolve
in the river. In the river, males tend to be more slender than light-colored dewlaps that reflect light, while populations in
those along the beach. A slender body is better able to turn side- open habitats evolve dark-colored dewlaps. This change in
ways in a strong current, and the courtship ritual of a sockeye dewlap color causes the populations to be reproductively iso-
salmon requires this maneuver. On the other hand, the females lated, because females distinguish males of their species by
tend to be larger than those along the beach. This larger body the color of the dewlap.
helps them dig slightly deeper nests in the gravel beds on the
Ficedula Flycatchers As populations become reproductively
river bottom. Their deeper nests are not disturbed by river cur-
isolated, postzygotic isolating mechanisms may arise before
rents and will remain warm enough for egg viability.
prezygotic isolating mechanisms. Postzygotic isolating mecha-
Hendry has another way to tell beach salmon from river
nisms can keep species separate but they represent a large
salmon. Ear stones called otoliths reflect variations in water tem-
investment of energy to no avail. For example, the production of
perature while a fish embryo is developing. Water temperatures at
a hybrid requires an investment of energy that does not result in
Pleasure Point Beach are relatively constant compared to Cedar
the passage of genes to future generations. Therefore, natural
River temperatures. By checking otoliths in adults, Hendry found
selection would favor the evolution of prezygotic isolating mech-
that a third of the sockeye
anisms over postzygotic isolating mechanisms. The term rein-
males at Pleasure Point
forcement is given to the process of natural selection favoring
Beach had grown up in the
variations that lead to prezygotic reproductive isolation. An
river. Yet the distinction
example of reinforcement has been seen in Ficedula flycatchers
between male and female
of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. When the pied and collared
shape and size according to
flycatchers occur in close proximity, the pied flycatchers have
the two locations remains.
evolved a different coat color from that of the collared flycatch-
Therefore, these males
ers. The difference in color helps the two species recognize and
are not successful
mate with their own species.
breeders along the
Adaptation to new environments can result in multiple spe-
beach. In other
cies from a single ancestral species, as discussed in Section 14.4.
words, repro-
ductive isolation
dewlap has occurred. 14.3 Check Your Progress Knowing that the coat colors of lions
This example and tigers is adaptive to their habitats, construct a hypothetical
scenario by which they evolved from an ancestral species.
shows that a side

CHAPTER 14 Speciation and Evolution 277

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 14.4 Adaptive radiation produces many related species
Adaptive radiation occurs when a single ancestral species gives
rise to a variety of species, each adapted to a specific environ- * Lesser Koa finch Palila
ment. An ecological niche is where a species lives and how it
interacts with other species. When an ancestral finch
arrived on the Galápagos Islands, its descendants spread
out to occupy various niches. Geographic isolation of the
various finch populations caused their gene pools to
become isolated. Because of natural selection, each pop- Laysan
ulation adapted to a particular habitat on its island. In finch
* Greater
time, the many populations became so genotypically dif- Koa finch
ferent that now, when by chance they reside on the same
island, they do not interbreed, and are therefore separate
species. The finches use beak shape to recognize members G
of the same species during courtship. Rejection of suitors en
us
with the wrong type of beak is a behavioral type of prezygotic Ps
it ti r Ou
isolating mechanism. os
tra
Similarly, on the Hawaiian Islands,
* Kona
a wide variety of honeycreepers are Maui parrot bill finch
descended from a common gold-
finch-like ancestor that arrived
Ge

from Asia or North America about

nu

5 million years ago. Today, honey- Ps Akiapolaau

s

eu
creepers have a range of beak sizes don
estor
and shapes for feeding on various food
sources, including seeds, fruits, flowers, and
insects (Fig. 14.4).
Adaptive radiation has occurred in both plants and
* Kauai
animals throughout the history of life on Earth when a
akialoa
group of organisms exploits a new environment. For

Nukupuu
* Akialoa
FIGURE 14.4 Adaptive radiation in Hawaiian honeycreepers.
Genu
Genus Loxops s Hem
ignath
us
Great
amakihi
Anianiau
(green * Extinct species or subspecies
(lesser
solitaire)
amakihi)

example, with the demise of the dinosaurs about 66 mil-

Alauwahio
lion years ago, mammals underwent adaptive radiation
(Hawaiian
creeper) as they exploited niches previously occupied by the
dinosaurs.
This completes our discussion of allopatric specia-
Akepa
tion. The next part of the chapter discusses speciation
when there is no geographic barrier.

14.4 Check Your Progress Five species of big cats are clas-
Amakihi
sified in a single genus: Panthera leo (lion), P. tigris (tiger), P. par-
dus (leopard), P. onca (jaguar), and P. uncia (snow leopard). What
evidence would you need to show that this is a case of adaptive
radiation?

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 Origin of Species Can Occur in One Place
Learning Outcomes
▶ Relate sympatric speciation in plants to polyploidy. (14.5)
▶ Distinguish between autoploidy and alloploidy. (14.5)
Speciation without the presence of a geographic barrier does occur, and the best examples are due to chromosome number changes in
plants. Hybridization, followed by doubling of the chromosome number, can occur naturally or as a result of artificial selection. Such events
must have occurred during the artificial selection of corn over the years.

14.5 Speciation occasionally occurs without a geographic barrier

Speciation without the presence of a geographic
barrier is termed sympatric speciation. Sympat-
ric speciation has been difficult to substantiate
in animals. For example, two populations of the
Meadow Brown butterfly, Maniola jurtina,
have different distributions of wing spots. The
Fertile with 7 Fertile with 5
two populations are both in Cornwall, England, homologous pairs. homologous pairs.
and they maintain the difference in wing spots,
even though there is no geographic boundary
Clarkia concinna Clarkia virgata
between them. But, as yet, no reproductive isolating
mechanism has been found. In contrast, we know of
instances in plants by which a postzygotic isolating mechanism
has given rise to a new species within the range and habitat of the hybrid
parent species. In other words, no geographic barrier was required. Sterile because it has
no homologous pairs.
All instances in plants involve polyploidy, additional sets of chro-
mosomes beyond the diploid (2n) number. Sympatric speciation doubling of chromosome number
is more common in flowering plants than in animals due to self-
pollination. A polyploid plant can reproduce only with itself, and
cannot reproduce with the parent (2n) population because not all
the chromosomes would be able to pair during meiosis. Two types
of polyploidy are known: autoploidy and alloploidy.
Speciation through autoploidy is seen in diploid plants when
nondisjunction occurs during meiosis and the diploid species FIGURE 14.5B
produces diploid gametes. If this diploid gamete fuses with a Fertile with 12 Alloploidy results in
haploid gamete, a triploid plant results. A triploid (3n) plant is homologous pairs. a fertile third Clarkia
sterile and cannot produce offspring because the chromosomes Clarkia pulchella species.
cannot pair during meiosis. Humans have found a use for sterile
Speciation through alloploidy requires two steps. The prefix
plants because they produce fruits without seeds. Figure 14.5A
allo-, which means “different,” is appropriate because the process
contrasts a diploid banana with seeds to today’s polyploid banana
begins when two different but related species of plants hybridize.
that produces no seeds. If two of the diploid gametes fuse, the
First, when two different but related species of plants hybridize,
plant is a tetraploid (4n) and the plant is fertile, as long as it
the hybrid is sterile because it has no homologous pairs of chromo-
reproduces with another of its own kind. The fruits of polyploid
somes. Second, if and when a doubling of the chromosome num-
plants are much larger than those of diploid plants. The huge
ber occurs a new fertile plant results. Figure 14.5B gives an
strawberries of today are produced by octaploid (8n) plants.
example of alloploidy. The Western wildflower, Clarkia concinna,
has seven (7) pairs of homologous chromosomes; a related species,
C. virgata, has five (5) pairs of chromosomes. The hybrid has
no twelve chromosomes but is sterile because it has no homologous
seeds seeds
pairs and therefore meiosis of gametogenesis cannot occur. How-
ever, researchers have located a plant now called C. pulchella that
is fertile due to doubling of the chromosome number, which allows
the twelve (12) chromosomes to pair during meiosis. Alloploidy
also occurred during the evolution of the wheat plant, which is
diploid polyploid commonly used today to produce bread.
banana (2n) banana
14.5 Check Your Progress What fossil evidence might support
FIGURE 14.5A Autoploidy: The small, diploid-seeded banana is
the hypothesis that the different species of cats arose sympatrically?
contrasted with the large, polyploid banana that produces no seeds.

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 H O W B I O L O G Y I M PAC T S O U R L I V E S Application

14A The Many Uses of Corn, an Allotetraploid

When the world record for eating corn on the cob was that corn is an allotetraploid, meaning it is 4n. Hybrid-
set at 33½ ears in 12 minutes, the last thing on any- ization between two related species must have been
one’s mind was the evolution of corn. Corn, also followed by doubling of the chromosomes,
known as maize (Zea mays), represents one of the accounting for why ears of corn are now so large
most remarkable plant-breeding achievements in (Fig. 14A).
the history of agriculture. Today, modern society Today corn is America’s number-one field
literally reaps the benefits of corn as a domestic crop, yielding approximately 9.5 billion bushels
product. yearly. It is an important food source for both
Modern corn bears little resemblance to its humans and livestock. Corn is a component of
ancient ancestor, an inconspicuous wild grass over 3,000 grocery products, including cereals,
called teosinte from southern Mexico. Teosinte corn syrup, cornstarch, ice cream, soft drinks,
is a drought-tolerant grass that produces repro- chips, snack foods, and even peanut butter. It is
ductive spikes fairly close to the ground. Each also used in making glue, shoe polish, ink,
spike is filled with two rows of small, triangular soaps, and synthetic rubber. Now, corn is also a
kernels (seeds) enclosed in a tough husk. Each source for the production of ethanol to fuel our
seed is encased and protected by a hard shell. vehicles. The uses of corn seem to be limited only
Ancient peoples discovered that teosinte was a by our imaginations (Fig. 14A).
source of food and began selecting spikes to plant Teosinte
near their homes, close to irrigation systems. Thus, (Zea mexicana)
F O R M YO U R O P I N I O N
between 4000 and 3000 B.C., the hand of artificial selec-
tion began to shape the evolution of corn. 1. Using corn to produce ethanol raises the cost of corn because
Experimental hybridization followed, and many varieties it makes less available for food and feed in the United States
of corn were developed. By A.D. 1070, corn had reached North and abroad. Should we continue to convert corn to ethanol?
America and was being grown by the Iroquois in New York. Why or why not?
By the time Columbus visited the Americas, corn was being 2. Much corn is grown as feed for animals. The sewage produced
grown in a number of environments. Columbus even com- by animals, can be a threat to our health and eating beef can
mented on the fields of corn and its great taste. We now know lead to circulatory problems. Should we stop eating beef?

FIGURE 14A Among the many of its uses today, corn is a fuel source, a component of many products that
absorb water, a feed for animals and a delicious food for people.

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 Macroevolution Involves Changes at the Species Level and Beyond
Learning Outcomes
▶ Compare and contrast the gradualistic model of speciation with the punctuated equilibrium model. (14.6)
▶ Explain how the developmental process could have contributed to speciation and higher classification categories. (14.7)
▶ Use the evolution of the horse to show that evolution is not goal-oriented. (14.8)
The gradualistic model of speciation can be contrasted with the punctuated equilibrium model. The gradualistic model predicts transitional links
that may fossilize while the punctuated equilibrium model predicts few, if any, transitional links in the fossil record. Studies of developmental
regulatory Hox genes show us that developmental changes could contribute to rapid speciation. Still, any phenotypic change, even if it occurs
rapidly, is subject to natural selection, and when we view, say, the evolution of the horse, we see no constant pattern toward a goal.

14.6 Speciation occurs at different tempos

Many evolutionists conclude, as Darwin did, that evolutionary population at one locale, because a favorable genotype could
changes occur gradually. Therefore, these evolutionists support spread more rapidly within such a population. Only when this
a gradualistic model, which proposes that speciation occurs population expands and replaces other species is it apt to show
after populations become isolated, with each group continuing up in the fossil record.
slowly on its own evolutionary pathway. These evolutionists A strong argument can be made that it is not necessary to
often show the history of groups of organisms by drawing the choose between these two models of evolution and that both
type of diagram shown in Figure 14.6A. Note that in this dia- could very well assist us in interpreting the fossil record. In a
gram, an ancestral species has given rise to two separate spe- stable environment, a species may be kept in equilibrium by
cies, represented by a slow change in plumage color. The stabilizing selection for a long period. If environmental change
gradualistic model suggests that it is difficult to indicate when is rapid, a new species may arise suddenly before the parent
speciation occurred because there would be so many transi- species goes on to extinction. Because geologic time is measured
tional links. However, in some cases, it has been possible to in millions of years, the “sudden” appearance of a new species
trace the evolution of a group of organisms by finding transi- in the fossil record could actually represent many thousands of
tional links. years. Using only a small rate of change (.0008/year), two
After studying the fossil record, some paleontologists tell us investigators calculated that the brain size in the human lin-
that species can appear quite suddenly, and then they remain eage could have increased from 900 cm3 to 1,400 cm3 in only
essentially unchanged phenotypically until they undergo extinc- 135,000 years. This would be a very rapid change in the fossil
tion. Based on these findings, they developed a punctuated equi- record. Actually, the record indicates that brain enlargement
librium model to explain the pace of evolution. This model says took about 500,000 years, indicating that the real pace was
that periods of equilibrium (no change) are punctuated (inter- slower than it might have been.
rupted) by speciation. Figure 14.6B shows this way of represent-
ing the history of evolution over time. This model suggests that 14.6 Check Your Progress If a paleontologist were to find ligers in
transitional links are less likely to become fossils and less likely the fossil record, could she/he use that data to substantiate a gradual-
istic or a punctuated equilibrium model of evolution? Explain.
to be found. Moreover, speciation is apt to involve an isolated

New species

no change no change no change

Gradual change
as time passes.
new
species

new
Time
Time

no change species

ancestral species
ancestral species

FIGURE 14.6A Gradualistic model of speciation. FIGURE 14.6B Punctuated equilibrium model of speciation.

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 HOW SCIENCE PROGRESSES Application

14B The Burgess Shale Hosts a Diversity of Life

Finding the Burgess Shale, a rock outcropping in Yoho National were destroyed in the process. New methods, involving ultravio-
Park, British Columbia, was a chance happening. In 1909, let light to see the fossils and diluted acetic acid solutions to
Charles Doolittle Walcott of the Smithsonian Institute was out remove the matrix, have been more successful in freeing the
riding when his horse stopped in front of a rock made of shale. fossils.
He cracked the rock open and saw the now-famous fossils of the The fossils tell a remarkable story of marine life some
animals depicted in Figure 14B. Walcott and his team began 540 MYA (millions of years ago). In addition to fossils of organ-
working the site and continued on their own for quite a few isms that had external skeletons, many of the fossils are remains
years. Around 1960, other paleontologists became interested in of soft-bodied invertebrates; these are a great find because soft-
studying the Burgess Shale fossils. bodied animals rarely fossilize. During this time, all organisms
As a result of uplifting and erosion, the intriguing fossils of lived in the sea, and it is believed the barren land was subject to
the Burgess Shale are relatively common in that particular area. mudslides, which entered the ocean and buried the animals,
However, the highly delicate impressions and films found in the killing them. Later, the mud turned into shale, and later still, an
rocks are very difficult to remove from their matrix. Early attempts upheaval raised the shale. Before the shale formed, fine mud
to remove the fossils involved splitting the rocks along their sedi- particles filled the spaces in and around the organisms so that
mentary plane and using rock saws. Unfortunately, these meth- the soft tissues were preserved and the fossils became somewhat
ods were literally “shots in the dark,” and many valuable fossils three-dimensional.

FIGURE 14B Above: The Burgess Shale

quarry, where many ancient fossils have been
found. Right: An artist’s depiction of the variety
of fossils is accompanied by photos of the actual
fossilized remains.

Opabinia

282

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 The fossils tell us that the ancient seas were teeming with Anyone can travel to Yoho National Park, look at the fossils,
weird-looking, invertebrate animals. All of today’s groups of and get an idea of the types of animals that dominated the
animals can trace their ancestry to one of these strange-looking world’s oceans for nearly 300 million years. Some of the animals
forms, which include sponges, arthropods, worms, and tribo- had external skeletons, but many were soft-bodied. Interpreta-
lites, as well as spiked creatures and oversized predators. The tions of the fossils vary. Some authorities hypothesize that the
animals featured in Figure 14B have been assigned to these gen- great variety of animals in the Burgess Shale evolved within
era and because they are believed to be the type of animal 20–50 million years, and therefore the site supports the hypoth-
mentioned: esis of punctuated equilibrium. Others believe that the animals
started evolving much earlier and that we are looking at the end
Opabinia, a crustacean
result of an adaptive radiation requiring many more millions of
Thaumaptilon, a sea pen
years to accomplish. Some investigators present evidence that all
Vauxia, a sponge
the animals are related to today’s animals and should be classi-
Wiwaxia, a segmented worm
fied as such. Others believe that several of them are unique
The vertebrates, including humans, are descended from Pikaia, creatures unrelated to the animals of today. Regardless of the
the only one of the fossils that has a supporting rod called a controversies, the fossils tell us that speciation, diversification,
notochord. (In vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by the ver- and eventual extinction are part of the history of life.
tebral column during development.)
F O R M YO U R O P I N I O N
Unicellular organisms have also been preserved at the Bur-
gess Shale site. They appear to be bacteria, cyanobacteria, dino- 1. What should the scientific community do when confronted
flagellates, and other protists. Fragments of algae are preserved with a phenomenon like the Burgess Shale?
in thin, shiny carbon films. A technique has been perfected that 2. Should students be exposed to phenomena that cannot as
allows the films to be peeled off the rocks. yet be fully explained? Why or why not?

Thaumaptilon

Wiwaxia

Vauxia

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 14.7 Development plays a role in speciation

Whether slow or fast, how could evolution have produced the or squids, so wouldn’t it seem
myriad of animals in the Burgess Shale and, indeed, in the history likely that all three types of
of life? Or, to ask the question in a genetic context, how can genetic animals evolved “eye” genes
changes bring about such major differences in form? It has been separately? Not so. In 1994,
suggested since the time of Darwin that the answer must involve Walter Gehring and his col-
developmental processes. In 1917, D’Arcy Thompson asked us to leagues at the University of
imagine an ancestor in which all parts are developing at a particu- Basel, Switzerland, discov-
lar rate. A change in regulatory gene expression could stop a devel- ered that Pax6 is required for
opmental process or continue it beyond its normal time. For eye formation in all animals tested
instance, if the growth of limb bones were stopped early, the result (see Fig.  11.4B). Mutations in the Pax6
would be shorter limbs, and if it were extended, the result would gene lead to failure of eye development in
be longer limbs compared to those of an ancestor. Or, if the whole both people and mice, and remarkably, Eye on fruit fly leg.
period of growth were extended, a larger animal would result, the mouse Pax6 gene can cause an eye to
accounting for why some species of horses are so large today. develop on the leg of a fruit fly.
Using new kinds of microscopes and the modern techniques
of cloning and manipulating genes, investigators have indeed dis- Increase in Complexity The developmental regulatory
covered genes whose differential expression can bring about genes called Hox genes have been much studied, and investiga-
changes in body shapes (Fig. 14.7A). More surprisingly, these tors tell us that the number of these genes increased twice during
same regulatory genes occur in all organisms. This finding sug- the evolution of animals. Both expansions are associated with an
gests that these genes must date back to a common increase in complexity, defined by the appearance
ancestor that lived more than 600 MYA (before the Despite millions of years of of different cell types. One expansion occurred
Burgess Shale animals), and that despite millions of divergent evolution, all ani- during the evolution of vertebrates. Invertebrates
years of divergent evolution, all animals share the mals share the same regula- have 13 Hox genes, while vertebrates, including
same regulatory switches for development. Previ- tory genes for development. humans, have four copies of the 13 Hox gene set.
ously in Section 11.4, p. 216, we pointed out how It appears that the set underwent a series of dupli-
the same regulatory gene, Pax6, turns on eye development even cations, and some of the duplicate genes may have taken on new
though the animal kingdom contains many different types of eyes, functions, a process mentioned in How Life Changes, p. 262.
and it was long thought that each type would require its own set Similarly, some other sets of regulatory genes that operate in
of genes. Flies, crabs, and other arthropods have compound eyes development were duplicated when vertebrates evolved. This
composed of hundreds of individual visual units. Humans and all increase in the number of regulatory gene numbers may have
other vertebrates have a camera-type eye with a single lens. So do contributed to the evolution of vertebrates and to their
squids and octopuses. Humans are not closely related to either flies complexity.

The limbs of these terrestrial mammals are shaped for running (or walking). The limbs of birds are shaped for flight.

FIGURE 14.7A Differential expression of the same regulatory genes during development can account for differences in vertebrate limbs.

284 PART 3 Organisms Are Related and Adapted to Their Environment

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 Development of Limbs Wings and arms are very different, neck in contrast to other vertebrates, such as a chick (Fig. 14.7B).
but both humans and birds express the Tbx5 regulatory gene in Changes in the timing of Hox gene expression can also account for
developing limb buds. Tbx5 codes for a transcription factor that the evolution of four legs rather than a fin. In vertebrates with
turns on the genes needed to make a limb. What seems to have legs, the Hox genes are turned on again in a later phase of develop-
changed as birds and mammals evolved are the genes that Tbx5 ment. This phase is associated with the further growth outwards
turns on. Perhaps in an ancestral tetrapod, the Tbx5 protein trig- of the limb bones to form the limb and digits where a fin formerly
gered the transcription of only one gene. In mammals and birds, existed. On the other hand, the inability of a Hox gene to turn on
a few genes are expressed in response to Tbx5 protein, but the other regulatory genes in certain segments can explain why insects
particular genes are different. have just six legs, and other arthropods, such as crayfish, have ten
Hindlimb reduction has occurred during the evolution of other legs. In general, the study of Hox genes has shown how animal
mammals. For example, as whales and manatees evolved from land- diversity is due to variations in the expression of ancient genes
dwelling ancestors into fully aquatic forms, the hindlimbs became rather than to wholly new and different genes.
greatly reduced in size. Similarly, legless lizards have evolved many
times. A stickleback study has shown how natural selection can lead Human Evolution The sequencing of genomes has shown us
to major skeletal changes in a relatively short time. The three-spined that our DNA base sequence is very similar to that of chimpanzees,
stickleback fish occurs in two forms in North American lakes. In the mice, and, indeed, all vertebrates. Based on this knowledge and
open waters of a lake, long pelvic spines help protect the stickle- the work just described, investigators no longer expect to find new
back from being eaten by large predators. But on the genes to account for the evolution of humans.
lake bottom, long pelvic spines are a disadvantage Animal diversity is due in large Instead, they predict that differential gene expres-
because dragonfly larvae seize and feed on young part to variations in the expres- sion and/or new functions for “old” genes will
sticklebacks by grabbing them by their spines. The sion of ancient regulatory genes explain how humans evolved.
presence of short spines in bottom-dwelling stickle- during development. We have to keep in mind that developmental
back fish can be traced to a reduction in the develop- changes result in a phenotype that is subject to
ment of the pelvic-fin bud in the embryo, and this reduction is due natural selection. We would expect that during the history of life
to the altered expression of a regulatory gene. many changes in phenotype were not advantageous and there-
fore did not become prevalent in future generations.
Development of Overall Shape Vertebrates have repeating
segments, as exemplified by the vertebral column. In general, Hox 14.7 Check Your Progress a. Why does it seem that differential regu-
genes control the development of repeated structures along the latory gene expression must occur during the development of ligers?
main body axes of vertebrates. Shifts in how long Hox genes are Why might their numbers increase? b. Assume ligers live in the wild and
they can reproduce. Create a scenario by which their numbers increase
expressed per segment in embryos are responsible for why the
while those of lions and tigers decrease.
snake has hundreds of rib-bearing vertebrae and essentially no

FIGURE 14.7B
Differential expression of a
Hox gene causes (a) a chick
to have fewer vertebrae
than (b) a snake in a
particular region (colored
pink) of the spine.
Burke, A. C. 2000. Hox genes and
the global patterning of the somitic
mesoderm. In Somitogenesis. C.
Ordahl (ed.) Current Topics in Devel-
opmental Biology, Vol. 47. Academic
Press.

a. b.

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 14.8 Speciation is not goal-oriented
The evolution of the horse, Equus, has been studied since the with several toes would have allowed them to scamper from
1870s, and at first the ancestry of this genus seemed to represent thicket to thicket to avoid predators. Hyracotherium was obvi-
a model for gradual, straight-line evolution until its goal, the ously well adapted to its environment because this genus sur-
modern horse, had been achieved. Three trends were particu- vived for 20 million years.
larly evident during the evolution of the horse: increase in over- The family tree of Equus tells us once more that speciation,
all size, toe reduction, and change in tooth size and shape. diversification, and extinction are common occurrences in the
By now, however, many more fossils have been found, making fossil record. The first adaptive radiation of horses occurred
it easier to tell that the lineage of a horse is complicated by the about 35 MYA. The weather was becoming drier, and grasses
presence of many ancestors with varied traits. The family tree in were evolving. Eating grass requires tougher teeth, and an
Figure 14.8 is an oversimplification because each of the names is increase in size and longer legs would have permitted greater
a genus that contains several species, and not all past genera in the speed to escape enemies. The second adaptive radiation of
horse family are included. It is apparent, then, that the ancestors horses occurred about 15 MYA and included Merychippus as a
of Equus form a thick bush of many equine species and that representative of these groups of speedy grazers that lived on the
straight-line evolution did not occur. Because Equus alone remains open plain. By 10 MYA, the horse family had become quite diver-
and the other genera have died out, it might seem as if evolution sified. Some species were large forest browsers, some were small
was directed toward producing Equus, but this is not the case. forest browsers, and others were large plains grazers. Many spe-
Instead, each of these ancestral species was adapted to its environ- cies had three toes, but some had one strong toe. (The hoof of
ment. Adaptation occurs only because the members of a popula- the modern horse includes only one toe.)
tion with an advantage are able to have more offspring than other Modern horses evolved about 4 MYA from ancestors who had
members. Natural selection is opportunistic, not goal-oriented. features adaptive for living on an open plain, such as large size,
Fossils named Hyracotherium have been designated as the long legs, hoofed feet, and strong teeth. The other groups of
first probable members of the horse family, living about 57 MYA. horses prevalent at the time became extinct, no doubt for com-
These animals had a wooded habitat, ate leaves and plex reasons.
fruit, and were about the size of a dog.
Their short legs and broad feet 14.8 Check Your Progress There are only five species of cats in
the genus Panthera. Does this represent a goal of evolution?

2 MYA
4 MYA Equus
Neohipparion
Hipparion

12 MYA
Dinohippus
15 MYA Megahippus
Merychippus
17 MYA

23 MYA
25 MYA

35 MYA Miohippus

40 MYA

Palaeotherium
45 MYA

50 MYA

Hyracotherium
55 MYA

FIGURE 14.8 Simplified family tree of Equus. Every dot represents a genus.

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 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW
Origin of Species Can Occur in One Place
SUMMARY 14.5 Speciation occasionally occurs without a geographic
barrier
Evolution of Diversity Requires Speciation
• Sympatric speciation occurs without a geographic
14.1 Species have been defined in more than one way
barrier.
• Macroevolution depends on speciation. • Polyploidy is present when plants have additional sets of
• Speciation occurs when one species splits into two or more chromosomes beyond the diploid (2n) number. The sudden
species or when one species becomes a new species occurrence of polyploidy is speciation because a polyploid
over time. cannot reproduce with parental 2n plants.
• According to the evolutionary species concept, every species • Speciation through autoploidy occurs when a diploid gamete
has its own evolutionary history, and a species can be fuses with a haploid gamete, resulting in a triploid plant,
recognized by diagnostic traits. which is sterile.
• According to the biological species concept, members of a • Speciation through alloploidy occurs when two different but
species are reproductively isolated from members of other related species of plants hybridize, and then the chromosome
species. They can only reproduce with members of their number doubles making the hybrid fertile.
own species.
14.2 Reproductive barriers maintain genetic differences Macroevolution Involves Changes at the Species Level
between species and Beyond
• Prezygotic isolating mechanisms prevent reproductive 14.6 Speciation occurs at different tempos
attempts. • According to the gradualistic model, speciation occurs
• Postzygotic isolating mechanisms prevent zygote gradually, perhaps due to a gradually changing
development or F1 and F2 hybrid offspring from breeding. environment.
• According to the punctuated equilibrium model, periods of
Prezygotic Isolating Postzygotic Isolating equilibrium are interrupted by rapid speciation. Perhaps,
Mechanisms Mechanisms if the environment changes rapidly, new species may
Premating Mating Fertilization suddenly arise.
• On occasion, fossil record data may fit one model of
Habitat isolation Zygote mortality speciation, and on another occasion, it may fit the
Mechanical other model.
isolation
Temporal isolation Hybrid sterility • Speciation, diversification, and eventual extinction are part of
Gamete the history of life.
isolation
Behavioral isolation F2 fitness 14.7 Development plays a role in speciation
• Despite millions of years of divergent evolution, all animals
share the same regulatory genes for development.
• Hox gene duplications could have brought about increased
Origin of Species Usually Requires Geographic complexity in animals.
Separation • Eye development, limb development, and shape
14.3 Allopatric speciation utilizes a geographic barrier determination are controlled by the same regulatory genes in
• Allopatric speciation begins when populations derived from different animals. But differential expression can account for
a larger one are separated by a barrier and they start to differ differences in outcome.
genetically and phenotypically. • Investigators hypothesize that differential gene expression
• Following separation, postzygotic mechanisms followed by during development coupled with natural selection can
prezygotic mechanisms can develop over time. account for the process of evolution, including human
evolution.
14.4 Adaptive radiation produces
many related species 14.8 Speciation is not goal-oriented
• When adaptative radiation • In horses, each ancestral species adapted to its
occurs, several new species environment, but due to a changing environment, only
evolve from an ancestral Equus survived.
species, and they adapt to • The family record of Equus shows speciation, diversification,
fill different niches separated by and extinction. At least two major adaptive radiations
geographic barriers. occurred in the past.
• The many types of Hawaiian • Natural selection is opportunistic, not goal-oriented;
honeycreepers are a result of adaptive adaptation occurs because members with an advantage can
radiation. have more offspring.

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 13. The creation of new species without the need of a geographic
TESTING YOURSELF barrier is called
a. isolation speciation. d. sympatric speciation.
Evolution of Diversity Requires Speciation b. allopatric speciation. e. symbiotic speciation.
1. A biological species c. allelomorphic speciation.
a. always looks different from other species. 14. The many species of Galápagos finches are each adapted to
b. always has a different chromosome number from that of eating different foods. This is the result of
other species. a. gene flow. d. genetic drift.
c. is reproductively isolated from other species. b. adaptive radiation. e. All of these are correct.
d. never occupies the same niche in different environments. c. sympatric speciation.
15. THINKING CONCEPTUALLY The Hawaiian Islands are some distance
For questions 2–7, indicate the type of isolating mechanism described from any mainland, and the plants and animals on each
in each scenario. island are unique. Only short distances separate the Florida
KEY: Keys from each other and the mainland. The mainland and
a. habitat isolation e. gamete isolation the Keys all contain the same species. Explain.
b. temporal isolation f. zygote mortality
c. behavioral isolation g. hybrid sterility Origin of Species Can Occur in One Place
d. mechanical isolation h. low F2 fitness 16. Allopatric, but not sympatric, speciation requires
2. Males of one species do not recognize the courtship behaviors a. reproductive isolation.
of females of another species. b. geographic isolation.
3. One species reproduces at a different time than another c. spontaneous differences in males and females.
species. d. prior hybridization.
4. A cross between two species produces a zygote that always dies. e. rapid rate of mutation.
5. Two species do not interbreed because they occupy different 17. Which of the following is not a characteristic of plant
areas. alloploidy?
6. The sperm of one species cannot survive in the reproductive a. hybridization
tract of another species. b. chromosome doubling
7. The offspring of two hybrid individuals exhibit poor vigor. c. self-fertilization
8. Which of these is a prezygotic isolating mechanism? d. All of these are characteristics of plant alloploidy.
a. habitat isolation d. zygote mortality 18. Corn is an allotetraploid, which means that its
b. temporal isolation e. Both a and b are correct. a. chromosome number is 4n.
c. hybrid sterility b. development resulted from hybridization.
9. Male moths recognize females of their species by sensing c. development required a geographic barrier.
chemical signals called pheromones. This is an example of d. Both a and b are correct.
a. gamete isolation. d. mechanical isolation.
b. habitat isolation. e. temporal isolation. Macroevolution Involves Changes at the Species
c. behavioral isolation. Level and Beyond
10. Which of these is mechanical isolation?
19. Transitional links are least likely to be found if evolution
a. Sperm cannot reach or fertilize an egg.
proceeds according to the
b. Courtship patterns differ.
a. gradualistic model.
c. The organisms live in different locales.
b. punctuated equilibrium model.
d. The organisms reproduce at different times of the year.
c. Both a and b are correct.
e. Genitalia are unsuited to each other.
d. None of these are correct.
11. THINKING CONCEPTUALLY Regardless of how speciation occurs or
20. Adaptive radiation is only possible if evolution is
how species are defined, what is required for separate species punctuated.
to be present? a. true
b. false
Origin of Species Usually Requires Geographic
21. Why are there no fish fossils in the Burgess Shale?
Separation a. The habitat was not aquatic.
12. Complete the following diagram illustrating allopatric b. Fish do not fossilize easily because they do not have shells.
speciation by using these phrases: genetic changes (used c. The fossils of the Burgess Shale predate vertebrate animals.
twice), geographic barrier, species 1, species 2, species 3. d. There are fish fossils in the Burgess Shale.
22. Which of the following can influence the rapid development
of new species of animals?
c.
a. the influence of molecular clocks
b. a change in the expression of regulating genes
d.
c. the sequential expression of genes
a. b.
d. All of these are correct.
f.
23. Which of the following does not seem to influence
speciation?
e. a. the evolution of different types of Hox genes

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 b. the evolution of new types of genes that control
development THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY
c. Only the environment and not genes influence speciation.
d. Both a and b are correct. 1. You want to decide what definition of a species to use in your
24. Which gene is incorrectly matched to its function? study. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the
a. Hox—body shape evolutionary and biological species concepts?
b. Pax6—body segmentation 2. You decide to create a hybrid by crossing two species of plants.
c. Tbx5—limb development If the hybrid is a fertile plant that produces normal-sized fruit,
d. All of these choices are correctly matched. what conclusion is possible?
25. THINKING CONCEPTUALLY Explain the statement that “Hox genes
are ancient genes.”
26. In the evolution of the modern horse, which was the goal of ONLINE RESOURCE
the evolutionary process?
a. large size www.mhhe.com/maderconcepts2
b. single toe
c. Both a and b are correct. Enhance your study with animations
d. Neither a nor b is correct. that bring concepts to life and practice tests to assess your
27. Which of the following does not pertain to Hyracotherium, an understanding. Your instructor may also recommend the
ancestral horse genus? interactive eBook, individualized learning tools, and more.
a. small size
b. single toe
c. wooded habitat
d. All of these are characteristics of Hyracotherium.

CONNEC TING THE CONCE PTS

Macroevolution, the study of the origin and history of model? The fossils of the Burgess Shale support the punctuated
the species on Earth, is the subject of this chapter and equilibrium model. How can genetic changes bring about such
the next. The biological species concept states that the members of major changes in form, whether fast or slow? Investigators have
a species have an isolated gene pool and can only reproduce with now discovered ancient regulatory genes (e.g., Hox genes), whose
one another. differential expression can bring about changes in body shapes and
The origin of species is called speciation. Speciation usually organs.
occurs after two populations derived from a larger one are separated Evolution is not directed toward any particular end, and the
geographically. If the members of a salamander population are sud- traits of the species alive today arose through common descent with
denly divided by a barrier, each new population becomes adapted adaptations to a local environment. The subject of Chapter 15 is the
to its particular environment over time. Eventually, the two popula- evolutionary history and classification of living organisms today.
tions may become so genetically different that even if members of
PUT THE PIECES TOGETHER
each population come into contact, they will not be able to produce
fertile offspring. Because gene flow between the two populations is 1. Scientists make observations and then formulate testable
no longer possible, the salamanders are considered separate spe- hypotheses to explain the observations. What testable hypoth-
cies. Aided by geographic separation, multiple species can repeat- eses have biologists made about speciation? (Hint: How might
edly arise from an ancestral species, as when a common ancestor species arise? What might cause them to arise?)
from the mainland led to many species of Hawaiian honeycreepers, 2. Paleontologists suggested the punctuated equilibrium model.
each adapted to its own particular environment. What data did they use?
Does speciation occur gradually, as Darwin supposed, or rap- 3. Is the study of evolution a scientific endeavor? Explain your
idly (in geologic time), as described by the punctuated equilibrium reasoning.

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mad03482_APP_A-1-A-21.indd 820 02/08/10 10:10 PM
 Appendix | Answer Key

CHAPTER 1 can reduce the influence of pesticide resistant has one shell, which is complete with two electrons;
insects on their fields and farming practices. 3. b. Two. Oxygen has two shells with six valence
Check Your Progress The salmon must be successfully raised in an electrons in the outer shell. Therefore, oxygen
1.1 Observation data; observing that a worker ant environment that mimics nature as closely as requires two more electrons for a completed outer
produces eggs. 1.2 Test group: colonies exposed to possible, with exposure to pressures such as normal shell. 2.4 H+, OH-. 2.5 a. See Figure 2.6, page 32, in
the parasite; control group: colonies not exposed to predation and pathogens, for example, if they are text; b. This is the formula that gives each atom a
the parasite. 1.3 a. Levels of organization from cells to succeed in the wild. For instance, if the salmon completed outer shell. 2.6 One end of the molecule
to organism illustrate order; (b) unicellular organisms have no exposure to pathogens that they might is negative and the other end is positive because
divide, multicellular ones produce sperm and egg encounter in the wild, these salmon are at high risk oxygen attacts electron more than hydrogen does.
(c) metabolizes nutrients. 1.4 When organisms of infection upon introduction without the benefit of 2.7 Yes, because electropositive hydrogens are
reproduce they pass on a copy of their genes. building immune defenses from previous exposure. attracted to either electronegative oxygen or nitrogen.
1.5 Only by responding to stimuli can organisms 2.8 Hydrogen bonding causes water molecules
remain homeostatic. 1.6 Natural ecosystems absorb Testing Yourself to stick together and to other polar molecules.
pollutants. 1.7 The first suggests that humans are 1. a; 2. d; 3. c; 4. Scientific theories arise due to 2.9 The air loses heat as it causes water in the pad
apes; the second means that apes and humans are innumerable observations and experimentation. 5.b; to evaporate. 2.10 Polarity makes the emulsifiers
on their own evolutionary pathway. 1.8 a. Domain 6. c; 7. b; 8. c; 9. c; 10. d; 11. Each type organism hydrophilic. 2.11 The blocks of ice trap heat inside
Eukarya and kingdom Animals b. Fossil and has its own sequence of bases in its genes. 12. e; and prevent it from escaping to the environment.
molecular data 1.9 Better adapted members have the 13. b; 14. d; 15. a; 16. d; 17. d; 18. A college 2.12 a. H+; b. OH-. 2.13 a. Acidic; b. More H+.
opportunity through natural selection to reproduce campus has a location, as does an ecosystem. The 2.14 a. Down; b. Carbonic acid froms and releases H;
more, and in that way a species becomes adapted populations of students, faculty, and administrators therefore the pH decreases.
to its environment. 1.10 The hawk has levels of communicate with each other and the physical
organization; catches food for herself and offspring; environment (the buildings). 19. c; 20. e; 21. d; Form Your Opinion
remains homeostatic because she can respond to 22. d; 23. c; 24. a; 25. c; 26. c; 27. Evolution is Page 28: 1. Though controversy will undoubtedly
stimuli, lives in a semidesert ecosystem; and is related to all the other theories; for example, all arise over moral, monetary and other issues, science
adapted to flying. organisms are cellular because their common must be free to ask and answer questions about the
ancestor was cellular. 28. e; 29. f; 30. c; 31. g world in which we live. However, scientists should
Form Your Opinion conduct research with minimal risks to their own
Page 6: 1. No answer: The United States should not Thinking Scientifically safety and that of others. As technology advances,
continue to export its current farming technology. 1. a. Bacteria don’t die in sunlight when dye is present. the restrictions placed upon research should be
Exporting technology that is known to be detrimental b. Dye is protective against UV radiation. c. Experiment reevaluated to ensure their relevance. With careful
to ground water and top soil will eventually reduce consists of exposing control and test groups to UV and balanced monitoring, scientific endeavors
agricultural yields, resulting in a food shortage. The light. d. Hypothesis is not supported. 2. Plant the same should be supported and encouraged. 2. Safety
United States would be better served to encourage species of tomato plants in three large plots. All plots should be paramount in experimentation. The best
sustainable farming practices like crop rotation to receive the same treatment, except plot 1, your control, way to proceed is to aware of advisements regarding
foster long-term success in agriculture. Yes answer: receives no fertilizer; plot 2 receives the name brand safety and to learn from experience about how to
The United States should continue to export farming fertilizer in the same quantity as plot 3 which receives modify procedures to make them safe. 3. Yes answer:
technology to other countries in order to support the generic brand. Measure the tomatoes from each plot Depending on the benefits that an experiment might
the global food market. As solutions to the long- and calculate the average size to determine which plot have, I would consider being a guinea pig. However,
term problems of these technologies arise, the U.S. results in the largest tomatoes. research using people should be entirely voluntary
should make these available to other countries as and provide an explanation of the potential risks. I
well. 2. Circumstances such as labor costs, profits, Put the Pieces Together would be particularly willing to be an experimental
and marketing challenges might discourage a Page 21: 1. One example, that shows the relationship subject in the field of medical research, especially
farmer from growing organically. These obstacles between two theories, is the link between ecosystems if the results of experimentation had the potential
might be overcome through government subsidies and evolution. Different species of organisms are to prove widely useful. No answer: I would not
for sustainable farming practices, sharing best the result of evolution over time from a common be willing to serve as a guinea pig in experiments
practices through networking with successful organic ancestor. The evolution of new species creates new that may prove harmful to me. Because of known
farmers, and a world-wide movement towards eating populations that interact to form communities, which risks, and the fact that the risks associated with
primarily locally grown and seasonal produce. in turn interact to form ecosystems. Ecosystems experimentation on humans and animals cannot
Page 17: 1. Practical problems in agriculture, also evolve over time as new species evolve and always be predicted, I would be unwilling to subject
medicine, and conservation can be solved with a change the populations and communities within the myself to the potentially hazardous side effects of
knowledge of evolution. Because we know that ecosystem. 2. The evolution of antibiotic resistant being a human subject in experiments.
natural selection drives the evolution of pesticide bacteria results from natural selection. Mutations in Page 38: 1. The changes in lakes due to acid rain kill
resistant insects, changes to farming practices and bacterial DNA created resistant individuals. These fish and other wildlife and sometimes eliminate it
pesticide use are possible. In medicine, awareness bacteria survive to reproduce in the presence of altogether. Trees suffer as a result of acid rain’s effects,
of the evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria antibiotics, whereas non-resistant individuals die becoming diseased or dying. If this continues, not
allows patients and doctors alike to make changes off. This process creates a population of antibiotic only will the atmosphere’s oxygen be affected, but the
to the way antibiotics are prescribed and used. In resistant bacteria. lumber industry will suffer. The food supply is at risk
conservation efforts, knowledge of evolution can if plants as well as fish are negatively affected by acid
be used to make informed decisions regarding
endangered species; directed evolution can also
CHAPTER 2 rain. 2. Human beings must take some responsibility
for what they do to the planet and make attempts
be used to select for organisms to clean up the Check Your Progress to control their negative impact. Driving less could
environment. 2. By naturally allowing for the 2.1 Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur. 2.2 See help to preserve lakes and the wildlife in them,
growth of nonresistant insect populations, farmers Figure 2.3B, page 29, in text. 2.3 a. One. Hydrogen forests, buildings made of limestone and marble, and

A-1

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 the respiratory health of humans. Because of these complementary DNA sequence would be CTAGGT. of survivals per type of plant. b. The presence of
factors, I would certainly be willing to drive less 3.12 The sugar in RNA is ribose not deoxyribose as unsaturated oils in temperate plant seeds may
to help prevent acid rain. 3. Despite other stresses, in DNA; uracil in RNA replaced thymine in DNA; be an adaptation to the environment. 2. Possible
environmental degradation should concern people RNA is single stranded not a double stranded helix. hypothesis: (1) The abnormal enzyme will not
at all times. If we do not preserve our planet and 3.13 Yes, that’s the only way a mutation can lead produce as much product per unit time as the
its ecosystems, our current way of life will become to an altered protein. 3.14 Plant cells absorb solar normal enzyme. (2) The abnormal enzyme will have
unsustainable and economic development will cease. energy and produce glucose. Glucose in food leads to a different shape from the normal enzyme due to
ATP buildup in cells. In muscle cells, ATP breakdown changes in organization.
Testing Yourself leads to muscle contraction and movement.
1. c; 2. b; 3. e; 4. d; 5. a; 6. c; 7. c; 8. d; 9. a; 10. c; Put the Pieces Together
11. b; 12. a; 13. b; 14. d; 15. d; 16. Nitrogen needs Form Your Opinion Page 61: 1. Energy storage and use: lipids, which
three more electrons in the outer shell to be stable Page 51: 1. Yes. Because of the increased instances contain many energy-storing bonds; carbohydrates,
and each hydrogen shares one electron. 17. Gaining of obesity, especially in children, it would be which are a source of quick energy in the form of
six electrons by sharing is not as likely as losing two responsible for restaurants to decrease portion glycogen and starches. Genetic information storage:
electrons to become an ion. 18. a; 19. b; 20. c; 21. e; sizes. This change in the food service industry nucleic acids, like RNA and DNA which store
22. Blood is transported in a tube (blood vessel) and could help to reduce obesity and create a healthier genetic information in a sequence of nucleotides.
water fills a tube due to its cohesive and adhesive overall population. No. People should be able to eat Ongoing activities of the cell: proteins, which provide
properties. 23. a; 24. a; 25. a; 26. b; 27. c; 28. A responsibly on their own. Restaurants should not structure and support in the cell, speed chemical
bicarbonate buffer combines immediately with H+ have to manage the diets of their customers. 2. Due reactions, transport molecules (i.e., oxygen), and
or OH-, normalizing the blood pH. Respiration, by to the implication of cornstarch-based sweeteners which are used in defense and regulation; lipids,
removing carbon dioxide from the blood, provides a and other ingredients in manufactured foods, which make up membranes, serve as hormones, and
slower response that decreases H2CO3 concentration. manufacturers should be required to limit the use protect plants and animals in the form of waxes.
The kidneys excrete H+ and provide the slowest of the of such ingredients in their foods. Also, as required 2. Just as the alphabet has only 26 letters and yet
three responses, but the kidenys also have the ability by the Food and Drug Administration, nutrition can produce many different words, DNA contains
to cause the greatest overall change in the pH level. information should continue to be clearly printed only 4 bases but the particular order of these bases
on the labels of manufactured foods. Manufacturers in each gene can vary. This means that each gene
Thinking Scientifically specifies a different sequence of amino acids in each
could also monetarily support research into
1. Na+Cl– interrupts hydrogen bonding enough to alternative sweeteners and healthier ingredients to type protein. 3. I would expect each cell types to
prevent the formation of the ice lattice that forms create healthier products. It is also the responsibility have its own particular combination of proteins.
during freezing. 2. Chemical behavior is dependent of the consumer, however, to intake cornstarch-
on the number of electrons in the outer shell, not the based sweeteners and saturated fats in moderation.
number of neutrons in the nucleus. Page 55: 1. Scientists are not called upon to judge CHAPTER 4
whether a study is worthwhile; rather they are only
Put the Pieces Together Check Your Progress
concerned with its accuracy. Often, even studies
Page 41: 1. Methane gas is formed when a carbon with negative results precede a breakthrough. 4.1 The parts individually cannot perform all the
atom binds four hydrogen atoms. The bonds of Studies should be encouraged as much as possible functions of a living cell. 4.2 Small cells have a larger
methane are nonpolar covalent bonds in which and considered worthwhile until evidence suggests surface-area-to-volume ratio and are better able to
electrons are shared equally between the atoms. Each otherwise. 2. Presently, we assume that evolution exchange materials. 4.3 Prokaryotic cells do not
bond in methane points to a corner of a tetrahedron. has a genetic basis and scientists will not be satisfied have a nucleus. 4.4 The electron microscope, not
Water is formed when two hydrogen atoms bind until they can point to the genetic cause of each the light microscope, allows us to “see” this amount
one oxygen atom. The sharing of electrons is not evolutionary event. Studying whole organisms always of detail, and the electron microscope was not
entirely equal in this bent molecule. Oxygen, being leaves the genetic basis unknown. 3. Yes answer: By available until the 20th century. 4.5 The eukaryotes:
more electronegative attracts the electrons more than inserting a gene that allows tomato plants to thrive Nerve cells, onion root cells, and Euglena (a protist).
hydrogen does and the result is a polar molecule. when watered with salty water, a genetic change Only eukaryotes, not prokaryotes (bacteria and
2. The properties of water which result from its has occurred within the organism. If the plants archaea), have a nucleus. 4.6 First the ribosomal
structure are critical to life. Cohesion, adhesion, high reproduce other genetically altered individuals, and a subunits, and then mRNA, pass from the nucleus
surface tension, high heat capacity and high heat new population results, then evolution has occurred. to the cytoplasm, by way of the nuclear pores. They
of vaporization all result from hydrogen bonding. No answer: This is an example of artificial evolution, combine when protein synthesis begins. 4.7 Yes.
These properties of water allow it to be a transport and more appropriately, genetic engineering. Because Polyribosomes are in the cytoplasm. Other ribosomes
medium that also maintains the internal temperature the change was not the result of natural selection, it are temporarily attached to the ER, and only the
of organisms. The difference in the density of frozen should not be termed evolution. synthesized polypeptides enter the interior of the ER.
water compared to liquid water means that life is 4.8 Synthesized polypeptides enter the interior of the
preserved under a layer of ice. Water being a polar RER, and some are incorporated into its membrane.
Testing Yourself
molecule acts as a universal solvent that allows The RER sends vesicles to the Golgi apparatus and
metabolism to occur. 1. c; 2. c; 3. b; 4. b; 5. Like carbon, silicon has four the vesicles that leave the Golgi become incorporated
outer electrons and can form four covalent bonds, into the plasma membrane. 4.9 Lysosomes combine
as in SiO2, the main component of sand. Carbon with and digest microorganisms brought into the
has two, but silicon has three, shells of electrons.
CHAPTER 3 Because of its larger size, silicon rarely forms chains,
cell by vesicle formation. 4.10 Peroxisomes pass
fatty acid breakdown products to mitochondria for
Check Your Progress nor does it bond to four different types of atoms. further metabolism. 4.11 Lysosomes only digest; the
3.1 All living things contain biomolecules 6. b; 7. a; 8. d; 9. c; 10. d; 11. c; 12. c; 13. Cellulose plant cell central vacuole has storage and structural
3.2 Hydrophilic functional groups, which would chains can form fibers because they lie side-by- functions, as well as digestive functions. 4.12 Genes
make them water soluble. 3.3 It uses the water side and hydrogen bonds form between them. The located in the nucleus code for the polypeptides
for hydrolysis reactions. 3.4 Fructose is an isomer branching observed in starch makes fiber formation that are produced by rough ER. The endomembrane
of glucose. 3.5 Both store glucose as a complex more unlikely. 14. a; 15. b; 16. d; 17. d; 18. c; 19. system exports them from the cell. 4.13 Both
carbohydrate, but plants store it as starch, and The hydrophilic heads interact with fluids, allowing are membranous organelles involved in energy
animals store it as glycogen. 3.6 Plants produce the hydrophobic tails to orient toward each other. transformations. They differ in that chloroplasts
glucose through photosynthesis, but animals do 20. c; 21. c; 22. d; 23. c; 24. d; 25. e; 26. a; 27. c; carry out photosynthesis and mitochondria carry out
not photosynthesize. 3.7 Cholesterol contains rings 28. Nucleic acid is a sequence of nucleotides and cellular respiration. 4.14 Interaction of actin filaments
and both phospholipids and waxes contain long proteins are a sequence of amino acids. and microtubules with motor molecules. 4.15 The
hydrocarbon chains. 3.8 Plant cells carry out more only anatomical difference is length; cilia are short
varied reactions (e.g., photosynthesis) than an Thinking Scientifically and flagella are long. Cilia move like an oar, and
animal cell does. 3.9 Proteins are made from the 1. a. Subject the seeds of temperate and tropical flagella move in an undulating, snakelike fashion.
same amino acids in all organisms. 3.10 Globular plants, for which you know the amount and kind of
proteins are enzymes present in all organisms, oil content, to a range of temperatures from above Form Your Opinion
fibrous proteins are structural proteins, and plants do freezing to below freezing for an extended length of Page 66: 1. I would give a friend the opportunity to
not use proteins as structural compounds. 3.11 The time. Plant the seeds and compare the percentage see for his/herself by taking him/her into a biological

A-2 APPENDIX Answer Key

mad03482_APP_A-1-A-21.indd A-2 02/08/10 10:10 PM

 laboratory and allowing them to examine a cell, for body temperature increases the number of encounters because with each energy transformation, heat is lost;
example, microscopically. 2. Color enhancement of between the substrate and the enzyme. 5.7 Inhibition eventually, all the energy taken in is lost to the system
TEMs does not border on misrepresentation because of enzyme requires an abundance of a product and is as heat. 2. You need to decide the proper enzyme
it is often necessary to enhance images to view easily reversed if the amount of product decreases. versus substrate concentrations, type of glassware,
and analyze them more clearly. However, I would 5.8 Like the colored tiles, the proteins in a plasma amount of time needed for the reaction, how to vary
encourage a side-by-side comparison of colored membrane are different. But unlike the tiles, which the temperature and the pH, and how to test for the
and non-colored TEMs images to show what a cell are cemented in place, the proteins are free to move product.
actually looks like. Page 73: 1. Carbon is present in from side to side in the fluid phospholipid layer.
all organic molecules but sulfur is unique to amino 5.9 Channel proteins and carrier proteins. Put the Pieces Together
acids. 2. Palade may have also found the labeled 5.10 Without water, organisms dry out and die. Page 103: 1. An enzyme serves to lower activation
amino acids on free ribosomes in the cytoplasm. 5.11 A turnstile provides a way for only paying barriers by bringing reactants together within its
Page 77: 1. The first cells to contain mitochondria customers to pass through and the carrier protein active site. This is only possible due to the specific
and also chloroplast had an evolutionary advantage provides a way for a molecule to pass through the structure, or shape, of enzymes. The enzyme shape
because they were more efficient energy users; plasma membrane if it can bind to the carrier. complements the shape(s) of the reactant(s), allowing
therefore they could produce more offspring than 5.12 Cholesterol accumulates in blood vessels where them to interact chemically. 2. Polypeptide synthesis
other members of the population. 2. I would expect it can cause health problems. 5.13 Both plants and will not occur unless amino acids, enzymes, and
to find that both have membrane bound pigments animals secrete substances that lie between the cells. the proper nucleic acids are present. Environmental
capable of absorbing light energy. I would also expect pH and temperature must be appropriate. For any
to find that both have centrally located DNA. The Form Your Opinion endergonic reaction to occur, ATP must be present
cyanobacterium would be surrounded by a single Page 92: 1. Even though poisons can be ingested to supply the necessary chemical energy. 3. Cell
membrane but the chloroplast is surrounded by a accidentally they should not be banned. Poisons are recognition glycoproteins, receptor proteins, and
double membrane. The outer membrane is derived used to preserve foods, control pests, eliminate weeds, junction proteins found in the plasma membrane are
from the host plasma membrane. and to preserve buildings. Proper storage and use is all are involved in cell-to-cell communication.
important when using poisons, as well as posting
Testing Yourself
1. c; 2. a; 3. c; 4. e; 5. d; 6. c; 7. d; 8. microscopically
notice when dangerous substances such as rat poison
are present. 2. It might prove useful for countries to
CHAPTER 6
examine swab of skin; 9. b; 10. b; 11. c; 12. a; 13. The have poison detectors to provide warning in the event Check Your Progress
nuclear envelope has pores; transport vesicles; 14. d; of a biological attack. Though the warning system may 6.1 Plants can use the carbon dioxide and water from
15. c; 16. c; 17. b; 18. anatomical and experimental not be able to detect all poisons, it could save many cellular respiration to carry on photosynthesis and
data; 19. a; 20. a; 21. d; 22. Chloroplasts capture solar lives if a system were in place to alert the public or a produce food. 6.2 Thylakoids absorb solar energy
energy and form the carbohydrate broken down by country’s government of an impending attack. because they contain chlorophyll; carbohydrates form
mitochondria to produce ATP; 23. d; 24. b; 25. b; Page 95: 1. People could be convinced of the in the stroma, because it contains enzymes. 6.3 NADH
26. c; 27. b; 28. a; 29. e; 30. d benefits of nutrition and exercise in the prevention and ATP; NADP+ and ADP + P 6.4 Warm weather
of type 2 diabetes if shown case studies or other allows enzymes to constantly remake chlorophyl.
Thinking Scientifically documentation of individuals with type 2 diabetes 6.5 Antenna molecules absorb energy and pass it to a
1. Labeling RNA. You expect to find RNA in the who have eliminated their disease through proper diet reaction center. 6.6 The energy of motion, i.e., kinetic
nucleus, passing through a nuclear pore, and on and fitness. Also, statistics correlating the poor eating energy. 6.7 Water supplies electrons. NADPH is the
RER. 2. Mitochondria have their own DNA and and exercise habits of people with type 2 diabetes final acceptor of electrons. 6.8 “Get ready”: NADP
make their own proteins; therefore, they have RNA. support the fact that this type of diabetes is the result reductase has received electrons, and a H+ gradient
The mitochondrial double membrane does not have of lifestyle and is preventable. 2. Versions of the text is present. “Payoff”: NADPH and ATP. 6.9 The Calvin
any pores. can be created for students with color blindness and cycle can take place in the light or in the dark. The
other visual impairments (i.e., poor eyesight) for Calvin cycle requires NADPH and ATP from the light
Put the Pieces Together those individuals who would benefit from them. reactions. 6.10 Glucose phosphate can react to produce
Page 83: 1. Prokaryotes are smaller than eukaryotic Page 100: 1. It seems reasonable that human and sucrose, starch, or cellulose. 6.11 C3 photosynthesis
cells but they have DNA and ribosomes. Therefore, bacterial plasma membranes are the same when we takes its name from first detectable molecule following
after being engulfed by a eukaryotic cell, they consider that all organisms are descended from an carbon dioxide fixation in a plant cell. 6.12 Bundle
became what we call mitochondria and chloroplasts original ancestor. All cells need a surface separating sheath cells (the location of the Calvin cycle) are
which are bounded by a double membrane and them from the outside world that is selectively not exposed to the open spaces of a leaf where O2 is
are capable of protein synthesis. 2. The folding of permeable and capable of sending and receiving located. 6.13 CO2 is fixed at night but does not enter
the endoplasmic reticulum creates a large area for signals in order to support homeostasis. 2. The lack the Calvin cycle until the next day.
the attachment of ribosomes outside and presence of a cell wall in animal cells is disadvantageous in
of enzymes for lipid synthesis inside. Rough ER, that animal cells do not have the added protection Form Your Opinion
studded with ribosomes, is structurally equipped and support provided by a cell wall surrounding Page 112: 1. The evolution of oxygen-releasing
for protein synthesis while smooth ER, void of the plasma membrane. Animal cells do have an photosynthesis is an example of the concept of
ribosomes, synthesizes lipids. The membranous extracellular matrix that can be quite hard as in “adding on” rather than starting over in that
nature of the membrane allows it to form transport compact bone. An extracellular matrix that can vary photosystem II (PSII), which is necessary for
vesicles. 3. The cytoskeleton assists in cell instead of a cell wall may have alowed animals to the splitting of water to release oxygen, evolved
movement and serves to move items within the cell. develop a greater diversity of cell types, tissues, and after photosystem I (PSI) but did not replace it.
These are functions consistent with the presence of organs. Because of the development of nerves and 2. Cyanobacteria can revert to a cyclic electron
microtubules in the cilia and flagella, structures used muscles, animals gained mobility that is not found in pathway, using hydrogen sulfide (H2S) as a
for locomotion and attachment. plants and other organisms composed of cells with hydrogen source to reduce carbon dioxide like other
cell walls. autotrophic bacteria. Chloroplasts cannot revert to
CHAPTER 5 Testing Yourself
using H2S in place of water.
Page 118: 1. Preserving tropical rain forests is
Check Your Progress 1. c; 2. a; 3. e; 4. d; 5. a; 6. Food in bulk is stored advantageous because it protects and preserves the
5.1 a. ATP represents potential energy; the energy is food in your pantry; glycogen is stored energy in habitats of many of the plants and animals that can
present in chemical bonds; b. Muscle movement is the liver and muscles; meals provide only enough only be found in these forests while contributing
kinetic energy because motion is occurring. 5.2 Yes; energy till you eat again; ATP is just enough energy to stable global temperatures. 2. Countries without
any motion or cellular reaction that requires the for a reaction. 7. a; 8. e; 9. c; 10. b; 11. c; 12. b; 13. b; tropical rain forests can assist in preservation
breakdown of ATP increases entropy. 5.3 As long as 14. b; 15. c; 16. d; 17. c; 18. Through osmosis solutes through contributing money to conservation efforts,
cellular respiration is possible, ATP is constantly retain the liquid portion of blood in the vessels, publicly supporting the protection of these dynamic
replenished by joining ADP with P . 5.4 Because ATP allowing the blood to flow. 19. a, b, c; 20. b, c, d; ecosystems, and refusing to consume or use
breakdown is coupled to the energy-requiring reaction 21. d; 22. b, d; 23. d; 24. e products that result from deforestation.
of muscle contraction, the overall reaction increases
entropy. 5.5 Each enzyme’s active site allows only its Thinking Scientifically Testing Yourself
substrate to bind. 5.6 The optimum pH gives the 1. Ecosystems need a source of energy because energy 1. c; 2. d; 3. d; 4. c; 5. a. granum; b. thylakoid; c. O2;
active site the correct shape to bind the substrate; cannot be created. They need a continous supply d. Calvin cycle; e. stroma; 6. Only plants produce

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 organic food, and if animals only ate animals, food instances of these diseases in individuals that do specifics are different. For example, one sister
would run out. 7. a; 8. a; 9. a; 10 e; 11. d; 11. a; not exercise regularly, would support this claim. chromatid could call for freckles, and the other could
12. a; 13. e; 14. b; 15. Solar energy is unable to Since aerobic exercise burns fat, statistics that show call for no freckles. 8.9 The chromosomes of
participate directly in the chemical reactions that higher rates of diabetes and cancer in patients with relatives are more likely to carry some of the same
reduce carbon dioxide to carbohydrate, but ATP can excess body fat would also support this claim. 2. Yes, genetic information. Therefore, fertilization may
do so. 16. d; 17. c; 18. a evidence linking exercise to disease prevention bring together like homologues. 8.10 Plant cells do
would cause me to exercise more. Some diseases are not have centrioles or asters during both mitosis and
Thinking Scientifically genetic or result from exposure; however, if evidence meiosis. You can recognize meiosis by the pairing
1. Conditions have to be kept constant otherwise the shows that exercise is useful in warding off diabetes, and separation of homologues during meiosis I.
result may not be due to a difference in the light heart disease, or some forms of cancer, I would 8.11 In the haploid and alternation of generation
provided. For a control, do the same experiment find it beneficial to prevent those ailments that are cycles meiosis produces haploid spores that undergo
without elodea. 2. Photosynthesis takes place in leaf avoidable. mitosis to produce a haploid individual. 8.12 Meiosis
cells, showing that cells, and not organs, are the I has the same phases as mitosis, but homologous
basic units of a plant. Testing Yourself chromosomes separate during prophase I. Meiosis II
1. a; 2. c; 3. b; 4. Glucose breakdown begins with has the same phases as mitosis, but the cells are
Put the Pieces Together glycolysis; oxygen becomes water at the end of the haploid. 8.13 An excess of genetic material would
Page 121: 1.Cyanobacteria gave rise to chloroplasts ETC; carbon dioxide is produced by the prep reaction cause protein and metabolic abnormalities.
once they were taken up by a pre-eukaryotic cell, and Krebs cycle. ATPs are produced by glycolysis 8.14 Meiosis II because the only way for YY to occur
making them significant in the history of life as (2 ATP), Krebs cycle (2 ATP per two turns), and is through the nonseparation of chromatids during
an integral part in the evolution of photosynthetic 32-34 ATP by the ETC. 5. a; 6. e; 7. d; 8. b; 9. b; meiosis II. 8.15 No. For example, if the child
eukaryotes. These organisms are also credited with 10. c; 11. d; 12. d; 13. b; 14. Inner membrane space inherited both chromosomes that participated in the
introducing oxygen into the atmosphere. 2. Using serves as an area where hydrogen ions collect before translocation, one chromosome would be too short
only words and arrows, the diagram based on Figure passing through an ATP synthase complex; b. Matrix and the other would be too long, therefore the
6.7 should include all 11 steps; the diagram for is location of preparatory reaction and Krebs cycle; homologues for these chromosomes would look
Figure 6.9 should include the molecules listed in c. Cristae contain electron transport chain and ATP different in a karyotype.
the upper box and all 5 steps. Eliminate the box in synthase complex. 15. Only 39% of available energy
Figure 6.7 that represents the Calvin cycle reactions. becomes ATP and the rest becomes heat. 16. c; Form Your Opinion
Instead, stack your diagrams so that you can show 17. d; 18. c; 19. b; 20. b; 21. c; 22. Chloroplasts Page 147: 1. If bacteria make a protein similar
how steps #8 and #11 in Figure 6.7 connect to and mitochondria were originally independent to tubulin it does strengthen the hypothesis that
steps # 3, 4, 5 in Figure 6.9. 3. C4 photosynthesis prokaryotes. Prokaryotes evolved from a common bacteria contributed to the evolution of the spindle
is more advantageous to organisms (rather than ancestor, which must have used an ETC. apparatus. 2. Evolution must necessarily make use of
C3 photosynthesis) when the atmosphere contains the structures and molecules currently available. For
significant amounts of O2. C3 photosynthesis was Thinking Scientifically example the jaw evolved from the first two gill arches
advantageous to the first photosynthesizers because 1. Acid, because for ATP to be produced, H+ must of jawless fishes; humans walk erect by standing on
the atmosphere didn’t yet contain significant flow through the ATP synthase complex. the hind legs of quadrupeds that preceded them.
amounts of O2. 2. The acetyl group that enters the Kreb cycle is Page 151: 1. Yes answer: If I had lived 75 years and
oxidized to CO2. was facing a diminished quality of life including
CHAPTER 7 Put the Pieces Together
memory loss, the inability to maintain personal
hygiene, or eat and drink, I would be willing to
Check Your Progress Page 139: 1. The pre-eukaryotic cell must have risk cancer in order to correct Alzheimer disease.
7.1 The oxygen we breathe in is necessary to cellular been a fermenter living off abiotically produced Even though cancer has its own problems, I would
respiration which produces ATP. 7.2 It is a mechanism organic molecules. Cellular respiration couldn’t have not want to lose the memory of my family, friends,
that allows oxidation to occur slowly so that more ATP evolved until oxygen entered the atmosphere due and myself as I lived my final years. No answer:
are produced per glucose molecules. 7.3 Due to to the evolution of photosynthesis. The eukaryotic Though the possibility of cancer is not absolute, I
glycolysis 2 NADH and a net grain of 2 ATP have been cell became capable of cellular respiration after it would not be willing to risk spending the last years
produced. Some energy was lost as heat, and this heat engulfed a prokaryote that could carry out cellular of my life being treated for, or dying from, cancer in
can help warm bodies. 7.4 The reaction is getting ready respiration. 2. Structural similarities often point order to cure Alzheimer disease. I would seek other
for the Krebs cycle.The end product of the prep reaction to evolutionary ties. Both the chloroplasts and treatments to slow the progression of Alzheimer
(an acetyl group) enters the Kerbs cycle. 7.5 Per glucose mitochondria have an internal membrane system disease and attempt to maintain my quality of life
molecule Krebs cycle accounts for 2 ATP directly and where various complexes are located. They both for as long as it may last. 2. Yes answer: A scientist
much indirectly because it produces 6 NADH and have a semiliquid interior where enzymes carry out should be able to patent independent work because
2 FADH. 7.6 22 ATP 7.7 “Get ready”: H+ gradient is carbohydrate metabolism. They both have an outer our society now recognizes that a person has a
established. “Pay off”: ATP is produced. 7.8 Only boundary that allows substances to pass into or out right to his or her intellectual work. No answer: A
glycolysis, because the other metabolic pathways occur of the organelle. scientist should not be allowed to patent intellectual
in mitochondria. 7.9 Grapes are sometimes coated with endeavors because it is the custom for scientists to
yeasts that can start fermenting sugars (and producing
alcohol) if the weather is conducive. 7.10 a. Hydrolytic
CHAPTER 8 work together and share knowledge for the benefit
of society.
reactions are catabolic. Dehydration reactions are Check Your Progress Page 154: People who sunbathe, or drink or smoke
anabolic; b. A hydrolytic reaction occurs when ATP 8.1 Abnormal because mutations can affect the cigarettes might be prone to follow the popular trend.
breaks down to ADP + P (catabolic). normal structure of a chromosome. 8.2 Interphase They might feel that being one of a group engaged in
because cancer cells spend all their time dividing. these activities is worth it to them even though they
Form Your Opinion 8.3 Duplicated chromosomes contain sister may eventually die from them. You could give them
Page 134: 1. The discovery that bacteria in addition chromatids and each one becomes a daughter examples of people who are popular even though
to yeast ferment may have seemed irrelevant at chromosome. 8.4 Prophase-chromosomes are they do not engage in these practices. 2. Because
first but it lead to the production of many products scattered; metaphase-chromosomes are aligned at cancer does not occur immediately, the risk of cancer
such as yogurt, pickles, and certain types of beer. equator; anaphase- daughter chromosomes are may seem unrealistic or too far into the future to
2. The products of this page do not negate that food between equator and poles, telophase- daughter be immediately relevant. However, having a friend
is ultimately derived from plants. Fermentation is nuclei have formed. 8.5 A new cell wall in addition or family member who has cancer, might make the
a process through which sugar is broken down in to a plasma membrane is needed for each daughter illness more real to them.
the absence of oxygen. Since sugar is produced by cell. 8.6 a. Loss of cell cycle control: lack of
autotrophic organisms, namely plants, they play a differentiation; abnormal nuclei; form tumors. Testing Yourself
large role in producing these products. b. Beyond loss of control: angiogenesis and 1. a; 2. a; 3. a; 4. c; 5. a; 6. d; 7. c; 8. b; 9. c. 10. a.
Page 136: 1. Statistical information on the correlation metastasis. 8.7 Haploid, because each daughter cell chromatid of chromsome; b. centriole; c. spindle
between illness and exercise would substantiate the receives one member from each homologous pair of fiber or aster; d. nuclear envelope (fragment). 11. c;
claim that exercise can help to prevent a wide range chromosomes. 8.8 Sister chromatids have the same 12. a; 13. e; 14. b; 15. d; 16. Due to crossing-over
of ailments. Evidence from studies on diabetics and genetic information. Nonsister chromatids have and independent alignment, that occurs during each
cancer patients, for example, that showed higher genetic information for the same traits, but the meiotic event, the chromosomes in the egg and

A-4 APPENDIX Answer Key

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 sperm carry different genetic information. 17. a; reason that human beings are playing the role of the the gene strand in DNA except that U occurs instead
18. d; 19. a; 20. e; 21. b environment when natural selection occurs. of T. mRNA splicing removes introns from mRNA
3. It worked because the phenotype is dependent upon and the introns removed can vary due to alternative
Thinking Scientifically the genotype. Darwin observed that the phenotype mRNA splicing. 10.5 proline, tyrosine, arginine; 10.6
1. Both parents because the egg had to be missing changes over time but Mendel deduced that the an a. TAC in DNA = start codon in mRNA. b. ATT, ATC,
this chromosome and the sperm had to have two of organism has two factors (now called alleles) for or ACT in DNA = stop condons in mRNA; 10.7 The
this chromosome. 2. While theoretically possible, it each phenotypic trait. Page 181: 1. Testing either the cell makes a protein by the process of transcription
would be practically impossible to find two gametes 8-celled embryo or the egg prior to implantation is complementary base pairing with template strand
with the exact same genetic information that more acceptable than testing a child in utero and then and translation (tRNAs pair with mRNA codons)at a
produced this indiviudal. terminating the pregnancy if the child tests positive ribosome (rRNA). 10.8 A greater number of codons in
for a genetic disorder. 2. IVF is acceptable to me, mRNA and a greater number of amino acids would be
Put the Pieces Together especially when used by people who struggle getting incorrect.
Page 167: 1. The proximity of the homologous pregnant on their own. I do prefer testing the egg to
chromosomes during synapsis allows for the testing the embyo because an egg will not produce Form Your Opinion
exchange of genetic information that occurs through a life without fertilization. Therefore, testing the Page 197: 1. PCR should be used. Collection
crossing-over. Synapsis also allows for the alignment egg and choosing not to use it cannot be considered procedures should be standardized to eliminate the
of homologous chromosomes during independent termination of a life. However testing and disgarding possibility of stray DNA entering the sample. Perhaps
assortment. 2. In addition to crossing-over and an embryo that tests positive for a genetic disorder can more than one lab technician could independently
independent assortment of chromosomes, the random be considered a termination of life. collect a sample and one of these technicians could
fertilization that occurs through sexual reproduction be from an independent lab rather than a police lab.
results in increased variation among offspring. Testing Yourself 2. Yes answer: Once a person has been convicted of a
3. As discussed in previous chapters, evolution is 1. c; 2. The blending model of inheritance results felony, it would make sense for their DNA fingerprints
sometimes considered a process of “adding on” as in no variations, whereas Mendel’s model does to remain on file in the event that another crime was
opposed to starting over. Mitosis and meiosis being result in variations among the offspring. Evolution committed. It would save time and money to already
very similar events in which DNA is copied and requires variations. 3. d; 4. c; 5. d; 6. a; 7. a; 8. b; have this information readily available. No answer:
passed on to a new cell, it is possible that a mitotic 9. It shows that a chromosome(and a chromatid) has Despite the fact that one crime was committed and
cell division gone awry was the first meiosis. For a sequence of alleles; 10.a; 11 b; 12. c; 13. c; 14. b; a conviction made, there should be some degree of
instance, a genetic defect occurred that allowed 15. Egg testing because only eggs free of the faulty privacy with DNA fingerprinting, even for convicted
homologous chromosomes to pair by mistake allele are fertilized. 16. e; 17.b; 18. a; 19. c; 20. e; felons. DNA fingerprinting can always be redone
during mitosis. Then, crossing over occurs between 21. a; 22 d; 23.a; 24. XAXa. in the event of future crimes. 3. Yes answer: In the
chromosomes, resulting in a new allele combination interest of science, public health and safety, PCR
that benefits an organism. This “modified” mitosis Thinking Scientifically should be readily available. No answer: Government
which we call meiosis was passed on the next 1. Cross it now with a fly that lacks the agencies like the Department of Health and Human
reproductive generation. characteristic. Most likely, the fly is heterozygous Services could potentially regulate the use of PCR in
and only a single autosomal mutation has occurred. instances where PCR would interfere with the privacy
CHAPTER 9 Therefore, the cross will be Aa x aa with 1:1 results.
If the characteristic disappears in males, cross F1
rights of an individual.
Page 205: 1. Transposons replicate within the
Check Your Progress flies to see if it reappears; it could be X-linked (see DNA without regard to the consequences. DNA
9.1 The artificial selection of certain traits (controlled Fig. 9.16). 2. Give plants with a particular leaf can be considered selfish because just as the most
by genes) brings about recognizable breed changes. pattern different amounts of fertilizer from none successful members of a population have the most
9.2 Compared to dogs, pea plants are smaller, have a (your control) to over-enriched, and observe the offspring, the most successful DNA passes itself to
shorter maturation time, have traits that are easier to results. Keep other conditions, such as amount of the most members of the next generation without
distinguish, can both self- and cross-pollinate, and water, the same for all. regard to consequences. 2. It is possible that P
produce many more offspring. 9.3 Hip dysplasia only elements produced some evolutionary advantage in
occurs when offspring inherit two recessive alleles Put the Pieces Together Drosophila melanogaster which was passed on via
for hip dysplasia. 9.4 (1) a. RR b. Rr (2) a. all W; Page 189: 1. Just as flipping a coin many times natural selection to spread into all populations of the
b. ½ R, ½ r; c. ½ T, ½ t; d. all T;(3) bb (4) 3 black is more likely to give 50% heads and 50% tails species.
rabbits: 1 white rabbit; 30 rabbits/120 are white. so counting many F2 is more likely to give a 3:1 Page 206: 1. Yes answer: Health insurance should
9.5 TtGg, TTGG, TtGG, TTGg. 9.6 (1)RRPP, round ratio when the parent plants are heterozygous be fairly priced and affordable for all people. It
seeds, purple flowers; (2) 75%; (3) 9:3:3:1, 1⁄16; because the particular gametes that join with is not guaranteed that sunbathers and smokers
9.7 (1) ¼; (2) Ss; (3) Tt x tt, tt. 9.8 Without careful each fertilization is by chance. 2. Meiosis explains will get cancer and require extended medical
records, the breeder may not know that all the Mendels laws. Mendel’s law of segregation holds care. No answer: Health insurance prices should
individuals in row III are cousins who could carry the because the homologous pairs separate during take into account the likelihood that smokers
same recessive allele for, say, hip dysplasia. 9.9 Each meiosis I. Mendel’s law of independent assortment and sunbathers will be sick and require long-
parent is heterozygous. 9.10 Yes, if each were holds because either homologous chromosome of term medical care for the treatment of diseases
heterozygous. 9.11 The phenotypes of the potential each pair of homologues can face either pole during like cancer. Because there is a proven correlation
offspring are: ¼ are normal; ½ may suffer a heart metaphase I of meiosis. 3. Mendelian genetics laid between sunbathing, smoking, and cancer, it would
attack as young adults; and ¼ may suffer a heart the groundwork to eventually understand how genes make sense for insurance rates to be higher for
attack in childhood. 9.12 Child: ii, mother: IAi; father: function. Because of its many applications to human people who choose these activities. 2. Yes answer:
IAi, ii, IBi; 9.13 (1) see Figure 9.13, page 183, in text. beings, Mendel’s work allows us to understand the Bacterial response to mutagens can be relied upon
(2) Resistance is a polygenic trait with alleles on the inheritance patterns of genetic disorders, including as at least a predictor of human cell responses
X chromosome and chromosomes 2 and 3. (3) Diet is autosomal recessive and dominant disorders. to these same substances. Though prokaryotes
an environmental influence. 9.14 In CF, faulty Today, we can determine if parents are carriers for and eukaryotes differ, the Ames test can be used
chloride channels occur throughout the body and numerous genetic disorders and advise them of to indicate potential hazards and further testing
lead to problems in several organs, including the the chances they will pass on a particular disorder could be conducted. No answer: Testing the effect
skin, lungs, and pancreas. 9.15 The Y chromosome is because of Mendel’s laws. of a mutagen on a prokaryote is not a completely
quite small. 9.16 (1) mother XBXb, father XbY, reliable predictor of the response of a eukaryotic
daughter XbXb; (2) XRXR, XRY; (3) (b); 1:1.
CHAPTER 10 human cell to the same substance.

Form Your Opinion Check Your Progress Testing Yourself

Page 177: 1. The bulleted statements in the 10.1 a. DNA contains deoxyribose, and the base T; 1. c; 2. e; 3. b; 4. a; 5. d; 6. c; 7. b; 8. DNA
application show that the theory of evolution and RNA contains ribose and the base U instead of T. b. analogues prevent the formation of new DNA
the gene theory are compatible. When two theories The particular sequence of the nucleotide bases. molecules, and each new virus requires a DNA
are compatible it means that experimentation in 10.2 DNA is a double helix in all organisms. molecule. 9. d; 10. b; 11. e; 12. a; 13. c; 14. b. 15. d;
one field supports the findings of another field as 10.3 Complementary base pairing between the 16. d; 17. c; 18. b; 19. a. polypeptide b. amino acid
when two structures are supported by a wall they template strand and the new strand. 10.4 Transcription c. tRNA d. anticodon e. codon f. ribosome; 20. c; 21.
have in common. 2. Artificial selection allows us to produces an mRNA molecule that is the same as a. ACU CCU GAA UGC AAA; b. UGA GGA CUU ACG

APPENDIX Answer Key A-5

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 UUU c. threonine—proline—glutamate—cysteine— we are born and this accounts for its large size. instructions on what tasks to perform (when protein
lysine; 22. genetic information, in the sequence of its It suggests that coordination between brain parts production is needed) or chaos (disease) will result.
bases; 23. b; 24. b; 25. A change from ATG to ATA has and the functioning of limbs was sacrificed to this
no effect because both of the resulting codons code
for tyrosine. 26. Without mutations, new adaptations
enlargement. 3. Yes, it does make sense. Initially,
cells divide to make exact copies of themselves
CHAPTER 12
cannot occur and new life forms cannot evolve. which serves to produce a larger organism. As the Check Your Progress
cell number grows, regulatory genes bring about 12.1 The nucleus contains the genes that determine
Thinking Scientifically differentiation of cell types so that they perform the phenotype. 12.2 The GFP gene only causes
1. Determine if any transposon base sequence occurs different functions. Without this specialization, cell living organisms to glow in dark. 12.3 Genes
in the sequence for the neurofibromatosis gene. division would simply create copy after copy of function the same in all organisms. 12.4 By cloning
2. Place the isolated gene in Arabidopsis cells and the original cell and development of an organism you’re assured of producing only females that
look for the mutation in cloned adult plants. would not occur. A human-sized clump of cells and produce milk. 12.5 A virus 12.6 How the pieces
a human being differ greatly due to specialization should be sequenced. 12.7 a. introns, unique and
Put the Pieces Together through regulatory genes. repetitive b. repetitive DNA is the largest portion
Page 209: 1. The criteria for a genetic material: (1) it Page 224: 1. Yes answer: By making a young person and investigators are determining if it has a
must be variable, accounting for the differences aware that they could carry a cancer gene, they regulatory function. 12.8 a. You would know what
between species. DNA is variable. Differences can make informed decisions about life, including proteins are made by specialized cells and why
in the base pairing combinations found in DNA screening to detect cancer early and often to some cells malfunction. b. Bioinformatics can find
molecules produce differences in proteins, which potentially treat it as soon as it appears. A young similarities and differences between proteomes,
account for the variation between species; (2) it person might lead a healthier life to help ward off for example.
must be able to replicate, as DNA does, in a semi illness with exercise and a proper diet. An informed
conservative process by which it duplicates itself; person may also decide, based upon knowing the Form Your Opinion
(3) it must be able to undergo mutations. DNA probability, whether or not to have children and Page 231: 1. Reproductive cloning can help to
undergoes mutations, another factor which accounts potentially pass the gene along. No answer: Making preserve rare animals that might otherwise become
for variability in organisms. DNA can undergo a young person aware that they could carry a extinct. It can also provide a large number of
mutations during the replication process, due to cancer gene could potentially make the person’s life agricultural plants for farmers. Once an animal has
contact with external factors like radiation, or due to miserable with paranoia and trips to the doctor for been genetically modified for a particular purpose, it
random events like jumping genes, or transposons, every ache and pain. A person may decide against can produce other animals with the same genotype
which in turn alter gene expression and cause many having a family, participating in activities that and phenotype. Reproductive cloning also helps the
changes in organisms. 2. This suggests that protein- expose them to sun or other carcinogens, and lead a scientific community increase its knowledge of gene
coding genes in specialized cells may be activate depressing and anxious life. I think the choice to find interactions and embryonic development. 2. Yes
or inactive at different points in the cell’s life. out if you could carry a cancer gene should be made answer: Reproductive cloning has many potential
3. Futuristic drugs might affect the early synthesis by each person individually. 2. Yes answer: Especially side effects that are less than desirable. Because we
procedure, changing or eliminating the proteins to when there is a family history of cancer, the testing do not completely understand and cannot predict
be produced by making changes in mRNA before it can help doctors catch and treat the cancer earlier, the possible hazards of cloning animals and human
reaches the ribosomes. and advise the patient on the healthiest life possible beings, I find the process to be risky and potentially
to avoid the cancer. Decisions can also be made dangerous. Animals and people can be created that
CHAPTER 11 regarding reproduction and passing the alleles to
children. However, just because the testing for
suffer from premature aging and disease, or worse,
a person with uncontrolled aggression or mental
Check Your Progress cancer-causing alleles should be advised, it should imbalance. If this occurs, we have created a life that
11.1 Regulatory genes code for DNA-binding be voluntary. All people are different and some will cost money to diagnose and treat or poses a
proteins. 11.2 Transcription factors and transcription individuals may not want to know every last detail danger to itself or others. There are also religious
activators. 11.3 Inactive means that the DNA is not about their future health. and moral issues regarding the production of life.
being transcribed; heterochromatin means that the No answer: When used to preserve endangered
chromatin is tightly packed. 11.4 Because Pax6 could Testing Yourself species I find the cloning of animals to be a useful
not be present in so many different animals unless 1. a. DNA; b. regulator gene; c. promoter; d; operator; procedure. Also it can help populate the world with
they are related through evolution 11.5 Introns are e. active repressor; 2. b; 3. b; 4. b; 5. d; 6. b; 7. b; 8. b; humans, animals, and plants that have a beneficial
removed during processing. 11.6 miRNAs lead to 9. b; 10. c; 11. e; 12. e; 13. d; 14. a; 15. c; 16. b; 17. genotype and phenotype. 3. Because the harvesting
limited amount of mRNA translation while siRNA Benefit is refinement of control; drawback is more of stem cells from embryos creates controversy
lead to no translation of mRNA 11.7 Translation chances of losing control; 18. b,c; 19. a,c; 20. a,d; over moral issue, I think that we should explore
repressor proteins can prevent translation of mRNA; 21. a,d; 22. c,d,a,b therapeutic cloning using adult stem cells and treated
enzymes may have to cleave a protein to activate it; skin cells since this method is already in the works
tagging of a protein makes it vulnerable to digesion Thinking Scientifically and is less controversial for the general public.
inside a proteasome. 11.8 a. transcription factor 1. You should also show that the genes having Page 235: 1. Based on the ability of scientists to
b. euchromatin c. introns removed d. RISC e. homeoboxes result in similar developmental stages. perform simulated digestion of GM crops using
proteasome 11.9 a. Cell cycle keeps going when it 2. Culture normal cells in the presence of the pollutent enzymes to test for the characteristics of allergens,
should stop. b. The gene is now coding for a faulty and observe the results. Culture the same types of as well as feeding the GM crops to test animals like
protein in an inhibitory transduction pathway. cells in the same manner but without the pollutent rats, it seems that scientists have the ability to decide
11.10 Cancer is caused by a series of mutations and and observe the results. pre-market if a GM crop is potentially harmful. 2. Yes
all these mutations may or may not occur. answers: Because of the unpredictable risks and the
Put the Pieces Together newness of the technology, I am in favor of banning
Form Your Opinion Page 227: 1. Many of the anatomical differences GM crops until long-term studies have informed
Page 217: 1. Yes answer: The brain is a fascinating between apes and humans pertain to differences scientists on the long-term effects of consuming these
organ about which scientists, doctors, and everyday that might have arisen due to a change in gene foods. And I do approve of ecoterrorists burning crops
people have many questions. The more avenues regulation. For example differences in brain and destroying labs that could potentially be harmful
we explore to help answer these questions, the development and infant strength could be due to to the public. Getting rid of the crops and the labs
more headway we might be able to make in particular protein activities during development. they are genetically engineered in slows the spread
matters involving the brain, such as Alzheimer 2. A knowledge of regulation can be used to of GM crops to the market and protects the public
disease or human intelligence. Evolutionary understand the onset and progression of diseases, from what might create health problems in the long-
changes in the brain and its development might particularly those that result from genetic term. No answer: I do not favor a ban of GM crops.
serve to teach us much more than we could ever mutations that effect protein production. With an GM crops have increased yields, decreased losses due
imagine. No answer: Research should focus on understanding of how regulation turns protein to herbicides and pests, and have been tested before
the human brain alone and how it works. There production “on” and “off” we might discover hitting the shelf. I do favor the proper labeling of such
is no guarantee that looking into the differences methods to artificially “flip the switch” to head off crops and the decision to consume these or other crops
between human and ape brains will give us any potentially detrimental changes in protein levels. being left up to the consumer. And I do not approve
relevant or useful information. 2. This reading 3. Genetic regulation is to cells as a teacher is of ecoterrorism or the burning of crops and labs that
tells us that our brain continues to develop after to a class room. The students (cells) need clear could be useful in scientific research. Boycotting GM

A-6 APPENDIX Answer Key

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 products or informing the public in peaceful displays CHAPTER 13 When humans genetically modify and breed plants,
would be desirable alternatives to destroying crops and they certainly influence the plants’ evolution. Changing
property. 3. If a genetically modified food can provide Check Your Progress something about the plant, which would only occur
an otherwise lacking vitamin, it should be used where 13.1 Darwin made observations that would help him over time due to mutations and natural selection in
it will benefit the people and prevent childhood formulate a hypothesis. 13.2 No, you would nature, at least speeds the evolutionary process—that
blindness. Data on any side effects of the GM rice pollinate it by hand with the pollen of your choice. is, if the genetic modification made by humans would
and whether or not they outweigh its benefits would 13.3 Any plant that provided food (nectar) to a occur in nature at all. Any human involvement in
help in decisively banning or allowing the public particular pollinator had an advantage that resulted plant reproduction or genetic composition influences
consumption of GM rice enhanced with vitamin A. in more offspring than other members of the evolution. The engineered plants humans create may
Page 242: 1. Yes, I would have expected gene population because its pollen was being distributed. evolve entirely differently than non-engineered plants
regulation to account for major evolutionary 13.4 Yes. Whenever independent sources come to would have. 3. Artificial selection can be harmful to
differences because the control of protein the same conclusion based on the data they have plants and animals because it (1) reduces variation and
production results in the different characteristics collected, the hypothesis is supported. 13.5 Flowers (2) can make organisms prone to disease and (3) can
we see between species. The types and amount are delicate and decompose quickly, not allowing select for traits that do not help the animal survive in
of proteins being produced by an organism time for them to become fossils. 13.6 The flowers the wild.
determine important attributes like appearance would have shorter and thicker floral tubes.
and development. It makes sense then, that control 13.7 The flowers probably had a common ancestor. Testing Yourself
of protein production accounts for differences 13.8 These species of finches evolved on the 1. b; 2. c; 3. c; 4. d; 5. b; 6. Neither the occurrence
among the species. 2. Yes answer: If a study of Galápagos Islands. 13.9 All organisms are related of mutations nor the changing of environmental
my genome and the diseases prone to others with through common descent from the first cell or cells. conditions are known ahead of time. 7. e; 8. d; 9. e;
similar genetic make-up might lead to beneficial 13.10 Genetic similarity maintains the characteristics 10. e; 11. a; 12. d; 13. c; 14. b; 15. Their DNA base
findings for other human beings, I would be willing of the species; genetic variation allows evolution sequences were inherited from a common ancestor.
to participate in a comparative human study. No (adaptation) to occur. 13.11 Microevolution has 16. a; 17. a; 18. c; 19. d; 20. b
answer: I think that genome studies should rely on occurred when allele frequency changes are
testing plants and approved animals. The privacy observed due to mutations, gene flow, nonrandom Thinking Scientifically
of human subjects is at risk in comparative studies mating, genetic drift, and natural selection. 1. If you know the genotype of the various colors,
and I would prefer to preserve my privacy rather 13.12 Yes; any flower mutation that increases the you could use the Hardy-Weinberg equation
than participate in a study that exposes my genetic chances of being pollinated and any mutation in the to calculate changes in gene pool frequencies.
weaknesses. 3. Since we are not identical twins, I pollinator that increases the chances of getting food Otherwise, you could base sequence before and
would expect my genome to differ slightly from my results in more offspring with the same adaptation. after the experiment to determine a change in the
siblings. Though we have a great deal in common, 13.13 Imagine a pollinator that only pollinates a genome. 2. Yes; due to natural selection of boll
there must be differences in our DNA because we particular species and can only see flowers of a weevils resistant to the insecticide.
are all different people. certain color. Only flowers of that color would
produce seeds, and soon all flowers of that species Put the Pieces Together
Testing Yourself would be that color. 13.14 Yes, because genetic drift Page 269: 1. Evolution via natural selection can be
1. b; 2. a; 3. a; 4. d; 5. e; 6. c,a,b,d; 7. c; 8.e; causes a change in allele frequencies, but does not witnessed, particularly in organisms that have short
9. begins: AATT; ends: TTAA; 10. a; 11. a; 12. e; necessarily contribute to adaptation. 13.15 Yes, life cycles and thus reproduce multiple generations
13 Plants and animals can trace their ancestry to a because a flower of any other color has little chance over short periods of time. For example, over 5
common source, and therefore plants are able to of being pollinated. 13.16 Yes, because, in this years silent male field crickets increased from 10%
express a human gene. 14. a; 15. c; 16. d; 17. e; instance, natural selection favors the heterozygote. to 90% of the population in a study conducted in
18. Genetically modified stem cells pass on their Natural selection favors whichever genotype/ Hawaii. The silent cricket had an advantage over
modification to their offspring (more white blood phenotype is most advantageous in a particular the chirping cricket in its inability to be detected
cells) indefinitely. 19. b; 20. c; 21. a; 22. Each gene environment. by a predator. This selective pressure caused silent
performs only one function, so despite increased crickets to survive to reproduce while chirping
number of genes, only 30 gene functions would be Form Your Opinion crickets were preyed upon. Other examples can be
available. 23. a; 24. d; 25. d; 26. c; 27. d; 28. a; 29. c Page 254: 1. The now common occurrence of MRSA seen in the evolution of pesticide-resistant insects
(methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) is an as a result of the increased use of pesticides and
Thinking Scientifically example of antibiotic resistance that many people antibiotic-resistant bacteria due to the selective
1. Use restriction enzymes to fragment the DNA of now know about. Many patients think of antibiotics pressure of increased antibiotic use. 2. We expect
chromosome 10. Inject these fragments, one at a time, as a universal cure for all ailments and pressure evolution to have a genetic basis because genes
into groups of one-celled mouse embryos. Following doctors into prescribing them. However, physicians control the phenotype of an individual including
development, see which mice have no tails. 2. An should stop overprescribing antibiotics and patients structural, metabolic, and behaviorial traits. Thus
ex vivo study allows you to perfect your procedure in should be sure to take all doses that were prescribed. genetic changes had to precede the observation of
the lab and possibly avoid harm to the patient. Also instead of increasing pesticide use or changing phenotypic changes. 3. Because evolution is not
pesticides, farmers should set aside farmland that directional, it would be incorrect to say that bacteria
Put the Pieces Together encourages the reproduction of non-resistant insects. became resistant in order to escape being killed by
Page 245: 1. Biotechnology takes what we If a farmer can increase the number of non-resistant antibiotics. The mutations that allow bacteria to
know about nature and utilizes developments in insects on their land, lower levels of pesticides become resistant had to have occurred before they
technology to artificially produce desired results for will continue to eliminate these insects. Current were exposed to the antibiotic. Nature selected for
human beings. Because of the blending of science practices call for the increased use of pesticides and resistant individuals and against the non-resistant.
and technology, biotechnology is aptly named. development of new ones as resistant insects rise in
2. (1) Our cells contain many more proteins that
there are genes that code for proteins. (2) Introns
population. 2. Due to extent of human involvement,
drug development, design, and improvement is
CHAPTER 14
may help regulate the number and kind of exons in artificial selection for the best drugs, but not natural Check Your Progress
each type protein. (3) Repetitive DNA is translated selection at work. 14.1 No, because ligers share the ancestry of both
into RNA and it appears that several types of Page 262: 1. A taste for sweet foods in humans, apes lions and tigers, and they do not ordinarily occur
small RNAs are involved in both transcription and and monkeys benefits plants containing sweet proteins in the wild. 14.2 a. Habitat isolation; lions live on
translation. 3. To the layperson, biotechnology because the more these plants are ingested, the more the plains, and tigers live in forests; b. F2 fitness;
and genomics may appear to be tampering with widely the distribution of their seeds in the waste of ligers are usually sterile (due to mispairing of
nature and playing “God.” Many of the procedures humans and animals. The spreading of these seeds chromosomes during meiosis). 14.3 Members of the
and technologies associated with biotechnology over larger areas and at high rates gives the plants a ancestral species separated into those that lived on
might seem extreme to the layperson, or difficult reproductive advantage over plants that are not eaten the plains and those that lived in the forest. Over
to understand. If portrayals in movies are the only as much. 2. Humans are influencing the evolution of time, each became adapted to its habitat, including a
source of information regarding cloning and other plants when they propagate them. When humans step change in coat color. Now, lions and tigers do not
biotechnology, the layperson may believe that in to produce more of one plant than another, for food mate because they rarely come into contact, and also
scientists are “evil” and science itself as unregulated or other purposes, they are artificially selecting for some because the coat color allows them to recognize
and self-serving. plants to have more reproductive success than others. members of their own species. 14.4 You need

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 evidence that each of the cats is adapted to fill a speciation was possible on the Hawaiian Islands, but the isolation of definitive nucleotide sequences
different niche. 14.5 The fossil record would have to not on the Florida Keys. 16. b; 17. c; 18. d; 19. b; that differ between individuals or would otherwise
show fossils of the different types of cats existing in 20. b; 21. c; 22. b; 23. d; 24. b; 24. d; 25. Hox genes require the sequencing of a person’s entire genome.
the same location at the same time—before they evolved early in the history of life. 26. d; 27. b It could potentially work through inserting a sample
begin to appear in various locations. 14.6 A of hair, blood, semen, or skin into a scanning device.
gradualistic model if the ligers are transitional links. Thinking Scientifically Individuals could be required to have their DNA
14.7 a. Ligers are larger than either parent. b. The 1. The evolutionary species concept allows you to sequenced upon birth, arrest, or medical care such
large size of ligers is an advantage that is selected trace the history of an organism in the fossil record, that a catalog of DNA could be used as a reference
for. 14.8 No, evolution is not goal oriented. and the biological species concept provides a way to for comparison of the scanned genetic material, much
identify species without the need to examine them like the catalog that exists for organisms that have
Form Your Opinion anatomically. 2. Their chromosomes are compatible, been sequenced by scientists. 3. Yes answer: I would
Page 280: 1. Yes answer: We should continue to and the two species are very closely related. It’s try to make money from human bar-coding, as should
convert corn to ethanol. Despite increased cost of doubtful they should be considered different species. individuals involved in developing this procedure.
corn, we must produce alternative energy sources If the technology was developed to bar-code to the
in order to reduce our reliance on non-renewable Put the Pieces Together level of identifying individual people, it should be
resources. Since eventually we will have no choice Page 289: 1. Biologists have made testable marketed for a profit. Scientists and inventors alike
but to use alternative methods, it is best that we hypotheses about (1) the activity of Hox genes in should be able to earn a living from the procedures
explore those we have already developed, including many different species; (2) the effects of regulatory and technology that they spend time developing,
the conversion of corn to ethanol. It is possible genes on developmental processes; (3) the need for testing, and improving. No answer: I would not try
that the increased cost of corn could be offset by geographic and reproductive isolation in order for to make money from human bar-coding technology
the decreased need for expensive petroleum-based a new species to arise; (4) the role of polyploidy in and the individuals involved should not try to sell
fuels. No answer: We should not continue to convert the origination of new plant species and (5) the role their procedure for a profit. It would make sense for
corn to ethanol if it raises the cost of corn needed of gradualist and punctuated equilibrium models individuals involved to be compensated for their work
to feed humans and animals around the world. We in speciation. 2. Paleontologists suggested the but not to profit. Selling procedures to the highest
should explore other alternative fuel methods and punctuated equilibrium model using data from the bidder puts science beyond the reach of everyday
temporarily maintain our reliance on petroleum fossil record that supports the sudden appearance people, who should have just as much access to
while we still have it. We must develop alternative of new species. These species then undergo little scientific development as more affluent individuals.
methods for energy, particularly those that are more morphologoical change until becoming extinct. Page 302: 1. Cladistics is considered more objective
efficient and less disruptive than converting corn 3. Yes, the study of evolution is a scientific endeavor. than evolutionary systematic because it presents its
to ethanol. 2. Yes answer: We should grow more In order to understand the process of evolution, data for all to see and no conclusions are subjective.
corn for energy production through conversion scientists have formulated hypotheses and tested This is why cladistics has most likely been welcomed
to ethanol and use less in the process of creating these hypothesis in the natural world. This has and will continue to be well received by the scientific
waste and feeding beef. This might lead to limited resulted in the collection of data and a conclusion community. 2. Science should be willing to change
beef in human diets and less waste to dispose that evolution does occur. Natural selection can while still retaining traditional methods that are also
of, solving problems associated with pollution of be used to explain observations in other fields of useful. We should particularly keep any traditional
ground water, circulatory problems in humans, and biology from genetics to behavior. methods have been well tested. Innovation, however,
even obesity in our fast-food fed nation. If corn propels science forward and is only natural in a field
was primarily grown to produce energy, we might
explore alternative foods for animals and humans
CHAPTER 15 driven by hypotheses and experimentation.

alike. No answer: We should not grow more corn Check Your Progress Testing Yourself
for ethanol conversion and decrease its use as food 15.1 When tracing the evolution of life, you need to 1. b; 2. d; 3. a; 4. c; 5. e; 6. e; 7. a; 8. d; 9. d; 10. a;
for humans and animals. We should develop better start with the past and move toward the present. The Ferns; b. produce seeds; c. naked seeds; d. needle-like
waste management practices and moderate our dates are in MYA; therefore, the larger numbers in the leaves, Conifers; e. fan-shaped leaves, Gingkos;
consumption of beef while continuing to use corn timescale are more distant from the present than are the f. enclosed seeds; g. one embryonic leaf, Monocots;
for food. If we can grow more corn, this is not an smaller numbers. 15.2 Yes, because dinosaurs evolved h. two embryonic leaves, Eudicots. 11. b; 12. d; 13. e;
either/or situation and we can have enough corn for at the start of the Mesozoic era, when the continents 14. b; 15. e; 16. b; 17. New and different stuctures
ethanol production and food uses. were all still joined. 15.3 Humans didn’t evolve until arise due to DNA differences. 18. b; 19. a, b, c;
Page 283: 1. Since science seeks to answer questions the Holocene epoch, long after the last mass extinction. 20. d, e; 21. b; 22. The three-domain system is based
about the natural world, the scientific community The possibility exists that humans could become extinct on differences/similarities in the sequencing of
should use phenomenon like the Burgess Shale to due to their own activities. 15.4 Only plants that rRNA. This is backed up by differences in structure.
help answer these questions. Since fossil evidence resemble virgina creeper are in the same genus. Domain
can help to fill in blanks in evolutionary history, Eukarya contains the plants, animals, fungi, and Thinking Scientifically
the fossils should be examined and evaluated in protists. 15.5 Animals share the same way of life; they 1. The tree shows that all life forms have a common
an attempt to figure out how they fit into the story are all motile and ingest their food. 15.6 Monkeys and source and how they are related, despite the
of our planet. The scientific community should gorillas share a more recent common ancestor than do occurrence of divergence, which gives rise to
do its best to preserve such phenomenon while reindeer and gorillas. 15.7 epidermal scales 15.8 Yes, different groups of organisms. 2. The specialized
objectively examining the history hidden inside. dinosaurs being vertebrates share the homologous environmental niche of these organisms is the same
Potentially detrimental “shots in the dark” should structures of vertebrates. as it was when they first evolved.
be avoided and in some cases, samples should be
preserved until technology can be developed Form Your Opinion Put the Pieces Together
to meet the demands of dissecting fragile fossil Page 299: 1. In some instances the ability to readily Page 307: 1. Yes answer: Putting the biosphere and
evidence. 2. Students should be presented objective identify any species of organism could be beneficial all of its organisms into a tree of life would put the
information about the unexplained. This can to society. In fields such as farming, education, and vast nature of the world in perspective and would
encourage students to understand the progressive medicine this technology would prove particularly make me want to preserve all species now alive.
nature of science, along with how much we do not useful for identifying organisms that propose a No answer: The overwhelming nature of a complete
know about the world in which we live. Exposure to threat to plants and/or human beings. For example, tree of life might decrease my interest in the
phenomena that is yet to be fully explained can help a farmer, doctor, or student could differentiate preservation of species by sheer over-stimulation.
students understand the scientific process. These poisonous or otherwise harmful insects or plant Seeing that so many species exist, some being very
students may someday be scientists themselves, species that differ only subtly in appearance from similar to one another might detract from the value
developing techniques or technology that will help non-harmful species. This could assist in medical of each species individually. 2. Yes answer: I do look
us learn more about these phenomena. diagnostics for rashes, insect or snake bites if forward this because determining the ancestry of
some portion of the organism were available for humans all the way to the first living source is an
Testing Yourself identification. Because of the need to scan either exciting concept that seems to fit naturally into the
1. c; 2. c; 3. b; 4. f; 5. a; 6. e; 7. h; 8. e; 9. c; 10. e; the organism or a portion of it, the ability to identify human desire to understand who we are and where
11. Genetic differences; 12. a. species 1; b. geographic a species may not always be possible, however. we came from. No answer: I do not look forward
barrier; c. genetic changes; d. species 2; e. genetic 2. The conversion of the CBOL methods to a criminal to tracing the ancestry of humans to the very first
changes; f. species 3. 13. d; 14. b; 15. Allopatric identification process would most likely require living source and do not trust the data that traces

A-8 APPENDIX Answer Key

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 the ancestry of humans to the first living source. 3. It a host cell. With the ability to produce enzymes, cells, including eukaryotic cells. They reproduce
does not surprise me that humans are related to all cellular respiration would be a possibility. Now the quickly and a large number can be kept in a small
other organisms on the planet. An understanding virus could live independently. 2) The virus would container. Since bacteria are haploid, mutations can
of genetics and evolution helps explain why need to gain a plasma membrane and this may be immediately observed.
connections exist between all living organisms. have happened by keeping a portion of the plasma
Also, the shared characteristics of all living things membrane of the host cell. 2. If the viruses of today Put the Pieces Together
(see page 18) help to support the undeniable are degenerate forms of viruses that gave rise to Page 331: 1. Not all bacteria cause disease. There
interrelatedness of every organism, past and present. cells, their parasitic life style may have caused are bacteria present in a healthy digestive system, in
them to lose certain abilities out of disuse. In their foods including yogurt and cheeses, and in food and
CHAPTER 16 degeneration, viruses of the past would have lost the
ability to replicate independently, carry on metabolic
beverage production processes like fermentation in
bread and alcohol. 2. The first stages of the scenario
Check Your Progress activity independently, and thus to live outside of a described in figure 16.7 can be explained using
16.1 The genes become incorporated into the virus’s host cell. 3. A parasite needs to produce a sufficient the iron-sulfur world hypothesis through which
nucleic acid core. 16.2 The virus should be lysogenic number of offspring so that some will go on to thermal vents in the ocean could have heated water
and should never undergo the lytic cycle. 16.3 Only parasitize other hosts. Many offspring are expected containing iron and nickel sulfides which then served
plant cells have receptors for plant viruses. 16.4 To to never find another host; the greater the number of as catalysts in the conversion of N2 into NH3. This
avoid unintentionally infecting the researcher. offspring the more likely a new host will be infected. conversion could have produced nutrient molecules
16.5 DNA animal viruses do not carry out reverse Page 327: 1. I would explain the symptoms of capable of supporting life. Under the conditions of the
transcription and integration. 16.6 As yet, there were gonorrhea, including pain with urination, bloody thermal vents, inorganic molecules could have given
no enzymes to allow reactions at mild temperatures or milky discharge, pelvic inflammatory disease rise to organic monomers, which could combine to
to occur. 16.7 a. RNA can store, replicate, and (PID), reduced fertility, tubal pregnancy, blindness form polymers like amino acids which form peptides
transmit genetic information; b. RNA can perform in infants who pass through an infected birth canal, in the presence of iron and nickel sulfides. Once this
enzymatic functions, including those for replicating and possible spread to internal organs leading to chemical evolution was complete, the raw materials
itself. 16.8 a. Proteins (enzymes) allow a cell to heart disease or painful arthritis. I would also stress for biological evolution were readily available for
acquire energy and grow; b. Genetic information the many ways in which gonorrhea can be contracted the formation of membranes, proteins, and genetic
(either in the form of RNA or DNA) is needed for and parts of the body it can infect, including the materials that are the building blocks of the cell.
reproduction. 16.9 The capsule protects bacteria from eyes, mouth, throat, and tonsils. The two most 3. Cyanobacteria first carried on photosynthesis.
the host defenses, and the pili help bacteria adhere to important points I would raise are that the risk of The endosymbiotic theory explains the evolution
parts of the human body. 16.10 Binary fission will contracting HIV is increased when a person has of photosynthetic eukaryotes by taking up
quickly produce a large number of bacteria, which gonorrhea, and that it is possible that some strains cyanobacteria, organisms believed to be responsible
will all have an ability to feed on oil. 16.11 During of gonorrhea will be incurable with antibiotics if this for introducing oxygen into the early atmosphere and
sexual reproduction, each parent passes a complete bacteria continues to evolve new strains, increasing thus allowing the evolution of animals. Without the
copy of its genome to an offspring. During the risk of permanent side effects when major organs introduction of oxygen to the atmosphere, the world
transformation, conjugation, and transduction, a fully are infected. 2. Children should be instructed about as we know it would not exist.
formed bacterium receives a few genes from another gonorrhea early, in late elementary to early middle
fully formed bacterium. 16.12 a. All humans require
oxygen and bacteria differ in their need for oxygen;
school years. Just like other diseases, it is important
to inform children about the risk of and precautions
CHAPTER 17
b. All humans are heterotrophs and bacteria can be against sexually transmitted infection. The earlier Check Your Progress
photosynthetic, chemosynthetic, or heterotrophic. the instruction takes place, the greater the chances 17.1 Yes, all protists are eukaryotes and have a
16.13 Cyanobacteria are believed to be the first that infection can be avoided instead of having to nucleus. 17.2 Protists are a variable group and differ in
organisms to release oxygen into the atmosphere. be treated. Teaching children to be responsible, even size from microscopic to macroscopic; exhibit all
Cyanobacteria still release oxygen, just as algae and in matters that might make parents and other adults possible life cycles, and ingest, absorb, or make their
plants do. 16.14 Bacteria and archaea arose from a uncomfortable, provides them with the information own food. 17.3 Contaminated water is a common
common ancestor; eukaryotes arose from archaea. they need to be safe and healthy. source of Giardia infections. 17.4 A structural role.
16.15 Bacteria are saprotrophs whose digestive Page 328: 1. No answer: If we discontinue flyovers, Silica is found in the tests of radiolarians. (It is also
enzymes break down materials in the environment. bioterrorists would certainly just find another found in the cell walls of some plants and in the
method to attack with. We should take precaution spicules of some sponges.) 17.5 Cilia give an organism
Form Your Opinion to control air traffic during sports events and not the ability to move through the water and to direct
Page 313: 1. The special concerns associated with discontinue activities in fear of possible attack. Yes water and food particles into a gullet for digestion.
catching a newly discovered emergent disease answer: Bioterrorists might take advantage of the 17.6 A negative test for the spores merozoites. 17.7 As
include the potential of catching a new strain that gathering of a large crowd and the fact that a flyover a result of the Irish potato famine, a large number of
cannot be treated or cured in the same manner is not an abnormal event during a sporting event. people emigrated from Ireland to the United States.
as previous strains. A new disease may not be Discontinuing flyovers may prevent a catastrophic 17.8 They are bound by protective cellulose plates that
diagnosed and treated properly. 2. It is both a attack using biological weapons. 2. Yes answer: are impregnated by silicates. They also, typically, have
service and disservice for the media to publicize Though the Unites States should not retaliate with two flagella. 17.9 A gelatinous product derived from
emergent diseases to the level that they do. It serves biological weapons, it has a responsibility to retaliate some species of red algae. It is used as a solidifying
the public to be informed and take precautions to and defend its people in the event of a bioterrorism agent for bacterial cultures. 17.10 Nucleic acid
avoid infection. It does not serve the public to be attack. No answer: The United States should not sequencing data.
worked into frenzy over worst-case scenarios that retaliate and perpetuate a cycle of destruction using
suggest the world may be coming to an end. 3. We biological weapons, which pose a threat to all living Form Your Opinion
are probably unnecessarily accusatory. A country things and has potentially unknown and far-reaching Page 337: 1. The theory of evolution has been
cannot be exclusively blamed for being the origin side effects. supported by experimental evidence (see page 254)
of a disease due to factors that are largely out of the and by observation of fossil record, comparative
control of that country’s people. It would benefit the Testing Yourself anatomy, development, and chemistry of organisms.
entire world if we helped developing countries by 1. c; 2. e; 3. c; 4. d; 5. b; 6. a. Lytic cycle: the virus There are those who might point to gaps in the fossil
campaigning for and helping to implement programs is immediately produced and can go on to infect record to cast doubt about the theory but the fossils
for clean water, good hygiene, and medical care in other cells. In life cycle b. Lysogenic cycle: the virus record is becoming more complete as time passes.
order to prevent the spread of disease. is being replicated along with the host cells and is Science always seeks to broaden the scope of the
Page 316: 1. Hypothetical evolutionary stages protected from exposure to host defenses. 7. c; 8. c; theory of evolution. 2. The most reliable method for
between the first viruses and bacteria might include 9. c; 10. a; 11. e; 12. b; 13. c; 14. c; 15. a; 16. c; determining evolutionary lineages is a combination of
intermediate stages. 1) It would be necessary for the 17. b; 18. e; 19. a; 20. b; 21. a; 22. d; 23. b both types of data. Using similarities and differences
virus to independently carry out protein synthesis alone will not suffice because evolution is a variable
Since a virus already has either RNA and DNA, Thinking Scientifically process that can proceed “backwards” at times,
they would only need to acquire both at the same 1. Viruses replicate inside human cells, and reverting organisms back to their former state under
time. In fact some RNA viruses even now carry out therefore, medications aimed at a virus can interfere some conditions. To bolster the data taken from
reverse transcription in order to form DNA. A virus with the workings of human cells. 2. The bacterium simply comparing protist groups structurally, we can
could also take for itself some of the DNA from E. coli has the same genetic machinery as all other use genetic comparison as well. The combination of

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 both types of data creates a more reliable case for of the zygote. 18.2 As in all plants the gametophyte food and need not live off of another organism for
evolutionary lineages than either type of data alone. produces gametes. 18.3 The sporophyte has vascular nourishment. A parasite like the fungus that causes
3. In order to avoid mistaken conclusions based on tissue and is protected from drying out by a cuticle athlete’s foot can be likened to a predator, such as a
observational data, scientists should record results interrupted by stomata. 18.4 Advantages: lion, because they are heterotrophic and must find
precisely and avoid bias as much as possible. They The sporophyte embryo is protected from drying and consume food. Predators cannot make their own
should check their conclusions with other scientists out, and the sporophyte produces windblown spores food either, and must hunt for and consume food.
and observations should be conducted repeatedly to that are resistant to drying out. Disadvantage: The
confirm findings. sperm are flagellated and need an outside source of Testing Yourself
moisture in order to swim to the egg. 18.5 The 1. a; 2. a; 3.a; 4. e; 5. Tall plants have better access
Testing Yourself sporophyte is dominant and lycophytes have vascular to sunlight. 6. b; 7. a; 8. a; 9. e; 10. c; 11. b; 12. a.
1. d; 2. c; 3. a; 4. e; 5. Mitochondria were at one time tissue. 18.6 The independent gametophyte generation stigma; b. style; c. carpel; d. ovary; e. ovule;
free-living heterotrophic bacteria. 6. c; 7. b; 8. b; 9. c; lacks vascular tissue, and it produces flagellated f. receptacle; g. sepal; h. petal; i. stamen; j. filament;
10. Flagella; trypanosomes cause disease, euglenoids sperm. 18.7 (1) Water is not required for fertilization k. anther. 13. a; 14. c; 15. e; 16. Pollen is less likely
contain chloroplasts. Pseudopods; amoeboids because pollen grains (male gametophytes) are to be moved from the pollen cone to the seed cone
sometimes cause disease, foraminiferans and windblown, and (2) ovules protect female of the same tree. 17. e; 18. e; 19. e; 20. e; 21. a;
radiolarians form tests. Cilia; ciliates are complex and gametophytes and become seeds that disperse the 22. e; 23. Mycorrhiza fungi are more likely to go
have trichocysts and undergo conjugation. None; sporophyte, the generation that has vascular tissue. along with the seedling in the native soil.
apicomplexans cause diseases. 11. b; 12. c; 13. b; 18.8 Yes, insects do pollinate carnivorous plants, and
14. b; 15. d; 16. b; ; 17. a; 18. b; 19. a; 20. b, c; 21. a, seeds are produced and enclosed by fruit. The fruit is Thinking Scientifically
d; 22. b; 23. b; 24. b; 25. a; 26. b; 27. c; 28. d; 29. c; a dry capsule that contains seeds. 18.9 Fungi have the 1. Only group (b) because mosses require a film of
30. a; 31. e; 32. Diatoms have a two valve shell of haploid life cycle in which only the zygote is diploid moisture in order for flagellated sperm to swim to an
silica and become diatomaceous earth. Dinoflagellates and the zygote undergoes meiosis to produce haploid egg. 2. Because male moths attempt to mate with
have two flagella and cellulose plates and are spores. Plants have the alternation of generation life these flowers, they carry pollen only between
responsible for “red tides.” Red algae are variously cycle in where are are two generations: the flowers of this type.
structured seaweeds and are sources of agar and sporophyte produces spores by meiosis and the
carrageean. Brown algae are seaweeds harvested for gametophyte produces gametes by mitosis. 18.10 Both Put the Pieces Together
food and are a source of alginate (algin). 33. Brown are a mutualistic relationship between a fungus and a Page 377: 1. It is not a good strategy to have a
algae, diatoms, and water molds are traditionally photosynthesizer and in both the fungus acquires separate and water dependent gametophyte on
separate groups based on mode of nutrition and/or food. 18.11 zyygospore fungi, black bread mold; sac land. It is a better strategy for the gametophyte to
structure, but they are grouped together in the fungi, truffles;club fungi, mushrooms. be protected by the sporophyrw which has vascular
Stramenopila. This means that their DNA shows they tissue. It is also better to have the sperm transported
are closely related. Form Your Opinion to the egg in a way that does not require external
Page 364: 1. The plants present in an ancient water. 2. DNA is a selfish molecule, copying itself
Thinking Scientifically swamp forest are the evolutionary predecessors of without regard for any other processes taking place
1. If single cells do not separate, and if each cell today’s plants as well as the source of much of the in a cell or an organism. The energy expended
divides in a way that allows the cells to join end on energy that human beings use in the form of coal. by plants for reproduction is merely a means to
end, the end result could be a filament. 2. Merozoites Because we depend on plants for oxygen, food, and perpetuate the plant’s DNA; reproduction, after all,
enter red blood cells, and if you knew by what the energy produced by decomposed plants from is meant to pass on the genetic information of an
process they enter red blood cells, you might be able millions of years ago, we are dependent on the plants organism to later generations so that the species
to develop a way to stop them from doing so. that gave rise to present day plants. 2. Because the may live on. 3. Yes answer: Reproduction of land
great swamp forest existed in what is now northern plants and animals can be compared, because the
Put the Pieces Together Europe, the Ukraine and the Appalachian mountains adaptations of animals and plants are alike as they
Page 349: 1. Studying the first eukaryotes, the of the United States, I would predict that they moved from aqueous environments to dry land. Both
protists, with regard to their diversity of nutrition, occurred when the continents drifted and coalesced flowering plants and humans are able to protect all
reproduction, movement, and organization near the equator. Because the forest spanned what stages of their life cycle from drying our internal
contributes to the study of biology in many ways. are now separate continents, they must have been fertilization are all good adaptations required for
Protists can be used as models in the study of present at a point when theses continents came reproduction on land. No answer: I do not approve
photosynthesis, examined for the role they play in together and these regions were near one another in of comparing reproduction in plants to reproduction
the food chain, and studied for their medical impacts a warm and humid environment not found in all of in humans. Plants often require intervention from
including malaria, dysentery, giardiasis, and Chagas these locations today. The equator was the perfect other organisms or abiotic factors like wind or
disease. Through understanding the disease-causing setting for the tall seedless vascular plants to thrive water in order to reproduce successfully, while the
ability of some protists, the large role others play before falling into the rising swamp waters. reproductive process in humans involves direct
in the food chain, or even the discrepancy in size Page 369: 1. Because it is possible that an infection contact between a male and female.
between single-celled and multicellular protists, we could wipe out any or all of these three flowering
gain an understanding of the diversity of life on our
planet. 2. An evolutionary approach to relating the
grains, it is unfortunate that humans are so
dependent upon only wheat, corn, and rice. To get
CHAPTER 19
protists is a good one because it explores molecular people to eat more varied grains there would have Check Your Progress
data that can be analyzed more objectively than to be an effort made to market alternative options 19.1 Bats acquire nutrients from an outside source,
observational data. By analyzing the genome of at affordable prices. 2. In addition to the food ingest food and digest it internally, and have muscles
protists and comparing it to that of other organisms, they provide us, we are also dependent on plants and nerves. 19.2 Yes, because all animals can trace
we can determine the relationship between the first because they are a source of oxygen, provide us their ancestry to the same protistan ancestor.
eukaryotes and organisms like plants and animals. with building materials, medicine, and fuel. We rely 19.3 Multicellular; tissue layers; bilateral symmetry,
3. The term kingdom Protista is longer used because on plants for many things and thus could not live three tissue layers; body cavity; deuterostome
of molecular evidence and suggestions that many without them. development. 19.4 a. Sponges have the cellular level
more kingdoms exist within the diverse group of Page 374: 1. Decomposition, nutrient cycling, of organization, and bats have the organ-system level
protists and that protists are not closely related to fermentation (yeast), food (mushrooms), antibiotic of organization; b. No, vampire bats simply have a
one another. Some protists are more closely related production, pest control. 2. No. Many organisms, liquid food, namely blood. 19.5 a. Microscopically,
to plants or animals than to each other. To place including fungi and bacteria can be considered compare the development of cnidarians to that of
them into a kingdom together, then, is inaccurate. “bad” or “good” depending on the specific organism bats; b. Cnidarians are predators that feed on live
The term protist remains because it refers to an in question. While some fungi cause disease that can protists and small animals. Vampire bats are external
organism that is not a plant, animal, or fungi. harm humans, others are a source of food, nutrient parasites that feed on the blood of a host. 19.6 a. Yes;
cycling, antibiotics, or pest control. For instance, a longitudinal cut would divide the body in two equal
CHAPTER 18 fungi used for pest control also cause disease, but
they do so in pests that might harm crops that
halves; b. Bats are not hermaphrodites; the sexes are
separate. 19.7 Vampire bats are external parasites;
Check Your Progress humans use as food sources. Thus, all disease tapeworms and flukes are internal parasites that feed
18.1 Cellulose cell walls, apical cells, plasmodesmata, causing fungi are not “bad” since some are used on nutrients meant for their host 19.8 Deuterostomes,
and alternation of generations that includes protection to human advantage. 3. Plants can make their own as are all vertebrates. 19.9 Both bats and molluscs are

A-10 APPENDIX Answer Key

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 multicellular, have three germ layers, have bilateral Testing Yourself women to stay home to take care of the young and
symmetry, and are coelomates with internal organs. 1. d; 2. e; 3. e; 4. a; 5. b; 6. a; 7. e; 8. d; 9. d; 10. b; for men to go out and be aggressive in order to
However, molluscs are photostomes and bats are 11. a; 12. Flatworms are small, have a large maintain the home base.
deuterostomes. 19.10 The sequential vertebrae of the absorptive surface, and are hermaphroditic. 13. e; Page 423: 1. Many U.S. citizens can trace their
spinal column. 19.11 This is not a feature that is used 14. c; 15. e.; 16. a; 17. e; 18. b; 19. e; 20. Traditional ancestry to forbearers in the various other continents.
to distinguish to relatedness because it appears in fossils show how evolution occurred. This means they are descended from immigrants. This
both protostomes and deuterostomes. 19.12 a. Bats does not involve a migration pattern. 2. Yes, as humans
have jointed appendages, are segmented, and have a Thinking Scientifically migrated from continent to continent, genetic drift
well-developed nervous system; b. Bats have an 1. As per Section 19.1, study whole sponges and (founder effect) would have occurred and may have
endoskeleton, not an exoskeleton; they all breathe by determine how they acquire food, whether they contributed to the similarity between members of a
lungs; and they have reduced competition by move, how they reproduce, and what developmental common ethnicity, but natural selection would have
diversifying. Some are fruit eaters, some are insect stages they have. Microscopically, determine the also occurred to favor advantageous phenotypes for the
eaters, and some, such as vampire bats, are parasites. structure and function of their cells. 2. a. DNA/RNA new environment. For instance, close to the equator
19.13 Spiders, scorpions, millipedes, and centipedes. sequencing; b. The data mentioned in Section 15.7: and exposed to hot sun, darker pigments in the skin
19.14 Analogous, because insects and bats do not Fossil record and homologies in anatomy and would have been beneficial and thus evolutionarily
have a recent common ancestor. 19.15 a. Symmetry. development. favorable. 3. I think that migration patterns show that
Bats are bilaterally symmetrical and echinoderms are all humans are related to one another. Studies that
radially symmetrical; b. Both types of animals are Put the Pieces Together examine mtDNA show relatedness of populations on
deuterostomes. 19.16 As embryos. 19.17 Vertebrae, Page 409: 1. Ancestral protist, multicellularity, separate continents. The founder effect helps explain
jaws, bony skeleton, lungs, limbs, amniotic egg, tissue layers, bilateral symmetry and 3 tissue how differences in appearance might result from
mammary glands. 19.18 Predaceous; actively layers and body cavity, deuterstome development, decreased genetic variation in a region inhabited by
ingesting chunks of food. 19.19 Yes; they have four anestral chordates, vertebrae, jaws, bony skeleton, a small population. Natural selection helps to explain
limbs. 19.20 It provided a means for reptiles including lungs, limbs, amniotic egg, mammary glands, evolution of groups with different skin color, hair color
birds, and mammals to reproduce on land in the mammals, humans (16 steps). 2. The advantages or texture, and eye color.
absence of external water. 19.21 They are the only of the parasitic way of life include the reliance
mammal that can fly (as opposed to glide) and the Testing Yourself
of a parasite on its host for food, shelter, and a
only mammal to hang by their feet alone. place to disperse offspring with little to no energy 1.a; 2. c; 3. common ancestor for prosimians,
expelnded by the parasite. Parasites, specialized for anthropoids, hominoids, hominins; 4. e; 5. Ardi
Form Your Opinion evolved before Lucy and yet it has fewer chimp-like
their way of life, can also reproduce at higher rates
Page 389: 1. Before molecular analysis, biologists (more quickly and in greater numbers) than their features than Lucy has; 6. d; 7. b; 8. b; 9. b; 10. d;
had to use observational comparison of organisms host. The disadvantages of the parasitic way of life 11. e; 12. b; 13. d; 14. e; 15 b; 16. Darwinian
to decide who was related to whom. By comparing include dealing with any harm done to the host evolution is dependent on genetic differences, and
structure, nutrition and developmental information, from the parasite leeching nutrients and invading biocultural evolution is dependent on advances that
among other characteristics, biologists did their the host organism. Parasites reduce the “fitness” of cannot be inherited. The ability to learn is inherited
best to determine relationships between organisms. their host organism while increasing their “fitness” and learning is necessary to biocultural evolution.
2. As seen in the example of the nemertine worm, via exploitation of the host. 3. The relationship or 17. c; 18. a; 19. c; 20. d; 21. d; 22. a. modern
anatomic data might lead scientists to believe that sharing of a common descent, between humans and humans; b. archaic humans; c. Homo erectus; d.
these organisms are closely related to flat worms; echinoderms can teach us that over time, changes in Homo erectus; e. Homo ergaster. 23. d; 24. There is
however, DNA data shows a closer relationship to organisms including specialization, adaptation, and more variation within ethnic groups. This tells us
the annelids and mollusks. Because of the complex mutation create new organisms that may appear to that all humans are one species.
evolutionary relationship between organisms, have little in common though they originate from
it is best if anatomic and DNA data support the Thinking Scientifically
some common place in evolutionary history.
same conclusion. 3. Biologists should certainly 1. The benefits of bipedalism must have outweighed
go into the field to study organisms. Observation
of an organism within its natural environment is
CHAPTER 20 the cost or else bipedalism wouldn’t have evolved.
2. Sequence the Neandertal genome using DNA
extremely important in understanding behavioral Check Your Progress from Neandertal bones, and compare the sequence
characteristics, reproduction and nutrition, for 20.1 Yes, because Ardi was a primate. 20.2 Mammalian to the human genome of today. Look for sequences
example. Therefore, the study of organisms should ancestor to a common ancestor with prosimians; present in both genomes.
take place in the field as well as in the lab. anthropoids, hominoids, and finally hominins in that
Page 406: 1. Scientists think that it is unlikely that order. 20.3 Ardi’s features, including bipedalism, Put the Pieces Together
viruses will cross the species barrier; however, means that she is a hominin, even though her brain is Page 427: 1. See page 382 figure 19.3A, and page
this has occurred in the past and may likely occur small. 20.4 Southern African specimens were bipedal, 414 figure 20.2A. 2. I would suggest that biocultural
again due to the suppressed immune system of the but the arms were longer than the legs. Lucy, an East evolution, “in which natural selection is influenced
human recipient along with the novelty of the animal African species, was bipedal, and the arms were by cultural achievements rather than by anatomic
disease(s) that may or may not be known human shorter than the legs. 20.5 This migration accounts phenotype,” is more influential today than human
pathogens. Other unseen health consequences could for how the first Homo species arrived in Asia and biological evolution because of modern inventions
result from the rapid and violent rejection of organs Europe out of Africa. 20.6 An incomplete fossil record like technology and medicine. Humans now have
belonging to animal species that might lead to the and the sudden appearance of Cro Magnon in Africa. the ability to adapt to the environment through
death of the human recipient. There is also some 20.7 Their tool-making ability and other cultural man-made methods including treating illness, and
concern over the genetic programming of humans attributes such as their artisitc talents. 20.8 a. People moving from one climate to another. Populations
versus animals: pigs, for example, age at a different from any two ethnic groups produce fertile offspring. in regions without technology to keep water clean
rate than humans, presenting challenges in making b. within ethnic groups. and treat illness are less successful than groups with
any permanent transplants. 2. Yes answer: it is ethical clean water and medical care. 3. Through education
to change the genetic makeup of vertebrates for use in Form Your Opinion we can explain the necessity of preserving habitats
drug or organ “manufacturing” so long as the animal Page 420: 1. Culture is evident in almost all aspects of organisms other than ourselves, and explain how
is not harmed or killed in the process. No answer: of my daily life. Culture exists in traditions of biodiversity is necessary to the preservation of our
It is not ethical to alter the vertebrate, use it as a cooking, eating, making a home, and using tools planet and all its inhabitants including humans.
factory or incubator, and then kill it in the process of for cleaning, cooking, hanging a picture, creating Education could be used to demonstrate what
harvesting the desired product. 3. It is possible that written documents or drawing. 2. Aspects of my life happens when small or large changes are made to
we are altering the relationship between humans that are influenced solely by biological inheritance an ecosystem.
and other vertebrates in a mutually detrimental way. have nothing to do with culture. For instance, I
The relationship between humans and the rest of the
natural world should not be one of human expoitation
breathe, I eat, and I sleep because of the biology
of being human. 3. Though our sources of food
CHAPTER 21
and should avoid using vertebrates solely for our own may be different than the hunter-gatherers, we still Check Your Progress
purposes. If we slowly begin to alter every aspect of function in a similar manner, bringing nourishment 21.1 When water is plentiful, leaves grow larger,
the planet for our own benefit, we may be forced to back to a central location from a grocery store, farm, maximizing solar absorption. When water is not
face consequences we never imagined possible. restaurant, etc. Also, it is still more customary for available, narrow leaves help conserve water.

APPENDIX Answer Key A-11

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 21.2 Eudicot. 21.3 Collenchyma cells have areas of dioxide to enter and water to exit. 33. Photosynthesis to these plants; actully it would be best to stop
thicker primary cell walls, without having an entirely allows a plant to produce the building blocks and polluting the biosphere; then, we would not have to
rigid secondary cell wall. 21.4 Xylem is located in ATP it needs to maintain metabolism and its use plants to rid an area of the pollutant. 3. Society
the vascular cylinder of a root, the vascular bundles structure. 34. e; 35. d; 36. b; 37. a; 38. c; 39. e has to be willing to pay the cost of cleaning up the
of a stem, and in the leaf veins of a leaf. 21.5 Shoot environment or else people and other living things
apical meristem produces more stem (including Thinking Scientifically may perish. I personally would be willing to pay a
vascular bundles), axillary buds, leaves, and 1. Confirm that plamodesmata do run between price for the rare and beneficial service of a plant
sometimes flowers. 21.6 It would signify a consistent companion cells and sieve-tube members. Same as that could filter pollutants from soil or water to
amount of rainfall rather than a wet followed by a Palade, use labeled amino acids to show that benefit the environment.
dry spell. 21.7 Epidermis protects, allows gas proteins pass by way of plasmodesmata from
exchange, and regulates water loss. Closely packed companion cells to sieve-tube members. 2. Zone of Testing Yourself
epidermal cells covered by a waxy cuticle prevent cell division slides should show small cells dividing; 1. a; 2. Leaves must receive water for photosynthesis,
water loss; however the stomata particularly on the zone of elongation slides should show cells that are and they produce sugar as a result of photosynthesis.
lower surface allow gas exchange.The stomata close longer than the previous zone—no cell division is 3. c; 4. d; 5 Atmospheric pressure cannot account for
when water is scarce. Trichomes particularly on the occurring; zone of maturation should show mature the ability of water to rise above 76 cm in a plant.
upper suface help protect a plant from parasites. tissues and epidermal cells with root hairs. However, transpiration does allow water to rise
21.8 Fungus roots help supply a plant with the water above 76 cm. 6. c; 7. d; 8. e; 9. c; 10. d; 11. b; 12. a;
needed for photosynthesis; defense mechanisms Put the Pieces Together 13. e; 14. Water enters the first bulb by osmosis and
prevent hungry insects from eating leaves; the Page 449: 1. The presence of an epidermis and this creates a pressure flow that moves the solute to
organization of a plant is geared to carrying on cuticle, stomata that open and close based upon the the second bulb and beyond. 15. c; 16. d; 17. b; 18.
photosynthesis. surrounding conditions, a root system, and a stem d; 19. a; 20. b; 21. e; 22. c; 23. e; 24. c
to carry water from the roots to leaves and flowers is
Form Your Opinion evidence enough to convince me that the vegetative Thinking Scientifically
Page 435: 1. No answer: I do not find the organs of plants have adapted to living on land. 1. Due to diversity, some species may not be
consumption of an embryo, in the form of a grain, 2. A bush has more stems leading to its increased susceptible to the assault. Also, the susceptible
disturbing. Eating any plant is eating a living number of leaves, providing more vascular tissue plants may be protected by the unsusceptible. For
organism, and eating a steak, or chicken, or pork, is for them. 3. Rhizomes provide an efficient way for example, insects may not find all the susceptible
eating what used to be a living organism. Because plants to asexually multiply because each shoot plants, or most of the available water will go to
nearly everything I consume used to be alive, eating represents an offspring of the parent plant. those plants that need it. 2. Divide a large number of
grains, the embryos of plants, does not disturb me. identical plants into control and experimental
Yes answer: I find it disturbing because of the word
“embryo” and my tendency to equate that word with
CHAPTER 22 groups. Both groups are to receive the same
treatment, including all necessary nutrients, but the
something immature that needs my help to become Check Your Progress experimental group will not be given any calcium. It
mature. 2. No answer: I would not mind eating 22.1 We will see that transport of sugar requires a is expected that only the experimental group will
only grains so that more people could be fed. Since functional plasma membrane. 22.2 Transpiration suffer any ill effects. If only the control or if both
grains provide more energy and cattle are polluting provides a means of transport for water and minerals groups do poorly, some unknown variable is
the environment, I would be happy to eat grains and helps maintain internal leaf temperatures by affecting the results.
and not cattle. Grain can continue to be planted and providing evaporative cooling. 22.3 Cellular
harvested while cattle must be taken care of until respiration, which requires oxygen, takes place in Put the Pieces Together
old enough to be used as food. Yes answer: I would plant cells, even in the dark. 22.4 The roots are the Page 467: 1. Plants require inorganic nutrients from
mind eating only grains so that more people could source, and the flowers are the sink. 22.5 a. Nitrogen the environment in order to build organic molecules
be fed. I like eating beef and want to continue to do and sulfur are needed to form protein, and all plant necessary for life. Carbohydrates are used to form
so. People have been consuming cattle and other roots take up nitrate (NO3–) and sulfate (SO42–) from their cell walls and to respire. Cellular respiration
animals for some time and need to consider that our the soil; b. Nitrogen and phosphate (HPO42–) are provides the plant’s cells with energy. 2. Plant
rapidly growing population needs all sorts of foods. needed to make nucleic acids, and plant roots also cells absorb water and minerals through their root
Page 443: 1. Trees take in carbon dioxide, the take up phosphate from the soil. 22.6 The nonpolar systems. The minerals are taken into the cells in
byproduct of breathing in humans and animals, give tails of phospholipid molecules make the center of their charged or ionic forms. The movement of ions
off oxygen needed by most forms of life. Autotrophic the plasma membrane nonpolar. 22.7 Plants develop across the plant cell plasma membrane requires
plants produce sugar, the ultimate source of energy root nodules when the amount of nitrate in the soil active transport but it allows plants to concentrate
for animals and humans. Trees also create habitats is not sufficient to support growth. minerals in their cells. When animals consume
above the ground for birds and many other animals. plants, they take in these concentrated minerals.
Because trees put oxygen into the atmosphere while Form Your Opinion 3. It is beneficial to have xylem and phloem in the
removing carbon dioxide, provide energy for animals Page 453: 1. Because of their remarkably long lives same vascular bundle because in this way they are
and humans in the form of sugar produced through and great size, I would expect that redwoods are supported by the same sclerenchyma cells (in stems)
photosynthesis, and create above ground habitats, good competitors. Their shallow roots, capture water and are surrounded by the same bundle shealth cells
they have and will continue to play a necessary role in as it seeps into the ground from rainfall. Their thick (in leaves).
the life of humans. fire-resistant bark allows them to survive a fire when

Testing Yourself
other plants would burn. 2. Plant native grasses, trees,
and shrubs along ditches or other unusable parts
CHAPTER 23
1. c; 2. c; 3. b; 4. c; 5. a; 6. Terminal bud is at the of land to prevent runoff and erosion, and promote Check Your Progress
shoot tip and produces cells that add to the length of insects that are natural pollinators and predators. Use 23.1 Different second messengers can bring about
the stem and become new leaves and new axillary pesticides sparingly and with deliberate attempts to various cellular activities in the same or different types
buds. Axillary bud activity produces new branches avoid spraying during risky times for local insects, of plant cells. 23.2 Yes, because if the hormone
(and flowers). 7. A cereal grain is a dry fruit that fish, or other wildlife. Plant various crops including remained, it would continue to trigger a response long
contains a seed. 8. b; 9. c; 10. c; 11. b; 12. a; 13. d; those useful for ground cover. 3. I am certainly willing after the response was no longer needed. For example,
14. e; 15. c; 16. d; 17. a; 18. d; 19. b; 20. b; 21. b; to eat new grains in order for farmers to increase it would bring about bending after the light source
22. They all consists of parenchyma cells that fill the biodiversity. Maintaining biodiversity is good for the was no longer present. 23.3 The plant in (a) most
interior of an organ. 23. e; 24. c; 25. b; 26. b; 27. e; planet as a whole. If simple changes like eating habits likely doesn’t produce gibberellin, and the receptor in
28. c; 29. b; 30. Apical meristem (shoot tip and root can assist in keeping our planet a suitable home for (b) is more likely defective. 23.4 You could apply
tip meristem) is responsible for primary growth and many organisms, I’d be happy to do so. cytokinins to increase the number of cells and
the result is increase in the length of stem and root. Page 457: 1. Plants are a source of food, make gibberellins to increase the size of the cells. 23.5 a.
Vascular cambium is responsible for secondary oxygen, take in carbon dioxide, provide shelter, Abscisic acid maintains dormancy and closes stomata;
growth and the result is increase in girth. Girth serve as building materials, clean up nitrate b. Gibberellins have the opposite effect. 23.6 To be an
increases because secondary xylem builds up as pollution, grow materials used for clothing like effective hormone, a molecule needs only to combine
annual rings (wood). 31. c; 32. a. Broader expanse to cotton, produce or aid in production of medicines, with its receptor. 23.7 It is adaptive for roots to grow
collect sunlight; b. Prevents loss of water; c. Collects and serve to preserve soil. 2. Find some way to toward water because it enhances their ability to
sunlight; d. Allows gas exchange; e. Allows carbon prevent pets and other animals from having access extract water and dissolve minerals from the soil for

A-12 APPENDIX Answer Key

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 plant tissues. 23.8 Rotation will prevent the statoliths endosperm cell. 24.3 The ovule is a sporophyte benefited from the use of animals in pollination. This
from settling and triggering differential growth. structure produced by the female parent. Therefore, the has made flowers successful reproducers on land,
Therefore, neither the root nor the shoot is expected to ovule wall (becomes seed coat) is 2n. The embryo producing more seeds. Animals have benefited from
curve up or down. 23.9 These animals are nocturnal, inside the ovule is the product of fertilization and is, this relationship because they received food in the
so it would be a waste of energy to produce scent therefore, 2n. 24.4 Showy, colorful flowers attract form of sugary nectar from plants. (2) Fruit produced
during the day. 23.10 Red light converts Pr to Pfr; Pfr pollinators; colorful fruit that is a good food source by plants, eaten by animals, has aided flowering
binds to a transcription factor; and the complex moves attracts animals which transport seeds away from the plants in seed dispersal. In this relationship, the
to the nucleus, where it binds to DNA so that genes parent plant. 24.5 The sheaths protect the shoot and animal also benefits from the nutrition received from
are turned on or off. 23.11 The plant is responding to a root apical meristems from damage as they push the fruit of the flowering plant. 3. Flowering plants
short night, not to the length of the day. 23.12 Most through the soil. 24.6 Advantages to asexual (but not ferns) produce (1) two types of spores,
likely not. Many activities of organisms are simply reproduction include: (1) By passes the requirements microspores and megaspores and (2) two types of
adaptations to the environment that occur for sexual reproduction: gamete production, gametophytes: male and female gametophytes.
automatically. pollination, seed production and dispersal. (2) if the

Form Your Opinion

parent is ideally suited for the environment of a given
area, the offspring will be as well. 24.7 a. Either
CHAPTER 25
Page 484: 1. Humans rely upon plants as a source of somatic embryogenesis or meristem tissue culture. b. Check Your Progress
food and oxygen as well as filters to remove carbon Cell suspension culture would allow you to collect 25.1 Fur traps heat and does not release it.
dioxide from the air. Plants provide human beings chemicals produced by a plant. 25.2 Evaporative cooling; water in sweat absorbs
with the raw materials for shelter, a means to clean heat energy to become vapor. 25.3 Polar bear;
up nitrate pollution, grow materials used for clothing Form Your Opinion adipose tissue helps keep the polar bear warm and is
like cotton, produce or aid in production of medicines, Page 492: 1. A series of mutations are needed a source of nutrients when food is scarce. 25.4 Blood
and tools in soil preservation. 2. Some secondary for a non-seed life cycle to evolved into the seed vessels taking blood to the surface constrict in order
metabolites produced by plants for defense, can inhibit life cycle: (1) Sporophyte produces heterospores to reduce heat loss through the skin. 25.5 Dendrites
cellular respiration and block DNA or RNA synthesis, that develop into microscopic male and female are numerous and gather input from other neurons;
making them useful in the fight against cancer. gametophytes. (2) Female gametophyte is retained the long axon is appropriate for conveying nervous
by sporophyte (3) Male gametophyte becomes pollen impulses some distance. 25.6 The thick skin of a gila
Testing Yourself grain. (4) Following fertilization, the embryo sac monster helps prevent the loss of water, rather than
1. c; 2. a; 3. d; 4. a; 5. c; 6. c; 7. d; 8. e; 9. d; 10. d; becomes a seed. (5) Seed contains sporophyte embryo, helping to regulate body temperature. However, a
11. b; 12. e; 13. a; 14. c; 15. Place the banana in a food, and seed coat. 2. Humans are reproductively thick skin would help lessen the gain of heat in a
closed container with a ripened fruit. 16. d; 17. c; adapted to protect all stages of reproduction in a dry warm environment. 25.7 Sensory receptors respond
18. d; 19. e; 20. a. active form of phytochrome, b. environment, much like seed plants. Human gametes to a change in body temperature and communicate
biological response, c. far-red light; d. red light 21. c; are housed in the ovaries and testes and fertilization this information to the brain, which then commands
22. b; 23. e; 24. a; 25. e; 26. b; 27. d occurs internally. A fertilized egg implants in the motor activity to perform the behavior that will
uterus and is protected and nourished here until it warm or cool the body, as needed. 25.8 Enzymatic
Thinking Scientifically is mature enough for birth and development outside reactions are necessary to the life of a cell, and
1. Use a plant that tracks the sun as your experimental the body of the mother. 3. Flowers and seed cones enzymes function best at a moderate body
material. Make tissue slides to confirm the presence both bear ovules that develop into seeds. Ovules first temperature. 25.9 An early morning cool body
of a pulvinus, as in Figure 23.9. Apply ABA to live contain a megaspore and then a female gametophyte. temperature causes the lizard to move into the sun,
pulvinus tissue under the microscope to test for the Following fertilization, both flowers and seed cones where it stays until the body temperature is too hot,
results described in Figure 23.9. 2. Shine a light produce seeds. Only the seeds of angiosperm are causing the lizard to seek shade. Thus, its behavior
underneath a plant growing on its side (see Fig. 23.8A, protected by fruit. A seed cone plays no part in the alternates back and forth.
upper left). If the stem now curves down, the development of pollen as most flowers do.
phototropic response is greater than the gravitropic Page 493: 1. Observe several different flower types Form Your Opinion
response and your hypothesis is not supported. and and see if they are visited by only one type or Page 514: 1. Yes, I am willing to contribute to stem
several types of pollinators. 2. The efficiency of wind cell research if my involvement could give someone
Put the Pieces Together pollination is most likely low since gymnosperms the ability to regain function in their limbs, to walk
Page 487: 1. Population: Members of a plant produce a large amount of pollen. again, for example. We all engage in voluntary
population that opened and closed their stomata activities that can cause injury. No, I am not willing
morning and night had an advantage over plants Testing Yourself to contribute to stem cell research because stem
that did not do this. Organism: Sunlight acts as a 1. b; 2. b; 3. a; 4. e; 5. a. anther; b. filament; c. stamen; cell research is a controversial field of science and
stimulus that causes stomata to open during the d. stigma; e. style; f. ovary; g. ovule; h. carpel. 6. d; medicine. 2. I believe it is unfair to limit new and
day; the absence of sunlight causes stomata to close. 7. c; 8. b; 9. a; 10. e; 11. c; 12. d; 13. b; 14. d; 15. a; innovative therapies to the well-known or wealthy and
Cellular: When K+ enters guard cells, water follows, 16. A wind pollinated plant produces more pollen it should be available to any one. 3. Yes, celebrities,
and stomata open. When K+ exits guard cells water because the method of pollen transfer is less efficient. like Christopher Reeve, should be used to increase
follows, and stomata close. Abscisic acid brings about 17. b; 18. a; 19. e; 20. c; 21. b; 22. d; 23. e; 24. The need interest in nervous system regeneration research.
closure of stomata in a plant that is water stressed. for a period of cold weather helps ensure that the seeds Putting a recognizable name and face on science and
2. (1) Reception of the stimulus: red light, in day germinate when the weather will be favorable to its potential advancements can be advantageous to
light, activates phytochrome. (2) Transduction of continued growth. 25. c; 26. e; 27. a; 28. When the everyone involved. No, celebrities should not be used
the stimulus: activated phytochrome moves into the environment is not changing or when male and female to endorse or publicize causes like nervous system
nucleus, binding specific proteins, and activating plants are not in close proximity. regeneration research. By involving celebrities the
specific genes. (3) Response to the stimulus: treatment might become political.
Flowering occurs. 3. Auxins: suppress lateral growth; Thinking Scientifically Page 520: 1. For instance, the brain must
Gibberellins: result in stem (internode) growth; 1. Study (a) the anatomy of the wasp and flower, communicate with the heart and lungs in order for
Cytokinins: stimulate cell division; Abscisic acid: trying to determine if the mouth parts of the wasp heart to pump blood and the lungs exchange gases
promotes dormancy; Ethylene: causes abscission of are suitable for collecting nectar from this flower; in a coordinated manner. 2. A terrestrial animal but
leaves; therefore reduces growth. (b) Study the appearance of the flower in sunlight/ not an aquatic one has the added burden of water
ultraviolet light to determine suitability to the vision of conservation. 3. Our skin prevents water loss, our
CHAPTER 24 the wasp; and (c) Study the behavior of the wasp to
see if it is compatible to that of the flower (i.e. flower
large intestine absorbs water and our kidneys can
excrete a hypertonic urine if we do not drink enough
Check Your Progress is open when wasp is active). 2. Protoplasts can be that day. Blood volume is maintained so that tissue
24.1 Pollen grains (the male gametophytes) are visible made from leaf cells and then cultured to grow entire fluid can provide an aquatic environment for our cells.
when the anther releases them. To find the female plants. These plants are expected to produce seeds that
gametophyte, you would have to microscopically you can use to propagate the plant. Testing Yourself
examine the contents of an ovule just before 1. c; 2. a; 3. a; 4. d; 5. e; 6. d; 7. b; 8. d; 9. The
fertilization takes place. 24.2 One sperm unites with Put the Pieces Together dendrites offer wide surface area for the reception
the egg to form an embryo and the other combines Page 503: 1. Within the seeds of angiosperms, the of stimuli and the long axon is suitable for the
with two polar nuclei forming a triploid (3n) endosperm provides nutrients. 2. (1) Flowers have transmission of stimuli. 10. a, c, g; 11. b, d, e;

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 12. b, c, f; 13. a; 14. b; 15. c; 16. Epithelial cells are nerve chords and the ganglia to the eye spots. The Form Your Opinion
exposed to mutagens (agents that cause mutations) human nervous system is composed of a brain, and Page 555: 1. Damage to the retina will cause loss of
in the environment. Also, high rate of cell division spinal cord from which branches a network of nerves vision; other damages may be repaired. For example,
means that spontaneous mutations may occur throughout the body. 2. The arthropod nerve cord is inflammation of the conjunctivae, may cause some
that lead to cancer. 17. e; 18. c; 19. The epidermis ventrally placed while the vertebrate nerve cord is blurring of vision but if treated , vision will improve.
is composed of stratified epithelium, which dorsally placed. 3. No, the structure and function of 2. Yes answer: My vision is important to me for my
provides an impenetrable barrier to invasion by the nervous system in all mammals is about the same. safety as well as enjoyment of the world around me.
microorganisms. 20. a; 21. b; 22. e; 23. d; 24. e; No answer: I would rather enjoy life as I like and be
25. c; 26. a; 27. a; 28. e; 29. Shivering is due to Testing Yourself
willing to take the consequences.
muscle contraction which gives off heat. 30. You 1. d; 2. c; 3. b; 4. a; 5. b; 6. New characters often Page 556: 1. This is reasonable because of cultural
would expect the cardiovascular system to have a arise by modifications of previously evolved influences that make a person seem disabled if they
pump (the heart) to move a liquid (blood) through characters. 7. c; 8. b; 9. Myelination enables signals wear glasses or that make them they are “nerds”.
tubular vessels. to travel quickly down an axon, which helps motor However, I think it is wise to disregard any stigmatism
skills. 10. a; 11. c; 12. d; 13. e; 14. Learning requires and do what is best for oneself. 2. Everyone should
Thinking Scientifically the formation fo new associations and this is weigh the consequences of their actions and after
1. Examine the tissue visually, trying to determine the mirrored in the brain by the formation of new being well informed, do what is best for them.
particular organ before preparing microscope slides so synapses. 15. a central canal; b. gray matter; c. white Page 561: 1. I would rather participate in rock
that you can compare the slides you have made to matter; d. interneuron; e. dorsal root ganglion; f. cell concerts and exercise classes with the aid of earplugs
known tissue slides. 2. Test two groups: (1) People body of motor neuron; 16. a; 17. d; 18. d; 19. d; to preserve my hearing. 2. We should not be annoyed
who visit tanning salons, say two or more times a 20. They affect the limbic system and either promote because it could be too that they did protect their
week. (2) People who never vistit tanning salons. or decrease the action of a particular neurotransmitter. hearing and their hearing loss is due to no fault of
Find out how many people in each group have been their own.
treated for skin cancer. Compare the percentages and Thinking Scientifically
Page 564: 1. It shows that evolution makes use of
determine if the difference is significant. 1. Administer a medication that interferes with the the structures available to it rather than inventing
reception of norepinephrine at a synapse. The patient something new. 2. The inner ear of mammals
Put the Pieces Together may not respond properly to a real danger. 2. Severed evolved from our predecessors, water dwelling
Page 523: 1. When the human body is cold, sensory neurons are still releasing neurotransmitters animals. As such, it would make evolutionary sense
signals are sent to the bones and muscles to initiate in the spinal cord, resulting in messages to the brain that the inner ear of mammals makes use of fluid
movement which results in shivering. Shivering that are interpreted as pain in the limb. pressure waves, as our aquatic ancestors would have.
increases blood flow and body temperature. As 3. Mammals evolved on land and use vision as well
soon as possible humans move to a more suitable Put the Pieces Together
as sound to detect the presence of other organisms.
environment to achieve homeostasis. 2. People who Page 547: 1. The nervous system is composed of Sound waves are amplified by the presence of three
travel to the South Pole wear special clothing and take two parts, the brain and spinal cord (central nervous ossicles surrounded by air in the middle ear.
shelters that help maintain body temperature and system) and the nerves and ganglia (peripheral
prevent water loss. People who walk in space have a nervous system). The central nervous system receives Testing Yourself
space suit that maintains their normal environment information from the body, integrates it , and sends 1. e; 2. c; 3. The brain requires input from sensory
and provides them with the support systems they instructions to the body’s muscles and glands via receptors in order to produce sensations about the
need (e.g., availability of oxygen). 3. No, because the nerves of the peripheral nervous system. They world at large. 4. a; 5. See Fig. 27.6; 6. near object;
blood and tissue fluid are external to cells. Yes, respond. 2. Neurons are the functional units of both 7. d; 8. c; 9. c; 10. c; 11. b; 12. e; 13. d; 14. c; 15. Both
because blood and tissue fluid are inside the body. the CNS and the PNS; therefore, every thought, procedures can correct an inability to focus properly;
feeling, and emotion we have and action we take is The first with an artificial lens and the second by
CHAPTER 26 dependent on the nerve impulse and transmission
across a synapse. 3. The limbic system influences
changing the shape of the cornea. 16. Rather than
visual information, a blind person uses information
Check Your Progress motor output by its communication with the forebrain. from proprioceptors in joints and tendons and touch
26.1 a. neurons and neuroglia; interneurons; receptors for example in the buttocks to know they
b. sensory neurons and motor neurons 26.2 a. It
distributes the ions appropriately because Na+ is
CHAPTER 27 are sitting in a chair. 17. See Fig. 27.10; 18. a; 19. a;
20. c; 21. c; 22. c; 23. c; 24. b; 25. a; 26. b
pumped to the outside of an axon, and K+ is pumped Check Your Progress
to the inside. b. Na+ moves to the inside of the axon 27.1 Eyes are sensitive to visible light rays and Thinking Scientifically
and then K+ moves to the outside of an axon. sometimes to ultraviolet rays, both of which are part 1. One possible answer: The size of the auditory cortex
26.3 Saltatory conduction. 26.4 Neurotransmitters of the electromagnetic spectrum. 27.2 Eyes receive is larger in those who have perfect pitch. Test the pitch
that cross the synaptic cleft. 26.5 Inhibition of AChE stimuli and initiate nerve impulses; the optic nerve ability of subjects, and then stimulate the brain directly
would cause ACh to remain in a synapse. A drug that sends impulses to the brain; and the visual cortex of to determine the size of the auditory cortex.
interferes with neurotransmitter breakdown enhances the brain interprets the stimuli, resulting in formation 2. LASIK surgery only corrects the shape of the cornea
its action. 26.6 The neurons of the brain receive of an image. 27.3 a. Pheromones combine with a in order to achieve 20/20 vision.
signals via the spinal cord from all the rest of the chemoreceptor that initiates a nerve impulse; b.
nervous system. 26.7 A chimpanzee’s brain would be Pheromones are signals sent by one member of a Put the Pieces Together
very similar to ours but smaller. 26.8 When sleeping species to affect the behavior of another member. Page 567: 1. Human beings’ keenest senses are
occurs, the sleep center is active and the RAS is 27.4 No, photoreceptors contain pigments that probably hearing and vision, which would have
inactive. 26.9 The amygdala adds emotional absorb light. 27.5 The color we see is dependent been adaptive for a primate dwelling on land and
overtones to experiences. 26.10 Without the PNS, the upon which combination of cones is stimulated. seeking food and shelter and protection in trees.
CNS would neither receive stimuli nor be able to 27.6 The compound eye has many independent 2. Parents use touch, vision and sound to bond with
direct a response to the stimuli. 26.11 a. spinal cord; visual units, but the retina of the camera-type eye is their children. Birds use the same senses. 3. I would
b. brain 26.12 Sensing danger because of input from one large visual unit. 27.7 A lens can accommodate— give up taste as a weight control mechanism.
sensory receptors, the brain sends nerve impulses via change shape as needed. 27.8 a. Ganglion cell layer,
the spinal cord to the skeletal musces and to nerve
fibers of the sympathetic division of the autonomic
bipolar cell layer, rod and cone cell layer; b. Rod and
cone cell layer, bipolar cell layer, ganglion cell layer
CHAPTER 28
system. The sympathetic division shuts down (whose axons form the optic nerve). 27.9 Maintain Check Your Progress
unnecessary functions and enhances those that can muscle tone and help maintain the body’s balance 28.1 Exoskeletons and endoskeletons are likely to be
help manage the crises. and posture. 27.10 outer: gather sound waves; a part of the fossil record because they do not
middle:amplify sound waves; inner: hearing decompose, as do the soft hydrostatic skeletons of
Form Your Opinion 27.11 Bending of hair cells is a mechanical event. animals. 28.2 The bones provide a frame for the
Page 533: 1. Both animals have a central and 27.12 a. When the head rotates cupulas are body after death. Even disconnected bones can help
peripheral nervous system. Planarians have a ladder- displaced and this causes stereocilia in the ampullae a forensics expert determine what the person
like nervous system with two nerve chords connected of the semicircular canals to bend. b. When the head looked like. 28.3 skull: zygomatic and parietal bone;
to the cerebral ganglia and extend to the posterior bends, otoliths are displaced causing a membrane in rib cage: sternum; vertebral column: sacrum.
end of the body. Transverse nerves connect the the utricle and saccule to sag and stereocilia to bend. 28.4 Gender of the individual and the condition of

A-14 APPENDIX Answer Key

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 the pubic symphysis, which gives an indication of of the hip, while the fibrous joints of the skull my chances of recovery from an injury, especially
age. 28.5 A long bone in the appendicular skeleton, are immovable. These immovable joints have an since this treatment is FDA approved. No, I would
such as the humerus or the femur, would be suitable important function since the bones of the skull must not be willing to let leaches feast on my blood
for calculating height. 28.6 As we age, the joints remain intact in order to protect the brain. There because it would make me uncomfortable. 2. The
deteriorate, so their condition can be used to roughly are three types of muscles: (1) Skeletal muscles are idea that diseases could be transported throughout
indicate age. 28.7 During shivering, the skeletal striated for strength and voluntary contraction when the body by the circulatory system might have given
muscles contract quite rapidly, generating heat, needed to move bones. (2) Cardiac muscle is striated physicians the idea that by removing blood the
which can help maintain normal body temperature. for strength, but involuntary, ensuring that the heart illness might also be lessened.
28.8 More motor units are recruited to lift three continues to beat. (3) Smooth muscle is nonstriated
books. 28.9 A myofibril is a long, cylindrical and involuntary, ensuring that the muscles of the Testing Yourself
structure in a muscle cell. A sarcomere is a section digestive tract always perform peristalsis. 3. Jointed 1.d; 2. c; 3. b; 4. Efficient delivery of oxygen to the
of a myofibril. 28.10 The events shown in Figure appendages allow arthropods and vertebrates to muscles allows birds and mammals to have an active
28.10B #1–3. 28.11 A neuromuscular junction occurs perform flexible movements needed for walking, lifestyle and generate heat to maintain a warm body
between an axon terminal and a muscle cell; a running, jumping on land. temperature. 5. a; 6. See Fig. 29.2; 7. d; 8. c; 9. c;
synapse occurs between an axon terminal of one 10. b; 11. d; 12. c; 13. b; 14. a. blood pressure
neuron and either the dendrite or cell body of the
next neuron. 28.12 The CP pathway uses creatine
CHAPTER 29 b. osmotic pressure c. blood pressure d. osmotic
pressure; 15. a; 16. d; 17. e; 18. b; 19 Erthropoietin
phosphate. 28.13 To a degree—for example, a weight Check Your Progress increases the number of red blood cells, and Rita’s
lifter would have larger bones with larger 29.1 Open systems utilize hemolymph; run freely into problem is lack of iron in her diet.
protuberances. If the musculature could be a hemocoel; heart has ostia. Closed systems utilize
observed, it would be well developed. blood; always contained in vessels; heart has no ostia. Thinking Scientifically
29.2 The right side of the heart contains more O2-poor 1. (1) By dissecting animals, you will see three
Form Your Opinion blood and the left side of the heart contains more different types of blood vessels; the valves in the
Page 575: 1. A larger human brain and upright O2-rich blood. 29.3 a. SA node activity is responsible heart directed toward the arteries and in the veins
posture might be evolutionarily connected because for atrial systole; b. AV node activity is responsible for valves directed toward the heart. (2) A deep cut to a
as walking upright evolved, increased brain size was ventricular systole. 29.4 a. Blood pressure moves vertebrate limb draws bright, red arterial blood
also needed to ensure the coordination and balance blood in arteries; b. Mechanical pressure exerted by under pressure; pressing on a vein causes it to
required for upright posture. 2. Arthritis, tendonitis, skeletal muscle contraction helps move blood in veins. expand on the far side. This could only be if the
ligament tears and other injuries suggest that the 29.5 No, try as you will in Figure 29.8. This ensures blood circulates. 2. The amount of amino acids,
knee is not fully adapted to bearing weight. Also, the that all blood passes through the lungs. 29.6 No, it is sugar, and oxygen is higher in arterial blood and the
knees are subject to injury when playing sports. highest close to the heart and falls off dramatically amount of bicarbonate ion is higher in venous
Page 578: 1. We should give people the benefit of after moving through the capillaries. 29.7 Blood is blood. Nutrients and oxygen leave a capillary and
the doubt because knowledge about osteoporosis is composed of blood cells (plus platelets) in a liquid carbon dioxide enters a capillary midway along it’s
relatively new some people are more prone to the matrix called plasma. 29.8 Tissue fluid is derived from length. When carbon dioxide enters the capillary, the
disease than others. 2. Screening for osteoporosis plasma at cardiovascular capillaries. Excess tissue fluid main portion becomes the bicarbonate ion.
should be part of any type of physical exam. is absorbed by lymphatic vessels and becomes lymph.
3. Payment for health insurance should be on a sliding 29.9 The steps prevent clotting from occurring Put the Pieces Together
scale dependent on the health habits of the individual. unnecessarily. 29.10 A type B recipient has anti-A Page 607: 1. Circulatory systems always have exchange
Smoking can be detected by chronic bronchitis; lack of antibodies in the plasma, and they will react with the surfaces with the external environment so they can
exercise can be detected by their musculature. donor’s red blood cells, causing agglutination. keep the internal environment constant. For example,
Page 581: 1. People say they are too busy, do not aquatic animals have gills and terrestrial animals have
belong to a gym, and don’t know how to work it Form Your Opinion lungs where gas exchange occurs.They also exchange
into their daily lives. However, many alternative Page 593: 1. Most likely reptiles (bird and materials with the cells because their ultimate function
methods for exercising can be done even at home. crocodiles) and mammals express this gene is to serve the needs of cells. 2. When the blood is
2. It is not helpful and it would be more accurate to because their heart has a septum, which completely returning to the heart, it lacks the blood pressure
say that results do not come without work. separates the ventricles. provided by the pumping of the heart and venous
Page 596: 1. I believe that open heart surgery should blood may be traveling against gravity to move from
Testing Yourself be paid for by insurance, especially in cases where the extremities back to the heart. 3. Blood pressure
1. a; 2. c; 3. e; 4. b; 5. c; 6. b; 7. c; 8. b; 9. f; 10. c; the need for the surgery is a genetic condition or birth and therefore blood flow would be reduced due to the
11. e; 12. c; 13. d; 14. a; 15. c; 16. a; 17. e; 18. b; defect. I believe the operation should be paid for by movement of water into tissue fluid.
19. Pelvic girdle is too small for a normal delivery. the patient based on ability to pay to help offset the
20. a; 21. b; 22. c; 23. b; 24. d; 25. a; 26. e;
27. Unless they were attached, myosin couldn’t
cost of insurance premiums, especially in cases where
cardiac health has suffered due to poor diet, lack
CHAPTER 30
cause the actin filaments to move thereby shortening of exercise, or drug abuse. 2. Ideally, people would Check Your Progress
sarcomeres. 28. b; 29. a; 30. a follow the guidelines for staying fit and would not 30.1 They return excess tissue fluid to cardiovascular
need to rely on the medical profession to make them veins. Without the return of this fluid, the tissues
Thinking Scientifically healthy after they’ve abused their bodies. would become water-logged, blood pressure would
1. Remove muscle tissue from a corpse in rigor Page 597: 1. Recommendations not to smoke or drop dramatically, and blood circulation would falter.
mortis, slice it thin. While watching under the abuse drugs would be easier for me to follow 30.2 The red bone marrow can produce thousands of
microscope, flood your slide with ATP and than recommendations for diet and exercise. Food T cells every day to stay ahead of those being killed by
necessary ions to see if muscle relaxes and then and laziness are easier for me to buy into than the virus. As long as the red bone marrow can
contracts. 2. Acquire two test groups: aerobic cigarettes and drugs. 2. I think education including produce more helper T cells than are being destroyed
instructors and confirmed couch potatoes. Oxygen the opportunity to see the effects of poor diet, lack by an HIV infection, the person can fight off
tanks supply their only air, while they are running of exercise and/or effects of drug use is the best infections. 30.3 All three categories are helpful. The
on a tread mill. Those who routinely exercise have method to make for making young people realize lining of the vagina is protective; interferons,
more mitochondria than those who do not that they should take care of their bodies. macrophages, and natural killer cells should be helpful
exercise, accounting for why the first group uses Page 601: 1. Because our culture emphasizes as well. 30.4 Macrophages and dendritic cells, because
less oxygen and has less lactate (lactic acid) in success, athletes are inclined to use performance- they activate T cells. 30.5 Yes, because it is specific to
their blood. enhancing procedures or drugs in order to win the virus and foreign to humans. 30.6 As long as
competitions. Athletes found to be using illegal active antibodies are present in the body, the person
Put the Pieces Together drugs and procedures should be banned from remains immun to a disease. 30.7 HIV attacks and
Page 587: 1. Animals are heterotrophs and have to competition in their respective sport and any medical lives inside helper T cells. Destruction of helper T cells
seek their food. Nerves and muscles assist animals personnel or trainer that assists the athlete should be occurs when the viruses bud from the cell. Therefore,
in pursuing their way of life such as being a predator prosecuted and face loss of medical license, because as the infection progresses, fewer T cells are available
or escaping predation. 2. To take an example, the drugs and procedures can cause death. to perform their usual functions, and the immune
the pelvis and femur meet in a ball and socket, a Page 603: 1. I would be willing to let leaches feed system fails. 30.8 No; each antibody is effective only
synovial joint that allows for the rotational mobility on my blood for a few minutes if it would improve against one specific antigen. 30.9 HIV destroys helper

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 T cells, and the number of cytokine-secreting helper T carbohydrates. 31.2 a. Mouth: chew food; esophagus: might develop an eating disorder. Advertisements
cells declines. Eventually, the immune system is conduct food bolus to the stomach; b. Salivary glands encourage children to eat high-calorie foods and that
ineffective, and the person, if untreated, dies. contain salivary amylase, an enzyme for carbohydrate could start them on the road to obesity. 2. You could
30.10 The compromised immune system would make digestion. 31.3 Carbohydrates: mouth and small offer emotional support for any underlying issue that
rejection less of an issue, but the patient would be intestine; proteins: stomach and small intestine may contribute to the disorder.
susceptible to all sorts of possible pathogen infections 31.4 Our intestines are very long. The long small
due to the surgery. 30.11 If the disease is untreated, intestine gives time for digestion (particularly Testing Yourself
the quality of life suffers. If the disease is treated with carbohydrate digestion) to be completed and also 1. d; 2. a; 3. Life is sustained by a source of
immunosuppressive drugs, patients may be more absorption to occur. 31.5 The liver breaks down the energy, and the digestive system provides the
susceptible to pathogenic infections. medicine prior to its excretion, so it is necessary to nutrients that provide energy to animals. 4. a;
keep taking it in order to maintain a certain level in 5. d; 6. b; 7. b; 8. a. salivary glands b. esophagus
Form Your Opinion the body. 31.6 Low-fiber, refined carbohydrates lead to c. stomach d. duodenum e. large intestine f. small
Page 613: 1. Fever seems beneficial when it makes poor health; high-fiber, whole-grain carbohydrates intestine g. colon; 9. d because it contains the right
us slow down but harmful because it makes us lead to good health. 31.7 Oils containing unsaturated enzyme, the right pH, and the right substrate;
realize we are sick. 2. Most people cannot resist fatty acids lead to good health. Fats containing 10. e; 11. c; 12. d; 13. b; 14. b; 15. c; 16. b; 17. a.
treating a fever because a fever makes them feel saturated fatty acids and/or trans fatty acids, in bile canals, b. hepatic artery, c. hepatic portal vein,
uncomfortable and just doing away with the fever particular, lead to poor health. 31.8 Vegetables supply d. bile duct e. central vein; 18. a; 19. e; 20. c;
makes them feel better. nutrients and do not overtax the body’s metabolism 21. b; 22. d; 23. The source of amino acids is of no
Page 620: 1. Cancer is caused by an agent that can the way protein does. 31.9 Salts increase the osmolarity consequence because the DNA of each cell
affect our genes. Monoclonal antibodies do not of blood and cause more water to be absorbed by the specifies the types of proteins for that cell.
activate transduction pathways nor activate genes. kidneys, leading to hypertension. 31.10 Whole grains,
2. Yes, the patient should have been asked for her fruits, and vegetables, in general, supply vitamins in Thinking Scientifically
consent and should have been compensated. Even the diet. 1. Pepsin, HCL, substrate (e.g., piece of cooked egg
now her heirs could be compensated. white), water. Omit the pepsin. If digestion still
Page 622: 1. Contact with an allergen over a period Form Your Opinion occurs, pepsin may not be the cause of digestion.
of time can lead to an allergic response. 2. The Page 631: 1. Birds are adapted for flight and a 2. The use of a control group and a large number of
presence of IgG antibodies can prevent an allergic beak is light because it does not have teeth. The participants makes the correlation more certain.
response. Good hygiene in developed countries has food a bird eats whether a seed or a fish does not
resulted in fewer types of antibodies in people’s need to be chewed. Cows are large animals that Put the Pieces Together
blood and tissues. have few predators; they can take their time eating Page 647: 1. The digestive system provides the
grass which requires much chewing and digestion. nutrients that allow all the systems of the body to
Testing Yourself 2. I would rather be an herbivore so that I would acquire ATP and synthesize the molecules needed
1.a; 2. b; 3. d; 4. b; 5. It collects excess tissue fluid at not have to hunt and kill in order to eat. I could to maintain structure. 2. The placement of the liver
the blood capillaries and returns it to the subclavian spend all my time eating and digesting my food. between the digestive system and the circulatory
veins of the cardiovascular system. 6. b; 7. e; 8. d; A carnivorous lifestyle does have its benefits as well: system stresses that the liver monitors the quantity
9. a; 10. Fever creates an unfavorable environment for I could eat large meals high in protein and spend and purity of the molecules received from our food;
an invader and may stimulate the immune system. less time digesting my food. 3. When humans first it breaks down poisonous molecules and stores
11. See Fig. 30.7; 12. c; 13. d; 14. a; 15. a; 16. a; 17. b; evolved, they were not tool makers and didn’t have excess glucose. 3. Reducing the size of the stomach
18. e; 19. e; 20. B and T cells are specific to the agent the means to hunt and kill animals. As the brain can reduce food intake by making us feel full sooner.
that has harmed the body. 21. c increased in size, humans made tools and learned to Malnutrition can arise due to limited food intake or
use fire. When they migrated to Europe the weather imbalance of the diet.
Thinking Scientifically turned cold, and because of their spears and greater
1. Hypothesis: each type of antibody is coded for by
a different sequence of exons from the same gene or
intelligence, men could cooperate to hunt and kill
large animal and use their skins for clothing.
CHAPTER 32
genes. 2. Control group is vaccinated against a Page 635: 1. To do a controlled experiment, Dr. Check Your Progress
specific disease and then the pathogen is Marshall needed two groups of volunteers; the test 32.1 Ventilation does not occur. 32.2 A counter flow
administered. They are expected to remain well. The group would ingest a sample of Heliobacter pylori and mechanism ensures that blood is always exposed to
test group is vaccinated against a specific disease the control group would ingest a sample that does not a higher O2 concentration; therefore, O2 is
and then is administered the drug plus the pathogen. contain Heliobacter pylori. Each group is later tested for continually taken up by blood. 32.3 Larger insects
If the drug suppresses antibody mediated defense, the presence of ulcers. 2. The absence of ulcer in the have a means of ventilating the tracheae, but
the test group will become ill. Repeat the procedure control group supports the hypothesis that Heliobacter external respiration (exchange of gases with
for other diseases. pylori is the cause of ulcer in the test group. incoming air), and internal respiration (exchange of
Page 637: 1. Antibiotic therapy might kill off the gases in the tissues) comprise a single event in
Put the Pieces Together bacteria that can help you digest lactose. 2. Pro-pill insects. 32.4 nasal cavity, pharynx, glottis, larynx,
Page 625: 1. An antibody-mediated response is answer: I would prefer to take a pill that supplies trachea, bronchus, bronchiole and alveoli of lungs.
needed to identify and destroy the virus once it is enzymes because I love milk and other dairy The path of air does not change when a person
in the blood. If the viral DNA has integrated itself products. If the intolerance could be managed dives. However, note that air does not enter the body
into the infected cell’s genome, then cell-mediated with a simple pill I would take it over excluding when a person dives but exchange continues in the
immunity is also needed. During cell-mediated some of my favorite foods from my diet. Pro-watch lungs as long as possible. 32.5 Penguins can store air
immunity, cytotoxic T cells destroy a cell infected diet answer: I would prefer to manage my diet in the posterior air sacs. 32.6 When the spleen
with a virus. 2. The clonal selection process results for lactose intolerance because I don’t think a pill contracts, more red blood cells (more hemoglobin)
in the production of a specific antibody. Therefore, should be the answer to every ailment, and the pill enter the blood. This not only raises the amount of
the antibodies produced after exposure to HIV would may have side effects. available oxygen, but the hemoglobin also helps
not be present if exposure had not taken place. Page 643: 1. A person might have an unhealthy control pH (see Section 32.7). 32.7 Oxyhemoglobin
3. Following a viral infection a body cell might diet due to family dietary habits, lack of money, or transports oxygen from the lungs to the tisssues.
mistakenly display a viral antigen. Natural killer a poor knowledge of a balanced diet. Schools could Most CO2 is transported as the bicarbonate ion but
cells (innate immunity) attack these body cells. Also, provide healthy foods in the dining room and should some combines with hemoglobin forming
an APC cell detects the antigen and presents it to a teach students the essentials of good nutrition. carboaminohemoglobin. The globin portion of
T cell. (adaptive immunity). The T cell attacks the 2. Yes answer: Warning labels should be used hemoglobin combines with H+ forming HBH+.
body cell even though it is no longer infected. because the government should protect us so we do Therefore hemoglobin plays a role in maintaining
not make poor food choices. No answer: Warning normal blood pH. Hemolgobin’s essential function is
CHAPTER 31 labels should not be used because education is a
better protective measure than warning labels. The
transport of oxygen.

Check Your Progress government should not be involved in every choice Form Your Opinion
31.1 Carnivores are predators that attack and kill other we make during our lifetimes. Page 651: 1. (1) A hydra lives in an aquatic
animals. Digestion (both mechanical and chemical) of Page 644: 1. Our society admires thinness and environment, which ensures a moist exchange
meat is more easily accomplished than the digestion of to avoid being seen as overweight, a person surface. (2) Earthworms keep themselves moist

A-16 APPENDIX Answer Key

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 by living in moist soil. (3) Fish live in aquatic b. It takes less energy to prepare urea than uric Thinking Scientifically
environments and thus have moist exchange acid. 33.2 No, the workings of the nephridia stay 1. A microscopic study of their kidneys should reveal
surfaces. (4) Insects have fluid filled tracheoles, the same, regardless of respiration. The worm that they have a reduced glomerulus and a very long
which aid in exchange. (5) Mammals use the might gain less water from the environment loop of the nephron. 2. Use the pump to increase the
internal environment to keep exchange surfaces because of its thicker skin and produce less urine pressure of the blood passing through the tubing,
moist. 2. Fishes must use the motion of their mouths as a result. 33.3 glomerular capsule, proximal increase the length of the tubing, and increase the
to power water over the gills in order receive oxygen convoluted tubule, loop of nephron, distal rapidity with which the dialysis fluid passes through
from water. Humans can breathe through their convoluted tubule, collecting duct, renal pelvis. the apparatus.
noses; insects, earthworms and hydra also do not 33.4 All small molecules enter the filtrate, and the
use their mouths to breathe. 3. Cellular respiration tubule reabsorbs nutrients and salts into the blood Put the Pieces Together
requires O2 and gives off CO2. as required to maintain normal blood Page 679: 1. Hormonal control of kidneys: (1) ADH
Page 655: 1. Yes answer: Smokers have a right concentrations. 33.5 It fine-tunes the reabsorption regulates water reabsorption from collecting duct.
to smoke, but should confine their smoking to of sodium ions. 33.6 Fig. 33.6 shows how the (2) aldosterone promotes reabsorption of Na+
non-public places since second hand smoke is a kidneys regulate the pH of the blood: If the blood at distal convoluted tubule, (3) ANH inhibits
serious threat to anyone near a smoker. No answer: is basic, bicarbonate ions are excreted and not aldosterone secretion by adrenal cortex. 2. Blood
Smokers do not have a right to smoke and smoking reabsorbed and H+ is not excreted. If the blood pH is regulated through the carbonate buffer system
should be outlawed because nonsmokers should is acidic, bicarbonate ions are reabsorbed and H+ is in the blood and by the excretory and respiratory
not have to pay for the health costs of smoking. excreted. Ammonia combines with H+ to buffer it. systems. The carbonate buffer system combines with
2. Smokers suffer from bronchitis and often lung acid or base to keep the pH constant; to raise pH
cancer and other types of cancer. 3. Cigarette Form Your Opinion
the respiratory system excretes carbon dioxide and
manufacturers should be held responsible for Page 669: 1. Evolution would have followed the kidneys excrete H+ and reabsorb bicarbonate.
providing cigarettes to the world, while friends and this pathway: fresh-water fishes; to lobe-finned The kidneys can also do the opposite to lower the
family members of smokers might bear some blame fishes in small bodies of freshwater on land; to pH when necessary. 3. The kidneys regulate the
if they do not do their best to prevent smoking in amphibians that could locomote on land but had composition of the blood by excreting metabolites,
their families. to return to fresh water to reproduce. 2. Excretion and they regulate the salt-water balance so that the
Page 660: 1. Both activities bring pollutant irritants of ammonia is consistent with the early life of tonicity and volume of blood stays constant.
into the lungs and can cause conditions like chronic amphibians in the water; excretion of urea is
bronchitis and lung cancer. 2. An organic chemical consistent with their later life on land. You would CHAPTER 34
could stimulate or inhibit a transduction pathway predict that amphibians osmoregulate as their
that ends with a transcription factor or activator ancestors (freshwater fishes) did. 3. Humans Check Your Progress
that regulates gene activity. The end result of this osmoregulate by regulating the amount of salt and 34.1 They all send a chemical message that is
altered gene regulation could be cancer. 3. Walking, water in their blood as do freshwater fishes in that received by a receptor and reception brings about a
household chores, climbing or descending a both have no way other than the kidneys to rid the change in the cell’s/organism’s metabolism.
stairway, and heavy lifting would be troublesome for body of salt. 34.2 Whereas pheromones result in nerve messages
a person with emphysema. Page 673: 1. I think that it is a person’s own to the brain; hormones are transmitted by the
business if they want to take drugs, but that they bloodstream and act on body cells directly; peptide
Testing Yourself must consider the consequences of doing so and hormones stimulate an enzyme cascade; and steroid
1. c; 2. e; 3. a; 4. b; 5. b; 6. d; 7. b; 8. c; 9. c; 10. See be held responsible for any harm they might cause hormones stimulate protein synthesis. 34.3 All of
Fig. 32.4; 11. b; 12. d; 13. f; 14. d; 15. a; 16. b; 17. e; others.; therefore, I believe they should be tested them represent passage of hormone by the
18. d; 19. left: a. rib cage up and out; b. diaphragm by employers if other people would be harmed bloodstream. All organs have receptors; otherwise,
moves down; right: a. rib cage down and in; b. by their habit. 2. Jail might scare some people stimulation and negative feedback would not occur.
diaphragm moves up. 20. b; 21. b; 22. b; 23. d; 24. a; to give up drugs, however, addictions should be 34.4 A child that is short in stature can receive growth
25. e; 26. The shape of hemoglobin changes when the treated as illnesses and treated safely with medical hormone; increased bone length and muscle mass are
pH changes from near neutral in the lungs to slightly supervision and with the support of drug/alcohol expected as metabolism increases. Too much growth
acidic in the tissues, and this causes it to unload its counselors. 3. Yes answer: Because of the risks hormone can result in a giant with diabetes mellitus.
oxygen. 27. d; 28. b; 29. e; 30. The body has a limited associated with child drug use, including overdose, 34.5 Pheromone to VNO to hypothalamus to anterior
capacity to store oxygen and has a better ability to long term addictions, and death, I am a proponent pituitary to thyroid gland and release of hormones.
store energy. of physicians testing children who raise suspicion of 34.6 Calcitonin causes the blood calcium to fall, and
drug use. No answer: Children should not be tested PTH causes it to rise. 34.7 Epinephrine and
Thinking Scientifically for drug use. Children should be well-educated on norepinephrine by the adrenal medulla. 34.8 Diabetes
1. Fat metabolism results in acids that enter the the risks of drug use and monitored by parents and type 2 which occurs when the cells are not responsive
bloodstream; a lower pH stimulates the respiratory guardians to an extent that would prevent them from to insulin can be due to a diet rich in sugar and fat.
center and causes increased breathing, which lowers using drugs. The diet leads to inactivity and obesity which is
the CO2, but raises the O2 blood level. Test the blood Page 676: 1. I might treat a dialysis patient that associated with diabetes type 2. 34.9 Winter;
of a diabetic group and a normal group for these has to spend hours of the week in the hospital for melatonin secretion starts earlier in the PM and
blood levels and compare the results of the tests. hemodialysis like a “sick” person who needs special discontinues later in the AM because the nights are
2. A severed spinal cord prevents the medulla care. People have so many organ replacements longer.
oblongata from communicating with the rib cage today that I probably would not treat a person with
and diaphragm via the phrenic nerve and intercostal a replaced bladder differently. 2. Except in cases of Form Your Opinion
nerves. neglect or malpractice, I do not think that doctors, Page 691: 1. It is a prescribing physician’s
nurses, or technicians should be held responsible for responsibility to explain any and all risks associated
Put the Pieces Together unsuccessful hemodialysis. 3. If a person is able to with treatment including hormone therapy. It is
Page 663: 1. The lungs have external exchange perform the duties associated with a job and needs then a patient’s choice whether or not to receive
surfaces because air from the external environment time off for medical treatment, some provisions such therapies, having been made aware of the
enters the lungs. 2. The respiratory system excretes should be made so they can be hired. side effects. 2. Yes, it does make me uncomfortable
CO2 which arises due to cellular metabolism. The because one can never know for sure if the
digestive system rids the body of nondigestible Testing Yourself “possible” negative effects will occur.
remains which have never been a part of the body. 1. a; 2. d; 3. b; 4. b; 5. c; 6. See Fig. 33.3C; 7. c; 8. c; Page 694: 1. Sleeping in a room without a window
3. Hemoglobin (1) transports O2 to the cells, (2) 9. a; 10. d; 11. These cells reabsorb most of the seemed to bring on a degree of seasonal affective
helps transport CO2 to the lungs, (3) combines with contents of the nephron and need increased surface disorder for me. Without morning light to rouse me
H+ and thereby helps buffer the blood. area and energy to better pump molecules back into from sleep, I found myself sleeping later and later
the blood. 12. e; 13.a,b,d; 14. a, b, d; 15. a, b; 16 c, into the day. Though I attributed the change to a
CHAPTER 33 b; 17. b; 18. a; 19. c,d; 20. a,b; 21. d 22. b; 23. d; 24
c; 25. a; 26. a; 27. The presence of salt in the blood
shift in melatonin, it could have been psychological
also. 2. Night owl: I am a night person that likes to
Check Your Progress causes more water to be passively reabsorbed, and sleep in and go to bed in the early morning hours.
33.1 a. Urea is not as toxic as ammonia, and it the resulting increase in blood volume contributes to This could be attributed to secretion of melatonin
does not require as much water to excrete; high blood pressure. in the morning. Early bird: I am a morning person

APPENDIX Answer Key A-17

mad03482_APP_A-1-A-21.indd A-17 02/08/10 10:10 PM

 that likes to get up with the sunrise and get to the mother. 35.8 establishment of the germ layers Cons: Multiple failed attempts at pregnancy, cost of
bed early. This could be attributed to secretion of during gastrulation 35.9 The notochord is formed procedures, pain surrounding hormone injection,
melatonin in the afternoon. 3. I would be hesitant to from mesoderm and is a supportive structure that lies legal issues surrounding surrogates or sperm/ egg
take a supplement such as growth hormone due to underneath the neural tube, which is formed from donations, emotional wear and tear. For couples
the associated risks and reported cases of diabetes ectoderm. In vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by who have struggled with reproducing and are forced
and other problems. I would employ conventional the vertebral column, and the neural tube becomes to utilize these technologies to produce an offspring,
methods of eating a healthy diet, exercising, and the nervous system. 35.10 Chemical signals tell cells the benefits outweigh the drawbacks. 3. Legislation
getting plenty of rest in order to improve my overall how they are to behave and how they will become should regulate which of the “5 potential parents”
health. specialized. 35.11 Induction causes cells to move and listed above actually does have the best claim to the
form a particular structure. 35.12 To make internal child. Decisions should be made beforehand, like in
Testing Yourself development possible; the chorion is a part of the an adoption, whether or not to make a sperm or egg
1. d; 2. b; 3. a; 4. d; 5. d; 6. f; 7. b; 8. c; 9. a; 10. e; placenta, for example. 35.13 Sponges have the donor available to a child later in life. In addition,
11. Caffeine would increase the stress effect of cellular level of organization; cnidarias (e.g., hydras) the use of reproductive technology should be limited
epinephrine because cAMP, which drives the effect, have the tissue level of organization; flatworms (e.g., in cases like the “Octo-mom” where a large single
would be slower to breakdown. 12. c; 13. c; 14. a; planarian) have the organ level of organization; and parent family exists; thus creating the risk that the
inhibits, b. inhibits, c. releasiing hormone, d. tropic all animals thereafter have the systems level of children will be neglected or the single parent will
hormone, e. target gland hormone; 15. d; 16. e; 17. c; organization. 35.14 The systems are just about fully be unable to support all of the children.
18. d; 19. c; 20. e; 21. d; 22. b; 23. a; 24. d; 25. b; 26. b; formed during embryonic development, even though
27. High blood calcium causes the thyroid to secrete the embryo is tiny and weighs little. During fetal Testing Yourself
calcitonin, which leads to the uptake of calcium by development there is weight gain and and refinement 1. e; 2. c; 3. Sexual reproduction produces variations
bone. Calcium level drops and thyroid is no longer of structures. 35.15 Before birth, the placenta among the offspring and one of these may be
stimulated to release calcitonin. supplied the needs of the fetus. phenotypes that can deal with the new conditions.
4. b; 5. See Fig. 35.2; 2 6. a; 7. c; 8. b; 9. A high blood
Thinking Scientifically Form Your Opinion testosterone level shuts down the anterior pituitary
1. Calcitonin, being a peptide hormone, stimulates Page 701: 1. When the relationship is monogamous, production of gonadotropic hormones, reducing sperm
the metabolism of osteoblasts to form bone utilizing males are fairly assured that the offspring is theirs. production. 10. c; 11. b; 12. b; 13. c; 14. d; 15. zygote,
calcium. 2. Use two groups of volunteers; one group Females exercise choice by selecting as mates, cleavage, morula, blastula, gastrula, neurula.16. a.
consists of the “night owls” and the other group are males that appear to evolutionarily fit. When the chorion (gas exchange), b. amnion (protection),
“early birds.” Collect blood samples from all relationship is not monogamous, males become c. embryo, d. alllanois (umbilical blood vessels), e.
volunteers when they are typically sleepy and when sexually aggressive and females become defensive yolk sac (blood cell formation) f. and g. (placenta is
they typically wake up. If all goes well, the and only let down their defenses when they choose area of exchange with mother); 17. c; 18. d
melatonin level rises earlier at night and lowers to. 2. Each sex wants their particular alleles to be
earlier in the day for the early birds. passed on to the next generation. 3. Traditionally, Thinking Scientifically
before marriage males chase females and females 1. Testosterone causes increased cell division in the
Put the Pieces Together withhold sexual favors. This might cause males prostate. Microscopically, observe the effect of
Page 697: 1. Stress is a stimulus that causes the to become deceptive and make the female believe testosterone on cells taken from the prostate.
hypothalamus to send nerve impulses (nervous they are interested in marriage when they are not 2. Progesterone maintains the uterine lining, and if the
system involvement) to the adrenal gland which interested. It might make the female be the first to placenta doesn’t begin producing it when it should, a
then releases epinephrine (endocrine system break off a relationship that does not seem to be woman could lose the embryo embedded in the lining.
involvement). 2. Example: Low blood calcium is headed toward marriage. To test the hypothesis,
a stimulus that causes the parathyroid glands to I would take a survey of females to determine how Put the Pieces Together
secrete parathyroid hormone and this hormone many broke off a relationship because marriage did Page 723: 1. The human male reproductive organs
brings about a rise in blood calcium level. The not seem in the offing. are adapted to the production and storage of sperm
increase in blood calcium does away with the Page 708: 1. It is evolutionary beneficial for sex to be in the temperature-regulated scrotum, secretion
original stimulus and the parathyroid glands no a powerful motivator in order to perpetuate a species. of protective fluids for the safe transfer of mature
longer release parathyroid hormone. 3. Biologists It is personally disadvantageous because of the risk of sperm, as well as direct deposit of seminal fluids
originally called the anterior pituitary gland the sexually transmitted infections such as those discussed into the female reproductive organs. Internal
master gland because the anterior pituitary gland in this passage. Women who reproduce earlier than development of a fetus in amniotic fluid shows
secretes many different hormones and some of these planned may have to give up plans for a career or will that human development is still tied to an aquatic
control the secretion of other endocrine glands. find it more difficult to pursue a career while caring environment. 2. Animals go through the same
Later, biologists discovered that the hypothalamus for children. 2. Social consequences that might result developmental stages and this would not develop
secretes hormones that control the secretion of the from having a non-treatable sexually transmitted similarly if they were not related and descended
pituitary gland and therefore it is the master gland. disease (STD) range from economical to interpersonal. from a common ancestor. 3. Many genes are active
Treatment for STDs and lost work time represent an only during development and they get turned off as
CHAPTER 35 economic consequence. Socially, infertility and the
risk of transmission to a partner could make a person
the organism matures.

Check Your Progress

35.1 This asexual phenotype is the one that is already
less desirable as a long-term mate. 3. Yes answer: I do
approve of allowing young girls to receive the HPV
CHAPTER 36
successful in the environment; the sexual production vaccine. I think the benefits of decreasing the risk of Check Your Progress
of various phenotypes is sure to produce at least one cervical cancer are enormous and it is no different than 36.1 The population, habitat, community, and
new phenotype that will be successful should the a vaccine to protect a child from any other disease. No ecosystem levels are all affected. 36.2 Density.
environment change the next season. 35.2 Sperm answer: I do not approve of allowing girls as young 36.3 Reproductive because the age structure diagram
must be kept moist to survive. 35.3 They travel as 9 to receive the HPV vaccine. I think that a girl would resemble a stable population. 36.4 Exponential
through the epididymis, the vas deferens, the should be presented with this option at an age deemed growth would occur until competition for resources
ejaculatory duct, and, finally, the urethra. 35.4 The appropriate by a parent or physician in the early teen slowed the population growth to meet the carrying
vagina receives the penis, which delivers the sperm; years. capacity. 36.5 Severe natural disasters (such as
therefore, the sperm do not dry out. The egg is Page 709: 1. sperm donor- because the donor is the hurricanes) and weather-related food shortages are two
fertilized in the oviduct, where body fluids provide genetic parent of the child. egg donor—because the examples. 36.6 Competition for food and habitat
moisture. The embryo develops in the uterus, where it donor is the genetic parent of the child. surrogate resources are two examples. 36.7 Equilibrium species,
cannot dry out. 35.5 To produce the female sex mother—because she carries a child and is ultimately because of their large body size, relatively long life
hormones (estrogen and progesterone) and to responsible for its being born a healthy, viable child. span, and the few offspring produced per deer each
produce an oocyte. 35.6 Birth control pills and any contracting mother—because of legal agreement to year. Deer are exploding because they have no
various other hormone delivery methods (patch, care for the child produced from the pregnancy of the predators and are able to live in the vacinity of people.
injections, implant). 35.7 Lancelets develop quickly surrogate mother. contracting father—because of legal Gorillas prefer a restricted environment that is
into a free-living aquatic larva; birds develop inside a agreement to care for the child produced from the shrinking and they form small populations. 36.8 It
shelled egg and need a food source (the yolk); human pregnancy of the surrogate mother. 2. Pros: successful would lengthen the doubling time, because the deer
embryos develop in the uterus and get nutrients from pregnancy, overcoming reproductive challenges. would add fewer offspring to the population.

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 Form Your Opinion Thinking Scientifically woman in order to “earn the privilege” of mating and
Page 736: 1. In efforts to protect individual species, 1. You might hypothesize that the right whale has reproduction.
we pay special attention to preserving their habitats. only one offspring per reproduction and chances of Page 754: 1. My experience with dogs leads me to
As such, protecting “hotspots” would essentially death before maturity are good. The right whale suggest that dogs do feel affection for their owners,
be a means to protect many organisms and their begins reproducing well after maturity, and anger demonstrated through aggression, excitement
homes. However, if “hotspots” are not home to reproduces infrequently. To test your hypothesis, you for food and play, shame when admonished
any endangered species, we should still preserve would have to observe a captive population or tag for undesirable behavior, and mourning at the
individual species that inhabit other locations. individuals in the wild and observe them from a permanent loss of a playmate (another animal) or
2. Yes answer: Though it is a controversial issue, distance. 2. Determine the original normal flow of human companion. 2. With regard to pets, I would
I support the preservation of cheetahs in zoos if the river and maintain the flow as close to normal as take care not to provoke aggression, and reward
it can help increase the population. Continued possible. them and praise them for desirable behaviors.
monitoring of genetic diversity is essential. Perhaps In nature, I would also refrain from provoking
cheetahs can be bred in zoos for a period of time Put the Pieces Together aggressive or territorial behavior in an animal,
and later strategically released onto protected lands, Page 741: 1. A moderate population size in bearing in mind that the emotions of wild animals
I see the use of zoos as beneficial. No answer: desirable because it strikes a balance between are tied closely to instincts. 3. Yes answer: The
I think that efforts should be made to preserve the negative aspects of very large and very small conclusion that animals do have emotions makes
cheetahs in their natural environment and not in populations. Very large populations over-exploit them seem closer to human beings, thus making
the captivity of a zoo where they are unable to run the resources of their environment, and might eating an animal nearly cannibalistic in nature.
freely and hunt food, skills that are characteristic become extinct due to lack of resources. Very Though I tend to associate emotions more with pets
of cheetahs in the wild. 3. Although it is important small populations lose genetic variability and than animals raised for food, I would reconsider
for our own needs to preserve specific species and run the risk of extinction from disease associated eating meat with evidence that all animals display
natural environments, we should not neglect unique with inbreeding, infectious diseases, or extreme emotions. No answer: I would continue to be an
endangered species. Minor changes in ecosystems environmental changes (flood, drought, etc). 2. We omnivore even with conclusions that animals have
can have widespread and unpredictable effects. should definitely be concerned about how the emotions. I think that animal emotions differ from
The loss of unique endangered species might alter growing U.S. population affects consumption and human emotions and are tied largely to instinctual
our planet in ways we did not anticipate. Because sustainability of our population. Eventually, our response to stimuli.
we are the cause of much of the loss of habitat, non-renewable resources will run out and renewable
Testing Yourself
pollution, and introduction of non-native plants resources will not be able to keep up with our
or animals that causes endangering of species, we consumption. If we persist in a trend of increased 1. c; 2. b; 3. e; 4. c; 5. c; 6. b; 7. See Fig. 37.3; 8. a; 9. d;
should make every effort to preserve as much of population without regard to the environmental 10. c; 11. c; 12. a; 13. Because females produce few
the natural environment as possible. Page 738: 1. impact we are making, we run the risk of not only gametes and have few offspring during their lifetime,
Yes answer: Considering that our current way of running out of natural resources, but also destroying they place an emphasis on quality of offspring. Because
living and reproducing is not sustainable, families ecosystems due to pollution and overdevelopment. males produce many gametes all the time, they place an
in the US are acting selfishly when they have more 3. As demonstrated in Figure 36.3C, more women emphasis on quantity of offspring. 14. d; 15. e; 16. a;
than two children. This is selfish behavior because entering than leaving their reproductive years 17. They would be increasing their inclusive fitness
it has little regard for the future and the impact we means that births will continue to increase when they help their parents at a time they cannot be
are making on our planet that will be detrimental, population over time. A population that consists of reproducing themselves. Reciprocal altruism would
and possibly preventative, of generations of human more young members than old lends itself to growth ensure that they will successfully reproduce when the
beings to come. No answer: I believe families in that is not balanced out by deaths. In populations time comes. 18. a; 19. c; 20. b; 21. d
the US that have more than two children are not with a balance between older and younger
Thinking Scientifically
acting selfishly if they make efforts to have minimal members, stabilization occurs.
impact on the environment. It is more important, 1. Mate the two types of rats and test how the
no matter the size of families, that people in the CHAPTER 37 offspring react to limburger cheese. If they show an
intermediate response, such as being willing to
US pay attention to energy use and exploitation
Check Your Progress approach the cheese but still not eating it, then the
of resources in order to have less negative impact
on the planet. 2. Sustainability would provide a 37.1 Because all members of the colony have the same behavior may be genetically controlled. 2. Observe
quality of life for future generations that is equal mother, they would all inherit the gene, and the sentry behavior more cloesly. Recent observations
to the current conditions. This would help the colony would die out as tunnel excavating ceased. have shown that sentries are the first ones to reach
economy by providing a steady source of materials 37.2 Observe a mole rat in its colony from the time of safety when a predator is spotted, and meerkats only
for production, thus stabilizing prices in the long birth and see if efficiency in building tunnels improves serve as sentries after they have eaten.
run. 3. The United States should hold itself, along over time. 37.3 Operant conditioning because the
younger workers would be rewarded for tunnel work. Put the Pieces Together
with other countries, to the same standards with
regard to environmental impact. More developed 37.4 One reason animals are territorial is to forage for Page 757: 1. Natural selection favors the successful
countries tend to have a greater impact on the foood. 37.5 No, because all mole rats are close competitor for territory while the losing animal(s)
environment and should be keenly aware of the relatives. 37.6 Raise birds that are unable to perform may not survive to reproduce without having
predicament this puts the planet in for the future. this behavior and then compare the fitness of birds a territory. 2. The idea that behavior is largely
The U.S. should certainly reduce its environmental that sing to mark their territory with those that do not. response to stimulus, and that some responses yield
impact while expecting other countries to do the increased fitness might be offensive to people who
Form Your Opinion prefer to think of behavior as learned and correlated
same. The benefits for the planet and the future of
humanity depend upon our responsible management Page 749: 1. Yes answer: Evolutionary principles with cognitive choice. 3. Crickets make calls to
of resources and preservation of the planet we should be applied to human reproductive behavior. attract mates. This behavior is risky, and can lead to
inhabit today. Like other animals, humans demonstrate sexual predation. However, the benefits of attracting a mate
selection and the mating behavior of both males have overcome the risk evolutionarily, since natural
and females indicates a preference towards selecting selection has perpetuated populations of crickets
Testing Yourself the partner with the optimal fitness. No answer: I that make calls for mates.
1. d; 2. d; 3. b; 4. d; 5. b; 6. a; 7. b; 8. a; 9. c; 10. The believe evolutionary principles should not be applied
offspring of a plant that reproduces by runners would
remain near the parent. The offspring of a plant that
to human reproductive behavior, since our complex
culture influences reproduction in ways that are not
CHAPTER 38
reproduces by windblown seeds could be taken far possible in other animals. For example, selection Check Your Progress
away from the parent. 11. See Fig. 36.4B; 12. c; 13. a; of males based on financial security is unique to 38.1 Decomposers release chemicals that make dead
14. b; 15. c; 16. a. density independent factor, humans. In addition, our technological advances can material smell and taste unpleasant to many other
b. density dependent factor; 17. c; 18. d; 19. When help “less fit” individuals survive and reproduce. animals. Some animals, such as scavengers, are not
the environment is unstable due to density- 2. I have observed many examples that support male repulsed, however. 38.2 When scavengers eat
independent and density-dependent factors, a few of competition for females and female choice based on decomposing meat, they are also eating the
the many small, uncared for offspring might have a financial stability. On average, men marry and have decomposers that are devouring the food source
better chance of dispersal to a favorable environment. children with younger women. Traditional dating before them. 38.3 Parasites but not decomposers use
20. a; 21. a; 22. c; 23. d; 24. e. behavior follows a trend of a man impressing a nutrients meant for the host organism. If the host

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 dies, the parasite is also threatened with death. Put the Pieces Together 10. a; 11. a; 12. a; 13. d; 14. e; 15. d ; 16. b; 17.
38.4 Study the feeding behavior of a remora when Page 779: 1. Three populations would be students, Decomposers use up any available oxygen, leaving
not attached to a shark. If it can survive faculty, professors: (1) Students interact with none for the fish. 18. b; 19. c; 20 c; 21 e; 22. d; 23. e;
independently, it is more likely commensalistic with professors for the exchange of information, mostly 24. Sea level would be too deep for previous estuaries
the shark. 38.5 The protozoans are provided with professor to student. Professors interact with to exist, and new ones may not develop further inland
food and habitat. 38.6 Succession would essentially faculty for record keeping, financial exchanges etc. due to development of coastal regions.
stop. Most chemical nutrients would be tied up in (2) Faculty must not be too small to meet the needs of
dead organisms making new growth very limited. Thinking Scientifically
students and professors, but also not too large to be
38.7 Only autotrophs can use an outside energy sustainable financially. (3) With a small student body, 1. You will be able to see if a rising global
source to produce organic food required by all the fewer faculty and staff are needed and able to be temperature affects the distribution of biomes in the
biotic components of an ecosystem. 38.8 The sustained. A larger student body bears the necessity biosphere. 2. Coral houses microscopic algae and if
inorganic chemicals are taken up by plants and the of a larger faculty and staff of professors who are the dirty water blots out the sun, the algae will die.
recycling of chemicals in an ecosystem begins again. then financially sustainable through more incoming
38.9 Bacteria and fungi of decay. 38.10 None; Put the Pieces Together
tuition from students. 2. The human population is
ecological pyramids do not include decomposers. dependent on natural resources and people should Page 797: 1. (a) Squirrels: small herbivorous
This is one of their shortcomings. 38.11 The definitely work to preserve the natural environment animals which are behaviorally adapted to collect
reservoir and the exchange pool are abiotic. in order to maintain the resources needed for life. and store foods (like nuts) in order to have
38.12 Decomposers gradually break down the bones Many of our actions fail to preserve the natural nourishment through the winter. The thick fur coats
making phosphate ions and other chemicals environment because we exploit natural resources, of squirrels are also adaptations to colder winters
available. 38.13 Nitrification. 38.14 It would alter the habitats of many organisms, and create large in the temperate deciduous forest. (b) Sloths: slow-
decrease greenhouse emissions and reduce the threat amounts of waste at a rate unmatched by our efforts moving within the trees, these animals are adapted
of a rise in global temperature. to replenish and repair the damage we do. to expend very little energy which coincides with
the slow digestion of fruit and leaves carried out
Form Your Opinion
CHAPTER 39 by their specially adapted digestive system. Since
Page 765: 1. In both the predator-prey and parasite- sloths use very little energy, they do not need to eat
host relationships, one of the individuals (predator Check Your Progress much. (c) Squid: have a very large eye for hunting
and parasite) benefits more than the other (prey 39.1 temperature and rainfall 39.2 Look at the in the extremely low light levels of the deep sea as
and host). The difference is that in a predator- distribution of landmasses in this chapters various well as the ability to maneuver through water via
prey relationship, the death of prey is guaranteed, maps. They are shifted toward the northern jet propulsion, making them mostly fast-moving
while the death of a host is not always the case in latitudes. 39.3 No, the winds are weaker than usual. creatures. 2. Due to the protection offered by the
parasitism. 2. HIV cannot currently be effectively 39.4 Rain forests receive much rainfall and solar mangrove swamp, it would certainly benefit a
vaccinated against, and even if caught early, remains energy; therefore, they produce enough food for human population to restore a mangrove swamp
incurable. H1N1 can be vaccinated against and is many organisms. The various plants in a tropical over a housing development that would likely
also treatable in certain stages of illness. HIV is a rain forest provide many different types of niches for see damage or devastation shortly after it was
retrovirus capable of producing DNA from its RNA many different organisms. These two factors help rebuilt. Hurricane damage can be avoided if we
within a host cell, thus taking over the host entirely account for why tropical rain forests exhibit species resist the urge to build homes as close to the shore
over time. 3. A pollinator coevolves with a flower richness. 39.5 It would be difficult to simulate the as possible, and instead guard our shores with
such that the flower evolves to attract the pollinator winter of a tundra and to stock it with animals as protective barriers such as mangrove forests. 3. Five
and the pollinator adapts to feed from the flower large as caribou. 39.6 Coniferous trees are soft negative effects of the human population on the
(i.e. long proboscis when the flower is deep). This wood. 39.7 No, you need the rich soil, the oceans: Pollution from developed areas including
coevolution takes place in the same “direction” the understory plants, and the many animals. 39.8 No, sewage, toxic chemicals, insecticides, and detergents
flower to be pollinated and the pollinator in order prairies receive less rainfall than do forests. 39.9 invades the ocean and is carried by the tides
to feed. Coevolution between parasite and host Grasses and scattered trees. 39.10 Cold. 39.11 throughout the ocean where they can invade the
differs in that hosts evolve under selective pressure Epiphytes. 39.12 Wetlands. 39.13 Euphotic. habits of animals, or even be consumed by them.
to avoid being infected by parasites, while parasites Burning of fossil fuels has increased acidity of rain
evolve under pressures to evade host defenses. Form Your Opinion and lakes to the detriment of forests and freshwater
The parasite and host are evolving in different Page 787: 1. The major groups of organisms can be inhabitants. Litter and improperly disposed trash
“directions”- the host to avoid the parasite and the found on all continents because the present-day land is trapping and being eaten by animals, killing
parasite to overcome attempts to be avoided. Page masses used to be a supercontinent. Types of organisms them. Dredging the ocean floor with heavy nets and
769: 1. Food chains will be altered; killing off large can vary between continents depending upon when chains as a method of fishing disturbs the ocean
predators or the introduction of alien species will the animals evolved relative to the separation of the floor habitat and kills many non-target fish/animals
create new predator-prey relationships, potentially continents. 2. Because of the age of the man, he most in the process (by-catch). Drilling for oil sometimes
exterminating some prey. Each minor change to the likely traveled across sea or ice but did not make his results in oil spills and causes long-term damage to
area has trickle down effects that touch not only way to Greenland from Siberia via Beringia since this the oceans, killing animals and destroying shoreline
the animals, but plants as well as abiotic resources. land bridge is believed to have been exposed during the habitats.
2. Small areas, cut off from former connections last ice age 12,000 to 20,000 years ago.
lose species, altering predator-prey relationships
and causing other potentially disruptive changes
Page 794: 1. (1) The effect of the barometric
pressure over the Southeast Pacific and the
CHAPTER 40
throughout an environmental system. Indian Ocean upon weather on the coasts of the Check Your Progress
United States is an example of this connection. 40.1 To preserve natural resources/biodiversity.
Testing Yourself (2) Everything is truly connected to everything else 40.2 Ecosystem-level conservation has the potential
1. c; 2. e; 3. e; 4. a; 5. c; 6. b; 7. d; 8. Will the area be if we trace carbon through its cycle: essentially all of to save a large number of species instead of just
able to meet the niche requirements of this predator? the carbon present even in the bodies of human has one. 40.3 Reduced aquatic biodiversity would limit
(see Fig. 38.7); 9. b; 10. a; 11. b; 12. e; 13. See been present in many other molecules since carbon the amount and types of seafood we consume.
Fig. 38.8A; 14. c; 15. d; 16. c; 17. c; 18. b; 19. c; 20. first appeared in the atmosphere. Carbon makes its 40.4 Native animals and plants in their natural
d; 21. d; 22. No; Photosynthetic species are always at way from the atmosphere into soil, plants, animals, environment. 40.5 A large number of people living
the first trophic level and nonphotosynthetic species and water (etc). 2. Prior to the completion of a dam and building structures a long the coast. 40.6 They
are always at a higher level. in 1970, the annual flooding of the Nile River left reduce biodiversity by causing other species to
behind fertile silt capable of sustaining agriculture become extinct. 40.7 Global climate change because
Thinking Scientifically in Egypt. A small flood or no flood at all would it will affect so many species. 40.8 Overexploitation.
1. Observe the birds carefully to see if they differ result in famine for this area. The annual flood was 40.9 Disease. 40.10 Metapopulation. 40.11 To return
in ways suggested by Figure 38.7. 2. Measure and a dangerous event, but without it, Egypt’s farming the area to its former state (i.e., a thriving
fill a large container with water from the pond. Add would have been impossible. ecosystem). 40.12 Primarily by preserving
measured amounts of phosphate slowly over ecosystems and areas of species richness.
several days or months, and when you see growth, Testing Yourself 40.13 Preservation of natural resources and less
calculate the amount of phosphate you need for the 1. b; 2. e; 3. See Fig. 39.2B; 4. c; 5. b; 6. a; 7. Hot air pollution of the enviironment. 40.14 Famers can
pond. from the equator moves toward the poles. 8. d; 9. d; grow salt tolerant plants and otherwise use drip

A-20 APPENDIX Answer Key

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 irrigation; industry can use air instead of water for characteristics unique to the nearly extinct species. Put the Pieces Together
cooling purposes 14.15. Use other means of 2. Zoos and hatcheries must sometimes maintain Page 819: 1. Instead of increasing the manipulation
controlling pests rather than pesticides such as a species because its numbers are too low for it to of plants and animals via biotechnology, I would
polyculture and biological pest control; use drip sustain itself naturally. The habitat is unable to meet rather see the needs of the growing population
irrigation to water plants, saving water; use legumes the needs of the species and the species is unable met with an alternative method. For example, if
to fertilize land insted of artificial fertilizers. to adapt to changes occurring in the habitat. 3. Yes. the human population was to shift to growing
If the habitat was maintained to begin with, rather and consuming locally, fostering crops suitable to
Form Your Opinion than in need of restoration, the species would be the environment in which they are grown rather
Page 808: 1. Scientists could use artificial selection able to sustain itself naturally. The ecosystem likely than the most popular crops that yield the best
to breed members of species that display adaptive supports a range of species of plants and animals profits, we could use nature to our advantage
traits or behaviors that make them tolerable of that would benefit from efforts to maintain it rather to feed the growing population. 2. Emphasis on
climate change in order to help these species than efforts to maintain individual species outside renewable energy is necessary in order to achieve
survive, essentially fast forwarding what might occur the natural environment for reintroduction to nature. sustainability because nonrenewable energy
via natural selection over a longer period of time. sources are quickly being depleted and cannot
2. Extinction could occur even when plenty of food Testing Yourself
ever be replaced. I agree with this emphasis. It is
is available to small, weak members of a population 1. e; 2. a; 3. b; 4. b; 5. The added shrimp pushes the important for people to understand that the sources
due to the ease with which predators can feed on the salmon to a higher place in the food pyramid, indicating of energy we are accustomed to using cannot
smaller, weaker members of a population. 3. Though that less energy is now available to them. 6. d; 7. e; 8. feasibly be utilized long term and will, sooner than
the temperature might be suitable for survival, the e; 9. e; 10. e; 11. a; 12. e; 13. d; 14. e; 15. b; 16. Food later, run out.
new surroundings could be home to predators not webs show many connections between different 3. Yes, I am willing to pay extra for organic foods.
previously encountered by a species and may not populations. 17. b; 18. c; 19. e; 20. d; 21. b; 22. b The societal benefits of reduced pesticide and
contain an adequate food supply. The ecosystem in herbicide use include reduction of pollution of water
which the species is adapted to living is suitable due Thinking Scientifically
and air and decreased side effects on non-target
to many factors, not temperature alone. 1. Overharvesting reduces genetic diversity due to populations of animals/insects. 4. Yes answer: I
Page 812: 1. Hybridizing essentially creates an the bottleneck effect. As with the cheetah, determine agree that the human population should stabilize
animal that is not technically an original member of how many loci are now homozygous. 2. Besides and that each couple should only replace itself
the nearly extinct species. Mixing in a new animal having produced a population with limited genetic because resources are finite. No answer: I do not
creates a new species, creating a risk of extinction diversity, none of the problems that brought the agree that human population should stabilize and
among the pure species, an unfortunate method species to near extinction (see Sections 40.5–40.9) believe technology will always find a way to increase
of preservation that can contribute to the loss of have been solved. the availability of resources.

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 Glossary

new ecological or geographical age structure diagram In demographics, a

A zones. 278 display of the age groups of a popula-
abscisic acid (ABA) Plant hormone that addiction Physiological and psychological tion; a growing population has a
causes stomata to close and initiates need for a habit-forming drug. 542 pyramid-shaped diagram. 731
and maintains dormancy. 474 adenosine Portion of ATP and ADP that is aggregate fruit Fruit developed from
abscission Dropping of leaves, fruits, or composed of the base adenine and the several separate carpels of a single
flowers from a plant. 441, 474 sugar ribose. 58 flower. 497
acceptor end In tRNA, the end that binds adenosine diphosphate (ADP) (ah-den-ah- aldosterone (al-dahs-tuh-rohn) Hormone
to the amino acid. 200 seen dy-fahs-fayt) Nucleotide with two secreted by the adrenal cortex that
accessory fruit Fruit, or an assemblage of phosphate groups that can accept decreases sodium and increases
fruits, whose fleshy parts are derived another phosphate group and become potassium excretion; raises blood
from tissues other than the ovary (e.g., ATP. 58 volume and pressure. 675, 691
strawberry). 497 adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (ah-den-ah- alga Type of protist that carries on photo-
acetylcholine (ACh) (uh-seet-ul-koh-leen) seen try-fahs-fayt) Nucleotide with synthesis; unicellular forms are a part
Neurotransmitter active in both the three phosphate groups. The of phytoplankton, and multicellular
peripheral and central nervous breakdown of ATP into ADP + P forms are called seaweed. 335
systems. 530 makes energy available for energy- alien species Nonnative species that
acetylcholinesterase (AChE) (uh-seet-ul- requiring processes in cells. 58 migrate or are introduced by humans
koh-luh-nes-tuh-rays) Enzyme that adhesion Attachment of cells, as when into a new ecosystem; also called
breaks down acetylcholine bound to water adheres to the vessel walls of exotics. 806
postsynaptic receptors within a plants. 33 alkaloids Bitter-tasting nitrogenous
synapse. 531 adipose tissue Connective tissue in which compounds that are basic (e.g.,
acid Molecules tending to raise the fat is stored. 511 caffeine). 482
hydrogen ion concentration in a solution adrenal cortex (uh-dree-nul kor-teks) allantois (uh-lan-toh-is) Extraembryonic
and to lower its pH numerically. 36 Outer portion of the adrenal gland; membrane that contributes to the
acoelomate Animal that has no body cavity secretes mineralocorticoids, such as formation of umbilical blood vessels in
(i.e., tapeworm). 387 aldosterone, and glucocorticoids, such humans. 715
actin (ak-tin) One of two major proteins of as cortisol. 690 allele (uh-leel) Alternative form of a gene;
muscle; makes up thin filaments in adrenal gland (uh-dree-nul) An endocrine alleles occur at the same locus on
myofibrils of muscle fibers. (See gland that lies atop a kidney, consisting homologous chromosomes. 173
myosin.) 582 of the inner adrenal medulla and the allergy Immune response to substances
actin filament Cytoskeletal filaments of outer adrenal cortex. 690 that usually are not recognized as
eukaryotic cells composed of the adrenal medulla (uh-dree-nul muh-dul-uh) foreign. 622
protein actin; also refers to the thin Inner portion of the adrenal gland; allopatric speciation Origin of new species
filaments of muscle cells. 78 secretes the hormones epinephrine and between populations that are separated
action potential Electrochemical changes norepinephrine. 690 geographically. 276
that take place across the axomem- adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) alloploidy Polyploid organism that
brane; the nerve impulse. 528 (uh-dree-noh-kawrt-ih-koh-troh-pik) contains the genomes of two or more
active site Region on the surface of an Hormone secreted by the anterior different species. 279
enzyme where the substrate binds and lobe of the pituitary gland that alternation of generations Life cycle,
where the reaction occurs. 90 stimulates activity in the adrenal typical of plants, in which a diploid
active transport Use of a plasma cortex. 686 sporophyte alternates with a haploid
membrane carrier protein and energy adult stem cells Cells in a mature body gametophyte. 160, 354
to move a substance into or out of a that have the ability to divide; found in alternative mRNA splicing Variation in
cell from lower to higher red bone marrow. 145 pre-mRNA processing resulting in
concentration. 98 aerobic Phase of cellular respiration that different mRNAs and different protein
adaptation An organism’s modification in requires oxygen. 125, 323 products. 199
structure, function, or behavior suitable afterbirth Placenta and the extraembryonic altruism Social interaction that has the
to the environment. 16 membranes, which are delivered potential to decrease the lifetime
adaptive radiation Evolution of several (expelled) during the third stage of reproductive success of the member
species from a common ancestor into birth. 720 exhibiting the behavior. 750

G-1

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 alveolus (pl., alveoli) Air sac of a aneuploid Individual whose chromosome antigen-presenting cell (APC) Cell that
lung. 654 number is not an exact multiple of the displays the antigen to the cells of the
Alzheimer disease (AD) Brain disorder haploid number for the species. 162 immune system so they can defend the
characterized by a general loss of angiogenesis (an-jee-oh-jen-uh-sis) body against that particular
mental abilities. 538 Formation of new blood vessels, an antigen. 616
amino acid Organic molecule having an event that occurs to promote the antigen receptor Receptor proteins in the
amino group and an acid group, which enlargement of a tumor. 153, 223 plasma membrane of immune system
covalently bonds to produce peptide angiosperm Flowering plant that produces cells whose shape allows them to
molecules. 53 seeds within an ovary, which develops combine with a specific antigen. 616
ammonia Colorless gas that has a penetrat- into a fruit; therefore, the seeds are antioxidant Substances, such as vitamins
ing odor and is soluble in water. 666 covered. 365 C, E, and A, which defend the body
amniocentesis Procedure in which a angiotensin II Hormone produced from against free radicals. 642
sample of amniotic fluid is removed angiotensinogen (a plasma protein) by aorta (ay-or-tuh) Major systemic artery that
through the abdominal wall of a the kidneys and lungs; raises blood receives blood from the left
pregnant woman. Fetal cells in it are pressure. 675 ventricle. 592
cultured before doing a karyotype of animal Multicellular, heterotrophic aortic body Sensory receptor in the aortic
the chromosomes. 181 organism belonging to the animal arch sensitive to the O2, CO2, and H+
amnion (am-nee-ahn) Extraembryonic kingdom. 15 content of the blood. 657
membrane that forms an enclosing, annelid Member of a phylum of inverte- apical dominance Influence of a terminal
fluid-filled sac. 715 brates that contains segmented worms, bud in suppressing the growth of
amniotic egg Egg that has an amnion, as such as the earthworm and the clam axillary buds. 470
seen during the development of worm. 392 apical meristem In vascular plants, masses
reptiles, birds, and mammals. 402 annual ring Layer of wood (secondary of cells in the root and shoot that
amoeboid Cell that moves and engulfs xylem) usually produced during one reproduce and elongate as primary
debris with pseudopods. 339 growing season. 442 growth occurs. 436
amphibian Member of a class of verte- anorexia nervosa (a-nuh-rek-see-uh apoptosis (ap-uh-toh-sis, ahp-) Pro-
brates that includes frogs, toads, and nur-vohsuh) Eating disorder character- grammed cell death involving a
salamanders; they are still tied to a ized by a morbid fear of gaining cascade of specific cellular events
watery environment for weight. 644 leading to death and destruction of
reproduction. 401 anterior pituitary (pih-too-ih-tair-ee) Portion the cell. 152
ampulla Expansion at the end of each of the pituitary gland that is controlled appendicular skeleton (ap-un-dik-yuh-lur)
semicircular canal that houses the by the hypothalamus and produces six Portion of the skeleton forming the
receptors for rotational balance. 562 types of hormones, some of which pectoral girdles and upper extremities
amygdala (uh-mig-duh-luh) Portion of control other endocrine glands. 686 and the pelvic girdle and lower
the limbic system that functions to anther In flowering plants, pollen-bearing extremities. 572
add emotional overtones to portion of stamen. 491 appendix In humans, small, tubular
memories. 538 anthropoid ancestor Group of primates appendage that extends outward from
anabolism Metabolic process by which that includes monkeys, apes, and the cecum of the large intestine. 611
larger molecules are synthesized from humans. 415 aquaporin Protein membrane channel
smaller ones; anabolic antibody (an-tih-bahd-ee) Protein through which water can diffuse. 97,
metabolism. 135 produced in response to the presence 463, 674
anaerobic Growing or metabolizing in the of an antigen; each antibody combines arachnid Group of arthropods that contains
absence of oxygen. 125 with a specific antigen. 601 spiders and scorpions. 395
analogous structure Structure that has a antibody-mediated defense Specific arboreal Living in trees. 412
similar function in separate lineages mechanism of defense in which plasma Archaea One of the three domains of life;
but differs in anatomy and cells derived from B cells produce contains prokaryotic cells that often
ancestry. 257, 303 antibodies that combine with live in extreme habitats and have
anaphylactic shock Severe systemic form antigens. 600 unique genetic, biochemical, and
of allergic reaction involving bronchio- anticodon (an-tih-koh-dahn) Three-base physiological characteristics; its
lar constriction, impaired breathing, sequence in a transfer RNA molecule members are sometimes referred to as
vasodilation, and rapid drop in blood base that pairs with a complementary archaea. 14, 67, 297, 325
pressure with a threat of circulatory codon in mRNA. 200 archaic human Regionally diverse descen-
failure. 622 anticodon end In tRNA, the end that binds dants of H. erectus that lived in Africa,
anchoring junction Junction between to mRNA. 200 Asia, and Europe; considered by some
animal cells that attaches the cells to antidiuretic hormone (ADH) (an-tih-dy- to be a separate species. 421
each other. 99 uh-ret-ik) Hormone secreted by the archegonium Egg-producing structure, as
ancestral character Structural, physiologi- posterior pituitary that increases the in the moss life cycle. 355
cal, or behavioral trait that is present in permeability of the collecting ducts in a Arctic tundra Biome that encircles the
a common ancestor and all members of kidney. 674, 686 Earth just south of ice-covered polar
a group. 298 antigen (an-tih-jun) Foreign substance, seas in the Northern Hemisphere. 786
anemia (uh-nee-mee-uh) Inefficiency in usually a protein or a polysaccharide, Ardi Fossilized remains of Ardipithecus
the oxygen-carrying ability of blood that stimulates the immune system to ramidus, a hominin that lived 4.4
due to a shortage of hemoglobin. 600 produce antibodies. 601, 615 MYA. 416

GLOSSARY G-2

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 ardipithecine One of several species of sodium excretion and, therefore, lowers bacteriophage Virus that infects
Ardipithecus, a genus that contains blood volume and pressure. 675 bacteria. 311
humanlike hominins and lived some atrioventricular valve Valve located between ball-and-socket joint The most freely
4–5 MYA. 416 the atrium and the ventricle. 592 movable type of joint (e.g., the
arteriole (ar-teer-ee-ohl) Vessel that atrium (ay-tree-um) One of the upper shoulder or hip joint). 577
takes blood from an artery to chambers of the heart, either the left bark External part of a tree, containing
capillaries. 595 atrium or the right atrium, that receives cork, cork cambium, and phloem. 442
artery Vessel that takes blood away from blood. 592 Barr body Dark-staining body (discovered
the heart to arterioles; characteristically australopithecine One of several species of by M. Barr) in the nuclei of female
possesses thick, elastic, muscular Australopithecus, a genus that contains mammals that contains a condensed,
walls. 592 the first generally recognized inactive X chromosome. 214
arthropod Member of a phylum of hominids. 418 basal body Cytoplasmic structure that is
invertebrates that contains, among Australopithecus africanus Hominid that located at the base of and may
other groups, crustaceans and insects lived between 3.6 and 3 MYA; e.g., organize cilia or flagella. 79
that have an exoskeleton and jointed Lucy, discovered at Hadar, Ethiopia, in basal nuclei (bay-sul) Subcortical nuclei
appendages. 394 1974. 418 deep within the white matter that
articular cartilage (ar-tik-yuh-lur) Hyaline autoimmune disorder Disorder that results serve as relay stations for motor
cartilaginous covering over the when the immune system mistakenly impulses and produce dopamine to
articulating surface of the bones of attacks the body’s own tissues. 621 help control skeletal muscle
synovial joints. 576 autonomic system (aw-tuh-nahm-ik) activities. 535
artificial selection Change in the genetic Branch of the peripheral nervous base Molecules tending to lower the
structure of populations due to system that has control over the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution
selective breeding by humans. 17, 252 internal organs; consists of the sympa- and raise the pH numerically. 36
ascus Fingerlike sac where ascospores are thetic and parasympathetic basement membrane Layer of nonliving
produced during sexual reproduction of divisions. 541 material that anchors epithelial tissue
sac fungi. 372 autoploidy Polyploid organism that to underlying connective tissue. 509
asexual reproduction Reproduction that contains a duplicated genome of the basidium Clublike structure in which
requires only one parent and does not same species. 279 nuclear fusion, meiosis, and basidio-
involve gametes. 160, 700 autosomal chromosome Any chromosome spore production occur during sexual
A site In a ribosome, the place where a of a type that is the same in males and reproduction of club fungi. 373
tRNA carrying an amino acid is bound females of a species. 178 B cell Lymphocyte that matures in the
to mRNA. 200 autosome (aw-tuh-sohm) Any chromo- bone marrow and, when stimulated by
associative learning Acquired ability to some other than the sex the presence of a specific antigen, gives
associate two stimuli or a stimulus and chromosomes. 144 rise to antibody-producing plasma
a response. 747 autotroph Organism that can capture cells. 601, 611
assortative mating Individuals tend to energy and synthesize organic B cell receptor (BCR) Molecule on the
mate with those that have the same nutrients from inorganic surface of a B cell that binds to a
phenotype as themselves with respect nutrients. 106, 770 specific antigen. 616
to certain characteristics. 261 auxins A group of plant hormones beneficial nutrient In plants, element that
aster Short, radiating fibers about the regulating growth, particularly cell is either required or enhances the
centrioles at the poles of a spindle. 148 elongation; most often indoleacetic growth and production of a plant. 460
asthma (az-muh, as-) Condition in which acid (IAA). 470 behavior Observable, coordinated responses
bronchioles constrict and cause avian influenza Flu caused by a virus that to environmental stimuli. 744
difficulty in breathing. 622, 660 is able to spread from birds to bicarbonate ion Ion that participates in
atom Smallest particle of an element that humans. 313 buffering the blood; the form in which
displays the properties of the axial skeleton (ak-see-ul) Portion of the carbon dioxide is transported in the
element. 9, 26 skeleton that supports and protects the bloodstream. 658
atomic mass Mass of an atom equal to the organs of the head, the neck, and the bilateral symmetry Body plan having two
number of protons plus the number of trunk. 572 corresponding or complementary
neutrons within the nucleus. 27 axillary bud Bud located in the axil of a halves. 381
atomic number Number of protons within leaf. 432 bile Secretion of the liver that is temporarily
the nucleus of an atom. 27 axon (ak-sahn) Elongated portion of a stored and concentrated in the gallblad-
atomic symbol One or two letters that neuron that conducts nerve impulses, der before being released into the small
represent the name of an typically from the cell body to the intestine, where it emulsifies fat. 634
element—e.g., H stands for a synapse. 527 binary fission Bacterial reproduction into
hydrogen atom. 26 two daughter cells without utilizing a
ATP synthase complex Complex formed of B mitotic spindle. 321
enzymes and their carrier proteins; Bacteria One of the three domains of life; binge-eating disorder Condition character-
functions in the production of ATP in contains prokaryotic cells that differ ized by overeating episodes that are
chloroplasts and mitochondria. 110, 131 from archaea because they have their not followed by purging. 644
atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH) (ay- own unique genetic, biochemical, biocultural evolution Phase of human
tree-ul nay-tree-yoo-ret-ik) Hormone and physiological characteristics. 14, evolution in which cultural events
secreted by the heart that increases 67, 304 affect natural selection. 420

G-3 GLOSSARY

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 biodiversity Variety of life within an blind spot Region of the retina lacking rods 4-carbon molecule that releases carbon
ecosystem, biome, or biosphere. 800 or cones where the optic nerve leaves dioxide to the Calvin cycle. 116
biodiversity hotspot Region of the world the eye. 554 calcitonin (kal-sih-toh-nin) Hormone
that contains unusually large concen- blood pressure Force of blood pushing secreted by the thyroid gland that
trations of species. 801 against the inside wall of an artery. 599 increases the blood calcium level. 689
biogeochemical cycle (by-oh-jee-oh-kem- bone Connective tissue having protein Calorie (kcal) Amount of heat energy
ih-kul) Circulating pathway of elements fibers and a hard matrix of inorganic required to raise the temperature of 1 g
such as carbon and nitrogen involving salts, notably calcium salts. 511 of water 1°C. 34
exchange pools, storage areas, and bottleneck effect Cause of genetic drift; Cambrian explosion Sudden appearance in
biotic communities. 774 occurs when a majority of genotypes the fossil record of most major groups
biogeography Study of the geographical are prevented from participating in the of complex animals around 530
distribution of organisms. 258 production of the next generation as a MYA. 381
bioinformatics Computer technologies result of a natural disaster or human camouflage Method of hiding from
used to study the genome. 240 interference. 263 predators in which the organism’s
biological clock Internal mechanism that brain stem Portion of the brain consisting behavior, form, and pattern of color-
maintains a biological rhythm in the of the medulla oblongata, pons, and ation allow it to blend into the back-
absence of environmental stimuli. 479 midbrain. 536 ground and prevent detection. 763
biological species concept The concept bronchi (sing., bronchus) Two major CAM photosynthesis Crassulacean-acid
that defines species as groups of divisions of the trachea leading to the metabolism; plant fixes carbon dioxide
populations that have the potential to lungs. 654 at night to produce a C4 molecule that
interbreed and are reproductively bronchioles (brahng-kee-ohlz) Smaller air releases carbon dioxide to the Calvin
isolated from other groups. 272 passages in the lungs that begin at the cycle during the day. 117
biome One of the biosphere’s major bronchi and terminate in alveoli. 654 capillary (kap-uh-lair-ee) Microscopic
terrestrial communities, characterized brown algae Marine photosynthetic vessel connecting arterioles to venules;
by certain climatic conditions and protists with a notable abundance of exchange of substances between blood
particular types of plants. 785 xanthophyll pigments; this group and tissue fluid occurs across its thin
biomolecules Organic molecules common includes well-known seaweeds of walls. 595
to organisms: carbohydrates, proteins, northern rocky shores. 344 capsid Protein coat or shell that surrounds
fats, and nucleic acids. 44 bryophyte Member of one of three phyla of a virion’s nucleic acid. 310
biosphere (by-oh-sfeer) Zone of air, land, and nonvascular plants—the mosses, capsule Gelatinous layer surrounding the
water at the surface of the Earth in which liverworts, and hornworts. 356 cells of blue-green algae and certain
living organisms are found. 12, 728 buffer Substance or group of substances bacteria. 67
biotechnology Use of a natural biological that tends to resist pH changes of a carbaminohemoglobin Hemoglobin
system to produce a product or achieve solution, thus stabilizing its relative carrying carbon dioxide. 658
an end desired by humans; may acidity and basicity. 37 carbohydrate Class of organic compounds
involve using recombinant DNA bulbourethral gland (bul-boh-yoo-ree-thrul) that includes monosaccharides,
technology. 230 Either of two small structures located disaccharides, and
biotechnology product Product created by below the prostate gland in males; each polysaccharides. 639
using biotechnology techniques. 233 adds secretions to semen. 702 carbonic anhydrase (kar-bahn-ik an-hy-
biotic potential Maximum reproductive bulimia nervosa (byoo-lee-mee-uh, drays, -drayz) Enzyme in red blood
rate of an organism, given unlimited -lim-ee-, nur-voh-suh) Eating disorder cells that speeds the formation of
resources and ideal environmental characterized by binge eating followed carbonic acid from the reactants water
conditions. 730 by purging via self-induced vomiting or and carbon dioxide. 658
bipedalism Walking erect on two feet. 416 use of a laxative. 644 carcinogenesis (kar-suh-nuh-jen-uh-sis)
bird Endothermic vertebrate that has bulk feeder Animal that eats relatively Development of cancer. 153, 223
feathers and wings, is often adapted for large pieces of food. 628 cardiac conduction system System of
flight, and lays hard-shelled eggs. 402 bulk transport Movement of elements in specialized cardiac muscle fibers that
bivalve Type of mollusc with a shell an organism in large amounts. 98 conduct impulses from the SA node to
composed of two valves; includes bundle sheath Sheath located around the the chambers of the heart, causing
clams, oysters, and scallops. 391 veins of a leaf; formed from tightly them to contract. 594
blade Broad, expanded portion of a plant leaf packed cells. 444 cardiac cycle One complete cycle of systole
that may be single or compound. 433 bursa (bur-suh) Saclike, fluid-filled structure, and diastole for all heart
blastocoel Fluid-filled cavity of a lined with synovial membrane, that chambers. 594
blastula. 710 occurs near a joint. 577 cardiac muscle Striated, involuntary
blastocyst (blas-tuh-sist) Early stage of muscle found only in the heart. 512
human embryonic development that C cardiac pacemaker Mass of specialized
consists of a hollow, fluid-filled ball of C3 photosynthesis Type of photosynthesis cardiac muscle tissue that controls the
cells. 716 in which the first stable product rhythm of the heartbeat; the SA
blastopore Opening into the primitive gut following carbon dioxide fixation is a node. 594
formed at gastrulation. 711 3-carbon compound produced by the cardiovascular system Organ system in
blastula Hollow, fluid-filled ball of cells Calvin cycle. 116 which blood vessels distribute blood
occurring during animal development C4 photosynthesis Type of photosynthesis under the pumping action of the
prior to gastrula formation. 710 in which the first stable product is a heart. 517, 592

GLOSSARY G-4

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 carnivore (kar-nuh-vor) Consumer in a cellular slime mold Free-living amoeboid cesarean section Birth by surgical incision
food chain that eats other animals. 770 cells that feed on bacteria and yeasts of the abdomen and uterus. 719
carotenoid Yellow or orange pigment that by phagocytosis and aggregate to form character Any structural, chromosomal, or
serves as an accessory to chlorophyll in a plasmodium that produces molecular feature that distinguishes
photosynthesis. 109 spores. 342 one group from another. 296
carotid body (kuh-raht-id) Structure cellulose (sel-yuh-lohs, -lohz) Polysaccha- character displacement Tendency for
located at the branching of the carotid ride that is the major complex carbohy- characteristics to be more divergent
arteries; contains chemoreceptors drate in plant cell walls. 48 when similar species belong to the
sensitive to the O2, CO2, and H+ cell wall Structure that surrounds a plant, same community than when they are
content in blood. 657 protistan, fungal, or bacterial cell and isolated from one another. 760
carpel Ovule-bearing unit that is a part of a maintains the cell’s shape and chemiosmosis Ability of certain membranes
pistil. 365, 491 rigidity. 67 to use a hydrogen ion gradient to drive
carrier Heterozygous individual who has central nervous system (CNS) Portion of ATP formation. 113, 131
no apparent abnormality but can pass the nervous system consisting of the chemoreceptor (kee-moh-rih-sep-tur)
on an allele for a recessively inherited brain and spinal cord. 526, 533 Sensory receptor that is sensitive to
genetic disorder. 178 central vacuole In a plant cell, a large, chemical stimuli—for example,
carrying capacity Maximum number of fluid-filled sac that stores metabolites. receptors for taste and smell. 550
individuals of any species that can be During growth, it enlarges, forcing the chemosynthetic Organism able to synthe-
supported by a particular ecosystem on primary cell wall to expand and the cell size organic molecules by using carbon
a long-term basis. 732 surface-area-to-volume ratio to dioxide as the carbon source and the
cartilage Connective tissue in which the increase. 74 oxidation of an inorganic substance
cells lie within lacunae separated by a centriole (sen-tree-ohl) Cellular structure, (such as hydrogen sulfide) as the
flexible proteinaceous matrix. 511 existing in pairs, that possibly energy source. 323
Casparian strip Layer of impermeable organizes the mitotic spindle for chitin Strong but flexible nitrogenous
lignin and suberin bordering four sides chromosomal movement during mitosis polysaccharide found in the exoskel-
of root endodermal cells; prevents and meiosis. 79 eton of arthropods. 48, 394
water and solute transport between centromere (sen-truh-meer) Constriction chlamydia infection (kluh-mid-ee-uh)
adjacent cells. 463 where sister chromatids of a chromo- Sexually transmitted disease, caused by
catabolism Metabolic process that breaks some are held together. 144 the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis;
down large molecules into smaller centrosome Central microtubule organizing can lead to pelvic inflammatory
ones; catabolic metabolism. 135 center of cells. In animal cells, it disease. 708
cecum (see-kum) Small pouch that lies contains two centrioles. 78, 146 chlorophyll, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b
below the entrance of the small cephalization Having a well-recognized Green pigment that absorbs solar energy
intestine and is the blind end of the anterior head with a brain and sensory and is important in algal and plant
large intestine. 630 receptors. 382, 532 photosynthesis; occurs as chlorophyll a
cell Smallest unit that displays the proper- cephalopod Type of mollusc in which a and chlorophyll b. 107, 109
ties of life; always contains cytoplasm modified foot develops into the head chloroplast Membrane-bounded organelle
surrounded by a plasma membrane. 9 region; includes squid, cuttlefish, in algae and plants with chlorophyll-
cell body Portion of a neuron that contains octopus, and nautilus. 391 containing membranous thylakoids;
a nucleus and from which dendrites cerebellum (ser-uh-bel-um) Part of the where photosynthesis takes
and an axon extend. 527 brain located posterior to the medulla place. 76, 107
cell cycle Repeating sequence of cellular oblongata and pons that coordinates cholesterol One of the major lipids found
events that consists of interphase, skeletal muscles to produce smooth, in animal plasma membranes; makes
mitosis, and cytokinesis. 145 graceful motions. 536 the membrane impermeable to many
cell-mediated defense Specific mechanism cerebral cortex (suh-ree-brul, ser-uh-brul molecules. 93, 640
of defense in which T cells destroy kor-teks) Outer layer of cerebral chordate Member of the phylum
antigen-bearing cells. 616 hemispheres; receives sensory informa- Chordata, which includes lancelets,
cell plate Structure across a dividing plant tion and controls motor activities. 535 tunicates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles,
cell that signals the location of new cerebral hemisphere One of the large, birds, and mammals; characterized by
plasma membranes and cell walls. 150 paired structures that together consti- a notochord, dorsal tubular nerve
cell suspension culture Plant tissue tute the cerebrum of the brain. 535 cord, pharyngeal gill pouches, and a
extraction of chemicals performed in a cerebrospinal fluid Fluid found in the postanal tail at some point in the life
laboratory without needing to disturb ventricles of the brain, in the central cycle. 398
plants in their natural environments. 500 canal of the spinal cord, and in chorion (kor-ee-ahn) Extraembryonic
cell theory One of the major theories of association with the meninges. 513, membrane that contributes to placenta
biology; states that all organisms are 534 formation. 715
made up of cells and that cells come cerebrum (sair-uh-brum, suh-ree-brum) chorionic villi (kor-ee-ahn-ik vil-eye)
only from preexisting cells. 9, 64 Main part of the brain consisting of Treelike extensions of the chorion that
cellular respiration Metabolic reactions two large masses, or cerebral hemi- project into the maternal tissues at the
that use the energy primarily from spheres; the largest part of the brain in placenta. 717
carbohydrates but also from fatty acid mammals. 535 chorionic villi sampling (CVS) Removal of
or amino acid breakdown to produce cervix (sur-viks) Narrow end of the uterus, cells from the chorionic villi portion of
ATP molecules. 123 which projects into the vagina. 704 the placenta. Karyotyping is done to

G-5 GLOSSARY

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 determine if the fetus has a chromo- cleavage furrow In animal cells, an indenta- cohort Group of individuals having a
somal abnormality. 181 tion that encircles the cell to divide the statistical factor in common, such as
choroid (kor-oyd) Vascular, pigmented cytoplasm during cytokinesis. 150 year of birth, in a population
middle layer of the eyeball. 554 climate Weather condition of an area, study. 730
chromatin (kroh-muh-tin) Network of fine including especially prevailing tempera- coleoptile Protective sheath that covers the
threads in the nucleus that are ture and average/yearly rainfall. 782 young leaves of a seedling. 471
composed of DNA and proteins. 70, 214 climax community In ecology, community collecting duct Duct within the kidney that
chromatin remodeling complex During that results when succession has come receives fluid from several nephrons; the
transcription, a protein complex that to an end. 767 reabsorption of water occurs here. 671
moves aside nucleosomes so that clitoris Small, erectile, female organ collenchyma cell Plant tissue composed of
mRNA polymerase and transcription located in the vulva; homologous to cells with unevenly thickened walls;
factors have access to and can start the penis. 704 supports growth of stems and
transcription of a gene. 215 cloaca Posterior portion of the digestive petioles. 436
chromosome (kroh-muh-som) Chromatin tract in certain vertebrates that receives colon (koh-lun) The major portion of the
condensed into a compact structure. 70 feces and urogenital products. 630 large intestine, consisting of the
chronic bronchitis Obstructive pulmonary clonal selection model Concept that an ascending colon, the transverse colon,
disorder that tends to recur; marked by antigen selects which lymphocyte will and the descending colon. 636
inflamed airways filled with mucus and undergo clonal expansion and produce colonial flagellate hypthesis The
degenerative changes in the bronchi, more lymphocytes bearing the same proposal first put forth by Haeckel that
including loss of cilia. 660 type of antigen receptor. 617 protozoans descended from colonial
chyme Thick, semiliquid food material that closed circulatory system Blood is protists; supported by the similarity of
passes from the stomach to the small confined to vessels and is kept separate sponges to flagellated protists. 381
intestine. 634 from the interstitial fluid. 590 colony Loose association of cells that
ciliary body (sil-ee-air-ee) Structure cnidarian Invertebrate in the phylum remain independent for most
associated with the choroid layer that Cnidaria existing as either a polyp or a functions. 346
contains ciliary muscle and controls medusa with two tissue layers and columnar epithelium Type of epithelial
the shape of the lens of the eye. 554 radial symmetry. 386 tissue with cylindrical cells. 509
ciliary muscle Within the ciliary body of coal Fossil fuel formed millions of years commensalism Symbiotic relationship in
the vertebrate eye, the ciliary muscle ago from plant material that did not which one species is benefited, and the
controls the shape of the lens. 555 decay. 364 other is neither harmed nor
ciliate Complex unicellular protist that cochlea (kohk-lee-uh, koh-klee-uh) Portion benefited. 764
moves by means of cilia and digests of the inner ear that resembles a snail’s common ancestor Ancestor held in
food in food vacuoles. 340 shell and contains the spiral organ, the common by at least two lines of
cilium (pl., cilia) (sil-ee-um) Short, hairlike sense organ for hearing. 559 descent. 13, 256, 298
projection from the plasma membrane, codominance Inheritance pattern in which communication Signal by a sender that
occurring usually in large numbers. 79 both alleles of a gene are equally influences the behavior of a receiver. 752
circadian rhythm Regular physiological or expressed. 182 community Assemblage of populations
behavioral event that occurs on an codon Three-base sequence in messenger interacting with one another within the
approximately 24-hour cycle. 479, 693 RNA that causes the insertion of a same environment. 12, 728, 760
clade Taxon or other group consisting of an particular amino acid into a protein or compact bone Type of bone that contains
ancestral species and all of its descen- termination of translation. 198 osteons consisting of concentric layers
dants, forming a distinct branch on a coelom (see-lum) Embryonic body cavity of matrix and osteocytes in
phylogenetic tree. 300 lying between the digestive tract and lacunae. 511, 576
cladistics Method of systematics that uses body wall that becomes the thoracic companion cell Cell associated with
shared derived characters to place and abdominal cavities. 383 sieve-tube members in the phloem of
organisms in clades and construct coelomate Animal having a coelom. 390 vascular plants. 437, 452
cladograms. 300 coenzyme (koh-en-zym) Nonprotein organic comparative genomics Study of genomes
cladogram In cladistics, a branching molecule that aids the action of the through a comparison of their coding
diagram that shows the relationship enzyme to which it is loosely bound. 91 and noncoding DNA sequences. 221
among species in regard to their shared coevolve (coevolution) Interaction of two competition Interaction between two
derived characters. 300 species such that each influences the organisms in which both require the
class One of the categories, or taxa, used by evolution of the other. 495 same limited resource, which results in
taxonomists to group species; class is cofactor Nonprotein adjunct required by an harm to both. 760
the taxon above the order level. 14, 296 enzyme in order to function; many competitive exclusion principle Theory
classical conditioning Type of learning cofactors are metal ions, others are that no two species can occupy the
whereby an unconditioned stimulus coenzymes. 91 same niche. 760
that elicits a specific response is paired cohesion Clinging together of water competitive inhibition Form of enzyme
with a neutral stimulus so that the molecules. 33 inhibition whereby the substrate and
response becomes conditioned. 747 cohesion-tension model Explanation for inhibitor are both able to bind to the
cleavage Cell division without cytoplasmic upward transport of water in xylem, enzyme’s active site; each complexes
addition or enlargement; occurs during based upon transpiration-created with the enzyme. Only when the
the first stage of animal tension and the cohesive properties of substrate is at the active site will
development. 710 water molecules. 454 product form. 92

GLOSSARY G-6

mad03482_GLO_G-1-G-29.indd G-6 31/07/10 12:04 PM

 complement Collective name for a series of cornea (kor-nee-uh) Transparent, anterior cuticle Waxy layer covering the epidermis
enzymes and activators in the blood, portion of the outer layer of the of a plant that protects the plant
some of which may bind to antibody eyeball. 554 against water loss and disease-causing
and may lead to rupture of a foreign corpus luteum (kor-pus loot-ee-um) Yellow organisms. 355, 436
cell. 612 body that forms in the ovary from a cyanobacteria Photosynthetic bacteria that
complementary base pairing Hydrogen follicle that has discharged its contain chlorophyll and release oxygen;
bonding between particular bases. In secondary oocyte; secretes progester- formerly called blue-green algae. 324
DNA, thymine (T) pairs with adenine one and some estrogen. 705 cyanogenic glycoside Plant compound that
(A), and guanine (G) pairs with cortex In plants, ground tissue bounded by contains sugar; produces cyanide. 482
cytosine (C); in RNA, uracil (U) pairs the epidermis and vascular tissue in cycad Type of gymnosperm with palmate
with A, and G pairs with C. 57, 194 stems and roots; in animals, outer layer leaves and massive cones; cycads are
complex carbohydrates Mixture of carbohy- of an organ such as the cortex of the most often found in the tropics and
drates that must be digested to release kidney or the adrenal gland. 438 subtropics. 362
sugars; preferably also contain cellulose cortisol (kor-tuh-sawl) Glucocorticoid cyclic adenosine monophosphate
that acts as roughage in the diet. 48 secreted by the adrenal cortex that (cAMP) (sy-klik, sih-klik) ATP-related
compound Substance having two or more responds to stress on a long-term basis; compound that acts as the second
different elements, united chemically in reduces inflammation and promotes messenger in peptide hormone
fixed ratio. 29 protein and fat metabolism. 690 transduction; it initiates activity of the
compound light microscope Consists of a cotyledon Seed leaf for the embryo of a metabolic machinery. 684
two-lens system, one above the other, flowering plant; provides nutrient cytochrome Any of several iron-containing
to magnify an object. 66 molecules for the developing plant protein molecules that serve as electron
concentration gradient Amount that changes before photosynthesis begins. 365, 496 carriers in photosynthesis and cellular
from high to low or vice versa. 96 countercurrent flow mechanism Fluids respiration. 130
conclusion Statement following an flow side-by-side in opposite directions, cytokine (sy-tuh-kyn) Type of protein
experiment as to whether the results as in the exchange of fluids in the secreted by a T lymphocyte that
support the hypothesis. 5 kidneys. 473, 652 stimulates cells of the immune system to
conifer Member of a group of cone-bearing coupled reaction Reaction that occurs perform their various functions. 473, 613
gymnosperm plants that includes pine, simultaneously; one is an exergonic cytokinesis (sy-tuh-kyn-ee-sus) Division of
cedar, and spruce trees. 362 reaction that releases energy, and the the cytoplasm following mitosis and
conjugation Transfer of genetic materials other is an endergonic reaction that meiosis. 145
from one cell to another. 322, 345 requires energy in order to occur. 89 cytokinin Plant hormone that promotes
conjunctiva Delicate membrane that lines covalent bond (coh-vay-lent) Chemical cell division; often works in combina-
the eyelid protecting the sclera. 554 bond in which atoms share one pair of tion with auxin during organ develop-
connective tissue Type of tissue character- electrons. 31 ment in plant embryos. 473
ized by cells separated by a matrix that cranial nerve Nerve that arises from the cytoplasm (sy-tuh-plaz-um) Contents of a
often contains fibers. 510 brain. 539 cell between the nucleus and the
conservation biology Scientific discipline cristae Short, fingerlike projections formed plasma membrane that contains the
that seeks to understand the effects of by the folding of the inner membrane organelles. 67
human activities on species, communi- of mitochondria. 128 cytoskeleton Internal framework of the cell,
ties, and ecosystems and to develop Cro-Magnon Common name for the first consisting of microtubules, actin
practical approaches to preventing the fossils to be designated Homo filaments, and intermediate filaments. 78
extinction of species and the destruc- sapiens. 422 cytotoxic T cell (sy-tuh-tahk-sik) T lym-
tion of ecosystems. 800 crop Part of the digestive tract in birds and phocyte that attacks and kills antigen-
consumer Organism that feeds on another some invertebrates that stores or bearing cells. 616
organism in a food chain; primary digests food. 630
consumers eat plants, and secondary crossing-over Exchange of segments D
consumers eat animals. 770 between nonsister chromatids of a data Facts or pieces of information
control group Sample that goes through all tetrad during meiosis. 156 collected through observation and/or
the steps of an experiment but lacks crustacean Member of a group of marine experimentation. 5
the factor or is not exposed to the arthropods that contains, among others, daughter cell Cell that arises from a
factor being tested; used as a standard shrimps, crabs, crayfish, and lobsters 395 parental cell by mitosis or meiosis. 146
against which experimental results are cuboidal epithelium Type of epithelial day-neutral plant Plant whose flowering is
checked. 5 tissue with cube-shaped cells. 509 not dependent on day length, e.g.,
copulation Sexual union between a male culture Total pattern of human behavior; tomato and cucumber. 481
and a female. 700 includes technology and the arts and is deamination Removal of an amino
coral reef Area of biological abundance in dependent upon the capacity to speak group (–NH2) from an amino acid or
warm, shallow tropical waters on and and transmit knowledge. 420 other organic compound. 135
around coral formations. 793 Cushing syndrome (koosh-ing) Condition deciduous Plant that sheds its leaves
cork cambium Lateral meristem that resulting from hypersecretion of annually. 433
produces cork. 442 glucocorticoids; characterized by thin decomposer Organism, usually a bacterium
corm Underground, upright plant stem arms and legs and a “moon face,” and or fungus, that breaks down organic
where food is stored, usually in the accompanied by high blood glucose matter into inorganic nutrients that can
form of starch. 499 and sodium levels. 691 be recycled in the environment. 770

G-7 GLOSSARY

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 dehiscent Anther, fruit, or other plant dermis Region of skin that lies beneath the directional selection Outcome of natural
structure that opens to permit the epidermis. 515 selection in which an extreme
release of reproductive bodies desert Ecological biome characterized by a phenotype is favored, usually in a
inside. 497 limited amount of rainfall; deserts have changing environment. 265
dehydration reaction Chemical reaction hot days and cool nights. 789 disaccharide (dy-sak-uh-ryd) Sugar that
resulting in a covalent bond and the detrital food web (dih-tryt-ul) Complex contains two units of a monosaccha-
loss of a water molecule. 46 pattern of interlocking and crisscross- ride (e.g., maltose). 47
delayed allergic response Allergic ing food chains that begins with disruptive selection Outcome of natural
response initiated at the site of the detritus. 773 selection in which the two extreme
allergen by sensitized T cells, involving detritus Partially decomposed organic phenotypes are favored over the
macrophages and regulated by matter derived from tissues and animal average phenotype, leading to more
cytokines. 622 wastes. 770 than one distinct form. 265
deletion Change in chromosome structure deuterostomes Group of coelomate distal convoluted tubule Final portion of a
in which the end of a chromosome animals in which the second nephron that joins with a collecting
breaks off or two simultaneous breaks embryonic opening is associated with duct; associated with tubular
lead to the loss of an internal segment; the mouth; the first embryonic secretion. 671
often causes abnormalities (e.g., cri du opening, the blastopore, is associated DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) Nucleic acid
chat syndrome). 164 with the anus. 383 polymer produced from covalent
demographic transition Due to industrial- diaphragm (dy-uh-fram) Dome-shaped bonding of nucleotide monomers that
ization, a decline in the birthrate horizontal sheet of muscle and contain the sugar deoxyribose; the
following a reduction in the death rate connective tissue that divides the genetic material of nearly all
so that the population growth rate is thoracic cavity from the abdominal organisms. 10, 56, 192
lowered. 737 cavity. 707 DNA fingerprinting The use of DNA
denatured (denaturation) Loss of an diastole (dy-as-tuh-lee) Relaxation period fragment lengths resulting from
enzyme’s normal shape so that it no of a heart chamber during the cardiac restriction enzyme cleavage to identify
longer functions; caused by a less than cycle. 594 particular individuals. 197
optimal pH or temperature. 91 diastolic pressure (dy-uh-stahl-ik) Arterial DNA ligase (ly-gays) Enzyme that links
dendrite (den-dryt) Branched ending of a blood pressure during the diastolic DNA fragments; used during produc-
neuron that conducts signals toward phase of the cardiac cycle. 599 tion of recombinant DNA to join
the cell body. 527 diatom Golden-brown alga with a cell wall foreign DNA to vector DNA. 232
dendritic cell Antigen-presenting cell of having two parts, or valves; significant DNA microarrays Thousands of different
the epidermis and mucous part of phytoplankton. 343 DNA fragments (probes) arranged in
membranes. 613 diencephalon (dy-en-sef-uh-lahn) Portion an array (grid); used to detect and
denitrification Conversion of nitrate or of the brain in the region of the third measure gene expression. 240
nitrite to nitrogen gas by bacteria in ventricle that includes the thalamus DNA polymerase During replication, an
soil. 775 and hypothalamus. 536 enzyme that joins the nucleotides
dense fibrous connective tissue Type of differentially permeable Ability of plasma complementary to a DNA
connective tissue containing many membranes to regulate the passage of template. 196
collagen fibers packed together and substances into and out of the cell, DNA replication Synthesis of a new DNA
found in tendons and ligaments, for allowing some to pass through and double helix prior to mitosis and meiosis
example. 511 preventing the passage of others. 96 in eukaryotic cells and during prokary-
density-dependent factor Biotic factor, digestive system Organ system that otic fission in prokaryotic cells. 196
such as disease or competition, that includes the mouth, esophagus, domain The primary taxonomic group
affects population size according to the stomach, small intestine, and large above the kingdom level; all living
population’s density. 734 intestine (colon), which receives food organisms may be placed in one of
density-independent factor Abiotic factor, and digests it into nutrient molecules. three domains. 14, 296
such as fire or flood, that affects Also has associated organs: teeth, dominant allele (uh-leel) Allele that exerts
population size independent of the tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallblad- its phenotypic effect in the heterozy-
population’s density. 733 der, and pancreas. 517 gote; it masks the expression of the
dental caries (kar-eez) Tooth decay that dihybrid cross Single genetic cross recessive allele. 173
occurs when bacteria within the mouth involving two different traits, such as dormancy In plants, a cessation of growth
metabolize sugar and give off acids flower color and plant height. 174 under conditions that seem appropriate
that erode teeth; a cavity. 633 dinoflagellate Photosynthetic unicellular for growth. 472
deoxyribose Pentose sugar found in DNA protist with two flagella, one whiplash dorsal root ganglion (gang-glee-un) Mass
that has one less hydroxyl group than and the other located within a groove of sensory neuron cell bodies located
ribose. 47 between protective cellulose plates; a in the dorsal root of a spinal
depolarization Loss in polarization, as significant part of phytoplankton. 343 nerve. 539, 540
when a nerve impulse occurs. 528 diploid life cycle Presence of two of each double fertilization In flowering plants,
derived character Structural, physiological, type of chromosome at interphase of one sperm joins with polar nuclei
or behavioral trait that is present in a the cell cycle. 160 within the embryo sac to produce a 3n
specific lineage and is not present in diploid (2n) number Cell condition in endosperm nucleus, and another sperm
the common ancestor for several which two of each type of chromosome joins with an egg to produce a
lineages. 298 are present in the nucleus. 146 zygote. 367, 495

GLOSSARY G-8

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 double helix Double spiral; describes the wavelengths, such as electricity, environment by phagocytosis (cellular
three-dimensional shape of DNA. 194 magnetism, and light. 550 eating) or pinocytosis (cellular
doubling time Number of years it takes for electron Negative subatomic particle, drinking); includes receptor-mediated
a population to double in size. 737 moving in an energy level around the endocytosis. 98
drug abuse Compulsive and self-damaging nucleus of an atom. 27 endoderm Innermost primary tissue layer
use of a drug that primarily affects the electronegativity Ability of an atom to of an animal embryo that gives rise to
nervous system. 542 attract electrons toward itself in a the linings of the digestive tract and
dryopithecine Tree dweller; ancestral to chemical bond. 32 associated structures. 711
apes. 415 electron shell Concentric energy levels in endodermis Plant root tissue that forms a
duodenum (doo-uh-dee-num) First part of which electrons orbit. 27 boundary between the cortex and the
the small intestine where chyme enters electron transport chain (ETC) Passage of vascular cylinder. 438
from the stomach. 634 electrons along a series of membrane- endomembrane system A collection of
duplication Change in chromosome bounded carrier molecules from a membranous structures involved in
structure in which a particular segment higher to lower energy level; the energy transport within the cell. 75
is present more than once in the same released is used for the synthesis of endometrium Mucous membrane lining
chromosome. 164 ATP. 110, 125, 130 the interior surface of the uterus. 704
element Substance that cannot be broken endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (en-duh-plaz-
E down into substances with different mik reh-tik-yuh-lum) System of
Ebola One of a number of different viruses; properties; composed of only one type membranous saccules and channels in
causes a deadly hemorrhagic fever. 313 of atom. 26 the cytoplasm, often with attached
ecdysozoa Protostome characterized by El Nino—Southern Oscillation Warming of ribosomes. 71
periodic molting of the exoskeleton. water in the Eastern Pacific equatorial endoskeleton Protective internal skeleton,
Includes the roundworms and the region such that the Humboldt Current as in vertebrates. 571
arthropods. 383 is displaced with possible negative endosperm In angiosperms, the 3n tissue
echinoderm Phylum of marine animals results, including reduction in marine that nourishes the embryo and seedling
that includes sea stars, sea urchins, life. 784 and is formed as a result of a sperm
and sand dollars; characterized by elongation During DNA replication or the joining with two polar nuclei. 495
radial symmetry and a water vascular formation of mRNA during transcrip- endospore Spore formed within a cell;
system. 397 tion, elongation is the step whereby the certain bacteria form endospores. 321
ecological niche Role an organism plays in bases are added to the new or endosymbiotic theory Possible explanation
its community, including its habitat “daughter” strands of DNA or the of the evolution of eukaryotic organ-
and its interactions with other mRNA transcript strand is lengthened, elles by phagocytosis of
organisms. 760 respectively. 202 prokaryotes. 334
ecological pyramid Pictorial graph based on embryonic development Period of endotherm Animal that maintains a
the biomass, number of organisms, or development from the second through constant body temperature indepen-
energy content of various trophic levels eighth weeks. 715 dent of the environmental
in a food web—from the producer to the embryonic disk Stage of embryonic temperature. 403
final consumer populations. 773 development following the blastocyst energy Capacity to do work and bring
ecology Study of the interactions of stage that has two layers; one layer will about change; occurs in a variety of
organisms with other organisms and be endoderm, and the other will be forms. 9, 86
with the physical and chemical ectoderm. 717 energy of activation Energy that must be
environment. 728, 770 embryophyta Land plants that produce added in order for molecules to react
ecosystem (ek-oh-sis-tum, ee-koh-) embryos protected from drying out. 353 with one another. 90
Biological community together with the embryo sac Female gametophyte of enhancer DNA sequence that increases the
associated abiotic environment; flowering plants that produces an egg level of transcription when a transcrip-
characterized by energy flow and cell. 366, 490 tion activator binds to it. 213
chemical cycling. 12, 728 emphysema (em-fih-see-muh) Degenera- entropy Measure of disorder or
ecosystem diversity Variety of species in a tive lung disorder in which the bursting randomness. 87
particular locale, dependent on the of alveolar walls reduces the total enzyme (en-zym) Organic catalyst, usually
species interactions. 801 surface area for gas exchange. 660 a protein, that speeds a reaction in cells
ectoderm Outermost primary tissue layer endangered species A species that is in due to its particular shape. 46, 90
of an animal embryo; gives rise to the peril of immediate extinction through- eosinophil (ee-oh-sin-oh-fill) White blood
nervous system and the outer layer of out all or most of its range (e.g., cell containing cytoplasmic granules
the integument. 711 California condor, snow leopard). 800 that stain with acidic dye. 613
ectotherm Organism having a body endergonic reaction Chemical reaction epidermal tissue Exterior tissue, usually
temperature that varies according to that requires an input of energy; one cell thick, of leaves, young stems,
the environmental temperature. 402 opposite of exergonic reaction. 88 roots, and other parts of plants. 436
electrocardiogram (ECG) (ih-lek-troh-kar- endocrine system Organ system involved epidermis In plants, tissue that covers
dee-uh-gram) Recording of the electri- in the coordination of body activities; roots, leaves, and stems of a nonwoody
cal activity associated with the uses hormones as chemical signals organism; in animals, the outer
heartbeat. 594 secreted into the bloodstream. 516, 682 protective region of the skin. 436, 515
electromagnetic receptor Sensory receptor endocytosis Process by which substances epididymis (ep-uh-did-uh-mus) Coiled
that detects energy of different are moved into the cell from the tubule next to the testes where sperm

G-9 GLOSSARY

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 mature and may be stored for a short euglenoid Flagellated and flexible freshwa- exponential growth Growth at a constant
time. 702 ter unicellular protist that usually rate of increase per unit of time; can be
epiglottis (ep-uh-glaht-us) Structure that contains chloroplasts and has a expressed as a constant fraction or
covers the glottis during the process of semirigid cell wall. 338 exponent. 732
swallowing. 633, 654 Eukarya One of the three domains of life, external respiration Exchange of oxygen
epinephrine (ep-uh-nef-rin) Hormone consisting of organisms with eukaryotic and carbon dioxide between alveoli
secreted by the adrenal medulla in cells and further classified into the and blood. 650
times of stress; adrenaline. 690 kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and extinction Total disappearance of a species
epiphyte Plant that takes its nourishment Animalia. 14, 68 or higher group. 292, 735, 800
from the air because its placement eukaryotic cell (eukaryote) Type of cell that extracellular matrix (ECM) Materials
among other plants gives it an aerial has a membrane-bounded nucleus and secreted by animal cells that form a
position. 790 membranous organelles. 14, 68, 304 complex network which supports the cells
episiotomy (ih-pee-zee-aht-uh-mee) eutrophication Enrichment of water by and allows them to communicate. 99
Surgical procedure performed during inorganic nutrients used by phyto- extraembryonic membrane (ek-struh-em-
childbirth in which the opening of the plankton. Often, overenrichment bree-ahn-ik) Membrane that is not a
vagina is enlarged to avoid tearing. 720 caused by human activities leads to part of the embryo but is necessary to
epithelial tissue Type of tissue that lines excessive bacterial growth and oxygen the continued existence and health of
hollow organs and covers surfaces; depletion. 775, 791 the embryo. 700, 715
epithelium. 508 eutrophic lake Lake containing many
equilibrium population Population whose nutrients and decaying organisms, F
members exhibit logistic population often tinted green with algae. 791 F1 generation In genetics, the first (filial)
growth and whose size remains at or evolution Descent of organisms from generation of offspring. 172
near the carrying capacity. Its members common ancestors with the develop- F2 generation In genetics, the second
are large in size, slow to mature, have ment of genetic and phenotypic (filial) generation of offspring. 172
a long life span, have few offspring, changes over time that make them facilitated diffusion Passive transfer of a
and provide much care to offspring more suited to the environment. 253 substance into or out of a cell along a
(e.g., bears, lions). 735 evolutionary tree Diagram that shows how concentration gradient by a process
erection Increase in blood flow to the groups of organisms are related by way that requires a carrier. 96
penis during sexual arousal, causing of common ancestors. 13, 298 facultative anaerobe Prokaryote that is
the penis to stiffen and become evolutionary species concept Every able to grow in either the presence or
erect. 702 species has its own evolutionary the absence of gaseous oxygen. 323
E site In a ribosome, the place where a history, which is partly documented in FAD Flavin adenine dinucleotide; a coenzyme
spent tRNA exits the ribosome. 200 the fossil record. 272 of oxidation-reduction that becomes
esophagus (ih-sahf-uh-gus) Muscular tube excretion Elimination of metabolic wastes FADH2 as oxidation of substrates occurs,
for moving swallowed food from the by an organism at exchange boundaries and then delivers electrons to the electron
pharynx to the stomach. 633 such as the plasma membrane of transport chain in mitochondria during
essential nutrient In plants, substance unicellular organisms and excretory cellular respiration. 124
required for normal growth, develop- tubules of multicellular animals. 666 family One of the categories, or taxa, used
ment, or reproduction. 460 exergonic reaction Chemical reaction that by taxonomists to group species; the
estrogen (es-truh-jun) Female sex hormone releases energy; opposite of endergonic taxon above the genus level. 14, 296
that helps maintain sex organs and reaction. 88 fat Organic molecule that contains glycerol
secondary sex characteristics. 705 exocytosis Process in which an intracellu- and fatty acids and is found in adipose
estuary Portion of the ocean located where lar vesicle fuses with the plasma tissue. 49, 640
a river enters and fresh water mixes membrane so that the vesicle’s fatty acid Molecule that contains a
with salt water. 792 contents are released outside the hydrocarbon chain and ends with an
ethylene Plant hormone that causes cell. 98 acid group. 49
ripening of fruit and is also involved in exon A segment of a gene that codes for a female gametophyte In seed plants, the
abscission. 475 protein. 199 gametophyte that produces an egg;
euchromatin Chromatin that is extended exophthalmic goiter (ex-op-thowl-mick in flowering plants, an embryo
and accessible for transcription. 214 goi-tur) Enlargement of the thyroid sac. 363, 490
eudicot Abbreviation of eudicotyle- gland accompanied by an abnormal fermentation Anaerobic breakdown of
don. Flowering plant group; members protrusion of the eyes. 689 glucose that results in a gain of two
have two embryonic leaves (cotyle- exoskeleton Protective external skeleton, ATP and end products such as alcohol
dons), net-veined leaves, vascular as in arthropods. 570 and lactate. 125, 133
bundles in a ring, flower parts in fours experiment Test of an experimental variable fern Member of a group of plants that have
or fives and their multiples, and other for the purpose of collecting data. 5 large fronds; in the sexual life cycle,
characteristics. 365, 434 experimental variable A value that is the independent gametophyte produces
Eudicotyledones Class of flowering plants, expected to change as a result of an flagellated sperm, and the vascular
characterized by two embryonic leaves experiment; represents the factor being sporophyte produces windblown
(cotyledons), net-veined leaves, tested by the experiment. 5 spores. 360
vascular bundles in a ring, flower parts expiration (ek-spuh-ray-shun) Act of fertilization Union of a sperm nucleus and
in fours or fives and their multiples, expelling air from the lungs; also called an egg nucleus, which creates a
and other characteristics. 365 exhalation. 656 zygote. 155, 705

GLOSSARY G-10

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 fetal development Period of development follicular phase First half of the ovarian fungus (pl., fungi) Saprotrophic decom-
from the ninth week through birth. 718 cycle, during which the follicle matures poser; the body is made up of filaments
fiber Structure resembling a thread; also, and much estrogen (and some proges- called hyphae that form a mass called a
plant material that is undigestible. 639 terone) is produced. 706 mycelium. 370
fibrin Insoluble protein threads formed fontanel (fahn-tun-el) Membranous region
from fibrinogen during blood located between certain cranial bones in G
clotting. 603 the skull of a fetus or infant. 572, 718 G0 stage In the cell cycle, a period of time
fibroblast Cell in connective tissues that food chain The order in which one that occurs should a cell leave the cycle
produces fibers and other population feeds on another in an during the G1 stage before committing
substances. 510 ecosystem, from detritus (detrital food to the complete cycle. 145
filament End-to-end chains of cells that chain) or producer (grazing food chain) G1 stage In the cell cycle, a period of time
form as cell division occurs in only one to final consumer. 773 during which the cell grows in size;
plane; in plants, the elongated stalk of food web In ecosystems, complex pattern includes the G1 checkpoint when cells
a stamen. 345 of interlocking and crisscrossing food commit to completing the cycle. 145
filter feeder Method of obtaining nourish- chains. 772 G2 stage In the cell cycle, a period of time
ment by certain animals that strain foraging behavior Manner in which an after the S stage and before the M stage
minute organic particles from the water animal finds and eats food. 748 during which growth includes
in a way that deposits them in the foramen magnum (fuh-ray-mun mag-num) organelle duplication. 145
digestive tract. 385, 628 Opening in the occipital bone of the G3P In photosynthesis, a Krebs cycle
fimbria (pl., fimbriae) (fim-bree-uh) Fin- vertebrate skull through which the molecule that is the starting point for
gerlike extension from the oviduct near spinal cord passes. 572 many types of organic molecules
the ovary. 704 foraminiferan Member of the phylum For- produced by plants, including glucose
first messenger Chemical signal such as a aminifera bearing a calcium carbonate and starch. In cellular respiration, the
peptide hormone that binds to a test with many openings through molecule that occurs after glucose is
plasma membrane receptor protein and which pseudopods extend. 339 split during glycolysis. 114, 126
alters a cell’s metabolism because a foreign antigen Organism does not gallbladder Organ attached to the liver that
second messenger is activated. 684 produce this type of antigen. 615 stores and concentrates bile. 638
fitness Ability of an organism to reproduce foreskin Skin covering the glans penis in gamete (ga-meet, guh-meet) Haploid sex
and pass its genes to the next fertile uncircumcised males. 702 cell; the egg or a sperm, which join in
generation; measured against the formed element Constituent of blood that fertilization to form a zygote. 155, 709
ability of other organisms to reproduce is either cellular (red blood cells and gametophyte Haploid generation of the
in the same environment. 748 white blood cells) or at least cellular in alternation of generations life cycle of a
fixed action pattern (FAP) Innate behavior origin (platelets). 600 plant; produces gametes that unite to
pattern that is stereotyped, spontane- fossil Evidence of usually an extinct form a diploid zygote. 354
ous, independent of immediate control, species that has been preserved in the ganglion Collection or bundle of neuron
genetically encoded, and independent Earth’s crust. 255 cell bodies usually outside the central
of individual learning. 746 fossil record History of life recorded from nervous system. 532, 540
flagellum (pl., flagella) (fluh-jel-um) remains from the past. 255 gap junction Junction between animal
Slender long extension that propels a founder effect Cause of genetic drift due to cells that provides a passageway for
cell through a fluid medium. 79, 383 colonization by a limited number of intercellular transport. 99
flame cell Found along excretory tubules of individuals who, by chance, have gastropod Mollusc with a broad flat foot for
planarians; functions in propelling fluid different gene frequencies than the crawling (e.g., snails and slugs). 391
through the excretory canals and out of parent population. 263 gastrovascular cavity In animals with an
the body. 387, 667 fovea centralis Region of the retina consist- incomplete digestive tract, a cavity that
flatworm Unsegmented worm lacking a body ing of densely packed cones; responsible serves for digestion of food and
cavity; phylum Platyhelminthes. 387 for the greatest visual acuity. 554 transport of oxygen and nutrients to
fluid feeder Animal that gains needed frameshift mutation Alteration in a gene body cells. 386
nutrients by sucking nutrient-rich fluids due to deletion of a base, so that the gastrulation Stage of animal development
from another living organism. 628 reading “frame” is shifted; can result in during which germ layers form, at least
fluid-mosaic model Model for the plasma a nonfunctional protein. 204 in part, by invagination. 711
membrane based on the changing frond Leaf of a fern. 360 gene Unit of heredity existing as alleles on
location and pattern of protein molecules fruit Flowering plant structure consisting of the chromosomes; in diploid organisms,
in a fluid phospholipid bilayer. 93 one or more ripened ovaries that typically two alleles are inherited—one
follicle (fahl-ih-kul) Structure in the ovary usually contain seeds. 367, 490, 497 from each parent. 10, 57, 199
that produces a secondary oocyte and functional genomics Study of DNA gene cloning Production of one or more
the hormones estrogen and function at the genomic level; involves copies of the same gene. 232
progesterone. 705 the study of many genes simultane- gene flow Sharing of genes between two
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) ously and the use of microarrays. 240 populations through interbreeding. 261
Hormone secreted by the anterior functional group Specific cluster of atoms gene locus Specific location of a particular
pituitary gland that stimulates the attached to the carbon skeleton of gene on homologous chromosomes. 173
development of an ovarian follicle in a organic molecules that enters into gene pharming Use of a transgenic
female or the production of sperm in a reactions and behaves in a predictable organism to produce a commercial
male. 703 way. 45 medical product. 236

G-11 GLOSSARY

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 gene pool Total of all the genes of all the ginkgo Member of phylum Ginkgophyta; differ greatly from one another—e.g.,
individuals in a population. 200, 260 maidenhair tree. 362 Welwitschia and Ephedra. 362
gene theory Concept that organisms gizzard Muscular part of the digestive tract Golgi apparatus (gohl-jee) Organelle,
contain coded information dictating that grinds food in some animals. 630 consisting of saccules and vesicles, that
their form, function, and behavior. 10 gland Epithelial cell or group of epithelial processes, packages, and distributes
gene therapy Correction of a detrimental cells that are specialized to secrete a molecules about or from the cell. 73
mutation by the addition of normal DNA substance. 509 gonad (goh-nad) Organ that produces
and its insertion into a genome. 237 global climate change Predicted increase in gametes; the ovary produces eggs, and
genetically engineered Alteration of the Earth’s temperature due to human the testis produces sperm. 700
genomes for medical or industrial activities that promote the reradiation of gonadotropic hormone (goh-nad-uh-trahp-
purposes. 232 solar heat toward the Earth. 770 ic, -troh-pic) Chemical signal secreted
genetically modified organism (GMO) globular stage Stage of development of a by the anterior pituitary that regulates
Organism that carries the genes of sporophyte embryo; root-shoot axis is the activity of the ovaries and testes;
another organism as a result of DNA established and dermal tissue is principally, follicle-stimulating
technology. 232 formed. 496 hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
genetic code Universal code that has glomerular capsule (gluh-mair-yuh-lur) hormone (LH). 686
existed for eons; specifies protein Double-walled cup that surrounds the gonorrhea (gahn-nuh-ree-uh) Sexually
synthesis in the cells of all living glomerulus at the beginning of the transmitted disease caused by the
things. Each codon consists of three nephron. 671 bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae that
letters standing for the DNA nucleo- glomerular filtrate Filtered portion of can lead to pelvic inflammatory
tides that make up one of the 20 amino blood contained within the glomerular disease. 708
acids found in proteins. 198 capsule. 672 granum (pl., grana) Stack of chlorophyll-
genetic diversity Variety among members glomerular filtration Movement of small containing thylakoids in a
of a population. 800 molecules from the glomerulus into the chloroplast. 107
genetic drift Mechanism of evolution due glomerular capsule due to the action of gravitational balance Maintenance of
to random changes in the allelic blood pressure. 672 balance when the head and body are
frequencies of a population; more glomerulus (gluh-mair-uh-lus, gloh-mair- motionless. 562
likely to occur in small populations or yuh-lus) Cluster; for example, the gravitropism Growth response of roots and
when only a few individuals of a large cluster of capillaries surrounded by the stems of plants to the Earth’s gravity;
population reproduce. 263 glomerular capsule in a nephron, where roots demonstrate positive gravitrop-
genetic mutation Alteration in chromo- glomerular filtration takes place. 671 ism, and stems demonstrate negative
some structure or number and also an glottis (glaht-us) Opening for airflow in the gravitropism. 476
alteration in a gene due to a change in larynx. 633, 654 gray crescent Gray area that appears in an
DNA composition. 58, 204 glucagon (gloo-kuh-gahn) Hormone amphibian egg after being fertilized by
genetic profile Gene expression in an secreted by the pancreas that causes the sperm; thought to contain chemical
individual or a cell as detected by the the liver to break down glycogen and signals that turn on the genes that
use of a microarray. 240 raises the blood glucose level. 692 control development. 713
genome Full set of genetic information for glucocorticoid (gloo-koh-kor-tih-koyd) gray matter Nonmyelinated axons and cell
a species or a virus. 57, 238 Type of hormone secreted by the bodies in the central nervous system. 534
genotype (jee-nuh-typ) Genes of an adrenal cortex that influences carbohy- grazing food web Complex pattern of
individual for a particular trait or traits; drate, fat, and protein metabolism; see interlocking and crisscrossing food
often designated by letters, for cortisol. 690 chains that begins with populations of
example, BB or Aa. 173 glucose (gloo-kohs) Six-carbon sugar that autotrophs serving as producers. 772
genus One of the categories, or taxa, used by organisms degrade as a source of green algae Members of a diverse group of
taxonomists to group species; contains energy during cellular respiration. 47 photosynthetic protists; contain
those species that are most closely glycerol Three-carbon carbohydrate with chlorophylls a and b and have other
related through evolution. 14, 296 three hydroxyl groups attached; a biochemical characteristics like those
germinate Beginning of growth of a seed, component of fats and oils. 49 of plants. 345
spore, or zygote, especially after a glycogen (gly-koh-jun) Storage polysaccha- greenhouse gases Gases involved in the
period of dormancy. 498 ride that is composed of glucose reradiation of solar heat toward the
germ layer Primary tissue layer of a molecules joined in a linear fashion but Earth, sometimes called the greenhouse
vertebrate embryo—namely, ectoderm, having numerous branches. 48 effect. 776
mesoderm, or endoderm. 383, 711 glycolipid Lipid in plasma membranes that ground tissue Tissue that constitutes most
geologic timescale History of the Earth bears a carbohydrate chain attached to of the body of a plant; consists of
since the beginning time divided into a hydrophobic tail. 93 parenchyma, collenchyma, and
eras, periods, and epochs based in part glycolysis Anaerobic breakdown of sclerenchyma cells that function in
on the fossil record. 292 glucose that results in a gain of two storage, basic metabolism, and
gibberellin Plant hormone promoting ATP. 125, 126 support. 436
increased stem growth; also involved in glycoprotein Protein in plasma membranes growth hormone (GH) Substance secreted
flowering and seed germination. 472 that bears a carbohydrate chain. 93 by the anterior pituitary; controls the
gills Respiratory organ in most aquatic gnetophyte Member of one of the four size of an individual by promoting cell
animals; in fish, an outward extension phyla of gymnosperms; Gnetophyta division, protein synthesis, and bone
of the pharynx. 593, 651 has only three living genera, which growth. 687

GLOSSARY G-12

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 guard cell One of two cells that surround a hemoglobin (Hb) (hee-muh-gloh-bun) hominid Classification category that
leaf stoma; changes in the turgor Iron-containing pigment in red blood includes the great apes, humans, and
pressure of these cells cause the stoma cells that combines with and transports species very closely related to
to open or close. 456 oxygen. 600, 658 humans. 410
guttation Liberation of water droplets from hemolymph Circulatory fluid that is a hominin Classification category that
the edges and tips of leaves. 454 mixture of blood and tissue fluid; seen includes chimpanzees, humans, and
gymnosperm Type of woody seed plant in in animals that have an open circula- species very closely related to
which the seeds are not enclosed by tory system, such as molluscs and humans. 415
fruit and are usually borne in cones, arthropods. 590 hominoid Classification category that
such as those of the conifers. 362 hemophilia Most common of the severe includes all apes, humans, and species
clotting disorders caused by the very closely related to humans. 414
H absence of a blood clotting factor. 603 homologous chromosome (hoh-mahl-uh-
H1N1 virus Emerging virus that causes a hepatic portal system Pathway of blood gus, huh-mahl-uh-gus) Member of a
flu commonly called swine flu. 313 flow between intestinal capillaries and pair of chromosomes that are alike and
habitat Place where an organism lives and is liver capillaries. 598 come together in synapsis during
able to survive and reproduce. 728, 760 herbaceous Nonwoody stem. 438 prophase of the first meiotic
habituation Simplest form of learning, in herbivore (ur-buh-vor) Primary consumer division. 155
which an animal learns not to respond in a grazing food chain; a plant homologous pair Chromosomes that are
to irrelevant stimuli. 747 eater. 770 the same length, with the centromere
halophile Type of archaean that lives in hermaphrodite Animal having both male occurring in the same position and
extremely salty habitats. 325 and female sex organs. 387 having genetic information for the
haploid life cycle Presence of one of each herpes simplex virus (HSV) Virus that same traits. Each member of the pair is
type of chromosome during meiosis of causes genital herpes, a sexually a homologue to the other member. 144
the cell cycle. 160, 345 transmitted disease. 708 homologous structure Structure that is
haploid (n) number (hap-loyd) The n heterochromatin Highly compacted similar in two or more species because
number of chromosomesomes—half chromatin that is not accessible for of common ancestry. 257, 303
the diploid number; the number transcription. 214 homozygote advantage Situation in which
characteristic of gametes, which heterocyst Cyanobacterial cell that individuals homozygous for a trait
contain only one set of synthesizes a nitrogen-fixing enzyme have a selective advantage over those
chromosomes. 146 when nitrogen supplies dwindle. 324 who are heterozygous. 266
hard palate (pal-it) Bony, anterior portion heterotroph Organism that cannot synthe- homozygous Possessing two identical
of the roof of the mouth. 632 size organic molecules from inorganic alleles for a particular trait. 173
Hardy-Weinberg principle Law stating that nutrients and therefore must take in horizon Major layer of soil visible in
the gene frequencies in a population organic nutrients (food). 106, 770 vertical profile; for example, topsoil is
remain stable if evolution does not occur heterozygote advantage Situation in which the A horizon. 462
due to nonrandom mating, selection, individuals heterozygous for a trait hormone Chemical signal produced in one
migration, and genetic drift. 260 have a selective advantage over those part of an organism that controls the
hay fever Seasonal variety of allergic who are homozygous; an example is activity of other parts. 446, 682
reaction to a specific allergen. Charac- sickle-cell anemia. 266 horsetail Division of seedless vascular
terized by sudden attacks of sneezing, heterozygous Possessing unlike alleles for plants having only one
swelling of nasal mucosa, and often a particular trait. 173 genus (Equisetum) in existence today;
asthmatic symptoms. 622 hinge joint Type of joint that allows characterized by rhizomes, scalelike
heart murmur Clicking or swishy sounds, movement as a hinge does, such as the leaves, strobili, and tough, rigid
often due to leaky valves. 592 movement of the knee. 577 stems. 359
heart stage Stage of development of a hippocampus (hip-uh-kam-pus) Portion of Hox gene Gene that controls the overall
sporophyte embryo; cotyledons the limbic system where memories are body plan by controlling the fate of
appear. 496 stored. 538 groups of cells during
heat Type of kinetic energy; captured solar histamine (his-tuh-meen, -mun) development. 216
energy eventually dissipates as heat in Substance, produced by basophils in human chorionic gonadotropin
the environment. 86 blood and mast cells in connective (HCG) (kor-ee-ahn-ik goh-nad-uh-
helper T cell T lymphocyte that secretes tissue, that causes capillaries to trahp-in, -troh-pin) Hormone produced
cytokines that stimulate all kinds of dilate. 614 by the chorion that functions to
immune system cells. 616 histone Protein molecule responsible for maintain the uterine lining. 716
heme Iron-containing portion of a hemo- packing chromatin. 214 Human Genome Project (HGP) Initiative
globin molecule. 658 HIV provirus Viral DNA that has been to determine the complete sequence of
hemocoel Residual coelom found in integrated into host cell DNA. 315 the human genome and to analyze this
molluscs and arthropods that is filled homeobox 180-nucleotide sequence information. 238
with hemolymph. 590 located in all homeotic genes. 216 human papillomavirus (HPV) Virus that
hemodialysis (he-moh-dy-al-uh-sus) homeostasis (hoh-mee-oh-stay-sis) causes genital warts, a common
Cleansing of blood by using an Maintenance of normal internal sexually transmitted disease; also
artificial membrane that causes conditions in a cell or an organism by linked to cervical cancer. 708
substances to diffuse from blood into a means of self-regulating mecha- humus Decomposing organic matter in the
dialysis fluid. 676 nisms. 445, 516 soil. 462

G-13 GLOSSARY

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 Huntington disease Genetic disease secretion of an anterior pituitary induction Ability of a chemical or a tissue
marked by progressive deterioration of hormone. 686 to influence the development of
the nervous system due to deficiency of hypothalamus (hy-poh-thal-uh-mus) Part another tissue. 714
a neurotransmitter. 535 of the brain located below the industrial melanism Increased frequency of
hyaline cartilage Cartilage whose cells lie thalamus that helps regulate the a darkly pigmented (melanic) form in a
in lacunae separated by a white internal environment of the body and population when predators more easily
translucent matrix containing very fine produces releasing factors that control see and capture the lightly pigmented
collagen fibers. 511 the anterior pituitary. 536 form because it is more visible against
hydrogen bond Weak bond that arises hypothesis (hy-pahth-ih-sis) Supposition vegetation that has turned dark due to
between a slightly positive hydrogen that is formulated after making an industrial pollution. 260
atom of one molecule and a slightly observation; it can be tested by inflammatory response Tissue response to
negative atom of another or between obtaining more data, often by injury that is characterized by redness,
parts of the same molecule. 32 experimentation. 4 swelling, pain, and heat. 614
hydrogen ion (H+) Hydrogen atom that hypotonic solution Lower solute (more ingroup In cladistics, the organisms whose
has lost its electron and therefore bears water) concentration than the relationships will be determined by
a positive charge. 36 cytoplasm of a cell; causes cell to gain shared derived characteristics. 300
hydrolysis reaction (hy-drahl-ih-sis water by osmosis. 97 initiation During DNA replication or
re-ak-shun) Splitting of a compound by transcription, initiation is the step
the addition of water, with the H+ I whereby DNA replication begins or
being incorporated in one fragment and immediate allergic response Allergic transcription begins; this step is
the OH– in the other. 46 response that occurs within seconds of catalyzed by specific enzymes such
hydrophilic (hy-druh-fil-ik) Type of contact with an allergen; caused by the that the DNA “unravels” and forms a
molecule that interacts with water by attachment of the allergen to IgE bubble. 202
dissolving in water and/or forming antibodies. 622 inner ear Portion of the ear consisting of a
hydrogen bonds with water immune system All the cells in the body vestibule, semicircular canals, and the
molecules. 34, 45 that protect the body against foreign cochlea where equilibrium is main-
hydrophobic (hy-druh-foh-bik) Type of organisms and substances and also tained and sound is transmitted. 559
molecule that does not interact with cancerous cells. 517 insect Member of a group of arthropods in
water because it is nonpolar. 34, 45 immunity Ability of the body to protect which the head has antennae,
hydroponics Technique for growing plants itself from foreign substances and cells, compound eyes, and simple eyes; the
by suspending them with their roots in including disease-causing agents. 612 thorax has three pairs of legs and often
a nutrient solution. 460 immunization (im-yuh-nuh-zay-shun) Use wings; and the abdomen has internal
hydrostatic skeleton Fluid-filled body of a vaccine to protect the body against organs. 396
compartment that provides support for specific disease-causing agents. 617 insight learning Ability to apply prior
muscle contraction resulting in immunoglobulin (Ig) (im-yuh-noh-glahb- learning to a new situation without
movement; seen in cnidarians, yuh-lin, -yoo-lin) Globular plasma trial-and-error activity. 747
flatworms, roundworms, and protein that functions as an inspiration (in-spuh-ray-shun) Act of
segmented worms. 570 antibody. 617 taking air into the lungs; also called
hydrothermal vent Hot springs in the implantation Attachment and penetration inhalation. 656
seafloor along ocean ridges where of the embryo into the lining of the insulin (in-suh-lin) Hormone secreted by
heated sea water and sulfate react to uterus (endometrium). 715 the pancreas that lowers the blood
produce hydrogen sulfide; here, imprinting Learning to make a particular glucose level by promoting the uptake
chromosynthetic bacteria support a response to only one type of animal or of glucose by cells and the conversion
community of varied organisms. 793 object. 746 of glucose to glycogen by the liver and
hydroxide ion (OH–) One of two ions that inclusive fitness Fitness that results from skeletal muscles. 692
results when a water molecule dissoci- personal reproduction and from helping integration Summing up of excitatory and
ates; it has gained an electron, and nondescendant relatives reproduce. 750 inhibitory signals by a neuron or by
therefore bears a negative charge. 36 incomplete dominance Inheritance pattern some part of the brain. 531, 551
hypersensitive response (HR) Plants in which the offspring has an interme- integumentary system Organ system
respond to pathogens by selectively diate phenotype, as when a red-flow- consisting of skin and various organs,
killing plant cells to block the spread of ered plant and a white-flowered plant such as hair, that are found in
the pathogen. 483 produce pink-flowered offspring. 182 skin. 516
hypertension Elevated blood pressure, indehiscent Remaining closed at maturity, intercalated disks Region that holds
particularly the diastolic pressure. 596 as are many fruits. 497 adjacent cardiac muscle cells together
hypertonic solution Higher solute concen- independent assortment Alleles of and appears as dense bands at right
tration (less water) than the cytoplasm unlinked genes segregate indepen- angles to the muscle striations. 512
of a cell; causes cell to lose water by dently of each other during meiosis so interferon (in-tur-feer-ahn) Antiviral agent
osmosis. 97 that the gametes contain all possible produced by an infected cell that
hypha (pl., hyphae) Filament of the combinations of alleles. 156 blocks the infection of another
vegetative body of a fungus. 370 induced fit model Change in the shape of cell. 613
hypothalamic-releasing hormone One of an enzyme’s active site that enhances interkinesis Period of time between meiosis I
several hormones produced by the the fit between the active site and its and meiosis II during which no DNA
hypothalamus that stimulates the substrate(s). 90 replication takes place. 155, 159

GLOSSARY G-14

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 intermediate filaments Ropelike assem- isotope (eye-suh-tohp) One of two or more four chordate characteristics as an
blies of fibrous polypeptides in the atoms with the same atomic number adult. 398
cytoskeleton that provide support and but a different atomic mass due to the land fungi Fungi (zygospore, sac, and
strength to cells; so called because they number of neutrons. 27 club) that live on land and reproduce
are intermediate in size between actin by producing windblown spores. 370
filaments and microtubules. 78 J landscape diversity Variety of habitat
internal respiration Exchange of oxygen jawless fish Type of fish that has no jaws; elements within an ecosystem (e.g.,
and carbon dioxide between blood and includes today’s hagfishes and plains, mountains, and rivers). 801
tissue fluid. 650 lampreys. 400 large intestine Last major portion of the
intermembrane space Space between the digestive tract, extending from the
inner and outer membranes of a K small intestine to the anus and
mitochondrion where hydrogen ions karyotype (kar-ee-uh-typ) Duplicated consisting of the cecum, the colon, the
collect prior to passing through an ATP chromosomes arranged by pairs rectum, and the anal canal. 636
synthase complex. 128 according to their size, shape, and larva Immature form in the life cycle of
interneuron Neuron located within the general appearance. 144 some animals; it sometimes undergoes
central nervous system that conveys keystone species Species whose activities metamorphosis to become the adult
messages between parts of the central significantly affect community form. 387, 700
nervous system. 527 structure. 810 larynx (lar-ingks) Cartilaginous organ
internode In vascular plants, the region of kidneys Paired organs of the vertebrate located between the pharynx and the
a stem between two successive urinary system that regulate the chemical trachea that contains the vocal cords;
nodes. 432 composition of the blood and produce a also called the voice box. 654
interphase Portion of the cell cycle that waste product called urine. 670 law of independent assortment During
includes the G1, S, and G2 stages but kilocalorie Caloric value of food; 1,000 gametogenesis, each pair of alleles
not the mitotic stage. 145 calories. 86 assorts (separates) independently of
interspersed repeat Sequence of DNA kinetic energy Energy associated with other pairs, and therefore all possible
nucleotides that is repeated in several motion. 86 combinations of alleles can occur in
different regions of the same chromo- kinetochore Disk-shaped structure within the gametes. 174
some or across multiple the centromere of a chromosome to leaf Lateral appendage of a stem, highly
chromosomes. 240 which spindle microtubules become variable in structure, often containing
intertidal zone Region along a coastline attached during mitosis and cells that carry out photosynthesis. 432
where the tide recedes and meiosis. 147 learning Relatively permanent change in
returns. 792 kingdom One of the categories used to behavior that results from practice and
intervertebral disk (in-tur-vur-tuh-brul) classify organisms; the category above experience. 746
Layer of cartilage located between phylum. 14, 296 legume Plant with root nodules containing
adjacent vertebrae. 573 kin selection Indirect selection; adaptation bacteria able to fix atmospheric
intron Segment of a gene that does not to the environment due to the repro- nitrogen. 6
code for a protein. 199, 239 ductive success of an individual’s lens Clear, membranelike structure found
inversion Change in chromosome structure relatives. 750 in the eye behind the iris; brings
in which a segment of a chromosome is Klinefelter syndrome Condition caused objects into focus. 554
turned around 180 degrees; this reversed by the inheritance of XXY lenticel Frond of usually numerous, slightly
sequence of genes can lead to altered chromosomes. 163 raised, somewhat spongy groups of cells
gene activity and abnormalities. 164 Krebs cycle Cycle of reactions in mitochon- in the bark of woody plants. Permits gas
invertebrate An animal without a serial dria that begins with citric acid; it exchange between the interior of a plant
arrangement of vertebrae. 384 breaks down an acetyl group as CO2, and the external atmosphere. 442
invertebrate chordate Chordate in which ATP, NADH, and FADH2 are given off; less-developed country (LDC) Country
the notochord is never replaced by the also called the citric acid cycle. 125, 129 that is becoming industrialized;
vertebral column. 398 typically, population growth is
ion (eye-un, -ahn) Charged particle that L expanding rapidly, and the majority of
carries a negative or positive charge. 30 lacteal (lak-tee-ul) Lymphatic vessel in an people live in poverty. 737
ionic bond (eye-ahn-ik) Chemical bond in intestinal villus; it aids in the absorp- lichen Symbiotic relationship between
which ions are attracted to one another tion of lipids. 610, 635 certain fungi and algae, in which the
by opposite charges. 30 lacuna Small pit or hollow cavity, as in fungi possibly provide inorganic food
iris (eye-ris) Muscular ring that surrounds bone or cartilage, where a cell or cells or water and the algae provide organic
the pupil and regulates the passage of are located. 511, 576 food. 324, 371
light through this opening. 554 ladderlike nervous system In planarians, life history Adaptations in characteristics
isomers Molecules with the same molecular two lateral nerve cords joined by that influence an organism’s biology,
formula but a different structure, and transverse nerves. 387, 532 such as how many offspring it
therefore a different shape. 45 lake Body of fresh water, often classified by produces, its survival, and factors such
isotonic solution Solution that is equal in nutrient status, such as oligotrophic as age and size that determine its
solute concentration to that of the (nutrient-poor) or eutrophic reproductive maturity. 735
cytoplasm of a cell; causes cell to (nutrient-rich). 791 ligament Tough cord or band of dense
neither lose nor gain water by lancelet Invertebrate chordate with a body fibrous connective tissue that joins
osmosis. 97 that resembles a lancet and has the bone to bone at a joint. 511

G-15 GLOSSARY

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 limbic system Association of various brain corpus luteum in females and the marsupium, or pouch (e.g., kangaroo
centers, including the amygdala and production of testosterone in males. 703 and opossum). 404
hippocampus; governs learning and lymph (limf) Fluid, derived from tissue mass extinction Episode of large-scale
memory and various emotions, such as fluid, that is carried in lymphatic extinction in which large numbers of
pleasure, fear, and happiness. 538 vessels. 511, 602, 610 species disappear in a few million years
limiting factor Resource or environmental lymphatic (lymphoid) organ Organ other or less. 292
condition that restricts the abundance than a lymphatic vessel that is part of mast cell Cell to which antibodies attach,
and distribution of an organism. 729 the lymphatic system; includes lymph causing it to release histamine, thus
linkage group Alleles of different genes nodes, tonsils, spleen, thymus gland, producing allergic symptoms. 612
that are located on the same chromo- and bone marrow. 611 master developmental regulatory genes
some and tend to be inherited lymphatic system Organ system consisting Genes that regulate the transcription of
together. 173 of lymphatic vessels and lymphatic other genes so that development can
Linnaean classification Use of traditional organs that transports lymph and lipids proceed normally. 216
categories (domain, kingdom, phylum, and aids the immune system. 517, 610 maternal inheritance Type of inheritance
class order, family, and genus) to group lymphatic vessel Vessel that carries in which all offspring have the
organisms according to anatomical and lymph. 610 genotype and phenotype of only the
genetic homologies. 296 lymph node Mass of lymphatic tissue female parent; exemplified by mito-
lipase Fat-digesting enzyme secreted by the located along the course of a lymphatic chondrial genes because mitochondria
pancreas. 634 vessel. 611 are passed to offspring only from the
lipid (lip-id, ly-pid) Class of organic lymphocyte (lim-fuh-syt) Specialized white mother, not the father. 423
compounds that tends to be soluble blood cell that functions in specific matrix (may-triks) Unstructured semifluid
only in nonpolar solvents such as defense; occurs in two forms— substance that fills the space between
alcohol; includes fats and oils. 49 T lymphocyte and B lymphocyte. 601 cells in connective tissues or inside
liposome Droplet of phospholipid molecules lysogenic cycle Bacteriophage life cycle in organelles. 128, 510
formed in a liquid environment. 319 which the virus incorporates its DNA matter Anything that takes up space and
liver Large, dark red internal organ that into that of a bacterium; occurs has mass. 26
produces urea and bile, detoxifies the preliminary to the lytic cycle. 311 mature embryo Sporophyte embryo after
blood, stores glycogen, and produces lysosome (ly-suh-sohm) Membrane- all the stages of development. 496
the plasma proteins, among other bounded vesicle that contains hydro- mechanoreceptor (mek-uh-noh-rih-sep-
functions. 638 lytic enzymes for digesting tur) Sensory receptor that responds to
lobe-finned fish Type of fish with limblike macromolecules. 74 mechanical stimuli, such as that from
fins. 401 lytic cycle Bacteriophage life cycle in pressure, sound waves, or gravity. 550
logistic growth Population increase that which the virus takes over the medulla oblongata (muh-dul-uh ahb-
results in an S-shaped curve; growth is operation of the bacterium immediately lawng-gah-tuh) Part of the brain stem
slow at first, steepens, and then levels upon entering it and subsequently that is continuous with the spinal cord;
off due to environmental resistance. 732 destroys the bacterium. 311 controls heartbeat, blood pressure,
long-day plant Plant that flowers when day breathing, and other vital
length is longer than a critical length M functions. 536
(e.g., wheat, barley, clover, macroevolution Large-scale evolutionary megaspore One of the two types of spores
spinach). 481 change, such as the formation of new produced by seed plants; develops into
loop of the nephron (nef-rahn) Portion of species. 272 a female gametophyte (embryo
the nephron lying between the macronutrient Essential element needed in sac). 366
proximal convoluted tubule and the large amounts for plant growth, such meiosis, meiosis I, meiosis II (my-oh-sis)
distal convoluted tubule that functions as nitrogen, calcium, or sulfur. 460 Type of nuclear division that occurs as
in water reabsorption. 671 macrophage (mak-ruh-fayj) Large phago- part of sexual reproduction, in which
loose fibrous connective tissue Tissue cytic cell derived from a monocyte that the daughter cells receive the haploid
composed mainly of fibroblasts widely ingests microbes and debris. 613 number of chromosomes in varied
separated by a matrix containing malaria Serious infectious illness caused combinations. 155
collagen and elastic fibers. 510 by the parasitic protozoan Plasmodium. melanocyte-stimulating hormone
lumen Cavity inside any tubular structure, Malaria is characterized by bouts of (MSH) Substance that causes melano-
such as the lumen of the digestive chills and high fever that occur at cytes to secrete melanin in lower
tract. 509 regular intervals. 341 vertebrates. 687
lungs Paired, cone-shaped organs within male gametophyte In seed plants, the melatonin (mel-uh-toh-nun) Hormone,
the thoracic cavity; function in internal gametophyte that produces sperm; a secreted by the pineal gland, that is
respiration and contain moist surfaces pollen grain. 363, 490 involved in biorhythms. 693
for gas exchange. 651 Malpighian tubule Blind, threadlike membrane attack complex Group of
luteal phase Second half of the ovarian excretory tubule near the anterior end complement proteins that form
cycle, during which the corpus luteum of an insect’s hindgut. 667 channels in a microbe’s surface,
develops and much progesterone (and mammal Homeothermic vertebrate thereby destroying it. 612
some estrogen) is produced. 706 characterized especially by the presence memory Capacity of the brain to store and
luteinizing hormone (LH) Hormone of hair and mammary glands. 404 retrieve information about past
produced by the anterior pituitary gland marsupial Member of a group of mammals sensations and perceptions; essential to
that stimulates the development of the bearing immature young nursed in a learning. 538

GLOSSARY G-16

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 memory B cell Forms during a primary MHC (major histocompatibility complex) MacArthur and E. O. Wilson to explain
immune response but enters a resting protein Protein marker that is a part of the effects of distance from the
phase until a secondary immune cell-surface markers anchored in the mainland and size of an island on its
response occurs. 617 plasma membrane, which the immune diversity. 769
memory T cell T cell that differentiates system uses to identify “self.” 618 molecular clock Mutational changes that
during an initial infection and responds microevolution Change in gene frequen- accumulate at a presumed constant
rapidly during subsequent exposure to cies between populations of a species rate in regions of DNA not involved in
the same antigen. 618 over time. 259 adaptation to the environment. 304
meninges (sing., meninx) (muh-nin- micronutrient Essential element needed in molecule Union of two or more atoms of
jeez) Protective membranous coverings small amounts for plant growth, such the same element; also, the smallest
about the central nervous system. 534 as boron, copper, and zinc. 460 part of a compound that retains the
meningitis Condition that refers to microRNAs (miRNA) Type of small RNA properties of the compound. 9, 29
inflammation of meninges that cover that may bind to mRNA and thereby molting Periodic shedding of the exoskel-
the brain and spinal cord. 534 regulate its activity following eton in arthropods. 393
meniscus (pl., menisci) (muh-nis-kus,- transcription. 219 monoclonal antibody One of many
kee, -sy) Cartilaginous wedges that microspores One of two types of spores antibodies produced by a clone of
separate the surfaces of bones in synovial produced by seed plants; develops into hybridoma cells that all bind to the
joints. 577 a male gametophyte (pollen grain). 366 same antigen. 620
menstruation (men-stroo-ay-shun) Loss of microtubule (my-kro-too-byool) Small, monocot Abbreviation of monocotyle-
blood and tissue from the uterus at the cylindrical structure that contains 13 don. Flowering plant group; among
end of a uterine cycle. 706 rows of the protein tubulin surrounding other characteristics, members have
meristem tissue Undifferentiated, an empty central core; present in the one embryonic leaf, parallel-veined
embryonic tissue in the active growth cytoplasm, centrioles, cilia, and leaves, and scattered vascular
regions of plants. 353, 440 flagella. 78 bundles. 365, 434
mesoderm Middle primary tissue layer of microvillus Cylindrical process that extends monocotyledones Class of flowering plants
an animal embryo that gives rise to from an epithelial cell of a villus of the characterized by one embryonic leaf,
muscle, several internal organs, and intestinal wall and serves to increase parallel-veined leaves, and scattered
connective tissue layers. 711 the surface area of the cell. 635 vascular bundles. 365
mesoglea In animals with only two tissue midbrain Part of the brain located below monocyte (mahn-uh-syt) Type of agranular
layers, a transparent, jellylike packing the thalamus and above the pons; white blood cell that functions as a
material that occurs between the contains reflex centers and tracts. 536 phagocyte and an antigen-presenting
ectoderm and the endoderm. 386 middle ear Portion of the ear consisting of cell. 601
mesophyll Inner, thickest layer of a leaf the tympanic membrane, the oval and monohybrid cross Single genetic cross
consisting of palisade and spongy round windows, and the ossicles; involving only one trait, such as flower
mesophyll; the site of most where sound is amplified. 559 color. 172
photosynthesis. 438 mimicry Superficial resemblance of two or monomer Small molecule that is a subunit
messenger RNA (mRNA) Type of RNA more species; a mechanism that avoids of a polymer—e.g., glucose is a
formed from a DNA template that bears predation by appearing to be monomer of starch. 46
coded information for the amino acid noxious. 763 monosaccharide (mahn-uh-sak-uh-ryd)
sequence of a polypeptide. 57, 199 mineral Naturally occurring inorganic Simple sugar; a carbohydrate that
metabolic pathway Series of linked substance containing two or more cannot be decomposed by hydrolysis
reactions, beginning with a particular elements; certain minerals are needed (e.g., glucose). 47
reactant and terminating with an end in the diet. 460, 641 monosomy One less chromosome than
product. 92 mineralocorticoid (min-ur-uh-loh-kor-tih- usual. 162
metabolic pool Metabolites that are the koyd) Type of hormone secreted by the monotreme Egg-laying mammal (e.g.,
products of and/or substrates for key adrenal cortex that regulates salt and duckbill platypus and spiny
reactions in cells, allowing one type of water balance, leading to increases in anteater). 404
molecule to be changed into another blood volume and blood pressure. 690 monsoon Climate in India and southern
type, such as carbohydrates converted mitochondrion (mite-oh-KAHN-dree- Asia caused by wet ocean winds that
to fats. 135 uhn) Membrane-bounded organelle in blow onshore for almost half the
metabolism All of the chemical reactions which ATP molecules are produced year. 783
that occur in a cell. 9 during the process of cellular more-developed country (MDC) Country
metapopulation Population subdivided respiration. 76 that is industrialized; typically,
into several small, isolated populations mitosis (my-toh-sis) Type of cell division in population growth is low, and the
due to habitat fragmentation. 810 which daughter cells receive the exact people enjoy a good standard of
metastasis (muh-tas-tuh-sis) Spread of chromosomal and genetic makeup of living. 737
cancer from the place of origin the parent cell; occurs during growth morphogenesis Emergence of shape in
throughout the body; caused by the and repair. 145 tissues, organs, or entire embryo
ability of cancer cells to migrate and model Stand-in for an experimental subject during development. 713
invade tissues. 153, 223 that is not available for morula Spherical mass of cells resulting
methanogen Type of archaean that lives in experimentation. 5 from cleavage during animal develop-
oxygen-free habitats, such as swamps, model of island biogeography Model ment prior to the blastula stage. 710
and releases methane gas. 325 developed by ecologists Robert moss Type of bryophyte. 356

G-17 GLOSSARY

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 motor neuron Nerve cell that conducts myxedema (mik-sih-dee-muh) Condition vertebrates, the neural tube develops
nerve impulses away from the central resulting from a deficiency of thyroid into the spinal cord and the brain. 712
nervous system and innervates hormone in an adult. 689 neuroglia Nonconducting nerve cells that
effectors (muscles and glands). 527 are intimately associated with neurons
motor unit Motor neuron and all the N and function in a supportive
muscle fibers it innervates. 580 N2 (nitrogen) fixation Process whereby capacity. 513, 527
M stage In the cell cycle, the period of time free atmospheric nitrogen is converted neuron Nerve cell that characteristically
during which mitosis occurs to produce into compounds, such as ammonium has three parts: dendrites, cell body,
daughter cells. 145 and nitrates, usually by bacteria. 775 and axon. 513, 527
multifactorial trait Trait or illness deter- NAD+ Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; neurotransmitter Chemical stored at the
mined by several genes and the coenzyme of oxidation-reduction that ends of axons that is responsible for
environment. 183 accepts electrons and hydrogen ions to transmission across a synapse. 530
multiple alleles (uh-leelz) Inheritance become NADH+ H+ as oxidation of neurula The early embryo during the
pattern in which there are more than substrates occurs. During cellular development of the neural tube from
two alleles for a particular trait; each respiration, NADH carries electrons to the neural plate, marking the first
individual has only two of all possible the electron transport chain in appearance of the nervous system; the
alleles. 182 mitochondria. 124 next stage after the gastrula. 712
multiple fruit Cluster of mature ovaries nasopharynx (nay-zoh-far-ingks) Region of neutron (noo-trahn) Neutral subatomic
produced by a cluster of flowers, as in the pharynx associated with the nasal particle, located in the nucleus and
a pineapple. 497 cavity. 633 having a weight of approximately one
muscle dysmorphia Mental state in natural killer (NK) cell Lymphocyte that atomic mass unit. 27
which a person thinks his or her body causes an infected or cancerous cell to neutrophil (noo-truh-fill) Granular
is underdeveloped, and becomes burst. 613 leukocyte that is the most abundant of
preoccupied with body building and natural selection Mechanism resulting in the white blood cells; first to respond
diet; affects more men than adaptation to the environment. 16, 252 to infection. 601, 613
women. 644 negative feedback Mechanism of homeo- nitrification Process by which nitrogen in
muscular system System of muscles that static response by which the output of ammonia and organic molecules is
produces movement within the body a system suppresses or inhibits activity oxidized to nitrites and nitrates by soil
and movement of its limbs; principal of the system. 519, 682 bacteria. 775
components are skeletal muscle, smooth nematocyst In cnidarians, a capsule that node In plants, the place where one or
muscle, and cardiac muscle. 516 contains a threadlike fiber whose more leaves attach to a stem. 432, 527
muscular tissue Type of tissue composed release aids in the capture of prey. 386 node of Ranvier (rahn-vee-ay) Gap in the
of fibers that can shorten and nephridia Segmentally arranged, paired myelin sheath around a nerve fiber. 527
thicken. 512 excretory tubules of many inverte- noncompetitive inhibition Form of enzyme
mutate To undergo a permanent genetic brates, as in the earthworm. 392, 667 inhibition by which the inhibitor binds
change. 10 nephron (nef-rahn) Microscopic kidney to an enzyme at a location other than
mutation Alteration in chromosome unit that regulates blood composition the active site; while at this site, the
structure or number; also, alteration in by glomerular filtration, tubular enzyme shape changes, the inhibitor is
a gene due to a change in DNA reabsorption, and tubular unable to bind to its substrate, and no
composition. 152, 261 secretion. 670 product forms. 92
mutualism Symbiotic relationship in which nerve Bundle of nerve fibers outside the nondisjunction Failure of homologous
both species benefit in terms of growth central nervous system. 513, 539 chromosomes or daughter chromo-
and reproduction. 766 nerve fiber Axon; conducts nerve impulses somes to separate during meiosis I and
mycelium Mass of hyphal filaments away from the cell. Nerve fibers are meiosis II, respectively. 162
composing the vegetative body of a classified as either myelinated or nonpolar covalent bond Bond in which
fungus. 370 unmyelinated, based on the presence the sharing of electrons between atoms
mycorrhizae Mutually beneficial or absence of a myelin sheath. 526 is fairly equal. 32
symbiotic relationship between a nerve net Diffuse, noncentralized arrange- nonrandom mating Mating among
fungus and the roots of vascular ment of nerve cells in cnidarians. 532 individuals on the basis of their
plants. 371, 464 nervous system Organ system consisting of phenotypic similarities or differences,
myelin sheath (my-uh-lin) White, fatty the brain, spinal cord, and associated rather than randomly. 261
material, derived from the membrane nerves that coordinates the other organ nonrenewable resource Resource that is
of Schwann cells, that forms a covering systems of the body. 516 finite and cannot be replenished by a
for nerve fibers. 527 nervous tissue Tissue that contains nerve natural means at the same rate it is
myofibril (my-uh-fy-brul) Contractile cells (neurons), which conduct being consumed. 814
portion of muscle cells that contains a impulses, and neuroglia, cells that nonvascular plants Land plants (i.e.,
linear arrangement of sarcomeres and support, protect, and provide nutrients bryophytes) that have no vascular
shortens to produce muscle to neurons. 513 tissue and therefore are low-lying and
contraction. 582 neural plate Region of the dorsal surface of generally found in moist locations. 356
myosin (my-uh-sin) One of two major the chordate embryo that marks the norepinephrine (NE) (nor-ep-uh-nef-rin)
proteins of muscle; makes up thick future location of the neural tube. 712 Neurotransmitter of the postgangli-
filaments in myofibrils of muscle fibers. neural tube Tube formed by closure of the onic fibers in the sympathetic division
(See actin.) 582 neural groove during development. In of the autonomic nervous system; also,

GLOSSARY G-18

mad03482_GLO_G-1-G-29.indd G-18 31/07/10 12:04 PM

 a hormone produced by the adrenal oligotrophic lake Lake with few nutrients, ossicle (ahs-ih-kul) One of the small bones
medulla. 530, 690 usually very blue. 791 of the middle ear—malleus, incus, and
notochord Cartilaginous-like supportive omnivore (ahm-nuh-vor) Organism in a stapes. 559
dorsal rod in all chordates sometime in food chain that feeds on both plants osteocyte (ahs-tee-uh-syt) Mature bone cell
their life cycle; replaced by vertebrae in and animals. 770 located within the lacunae of bone. 576
vertebrates. 398 oncogene (ahng-koh-jeen) Cancer-causing otolith One of several calcium carbonate
nuclear envelope Double membrane that gene. 222 granules associated with receptors for
surrounds the nucleus and is connected oocyte Immature egg that is undergoing gravitational balance; in vertebrates,
to the endoplasmic reticulum; has meiosis; upon completion of meiosis, located in the utricle and saccule. 563
pores that allow substances to pass the oocyte becomes an egg. 704 outer ear Portion of the ear consisting of
between the nucleus and the oogenesis (oh-uh-jen-uh-sis) Production of the pinna and the auditory canal. 559
cytoplasm. 70 an egg in females by the process of outgroup In cladistics, a group of organisms
nuclear pore Opening in the nuclear meiosis and maturation. 705 that possess at least one characteristic
envelope that permits the passage of open circulatory system Arrangement of that is judged to be ancestral, because
proteins into the nucleus and ribosomal internal transport in which blood while it lacks the ingroup’s other
subunits out of the nucleus. 70 bathes the organs directly, and there is characteristics, it shares this one with
nucleic acid Polymer of nucleotides; both no distinction between blood and all the members of the ingroup. 300
DNA and RNA are nucleic acids. 57, 192 interstitial fluid. 590 ovarian cycle (oh-vair-ee-un) Monthly
nucleoid An irregularly shaped region in operant conditioning Learning that results follicle changes occurring in the ovary
the prokaryotic cell that contains its from rewarding or reinforcing a that control the level of sex hormones
genetic material. 67 particular behavior. 747 in the blood and the uterine cycle. 706
nucleolus (noo-klee-uh-lus, nyoo-) operator In an operon, the sequence of ovary In animals, the female gonad, the
Dark-staining, spherical body in the DNA that binds tightly to a repressor, organ that produces eggs, estrogen, and
cell nucleus that produces ribosomal and thereby regulates the expression of progesterone; in flowering plants, the
subunits. 70 structural genes. 212 base of the pistil that protects ovules
nucleosome In the nucleus of a eukaryotic operon Group of structural and regulating and, along with associated tissues,
cell, a unit composed of DNA wound genes that function as a single unit. 212 becomes a fruit. 365, 490, 700, 704
around a core of eight histone proteins, opportunistic population Population overexploitation Occurs when the number
giving the appearance of a string of demonstrating a life history pattern in of individuals taken from a wild
beads. 214 which members exhibit exponential population is so great that the popula-
nucleotide Monomer of DNA and RNA population growth. Its members are tion becomes severely reduced in
consisting of a 5-carbon sugar bonded small in size, mature early, have a numbers. 809
to a nitrogen-containing base and a short life span, produce many oviduct Tube that transports oocytes to the
phosphate group. 56, 192 offspring, and provide little or no care uterus; also called a uterine tube. 704
nucleus (noo-klee-us, nyoo-) Membrane- to offspring (e.g., dandelions). 735 ovulation (ahv-yuh-lay-shun, ohv-) Release
bounded organelle that contains opposable thumb Fingers arranged in such of a secondary oocyte from the ovary;
chromosomes and controls the a way that the thumb can touch the if fertilization occurs, the secondary
structure and function of the cell. 68 fingertips of all four fingers. 412 oocyte becomes an egg. 705
order One of the categories, or taxa, used ovule In seed plants, the structure in
O by taxonomists to group species; the which the megaspore becomes an
obligate anaerobe Prokaryote unable to taxon above the family level. 14, 296 egg-producing female gametophyte; it
grow in the presence of free organ Combination of two or more develops into a seed following
oxygen. 323 different tissues performing a common fertilization. 355
observation Step in the scientific method function. 9, 508 oxidation Loss of one or more electrons
by which data are collected before a organelle (or-guh-nel) Small membranous from an atom or molecule; in biologi-
conclusion is drawn. 4 structure in the cytoplasm having a cal systems, generally the loss of
obstructive pulmonary disorder Charac- specific structure and function. 68 hydrogen atoms. 108
terized by airflow restriction in the organic chemistry The study of carbon oxygen debt Amount of oxygen needed to
airways; includes chronic bronchitis, compounds; chemistry of the living metabolize lactate, a compound that
emphysema, and asthma. 660 world. 44 accumulates during vigorous
octet rule States that an atom other than organism Individual living thing. 9, 508 exercise. 133, 584
hydrogen tends to form bonds until it organ of Corti Structure in the vertebrate oxyhemoglobin (ahk-see-hee-muh-gloh-
has eight electrons in its outer shell; an inner ear that contains auditory bin) Compound formed when oxygen
atom that already has eight electrons in receptors; also called the spiral combines with hemoglobin. 658
its outer shell does not react and is organ. 560 oxytocin (ahk-sih-toh-sin) Hormone
inert. 29 organ system Group of related organs released by the posterior pituitary that
oil Substance, usually of plant origin and working together. 9, 508 causes contraction of the uterus and
liquid at room temperature, formed orgasm Physiological and psychological milk letdown. 686
when a glycerol molecule reacts with sensations that occur at the climax of
three fatty acid molecules. 49 sexual stimulation. 702 P
olfactory cell (ahl-fak-tuh-ree, -tree, ohl-) osmosis (ahz-moh-sis, ahs-) Diffusion of p53 Protein coded for by the p53 gene that
Modified neuron that is a sensory water through a selectively permeable halts the cell cycle when DNA mutates
receptor for the sense of smell. 553 membrane. 97 and is in need of repair. 152

G-19 GLOSSARY

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 pain receptor Sensory receptor that is pattern formation Positioning of cells Peyer patches Lymphatic organs located in
sensitive to chemicals released by during development that determines the small intestine. 611
damaged tissues or excess heat or the final shape of an organism. 713 P generation In genetics, the parental
pressure stimuli. 550 pectoral girdle (pek-tur-ul) Portion of the generation. 172
paleontologist Individual who studies skeleton that provides support and phagocytize To ingest extracellular
fossils and the history of life. 255 attachment for an arm; consists of a particles by engulfing them, as
paleontology Study of fossils that results scapula and a clavicle. 574 amoeboid cells do. 339
in knowledge about the history of pedigree Graphic representation of phagocytosis (fag-uh-sy-toh-sis) Process by
life. 250 matings and offspring over multiple which amoeboid-type cells engulf large
palisade mesophyll Layer of tissue in a generations for a particular genetic substances, forming an intracellular
plant leaf containing elongated cells trait. 178 vacuole. 98
with many chloroplasts. 438 pelagic zone Open portion of the sea. 793 pharynx (far-ingks) Portion of the digestive
pancreas (pang-kree-us, pan-) Internal pelvic girdle Portion of the skeleton to tract between the mouth and the
organ that produces digestive enzymes which the legs are attached; consists of esophagus that serves as a passageway
and the hormones insulin and the coxal bones. 574 for food and also for air on its way to
glucagon. 638, 692 penis External organ in males through the trachea. 633, 654
pancreatic amylase Enzyme that digests which the urethra passes; also serves phenotype (fee-nuh-typ) Visible expression
starch to maltose. 634 as the organ of sexual intercourse. 702 of a genotype—for example, brown
pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) pepsin Enzyme secreted by gastric glands eyes or attached earlobes. 173
Masses of cells that constitute that digests proteins to peptides. 634 pheromone Chemical signal released by an
the endocrine portion of the peptide Two or more amino acids joined organism that affects the metabolism
pancreas. 692 together by covalent bonding. 53 or influences the behavior of another
parasite Species that is dependent on a peptide bond Type of covalent bond that individual of the same species. 552,
host species for survival, usually to the joins two amino acids. 53 684, 752
detriment of the host species. 764 peptide hormone Type of hormone that is phloem Vascular tissue that conducts
parasitism Symbiotic relationship in which a protein, a peptide, or derived from an organic solutes in plants; contains
one species (the parasite ) benefits in amino acid. 684 sieve-tube elements and companion
terms of growth and reproduction to peptidoglycan Unique molecule found in cells. 358, 437, 452
the detriment of the other species (the bacterial cell walls. 48 phloem sap Solution of sugars, nutrients,
host). 764 pericarp Outer covering of a fruit that and hormones found in the phloem
parasympathetic division That part of the develops from the wall of an tissue of a plant. 452
autonomic system that is active under ovary. 497 phospholipid (fahs-foh-lip-id) Molecule
normal conditions; uses acetylcholine pericycle Layer of cells surrounding the that forms the bilayer of the cell’s
as a neurotransmitter. 541 vascular tissue of roots; produces membranes; has a polar, hydrophilic
parathyroid gland (par-uh-thy-royd) Gland branch roots. 438 head bonded to two nonpolar hydro-
embedded in the posterior surface of periderm Protective tissue that replaces phobic tails. 50
the thyroid gland; it produces parathy- epidermis; includes cork and cork phospholipid bilayer Comprises the
roid hormone. 689 cambium. 442 plasma membrane; each polar,
parenchyma cell Plant tissue composed of peripheral nervous system (PNS) (puh-rif- hydrophilic head is bonded to two
the least-specialized of all plant cells; ur-ul) Nerves and ganglia that lie nonpolar, hydrophobic tails; contains
found in all organs of a plant. 436 outside the central nervous system. 526 embedded proteins. 93
parent cell Cell that divides to form peristalsis (pair-ih-stawl-sis) Wavelike photoperiodism Relative lengths of
daughter cells. 146 contractions that propel substances daylight and darkness that affect the
Parkinson disease Progressive deteriora- along a tubular structure, such as the physiology and behavior of an
tion of the central nervous system due esophagus. 633 organism. 480
to a deficiency in the neurotransmitter peritubular capillary network (pair-ih- photosynthesis Process occurring usually
dopamine. 535 too-byuh-lur) Capillary network that within chloroplasts whereby chloro-
parsimony In cladistics, the preference for surrounds a nephron and functions in phyll-containing organelles trap solar
a cladogram that has the least number reabsorption during urine energy to reduce carbon dioxide to
of branches. 301 formation. 671 carbohydrate. 9, 106
parthenogenesis Development of an egg permafrost Permanently frozen ground, photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II
cell into a whole organism without usually occurring in the tundra, a (PSII) Photosynthetic unit where solar
fertilization. 700 biome of arctic regions. 786 energy is absorbed and high-energy
partial pressure Pressure exerted by each peroxisome Enzyme-filled vesicle in which electrons are generated; contains a
gas in a mixture of gases. 658 fatty acids and amino acids are pigment complex and an electron
partitioning in space In C4 photosynthesis, metabolized to hydrogen peroxide that acceptor. 110
carbon dioxide is fixed in mesophyll is broken down to harmless phototropism Growth response of plant
cells but enters the Krebs cycle in products. 74 stems to light; stems demonstrate
bundle sheath cells. 117 petal A flower part that occurs just inside positive phototropism. 471, 476
partitioning in time In CAM photosynthe- the sepals; often conspicuously colored pH scale Measurement scale for hydrogen
sis, carbon dioxide is fixed during the to attract pollinators. 365, 491 ion concentration. 37
night and enters the Krebs cycle during petiole Part of a plant leaf that connects phylogenetic (evolutionary) tree Diagram
the day. 117 the blade to the stem. 433 that indicates common ancestors and

GLOSSARY G-20

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 lines of descent among a group of cholesterol, beneath the inner linings polygenic inheritance Pattern of inheri-
organisms. 296 of the arteries. 596 tance in which a trait is controlled by
phylogeny Evolutionary history of a group plasma (plaz-muh) Liquid portion of several allelic pairs; each dominant
of organisms. 298 blood; contains nutrients, wastes, salts, allele contributes to the phenotype in
phylum One of the categories, or taxa, and proteins. 600 an additive and like manner. 183
used by taxonomists to group plasma cell Cell derived from a B cell that polymer Macromolecule consisting of
species; the taxon above the class is specialized to mass-produce covalently bonded monomers; for
level. 14, 296 antibodies. 616 example, a polypeptide is a polymer of
phytochrome Photoreversible plant plasma membrane Membrane surrounding monomers called amino acids. 46
pigment that is involved in photoperi- the cytoplasm that consists of a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (pahl-
odism and other responses of plants phospholipid bilayer with embedded uh-muh-rays, -rayz) Technique that
such as etiolation. 480 proteins; functions to regulate the uses the enzyme DNA polymerase to
phytoplankton Part of plankton containing entrance and exit of molecules from produce millions of copies of a
organisms that photosynthesize, the cell. 67 particular piece of DNA. 238
releasing oxygen to the atmosphere plasmid (plaz-mid) Self-replicating ring of polyp (pahl-ip) Small, abnormal growth
and serving as food producers in accessory DNA in the cytoplasm of that arises from the epithelial
aquatic ecosystems. 343, 793 bacteria. 232, 322 lining. 636
phytoremediation The use of plants to plasmodesmata (sing., plasmodesma) In polypeptide Polymer of many amino acids
restore a natural area to its original plants, cytoplasmic strands that extend linked by peptide bonds. 53
condition. 457 through pores in the cell wall and polyploid Having a chromosome number
pili Threadlike appendages that allow connect the cytoplasm of two adjacent that is a multiple greater than twice
bacteria to attach to surfaces and to cells. 99, 437 that of the monoploid number. 162
each other. 67 plasmodial slime mold Free-living mass of polyribosome (pahl-ih-ry-buh-sohm)
pineal gland (pin-ee-ul, py-nee-ul) cytoplasm that moves by pseudopods on String of ribosomes simultaneously
Endocrine gland located in the third a forest floor or in a field, feeding on translating regions of the same
ventricle of the brain; produces decaying plant material by phagocytosis; mRNA strand during protein
melatonin. 536, 693 reproduces by spore formation. 342 synthesis. 201
pinocytosis Process by which vesicle plasmolysis Contraction of the cell polysaccharide (pahl-ee-sak-uh-ryd)
formation brings macromolecules into contents due to the loss of water. 97 Polymer made from sugar monomers;
the cell. 98 platelet Cell fragment that is necessary to the polysaccharides starch and
pioneer species First species to colonize an blood clotting; also called a glycogen are polymers of glucose
area devoid of life. 768 thrombocyte. 511 monomers. 48
pith Parenchyma tissue in the center of pleiotropy Inheritance pattern in which pond Freshwater basin, smaller than a
some stems and roots. 438 one gene affects many phenotypic lake. 791
pituitary gland Endocrine gland that lies characteristics of the individual. 184 pons (pahnz) Portion of the brain stem
just inferior to the hypothalamus; point mutation Alteration in a gene due to above the medulla oblongata and
consists of the anterior pituitary and a change in a single nucleotide; results below the midbrain; assists the
the posterior pituitary. 686 of this mutation vary. 204 medulla oblongata in regulating the
placenta Organ formed during the polar body In oogenesis, a nonfunctional breathing rate. 536
development of placental mammals product; two to three meiotic products population Organisms of the same species
from the chorion and the uterine are of this type. 181 occupying a certain area. 12, 259, 728
wall; allows the embryo, and then polar covalent bond Bond in which the population density The number of
the fetus, to acquire nutrients and sharing of electrons between atoms is individuals per unit area or volume
rid itself of wastes; produces unequal. 32 living in a particular habitat. 729
hormones that regulate pollen grain In seed plants, the sperm- population distribution The pattern of
pregnancy. 404, 700, 717 producing male gametophyte. 355, dispersal of individuals living within a
placental mammal Member of the 363, 490 certain area. 729
mammalian subclass characterized by pollen sacs In flowering plants, the portal system Pathway of blood flow that
the presence of a placenta during the portions of the anther where micro- begins and ends in capillaries, such as
development of an offspring. 404 spore mother cells undergo meiosis to the portal system located between the
planarian Free-living flatworm with a produce microspores. 365 small intestine and the liver. 598
ladderlike nervous system. 387 pollen tube In seed plants, a tube that forms positive feedback Mechanism in which the
plant Multicellular, usually photosynthetic, when a pollen grain lands on the stigma stimulus initiates reactions that lead to
organism belonging to the plant and germinates. The tube grows, passing an increase in the stimulus. 686
kingdom. 15 between the cells of the stigma and the posterior pituitary Portion of the pituitary
plant hormone Chemical signal that is style to reach the egg inside an ovule, gland that stores and secretes oxytocin
produced by various plant tissues and where fertilization occurs. 367 and antidiuretic hormone produced by
coordinates the activities of plant pollination In seed plants, the delivery of the hypothalamus. 686
cells. 470 pollen to the vicinity of the egg-producing postzygotic isolating mechanism Ana-
plant tissue culture Process of growing female gametophyte. 363, 494 tomical or physiological difference
plant cells in the laboratory. 473 pollution Any environmental change that between two species that prevents
plaque (plak) Accumulation of soft masses adversely affects the lives and health of successful reproduction after mating
of fatty material, particularly living things. 807 has taken place. 275

G-21 GLOSSARY

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 potential energy Stored energy as a result proprioceptor Sensory receptor that pulmonary artery (pool-muh-nair-ee, pul-)
of location or spatial arrangement. 86 responds to changes in muscle or Blood vessel that takes blood away
predation Interaction in which one tendon tension. 558 from the heart to the lungs. 592
organism (the predator ) uses another prosimian Group of primates that includes pulmonary circuit Circulatory pathway
(the prey ) as a food source. 762 lemurs and tarsiers, and may resemble that consists of the pulmonary trunk,
preparatory (prep) reaction Reaction that the first primates that evolved. 415 the pulmonary arteries, and the
oxidizes pyruvate with the release of prostate gland (prahs-tayt) Gland located pulmonary veins; takes O2-poor blood
carbon dioxide; results in acetyl CoA around the male urethra below the from the heart to the lungs and
and connects glycolysis to the Krebs urinary bladder; adds secretions to O2-rich blood from the lungs to the
cycle. 125, 128 semen. 702 heart. 593, 598
prezygotic isolating mechanism Anatomi- protease Enzyme that digest proteins. 220 pulmonary trunk Large blood vessel that
cal or behavioral difference between proteasome A large, cylindrical cellular divides into the pulmonary arteries;
two species that prevents the possibil- structure that contains proteases and takes blood away from the heart to the
ity of mating. 274 digests tagged proteins following lungs. 592
primary growth In plants, growth that translation. 220 pulmonary vein Blood vessel that
originates in the apical meristems of protein Molecule consisting of one or more takes blood from the lungs to the
the shoot and root; causes the plant to polypeptides. 10, 52, 640 heart. 592
increase in length. 440 proteome Collection of proteins resulting pulse Vibration felt in arterial walls due to
primary motor area Area in the frontal from the translation of genes into expansion of the aorta following
lobe where voluntary commands begin; proteins. 240 ventricular contraction. 594
each section controls a part of the proteomics The study of all proteins in an Punnett square Grid used to calculate the
body. 535 organism. 240 expected results of simple genetic
primary somatosensory area (soh-mat-uh- protist Member of the kingdom crosses. 175
sens-ree, -suh-ree) Area dorsal to the Protista. 15, 334 pupil (pyoo-pul) Opening in the center of
central sulcus where sensory informa- protocell In biological evolution, a possible the iris of the eye. 554
tion arrives from skin and skeletal cell forerunner that became a cell once pyruvate End product of glycolysis; its
muscles. 535 it could reproduce. 318 further fate, involving fermentation or
primate Member of the order Primate; proton Positive subatomic particle, located entry into a mitochondrion, depends
includes prosimians, monkeys, apes, in the nucleus and having a weight of on oxygen availability. 125
and hominids, all of whom have approximately one atomic mass
adaptations for living in trees. 412 unit. 27 R
prime mover Muscle most directly respon- proto-oncogene (proh-toh-ahng-koh- radial symmetry Body plan in which
sible for a particular movement. 580 jeen) Normal gene that can become an similar parts are arranged around a
prions Misfolded proteins that cause other oncogene through mutation. 222 central axis, like spokes of a
proteins to also become misfolded; protostome Group of coelomate animals in wheel. 381
cause of mad cow disease and other which the first embryonic opening (the radiolarian Member of the phylum
rare diseases. 315 blastopore) is associated with the Actinopoda bearing a glassy silicon
producer Photosynthetic organism at the mouth. 383 test, usually with a radial arrangement
start of a grazing food chain that makes protozoan Heterotrophic, unicellular protist of spines; pseudopods are external to
its own food (e.g., green plants on land that moves by flagella, cilia, or the test. 339
and algae in water). 770 pseudopodia, or is immobile. 335 rain shadow Leeward side (side sheltered
proembryo Smaller portion of divided proximal convoluted tubule Highly coiled from the wind) of a mountainous
sporophyte embryo that, after dividing region of a nephron near the glomeru- barrier, which receives much less
repeatedly, becomes the embryo of a lar capsule, where tubular reabsorption precipitation than the windward
plant. 496 takes place. 671 side. 783
progesterone (proh-jes-tuh-rohn) Female sex pseudocoelom A body cavity lying ray-finned fish Group of bony fishes
hormone that helps maintain sex organs between the digestive tract and the with fins supported by parallel bony
and secondary sex characteristics. 705 body wall that is incompletely lined by rays connected by webs of thin
prokaryotic cell (prokaryote) Organism mesoderm. 390 tissue. 400
that lacks the membrane-bounded pseudogene Gene copy that is nonfunc- receptacle Area where a flower attaches to
nucleus and membranous organelles tional due to a mutation. 239 a floral stalk. 365
typical of eukaryotes. 14, 67 pseudopod Cytoplasmic extension of receptor-mediated endocytosis Selective
prolactin (PRL) (proh-lak-tin) Hormone amoeboid protists; used for locomotion uptake of molecules into a cell by
secreted by the anterior pituitary that and engulfing food. 339 vacuole formation after they bind to
stimulates the production of milk from pseudostratified ciliated columnar specific receptor proteins in the plasma
the mammary glands. 687 epithelium Appearance of layering in membrane. 98
proliferative phase Phase of the uterine some epithelial cells when, actually, recessive allele (uh-leel) Allele that exerts
cycle in which there is increased each cell touches a baseline and true its phenotypic effect only in the
production of estrogen, causing the layers do not exist. 509 homozygote; its expression is masked
endometrium to thicken. 706 puberty Period of life when secondary sex by a dominant allele. 173
promoter In an operon, a sequence of DNA changes occur in humans; marked by reciprocal altruism The trading of helpful
where RNA polymerase binds prior to the onset of menses in females and or cooperative acts, such as helping at
transcription. 212 sperm production in males. 703 the nest, by individuals—the animal

GLOSSARY G-22

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 that was helped will repay the debt at renal pelvis Hollow chamber in the kidney restriction enzyme Bacterial enzyme that
some later time. 751 that lies inside the renal medulla and stops viral reproduction by cleaving
recombinant DNA (rDNA) DNA that receives freshly prepared urine from viral DNA; used to cut DNA at specific
contains genes from more than one the collecting ducts. 670 points during production of recombi-
source. 232 renewable resource Resource that is nant DNA. 232
recombinant DNA technology Use of DNA replenished by a natural means at the retina (ret-n-uh, ret-nuh) Innermost layer
that contains genes from more than same rate or faster than it is of the eyeball that contains the rod
one source, often to produce transgenic consumed. 814 cells and the cone cells. 554
organisms. 232 renin (ren-in) Enzyme released by the retrovirus RNA virus containing the
rectum (rek-tum) Terminal end of the kidneys that leads to the secretion of enzyme reverse transcriptase that
digestive tube between the sigmoid aldosterone and a rise in blood carries out RNA-to-DNA
colon and the anus. 636 pressure. 675, 691 transcription. 315
red algae Marine photosynthetic protists repolarization Recovery of a neuron’s reverse transcriptase Enzyme that
with a notable abundance of phyco- polarity to the resting potential after transcribes RNA into DNA. 315
bilin pigments; include coralline algae the neuron ceases transmitting rhizome Rootlike underground stem. 432,
of coral reefs. 344 impulses. 529 499
red blood cell (RBC) Formed element that repetitive DNA Sequence of DNA nucleo- rhodopsin (roh-dahp-sun) Light-absorbing
contains hemoglobin and carries tides that is repeated several times in a molecule in rod cells and cone cells
oxygen from the lungs to the tissues; genome. 239 that contains a pigment and the protein
erythrocyte. 511, 600 repressor In an operon, protein molecule opsin. 556
red bone marrow Blood-cell-forming tissue that binds to an operator, preventing ribose Pentose sugar found in RNA. 47
located in the spaces within spongy transcription of structural genes. 212 ribosomal RNA (rRNA) (ry-buh-soh-mul)
bone. 576, 611 reproduce To produce a new individual of Type of RNA found in ribosomes where
red tide Occurs frequently in coastal areas the same kind. 9 protein synthesis occurs. 200
and is often associated with population reproductive cloning Production of an ribosome (ry-buh-sohm) RNA and protein
blooms of dinoflagellates. Dinoflagellate organism that is genetically identical to in two subunits; site of protein
pigments are responsible for the red the original individual. 230 synthesis in the cytoplasm. 67
color of the water. Under these condi- reproductive system Organ system that ribozyme Enzyme that carries out mRNA
tions, the dinoflagellates often produce contains male or female organs and processing. 202, 318
saxitoxin, which can lead to paralytic specializes in the production of rigor mortis Contraction of muscles at
shellfish poisoning. 343 offspring. 517 death due to lack of ATP. 583
redox reaction Oxidation-reduction reptile Member of a class of terrestrial river Freshwater channel that flows
reaction; one molecule loses electrons vertebrates characterized by internal eventually to the oceans. 791
(oxidation) while another molecule fertilization, scaly skin, and an egg RNA interference Collective regulation of
simultaneously gains electrons with a leathery shell; includes snakes, mRNA activity by miRNAs and
(reduction). 108 lizards, turtles, and crocodiles. 402 siRNAs. 219
reduced hemoglobin Hemoglobin resource In economic terms, anything RNA (ribonucleic acid) (ry-boh-noo-klee-ik)
molecule that is carrying hydrogen ions having potential use for creating wealth Nucleic acid produced from covalent
derived from carbonic acid. 658 or giving satisfaction. 729 bonding of nucleotide monomers that
reduction Chemical reaction that results resource partitioning Mechanism that contain the sugar ribose; occurs in three
in addition of one or more electrons increases the number of niches by forms: messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA,
to an atom, ion, or compound. apportioning the supply of a resource and transfer RNA. 57, 192
Reduction of one substance occurs such as food or living space between root hair Extension of a root epidermal
simultaneously with oxidation of species. 760 cell that increases the surface area
another. 108 respiration Sequence of events that results for the absorption of water and
reflex Automatic, involuntary response of in gas exchange between the cells of minerals. 433, 463
an organism to a stimulus. 540 the body and the environment. 650 root nodule Structure on a plant root that
reflex action An action performed auto- respiratory center Group of nerve cells in contains nitrogen-fixing bacteria. 464
matically, without conscious thought the medulla oblongata that send out root pressure Osmotic pressure caused by
(e.g., swallowing). 534, 633 nerve impulses on a rhythmic basis, active movement of minerals into root
refractory period (rih-frak-tuh-ree) Time resulting in involuntary inspiration on cells; serves to elevate water in xylem
following an action potential when a an ongoing basis. 657 for a short distance. 454
neuron is unable to conduct another respiratory system Organ system consist- root system Includes the main root and
nerve impulse. 529 ing of the lungs and tubes that bring any and all of its lateral (side)
regulatory gene In an operon, a gene that oxygen into the lungs and take carbon branches. 432
codes for a protein that regulates the dioxide out. 517 rotational balance Maintenance of balance
expression of other genes. 212 resting potential Polarity across the plasma when the head and body are suddenly
renal cortex (ree-nul kor-teks) Outer membrane of a resting neuron due to moved or rotated. 562
portion of the kidney that appears an unequal distribution of ions. 528 rough ER (RER) Membranous system of
granular. 670 restoration ecology Subdiscipline of tubules, vesicles, and sacs in cells; has
renal medulla (ree-nul muh-dul-uh) Inner conservation biology that seeks ways to attached ribosomes. 72
portion of the kidney that consists of return ecosystems to their former roundworm Member of the phylum
renal pyramids. 670 state. 811 Nematoda, having a cylindrical body

G-23 GLOSSARY

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 with a complete digestive tract and a Schwann cell Cell that surrounds a fiber of self-antigen Antigen that is produced by an
pseudocoelom; some forms are a peripheral nerve and forms the organism. 615
free-living in water and soil; many are myelin sheath. 527 semen (seminal fluid) (see-mun) Thick,
parasitic. 393 scientific theory Concept supported by a whitish fluid consisting of sperm and
RuBP carboxylase Enzyme that is required broad range of observations, experi- secretions from several glands of the
for carbon dioxide fixation (atmo- ments, and conclusions. 5 male reproductive tract. 702
spheric CO2 attaches to RuBP) in the sclera (skleer-uh) White, fibrous, outer semicircular canal (sem-ih-sur-kyuh-lur)
Calvin cycle. 114 layer of the eyeball. 554 One of three tubular structures
ruminant Cow and related mammals in sclerenchyma cell Plant tissue composed within the inner ear that contain
which digestion of cellulose occurs in of cells with heavily lignified cell walls; sensory receptors responsible for
an extra stomach, or rumen, from functions in support. 437 the sense of rotational
which partially digested material can seaweed Multicellular forms of red, green, equilibrium. 562
be ejected back into the mouth. 631 and brown algae found in marine semiconservative replication Duplication
habitats. 344 of DNA resulting in two double helix
S secondary growth In vascular plants, an molecules, each having one parental
saccule (sak-yool) Saclike cavity in the increase in stem and root diameter and one new strand. 196
vestibule of the inner ear; contains made possible by cell division of the semilunar valve (sem-ee-loo-nur) Valve
sensory receptors for gravitational lateral meristems. 442 resembling a half moon located
equilibrium. 563 secondary metabolite Molecule not directly between the ventricles and their
salivary amylase (sal-uh-vair-ee am-uh-lays, involved in growth, development, or attached vessels. 592
-layz) Secreted from the salivary glands; reproduction of an organism; in plants, seminal vesicle (sem-uh-nul) Convoluted,
the first enzyme to act on starch. 632 these molecules, which include saclike structure attached to the vas
salivary gland Gland associated with the nicotine, caffeine, tannins, and deferens near the base of the urinary
mouth that secretes saliva. 632 menthols, can discourage bladder in males; adds secretions to
salt Compound produced by a reaction herbivores. 482 semen. 702
between an acid and a base. 30 secondary sex characteristic Trait that is seminiferous tubule (sem-uh-nif-ur-us)
saltatory conduction Movement of nerve sometimes helpful but not absolutely Long, coiled structure contained within
impulses from one neurolemmal node necessary for reproduction and is chambers of the testis; where sperm
to another along a myelinated maintained by the sex hormones in are produced. 703
axon. 529 males and females. 703 senescence Sum of the processes involving
saprotroph Organism that secretes second messenger Chemical signal such as aging, decline, and eventual death of a
digestive enzymes and absorbs the cyclic AMP that causes the cell to plant or plant part. 473
resulting nutrients back across the respond to the first messenger—a sensation Conscious awareness of a
plasma membrane. 323 hormone bound to a plasma membrane stimulus due to a nerve impulse sent to
sarcolemma (sar-kuh-lem-uh) Plasma receptor. 684 the brain from a sensory receptor by
membrane of a muscle fiber; also secretory phase Phase of the uterine cycle way of sensory neurons. 551
forms the tubules of the T system in which increased production of sensory adaptation The phenomenon in
involved in muscular contraction. 582 progesterone causes the endometrium which a sensation becomes less
sarcomere (sar-kuh-mir) One of many to double in thickness, producing a noticeable once it has been recognized
units, arranged linearly within a thick, mucoid secretion. 706 by constant repeated stimulation. 551
myofibril, whose contraction produces seed Mature ovule that contains an embryo sensory neuron Nerve cell that transmits
muscle contraction. 582 with stored food enclosed in a protec- nerve impulses to the central nervous
sarcoplasmic reticulum (sar-kuh-plaz-mik tive coat. 362, 490 system after a sensory receptor has
rihtik-yuh-lum) Smooth endoplasmic seedless vascular plant Land plants, such been stimulated. 527
reticulum of skeletal muscle cells; as lycophytes and ferns, which have sensory receptor Structure that receives
surrounds the myofibrils and stores vascular tissue but do not produce either external or internal environmen-
calcium ions. 582 seeds. Reproduction involves flagel- tal stimuli and is a part of a sensory
SARS Severe acute respiratory syndrome lated sperm and production of neuron or transmits signals to a
caused by a virus that emerged in windblown spores. 358 sensory neuron. 550
China and spread around the seed plant Land plant whose reproduction sepal Outermost, sterile, leaflike covering
world. 313 involves the production of seeds. of the flower; usually green in
saturated fatty acid Fatty acid molecule Reproduction in seed plants is fully color. 365, 491
that lacks double bonds between the adapted to living on land because all Sertoli cell Type of cell in seminiferous
atoms of its carbon chain. 49 reproductive structures are protected tubules with FSH receptors; helps
savanna Terrestrial biome that is a from drying out. Includes gymno- nourish and support developing
grassland in Africa, characterized by sperms and angiosperms. 362 sperm. 703
few trees and a severe dry season. 789 segmentation Repetition of body parts as serum (seer-um) Light yellow liquid left
scanning electron microscope Beam of segments along the length of the body; after clotting of blood. 603
electrons scans over a specimen point seen in annelids, arthropods, and sessile Describes an animal that tends to
by point and builds up an image on a chordates. 392 stay in one place. 382
fluorescent screen. 66 selective agent Environmental factor that sex chromosome Chromosome that
scavenger Animal that specializes in the affects the ability of an organism to determines the sex of an individual;
consumption of dead animals. 770 survive and produce fertile offspring. 253 in humans, females have two

GLOSSARY G-24

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 X chromosomes, and males have an the result of DNA replication and are solute Substance that is dissolved in a
X and a Y chromosome. 144 attached to each other at the solvent, forming a solution. 34, 97
sexually transmitted disease (STD) Illness centromere. 144 solution Fluid (the solvent) that contains a
communicated primarily or exclusively skeletal muscle Striated, voluntary muscle dissolved solid (the solute). 34
through sexual contact. 708 tissue that comprises skeletal muscles; solvent Liquid portion of a solution that
sexual reproduction Reproduction involving also called striated muscle. 512 serves to dissolve a solute. 34, 97
meiosis, gamete formation, and fertiliza- skeletal system System of bones, cartilage, somatic system That portion of the
tion; produces offspring with chromo- and ligaments that works with the peripheral nervous system containing
somes inherited from each parent with a muscular system to protect the body motor neurons that control skeletal
unique combination of genes. 160, 700 and provide support for locomotion muscles. 540
shared ancestral trait In cladistics, a and movement. 516 sorus (pl., sori) Dark spot on the underside
characteristic shared by both the skin Outer covering of the body; can be of fern fronds that is a collection of
outgroup and the ingroup that is called the integumentary system spore-producing structures. 361
judged to have preceded those of all because it contains organs such as source In the pressure-flow model of
the ingroup clades. 300 sense organs. 515 phloem transport, the location (leaves)
shared derived trait In cladistics, a skull Bony framework of the head, of sugar production. Sugar will flow
characteristic that evolved after the composed of cranial bones and the from the leaves to the sink. 459
ancestral trait and is present in an bones of the face. 572 source population Population that can
ancestor and all the members of a sliding filament model An explanation for provide members to other populations
clade. 300 muscle contraction based on the of the species because it lives in a
shoot system Aboveground portion of a movement of actin filaments in relation favorable area, and the birthrate is most
plant consisting of the stem, leaves, to myosin filaments. 582 likely higher than the death rate. 810
and flowers. 432 slime mold Protists that decompose dead speciation Origin of new species due to the
short-day plant Plant that flowers when material and feed on bacteria by evolutionary process of descent with
day length is shorter than a critical phagocytosis; vegetative state is mobile modification. 272
length (e.g., cocklebur, poinsettia, and and amoeboid. 342 species Group of similarly constructed
chrysanthemum). 481 small interfering RNAs (siRNA) Type of organisms capable of interbreeding and
sieve-tube member Member that joins small RNA that combines with a producing fertile offspring; organisms
with others in the phloem tissue of complex and thereafter silences that share a common gene pool; the
plants as a means of transport for (inactivates) a chosen mRNA. 219 taxon at the lowest level of classifica-
nutrient sap. 437, 452 small intestine In vertebrates, the portion of tion. 14, 296
signaling molecule Molecule that stimu- the digestive tract that precedes the large species richness Number of species in a
lates or inhibits an event in the cell intestine; in humans, consists of the community. 769
cycle. 100 duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. 634 specific epithet In the binominal system of
simple diffusion Movement of molecules small RNAs (sRNA) RNAs of limited taxonomy, the second part of an
or ions from a region of higher to lower length that function in various ways organism’s name; it may be descrip-
concentration; it requires no energy within the nucleus to regulate gene tive. 15
and tends to lead to an equal expression following transcription. 218 spermatogenesis (spur-mat-uh-jen-ih-sis)
distribution. 96 smooth ER (SER) Membranous system of Production of sperm in males by the
simple goiter (goy-tur) Condition in which tubules, vesicles, and sacs in eukary- process of meiosis and maturation. 703
an enlarged thyroid produces low levels otic cells; lacks attached ribosomes. 72 sphincter (sfingk-tur) Muscle that
of thyroxine. 689 smooth muscle Nonstriated, involuntary surrounds a tube and closes or opens
simple muscle twitch Contraction of a muscle tissue found in the walls of the tube by contracting and
whole muscle in response to a single internal organs. 512 relaxing. 617, 633
stimulus. 580 sociobiology Application of evolutionary spinal cord Part of the central nervous
single nucleotide polymorphism principles to the study of social system; the nerve cord that is continu-
(SNP) Site present in at least 1% of behavior of animals, including ous with the base of the brain plus the
the population at which individuals humans. 750 vertebral column that protects the
differ by a single nucleotide. These can sodium-potassium pump Carrier protein in nerve cord. 534
be used as genetic markers to map the plasma membrane that moves spinal nerve Nerve that arises from the
unknown genes or traits. 259 sodium ions out of and potassium ions spinal cord. 539
sink In the pressure-flow model of phloem into cells; important in nerve and spindle apparatus Microtubule structure
transport, the location (roots) from muscle cells. 98 that brings about chromosome
which sugar is constantly being soft palate (pal-it) Entirely muscular movement during nuclear
removed. Sugar will flow to the roots posterior portion of the roof of the division. 146
from the source. 459 mouth. 632 spleen Large, glandular organ located in
sink population Population that is found soil Accumulation of inorganic rock the upper left region of the abdomen;
in an unfavorable area where at best material and organic matter that is stores and purifies blood. 611
the birthrate equals the death rate; sink capable of supporting the growth of spongy bone Porous bone found at the
populations receive new members from vegetation. 462 ends of long bones where red bone
source populations. 810 soil profile Vertical section of soil from the marrow is sometimes located. 576
sister chromatid One of two genetically ground surface to the unaltered rock spongy mesophyll Layer of tissue in a
identical chromosomal units that are below. 462 plant leaf containing loosely packed

G-25 GLOSSARY

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 cells, increasing the amount of surface stratum (pl., strata) Ancient layer of sympatric speciation Origin of new species
area for gas exchange. 438 sedimentary rock; results from slow in populations that overlap
sporangium (pl., sporangia) Structure that deposition of silt, volcanic ash, and geographically. 279
produces spores. 342, 357 other materials. 251 synapse (sin-aps, si-naps) Junction
spore Asexual reproductive or resting cell stream Freshwater channel, smaller than a between neurons consisting of the
capable of developing into a new river. 791 presynaptic (axon) membrane, the
organism without fusion with another striated Having bands; in cardiac and synaptic cleft, and the postsynaptic
cell, in contrast to a gamete. 335, 354 skeletal muscle, alternating light and (usually dendrite) membrane. 530
sporophyte Diploid generation of the dark crossbands produced by the synapsis (sih-nap-sis) Pairing of homolo-
alternation of generations life cycle of a distribution of contractile gous chromosomes during prophase I
plant; produces haploid spores that proteins. 512 of meiosis I. 155
develop into the haploid genera- strobilus Terminal cluster of specialized synaptic cleft (sih-nap-tik) Small gap
tion. 354, 490 leaves that bear sporangia. 358 between presynaptic and postsynaptic
squamous epithelium Type of epithelial stroma Fluid within a chloroplast that membranes of a synapse. 530
tissue that contains flat cells. 509 contains enzymes involved in the syndrome Group of symptoms that appear
S stage In the cell cycle, the period of time synthesis of carbohydrates during together and tend to indicate the
during which DNA replication occurs photosynthesis. 107 presence of a particular disorder. 163
so that the chromosomes are structural gene Gene that codes for an synovial joint (sih-noh-vee-ul) Freely
duplicated. 145 enzyme in a metabolic pathway. 212 movable joint in which two bones are
stabilizing selection Outcome of natural style Elongated, central portion of the separated by a cavity. 577
selection in which extreme phenotypes pistil between the ovary and syphilis (sif-uh-lis) Sexually transmitted
are eliminated and the average stigma. 365 disease caused by the bacterium
phenotype is conserved. 264 subcutaneous layer A sheet that lies just Treponema pallidum that, if untreated,
stamen In flowering plants, the portion of beneath the skin and consists of loose can lead to cardiac and central nervous
the flower that consists of a filament connective and adipose tissue. 515 system disorders. 708
and an anther containing pollen sacs substrate Reactant in a reaction controlled systematics Study of the diversity of
where pollen is produced. 365, 491 by an enzyme. 90 organisms to classify them and
starch Storage polysaccharide found in substrate feeder Organism that lives in or determine their evolutionary
plants that is composed of glucose on its food source. 628 relationships. 296
molecules joined in a linear fashion substrate-level ATP synthesis Process in systemic circuit Blood vessels that
with few side chains. 48 which ATP is formed by tranferring a transport blood from the left ventricle
statolith Sensors found in root cap cells phosphate from a metabolic substrate and back to the right atrium of the
that cause a plant to demonstrate to ADP. 126 heart. 593, 598
gravitropism. 476 surface-area-to-volume ratio Ratio of a systemin In plants, an 18-amino-acid
stem Usually the upright, vertical portion cell’s outside area to its internal peptide that is produced by damaged
of a plant that transports substances to volume. 65 or injured leaves and leads to the
and from the leaves. 432 survivorship Probability of newborn wound response. 483
stereoscopic vision Vision characterized individuals of a cohort surviving to systole (sis-tuh-lee) Contraction period
by depth perception and particular ages. 730 of the heart during the cardiac
three-dimensionality. 413 sustainable development Management of cycle. 594
steroid (steer-oyd) Type of lipid molecule an ecosystem so that it maintains itself systolic pressure (sis-tahl-ik) Arterial
having a complex of four carbon rings; while providing services to human blood pressure during the systolic
examples are cholesterol, progesterone, beings. 811 phase of the cardiac cycle. 599
and testosterone. 50 sustainable society Interactive group of
steroid hormone Type of hormone that has individuals who provide for their needs T
a complex of four carbon rings but in a way that will allow future genera- taiga Terrestrial biome that is a coniferous
different side chains from other steroid tions to enjoy the same standard of forest extending in a broad belt across
hormones. 684 living. 800, 813 northern Eurasia and North
stigma In flowering plants, portion of the swallowing Muscular movement of the America. 786
pistil where pollen grains adhere and pharynx and esophagus to take tandem repeat Sequence of DNA nucleo-
germinate before fertilization can the food bolus from the mouth to tides that is repeated many times in a
occur. 365 the stomach. 633 row. 239
stolon Stem that grows horizontally along symbiosis Relationship that occurs when taste bud Sense organ containing the
the ground and may give rise to new two different species live together in a receptors associated with the sense of
plants where it contacts the soil— unique way; it may be beneficial, taste. 552
e.g., the runners of strawberry neutral, or detrimental to one and/or taxon Group of organisms that fills a
plants. 499 the other species. 764 particular classification category. 296
stoma (pl., stomata) Small opening sympathetic division The part of the taxonomy Branch of biology concerned
between two guard cells on the autonomic system that usually with identifying, describing, and
underside of leaf epidermis through promotes activities associated with naming organisms. 14, 296
which gases pass. 107, 355, 436, 456 emergency (fight-or-flight) situations; T cell Lymphocyte that matures in the
stratified As in the outer layer of skin, uses norepinephrine as a thymus. Cytotoxic T cells kill antigen-
having several layers. 509 neurotransmitter. 541 bearing cells outright; helper T cells

GLOSSARY G-26

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 release cytokines that stimulate other thalamus (thal-uh-mus) Part of the brain thyroxine (T4) (thy-rahk-sin) Hormone
immune system cells. 601, 611 located in the lateral walls of the third secreted from the thyroid gland that
T cell receptor (TCR) Molecule on the ventricle that serves as the integrating promotes growth and development; in
surface of a T cell that can bind to a center for sensory input; it plays a role general, it increases the metabolic rate
specific antigen fragment in combina- in arousing the cerebral cortex. 536 in cells. 689
tion with an MHC molecule. 616 theory of ecosystems Concept that tight junction Junction between animal
temperate deciduous forest Forest found organisms are members of populations cells that seals the cells to one
south of the taiga; characterized by that interact with each other and with another. 99
deciduous trees such as oak, beech, the physical environment at a particu- tissue Group of similar cells that perform a
and maple; moderate climate; relatively lar locale. 12 common function. 9, 508
high rainfall; stratified plant growth; theory of evolution Concept that all living tissue culture Process of growing tissue
and plentiful ground life. 788 things have a common ancestor, but artificially, usually in a liquid medium
temperate grassland Grazing, fire, and each is adapted to a particular way of in laboratory glassware. 500
drought restrict tree growth in this life. 13 tissue fluid Fluid that surrounds the
terrestrial biome. 788 therapeutic cloning Used to create mature body’s cells; consists of dissolved
temperate rain forest Coniferous forest— cells of various cell types. Also used to substances that leave the blood
e.g., the forest running along the west learn about specialization of cells and capillaries by filtration and
coast of Canada and the United to provide cells and tissues for treating diffusion. 511, 602
States—characterized by plentiful human illnesses. 230 tonsillitis Infection of the tonsils that
rainfall and rich soil. 786 thermoacidophile Type of archaean that causes inflammation and can spread to
template (tem-plit) Pattern or guide used lives in hot, acidic, aquatic habitats, the middle ears. 632
to make copies; parental strand of DNA such as hot springs or near hydrother- tonsils Partially encapsulated lymph
serves as a guide for the production of mal vents. 325 nodules located in the pharynx. 611
daughter DNA strands, and DNA also thermoreceptor Sensory receptor that is topography Surface features of the
serves as a guide for the production of sensitive to changes in Earth. 783
messenger RNA. 196 temperature. 550 torpedo stage Stage of development of a
tendon Strap of fibrous connective tissue thigmotropism In plants, unequal growth sporophyte embryo; embryo has a
that connects skeletal muscle to due to contact with solid objects, as torpedo shape, and the root and shoot
bone. 511, 580 the coiling of tendrils around a apical meristems are present. 496
terminal bud Bud that develops at the pole. 476 totipotent Cell that has the full genetic
apex of a shoot. 432 threatened species Species that is likely to potential of the organism, including the
terminal bud scale scar Marking from the become endangered in the foreseeable potential to develop into a complete
shedding of terminal bud scales; age of future (e.g., bald eagle, gray wolf, organism. 500
a stem can be determined by number Lousiana black bear). 800 touch receptor One of several cutaneous
of scars. 441 threshold Electrical potential level (skin) receptors that responds to light
territoriality Marking and/or defending a (voltage) at which an action potential pressure. 558
particular area against invasion by or nerve impulse is produced. 528 toxin Substance produced by a bacterium
another species member. 748 thrombin (thrahm-bin) Enzyme that that has a poisonous effect on the body
territory Area occupied and defended converts fibrinogen to fibrin threads and causes illness. 326
exclusively by an animal or group of during blood clotting. 603 tracer Substance having an attached
animals; often used for the purpose of thylakoid Flattened sac within a granum radioactive isotope that allows a
feeding, mating, and caring for whose membrane contains chlorophyll researcher to track its whereabouts in a
young. 748 and where the light reactions of biological system. 28
testcross Cross between an individual with photosynthesis occur. 107, 324 trachea (tray-kee-uh) In birds and
the dominant phenotype and an thylakoid space Inner compartment of the mammals, passageway that conveys air
individual with the recessive thylakoid. 107 from the larynx to the bronchi; also
phenotype. The resulting phenotypic thymus gland Lymphatic organ, located called the windpipe. 654
ratio indicates whether the dominant along the trachea behind the sternum, tracheae In insects, air tubes located
phenotype is homozygous or involved in the maturation of T between the spiracles and the trache-
heterozygous. 176 lymphocytes in the thymus gland. oles. 591, 653
test group Group that participates in an Secretes hormones called thymosins, tracheid In flowering plants, type of cell in
experiment and is exposed to the which aid the maturation of T cells and xylem that has tapered ends and pits
experimental variable. 5 perhaps stimulate immune cells in through which water and minerals
testis (pl., testes) Male gonad that general. 611 flow. 437, 452
produces sperm and the male sex thyroid gland Endocrine gland in the neck tract Bundle of myelinated axons in the
hormones. 700 that produces several important central nervous system. 534
testosterone (tes-tahs-tuh-rohn) Male sex hormones, including thyroxine, transcription Process whereby a DNA
hormone that helps maintain sexual triiodothyronine, and calcitonin. 689 strand serves as a template for the
organs and secondary sex thyroid-stimulating hormone formation of mRNA. 198
characteristics. 703 (TSH) Substance produced by the transcription activator Protein that
tetrad Homologous chromosomes, each anterior pituitary that causes the initiates transcription by RNA poly-
having sister chromatids that are joined thyroid to secrete thyroxine and merase and thereby starts the process
during meiosis. 156 triiodothyronine. 686 that results in gene expression. 213

G-27 GLOSSARY

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 transcription factor In eukaryotes, protein triploid endosperm In flowering plants, typhlosole Expanded dorsal surface of
required for the initiation of transcrip- nutritive storage tissue that is derived the long intestine of earthworms,
tion by RNA polymerase. 213 from an egg uniting with polar nuclei allowing additional surface for
transduction Exchange of DNA during double fertilization. 367 absorption. 630
between bacteria by means of a trisomy One more chromosome than
bacteriophage. 322 usual. 162 U
trans fats Fats known to cause cardiovas- trochophore larva Independent motile umbilical cord Cord connecting the fetus
cular disease because they contain feeding stage in the development of the to the placenta through which blood
partially hydrogenated fatty acids. 49 trochozoa; recognized by two bands of vessels pass. 717
transfer RNA (tRNA) Type of RNA that cilia around its middle. 387 uniformitarianism Belief espoused by
transfers a particular amino acid to a trochozoa Type of protostome that James Hutton that geological
ribosome during protein synthesis; at produces a trochophore larva, which forces act at a continuous, uniform
one end, it binds to the amino acid, has two bands of cilia around its rate. 251
and at the other end it has an middle. 383 unique noncoding DNA DNA that does
anticodon that binds to an mRNA trophic level Feeding level of one or more not code for a protein and whose
codon. 200 populations in a food web. 773 unknown function may be different
transformation Taking up of extraneous trophoblast Outer cells of a blastocyst that from that of other noncoding
genetic material from the environment help form the placenta and other DNA. 240
by bacteria. 322 extraembryonic membranes. 716 unpacking Prior to transcription, the
transitional fossil A fossil that bears a tropical rain forest Biome near the equator transformation of heterochromatin to
resemblance to two groups that in South America, Africa, and the euchromatin. 215
in the present day are classified Indo-Malay regions; characterized by unsaturated fatty acid Fatty acid molecule
separately. 256 warm weather, plentiful rainfall, a that has one or more double bonds
translation Process whereby ribosomes use diversity of species, and mainly between the atoms of its carbon
the sequence of codons in mRNA to tree-living animal life. 790 chain. 49
produce a polypeptide with a particular tropism In plants, a growth response upwelling Upward movement of deep,
sequence of amino acids. 198 toward or away from a directional nutrient-rich water along coasts; it
translation repressor protein In the stimulus. 446, 476 replaces surface waters that move
cytoplasm, one of a number of proteins trypsin Protein-digesting enzyme secreted away from shore when the direction of
that prevent the translation of an by the pancreas. 634 prevailing winds shifts. 784
mRNA. 220 tuber Enlarged, short, fleshy underground urea Main nitrogenous waste of terrestrial
translocation Movement of a chromosomal stem—e.g., potato. 499 amphibians and most mammals. 666
segment from one chromosome to tubular reabsorption Movement of uremia High level of urea nitrogen in the
another nonhomologous chromosome, primarily nutrient molecules and water blood. 676
leading to abnormalities (e.g., Down from the contents of the nephron into ureter (yoor-uh-tur) One of two tubes that
syndrome). 164, 202 blood at the proximal convoluted take urine from the kidneys to the
transmission electron microscope Similar tubule. 672 urinary bladder. 670
to the scanning electron microscope, tubular secretion Movement of certain urethra (yoo-ree-thruh) Tubular structure
but the image is colored by a molecules from blood into the distal that receives urine from the bladder
computer. 66 convoluted tubule of a nephron so that and carries it to the outside of the
transpiration Plant’s loss of water to the they are added to urine. 673 body. 670
atmosphere, mainly through evapora- tumor (too-mur) Cells derived from a uric acid Main nitrogenous waste of
tion at leaf stomata. 455 single mutated cell that has repeat- insects, reptiles, and birds. 666
transport vesicle Vesicle formed in the ER edly undergone cell division; benign urinary bladder Organ where urine is
that carries proteins and lipids to the tumors remain at the site of origin, stored before being discharged by way
Golgi apparatus. 72 and malignant tumors of the urethra. 670
transposon DNA sequence capable of metastasize. 153 urinary system Organ system consisting of
randomly moving from one site to tumor suppressor gene Gene that codes the kidneys and urinary bladder; rids
another in the genome. 240 for a protein that ordinarily suppresses the body of nitrogenous wastes and
trichocyst Found in ciliates; contains long, cell division; inactivity can lead to a helps regulate the water-salt balance of
barbed threads useful for defense and tumor. 222 the blood. 517
capturing prey. 340 tunicate Type of primitive invertebrate urine Liquid waste product made by the
trichomes Outgrowth of the epidermis, chordate. 398 nephrons of the vertebrate kidney
such as a hair or a thorn. 444 turgor movement In plant cells, pressure through the processes of glomerular
trichomoniasis Sexually transmitted of the cell contents against the cell wall filtration, tubular reabsorption, and
disease caused by the parasitic when the central vacuole is full. 478 tubular secretion. 670
protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis. 708 Turner syndrome Condition caused by the uterine cycle (yoo-tur-in, -tuh-ryn)
triglyceride (trih-glis-uh-ryd) Neutral fat inheritance of a single X Monthly occurring changes in the
composed of glycerol and three fatty chromosome. 163 characteristics of the uterine lining
acids. 49, 640 tympanic membrane (tim-pan-ik) Located (endometrium). 706
triplet code Each sequence of three between the outer and middle ear uterus (yoo-tur-us) Organ located in the
nucleotide bases in the DNA of genes where it receives sound waves; also female pelvis where the fetus develops;
stands for a particular amino acid. 198 called the eardrum. 559 also called the womb. 704

GLOSSARY G-28

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 utricle (yoo-trih-kul) Saclike cavity in the vertebrae Series of bones that enclose having a specific function in protecting
vestibule of the inner ear that contains and protect the dorsal nerve the body from invasion by foreign
sensory receptors for gravitational cord. 399, 573 substances and organisms. 511, 601
equilibrium. 563 vertebral column (vur-tuh-brul) Series of white matter Myelinated axons in the
joined vertebrae that extends from the central nervous system. 534
V skull to the pelvis. 573 wood Secondary xylem that builds up year
vaccine Antigens prepared in such a way vertebrate Chordate in which the after year in woody plants and
that they can promote active immunity notochord is replaced by a vertebral becomes the annual rings. 442
without causing disease. 326, 615 column. 384
vacuole Membrane-bounded sac, larger vessel element Cell that joins with others X
than a vesicle; usually functions in to form a major conducting tube found xenotransplantation Use of animal organs,
storage and can contain a variety of in xylem. 437, 452 instead of human organs, in human
substances. In plants, the central vestibule (ves-tuh-byool) Space or cavity at transplant patients. 236
vacuole fills much of the interior of the the entrance of a canal, such as the xylem Vascular tissue that transports
cell. 74 cavity that lies between the semicircu- water and mineral solutes upward
vagina Organ that leads from the uterus to lar canals and the cochlea. 559 through the plant body; it contains
the vestibule and serves as the birth vestigial structure Remains of a structure vessel elements and tracheids. 358,
canal and organ of sexual intercourse that was functional in some ancestor 437, 452
in females. 704 but is no longer functional in the xylem sap Solution of inorganic nutrients
valence shell Outer shell of an atom. 28 present-day organism. 257 moved from a plant’s roots to its shoots
valve Membranous extension of a vessel of villus (pl., villi) (vil-us) Small, fingerlike through xylem tissue. 452
the heart wall that opens and closes, projection of the inner small intestinal
ensuring one-way flow. 595 wall. 635 Y
vascular cylinder In dicot roots, a core of viroids Naked strands of RNA that cause yeast Unicellular fungus that has a single
tissues bounded by the endodermis, diseases in plants by directing the plant nucleus and reproduces asexually by
consisting of vascular tissues and cell to produce more viroids. 315 budding or fission, or sexually through
pericycle. 438 visual accommodation Ability of the spore formation. 372
vascular plants Land plants that have eye to focus at different distances by yolk Dense nutrient material in the egg of a
xylem and phloem. Xylem transports changing the curvature of the bird or reptile. 700
water and helps support an erect lens. 555 yolk sac Extraembryonic membrane that
stem. 358 vitamin Essential requirement in the diet, encloses the yolk of birds; in humans,
vascular tissue Transport tissue in plants needed in small amounts. Vitamins are it is the first site of blood cell
consisting of xylem and phloem. 436 often part of coenzymes. 91, 642 formation. 715
vas deferens (vas def-ur-unz, -uh-renz) vocal cord Fold of tissue within the larynx;
Tube that leads from the epididymis to creates vocal sounds when it Z
the urethra in males. 702 vibrates. 654 zone of cell division In plants, the part of
vegetative reproduction In seed plants, vulva External genitals of the female that the young root that includes the root
reproduction by means other than by surround the opening of the apical meristem and the cells just
seeds; in other organisms, reproduction vagina. 704 posterior to it; cells in this zone divide
by vegetative spores, fragmentation, or every 12–36 hours. 440
division of the somatic body. 499 W zone of elongation In plants, the part of
vector (vek-tur) In genetic engineering, a waggle dance Figure-eight dance the young root that lies just posterior to
means to transfer foreign genetic performed by honeybees to indicate the zone of cell division; cells in this
material into a cell (e.g., a plasmid). 232 locations of nectar sources. 753 zone elongate, causing the root to
vein Vessel that takes blood to the heart water column In plants, water molecules lengthen. 441
from venules; characteristically has joined together in xylem from the zone of maturation In plants, the part of
nonelastic walls. 592 leaves to the roots. 454 the root that lies posterior to the zone
vena cava Large systemic vein that returns water molds Filamentous organisms of elongation; cells in this zone
blood to the right atrium of the heart in having cell walls made of cellulose; differentiate into specific cell
tetrapods; either the superior or typically decomposers of dead freshwa- types. 441
inferior vena cava. 598 ter organisms, but some are parasites zooplankton Part of plankton containing
ventilation Process of moving air into and of aquatic or terrestrial organisms. 342 protozoans and other types of micro-
out of the lungs; also called water vascular system Series of canals scopic animals. 339, 793
breathing. 650 that takes water to the tube feet of an zoospore A motile spore. 342
ventricle (ven-trih-kul) Cavity in an organ, echinoderm, allowing them to zygospore Thick-walled resting cell formed
such as a lower chamber of the heart expand. 393 during sexual reproduction of
or the ventricles of the brain. 534, 592 wax Sticky, solid, waterproof lipid consist- zygospore fungi; meiosis and spore
venule (ven-yool, veen-) Vessel that takes ing of many long-chain fatty acids formation occur upon
blood from capillaries to a vein. 595 usually linked to long-chain germination. 372
vermiform appendix Small, tubular alcohols. 50 zygote (zy-goht) Diploid cell formed by the
appendage that extends outward from white blood cell (WBC) Leukocyte, of union of sperm and egg; the product of
the cecum of the large intestine. 636 which there are several types, each fertilization. 155

G-29 GLOSSARY

mad03482_GLO_G-1-G-29.indd G-29 31/07/10 12:04 PM

 Index

Note: Page references followed by f in pollinators, 248–249, 249f fungal diseases, 374, 374f Alternative splicing, 218, 218f
and t refer to figures and tables in small populations, 736 and introduction of alien species, 806 Altman, Sidney, 318
respectively. social behaviors and, 750–751, 750f, plant viruses and, 312 Altruism, 750–751
751f sustainable, 816, 816f Alu element, 240
Adaptive radiation, 278, 278f, 350 water use and, 815 Alveolates, 336f
A Addiction
definition of, 542
wildlife, value of, 802–803
AGS. See Adrenogenital syndrome
Alveoli, 654, 654f, 659f
Alzheimer disease, 163, 220, 530, 538
A (amino acid) site, 200–201, 202, 202f drug abuse and, 543, 544 AID. See Artificial insemination by donor Amantia, 374
Abdomen smoking and, 655 AIDS. See HIV/AIDS Ambulocetus natans, 256, 256f, 272f
of crayfish, 394f treatment of, 544 Air pollution, and acid rain, 38, 38f American Heart Association, 643
of insect, 396 Addison disease, 691, 691f Airsickness, 563 Ames test, 206
Abduction, 577 Adduction, 577 Alaska, 787, 787f Amino acids
Abiotic factors, in population control, Adductor longus, 579f Albumin, 53, 600 common, 53f
733, 733f Adenine (A), 56, 57f, 57t, 192, 192f, 198f Alcohol metabolism of, 666, 666f
ABO blood type, 182, 604 Adenoids, 632 and acidosis, 675 peptide formation, 52, 52f
Abortions, spontaneous, 164 Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 58, 58f, and cancer, 154, 206 in proteins, 52–53, 53f
Abscisic acid (ABA), 456 88, 88f, 582–583, 583f and cirrhosis, 638 R groups of, 53, 53f
Abscission, 441 Adenosine monophosphate (AMP), 88 as diuretic, 674 sources of, 309
Absorption, in digestive process, 629, Adenosine triphosphate. See ATP effects of, 543, 597, 686 structure of, 53, 53f
629f Adenoviruses, 310, 310f fermentation and, 133, 133f, 134 synthesis of, 135
Absorption spectrums, of photosynthetic ADH. See Antidiuretic hormone functional groups and, 45 Amino groups, 45f
pigments, 109, 109f Adhesion, of water, 33 Alcoholic drinks, production of, 134 Amish, genetic abnormalities in, 263,
ABT-594, 406 Adhesion, of water in plant vessels, 33f, Aldosterone, 674, 675f, 691 263f
Abyssal plain, 792f, 793 454 Algae, 343–346 Ammonia
Acacia trees, 789 Adhesion junctions, in animal cells, blooms, 324, 775 and origin of organic molecules,
Acceptor end, 200 508–509 blue-green, 324 (See also 317–318, 317f
Accessory fruits, 497 Adipose tissue, 510f, 511 Cyanobacteria) as polar molecule, 32f
Acetabularia, 335f ADP (adenosine diphosphate), 58, 58f, brown, 337f, 344, 344f as waste product, 666, 666f
Acetic acid bacteria, 134 88, 88f, 582–583, 583f classification of, 335 Ammonium, in nitrogen cycle, 775, 775f
Acetylcholine (ACh), 530–531, 540, 543, Adrenal cortex, 683f, 684, 685, 690–691, diatoms, 343, 343f Amniocentesis, 179, 181
583 690f dinoflagellates, 343, 343f Amnion, 402f, 715, 715f, 716f, 717
Acetylcholinesterase (AchE), 531 Adrenal glands, 683f, 690–691, 690f green, 335f, 345–346, 345f, 346f, 793 Amniotic cavity, 716, 716f
Acetyl CoA, 128, 129, 129f, 135, 135f, 136 Adrenaline. See Epinephrine evolution of, 379 Amniotic egg, 399, 399f, 402, 402f, 403,
ACh. See Acetylcholine Adrenal medulla, 683f, 690, 690f mutualism in, 371 404
Acheulian tools, 420 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), as plant ancestor, 352–353 Amniotic fluid, 25, 715, 717, 720, 720f
Achondroplasia, 180 683f, 686, 687f, 690, 690f, 691, life cycle of, 160, 160f, 344, 345, 345f Amniotic membrane, 720, 720f
Acid(s), 36, 36f 691f as photoautotroph, 770 Amoeba proteus, 335f, 339
Acid-base balance, regulation of, 658, 675 Adrenogenital syndrome (AGS), 691 red, 104–105, 335f, 336f, 337f, 344, Amoebic dysentery, 333, 339
Acid deposition, 38, 38f, 775, 807 Adult stem cells, 142, 145, 149, 151 344f, 793 Amoeboids, 335, 336f, 337f, 339, 339f
Acidosis, 37, 658, 675 Advertising, and classical conditioning, Algin (alginate), 344 Amoebozoans, 336f
Acid rain. See Acid deposition 747 Alien species, and extinctions, 799, 805f, AMP (adenosine monophosphate), 88
Acoelomates, 387 Aerobic exercise, 136, 136f 806, 806f Amphetamines
Acon terminal, 530, 530f Aerobic process, 125 Alkalosis, 37, 658, 675 amphetamine psychosis, 543
Acromegaly, 688, 688f Aerobic prokaryotes, 323 Allantois, 402f, 715, 715f, 716f, 717 effects of, 597
ACTH. See Adrenocorticotropic hormone AF-2, 206 Allele(s), 144, 173, 173f urine tests for, 673
Actin Afferent arteriole, 671, 671f, 672f dominant, 173 Amphibians
and cell motion, 78 Afferent neurons. See Sensory (afferent) harmful, heterozygote advantage and, characteristics, 384, 401, 401f
in cell structure, 68f, 78, 78f neurons 266 circulatory system, 593, 593f
in muscle contraction, 89, 89f, 512, African apes, 413f multiple, 182 evolution of, 399f
582–583, 582f, 583f African ethnicity, skeletal remains and, in natural selection, 177 excretory system, 666
Actin filaments, 78, 78f 569 recessive, 173, 261 kidneys, 670
Action potential African sleeping sickness, 333, 338 x-linked, 185, 185f reproduction, 698
mechanism of, 528–529, 528f, 529f Afterbirth, 720, 720f Allele frequency respiration, 651, 656
speed of, 529, 529f Agar, 344 calculation of, 260, 260f Amplexus, 698, 698f
Active immunity, 615 Agaricus bisporus, 374 changes in, causes, 259–261 Ampulla, 562, 562f
Active site, of enzyme, 90, 90f Age Hardy-Weinberg principle, 260 Amygdala, 538, 538f
Active transport, 97t age structure diagrams, 731, 731f Allen’s rule, 424 Amyloid plaques, 538
Acyclovir, 708 and risk of Down syndrome child, 163 Allergic reactions, 622, 622f, 622t Anabaena, 324f, 360
ADA (adenosine deaminase), 237 Age-associated nerve deafness, 561 Alligators, 290, 402, 402f, 698–699 Anabolic steroids, 50
Adam’s apple, 654, 703 Agent Orange, 309 Allopatric speciation, 276–277 Anabolism, 135
Adaptation Agglutination, of blood, 604, 604f Alloploidy, 279, 279f Anaerobes
in angiosperms, 433, 433f Aggregate fruits, 497 All-or-none manner, of action potential, facultative, 323
as characteristic of life, 16 Agnatha. See Jawless fishes 528, 528f obligate, 323
early theories of, 251 Agranular leukocytes, 601 Allosteric site, 92, 92f Anaerobic process, 125
innate behaviors and, 744–745 Agriculture Alpha 1 antitrypsin, 406 Anal canal, 636
to land environment, in plants, contour farming, 816 Alpha helix, 54, 54f Analogous structures, 303
354–355 development of, 422, 422f Alpine tundra, 783, 783f, 786 Analogy, 303
learned behaviors and, 746–747 diversity in, 816, 816f Alternation of generations, 160, 354, 354f Anandamide, 544

I-1

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-1 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Anaphase of fresh water ecosystems, 791, 791f Anticodon end, 200 Arms race, 701
in meiosis fungi vs., 370 Anticodons, 200 Army ants, 750–751, 750f
anaphase I, 158, 158f–159f, 160, genetically-modified, 236, 236f Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 674, 683f, ART. See Assisted reproductive
161f homeostasis in, 518–519 686–687, 687f technologies
anaphase II, 158f–159f, 159 hormones (See Hormones) Antigen(s), 601, 604, 615 Arterioles, 595, 595f
in mitosis, 148f–149f, 160, 161f major phyla, 384 Antigen-presenting cell (APC), 616, 616f, Artery(ies), 592, 595, 595f
Anaphylactic shock, 622 of marine ecosystem, 792, 793, 793f 618, 618f Arthropods, 394–396, 394f, 532, 532f
Ancestor, common as pollinators (See Pollinators) Antigen receptors, 616 arachnids, 395, 395f, 667
evidence for, 256–258 protistan ancestor of, 381 Antihistamines, 622 blood of, 589
phylogeny and, 298, 298f reproduction Anti-inflammatory drugs, 614 characteristics of, 384, 394, 394f
Ancestral character, 298 asexual, 700, 700f Antioxidants, 154, 597, 642 circulatory system, 590–591
Ancestral trait, 300, 301t overview of, 698–699 Antiviral drugs, herpes and, 708 crustaceans (See Crustaceans)
Anchoring junctions, in animal cells, 99, 99f sexual, 700, 700f Anus, 632f, 636 evolution of, 382f
Androgens, 683f of savanna, 789, 789f Anvil (incus), 559, 559f, 560 excretory system, 667
Anemia, 600, 641 seed dispersal and, 488–489, 497 Aorta, 592, 592f, 598, 598f exoskeleton, 570
Aneuploidy, 162 skeleton types, 570–571, 570f, 571f Aortic bodies, 657, 675 respiration in, 652
Angina pectoris, 596 of temperate deciduous forest, 788 APC. See Antigen-presenting cell Articular cartilage, 576, 576f, 577
Angiogenesis, 153, 223, 223f of temperate grassland, 788, 788f Ape(s), 412f, 413, 413f, 415, 575, 575f. Artificial insemination by donor (AID),
Angiosperms, 365–369 tissues, 508–513 See also Chimpanzees; Gorillas 709
adaptation in, 433, 433f connective tissue, 510–511, 510f Aphids, 458, 458f, 803 Artificial kidney machine, 676, 676f
alternation of generations in, 354, 354f epithelial tissue, 508–509, 509f Apical meristem, 436, 440, 440f, 441, Artificial selection, 17, 177, 252, 252f,
cells and tissues, 436–439, 436f–439f muscular tissue, 512, 512f 441f, 496 280, 280f
characteristics of, 353 nervous tissue, 513 Apicomplexans, 336f, 337f Artiodactyla, 296, 298f
diversity in, 365 of tropical rain forest, 790, 790f Apneic time, 649 Ascaris, 393, 393f
eudicots (See Eudicots) of tundra, 786 Apoptosis Ascending colon, 632f, 636
evolution of, 303, 352f, 365, 492, 492f viral diseases, 313–315 and cancer, 618 Ascomycota, 372–373, 372f
growth Animal cells development and, 216 Ascospores, 372f
primary, 440–441, 440f, 441f anatomy, 68f, 69 in pattern formation, 713 Ascus, 372, 372f
secondary, 442–443, 442f cell cycle in, 145f, 146–150, 148f–149f, in T cells, 618 Asexual reproduction
homeostasis in, 445–446, 445f, 446f 150f Appendages. See also Limb(s) in algae, 345, 345f
importance of, 365 cytokinesis in, 150, 150f jointed in animals, 700, 700f
leaves of (See Leaf) junctions in, 99, 99f in arthropods, 394, 394f binary fission, 321, 321f
life cycle, 365–368, 366f–367f, 490–491 mitosis in, 148–149, 148f–149f Appendicitis, 636 in ciliates, 340, 340f
monocots (See Monocots) plant cells vs., 69t Appendicular skeleton, 572, 572f, in diatoms, 343
ornamental, 435 Animal pole, of embryo, 710 574–575, 574f in fungi, 373, 373f
pollination, 363, 363f, 366f–367f, 367, Annelids, 392, 392f, 532, 532f Appendix, vermiform, 611, 636, 636f in lichens, 371
488–489, 494–495, 495f (See also blood of, 589 Apple, structure of, 497 in plants, 499–500, 499f, 500f
Pollinators) characteristics of, 384 Aquaculture, 803, 809, 809f in protists, 335
roots (See Root system) circulatory system, 591 Aquaporin, 97, 463 in sponges, 385
seed dispersal strategies, 488–489 evolution of, 382f Aquatic animals Asia, early migration to, 423, 423f
sexual reproduction in, 355, 490–495 excretory system, 667 excretory system, 666, 666f Asian Apes, 412f
stem of reproduction, 700 mammals, diving in, 648–649 Asparagine, 52f
structure and function, 432, 432f respiration in, 651 reproduction, 700, 700f Aspartic acid, 52f
tissues, 438, 438f, 439f Annual rings, 442–443 respiration in, 651 Aspirin, 614
structure of, 432–433, 432f, 433f Anolis, speciation in, 277, 277f Aquatic ecosystems, 791–794 Assisted reproductive technologies (ART),
success of, insects and, 367 Anopheles mosquito, 332, 332f, 341, 341f Aquatic invertebrates, respiration in, 651 709, 709f
sugar transport in, 458–459, 458f, 459f Anorexia nervosa, 644, 644f Aquatic vertebrates Association neurons, 527, 527f
uses of, 368–369, 368f, 369f Ant(s) osmoreguation in, 668, 668f Associative learning, 747, 747f
water and solute transport in, 454–455, altruism in, 750–751, 750f respiration in, 651 Assortative mating, and microevolution,
455f Argentinian fire ant, 806 Aqueous humor, 554 261
water regulation in, 456, 456f army, 750–751, 750f Aquifers, 815 Aster, 148, 148f–149f
Angiotensin I and II, 674, 675f, 691 chemical communication, 752 Arabidopsis thaliana Asthma, 622, 660
Angiotensinogen, 674, 675f, 691 fire, 2–3, 2f, 3f embryo development in, 496, 496f Astigmatism, 556, 556f
Angraecum sesquipedale, 249 lance fluke infection in, 765 genome of, 241t Astraptes fulgerator CELT, 299f
ANH. See Atrial natriuretic hormone mutualism in, 766 as model organism, 190–191, Astraptes fulgerator TRIGO, 299f
Animal(s), 378–406 seed dispersal and, 489 190f, 191f Astrocytes, 513, 527
animal pharming, 406 Anteater, spiny, 404 Arachnids, 395, 395f, 667 Atherosclerosis, 596
aquatic Antenna Arboreal life, 412–413 Athlete’s foot, 374, 374f
excretory system, 666, 666f of crayfish, 394f, 395 Arboreal lizard, 787f Atkins diet, 639
mammals, diving in, 648–649 of insects, 396, 396f Archaea Atmosphere
reproduction, 700, 700f Antenna molecules, of photosystem, 110, as domain, 14, 14f early, 317, 317f, 324, 326
respiration in, 651 110f as earliest creatures, 14 photosynthesis and, 319
biological weapons and, 328 Antennule, 394f, 395 evolution of, 325, 337f Atom(s)
characteristics of, 380 Anterior compartment, of eye, 554, 554f in extreme environments, 14, 325, 325f characteristics of, 27, 27f
classification of, 15, 15f, 297, 384 Anterior pituitary, 683f, 686, 687f, 703 kingdoms of, 14 definition of, 26
cloning of Anther, 365, 365f, 366f–367f, 490f, 491, as prokaryote, 320 as level of organization, 8f, 9
benefits and drawbacks, 231, 231f 494f structure and function, 325 molecule formation, 29
ethics of, 231 Anther culture, 500 types of, 325, 325f periodic table, 29, 29f
types, 230, 230f Antheridium, 356, 357, 357f, 361, 361f Archaeopteryx, 13f, 290 subatomic particles, 27, 27f, 27t
communication, 752–753, 752f, 753f Anthrax, 328 Archaeopteryx lithographica, 256, 256f Atomic mass, 27, 27f, 27t
of coniferous forest, 786 Anthropoids, 415 Archaic humans, evolution of, 421 Atomic models, 29, 29f
of desert, 789, 789f Antibiotics Archegonium, 355, 355f, 356, 357, 357f, Atomic number, 27, 27f
development, 216, 258, 380, 380f bacterial production of, 309, 323 361, 361f Atomic symbol, 26
emotions in, 754, 754f and hearing damage, 561 Archenteron, 712f ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
energy storage in, 48, 48f, 49, 49f resistance to Arctic tundra, 786, 786f ATP cycle, 88, 88f
in Everglades, 811, 811f in bacteria, 252, 322, 326 Ardi, 410, 417 breakdown of
evolution of, 336f, 337f, 380–383 in protists, 369 Ardipithecines, 416–417, 416f, 417f coupling to energy-requiring
body plans, 379 Antibodies (immunoglobulin), 601, 610, Ardipithecus ramidus, 410–411, 411f, reactions, 89, 89f, 122
colonial flagellate hypothesis, 617, 617f, 622, 622f, 622t 416–417, 416f, 417f energy released in, 58, 58f, 88, 88f
379, 379f monoclonal, 620, 620f, 673 Area (space), and species richness, 769 in Calvin cycle, 114–115, 114f, 115f
evolutionary tree, 382, 382f Antibody-mediated immunity, 616, 616f, Argentinian fire ant, 806 as energy currency, 58, 58f, 88, 258
molecular data, 382 617, 617f Arginine, 199 function of, 58
multinucleate hypothesis, 379 Anticoagulants Armadillo, nine-banded (Dasypus and muscle contraction, 89, 89f,
feeding strategies, 628, 628f in leeches, 392 novemcinctus), 802, 802f 582–583, 583f, 584

I-2 INDEX

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-2 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 origin of, 122 in large intestine, 637 “nature vs. nurture” question, 744–748 Biotic factors, in population regulation,
production of in molecular genetics, 55 neurotransmitters and, 542 733f, 734, 734f
in cellular respiration (See Cellular mutation rate, 321 Behavioral isolation, as reproductive Biotic potential, 730
respiration) nitrifying, 323 barrier, 274, 275f Biotin, dietary requirements, 642t
in fermentation, 133–134, 133f nitrogen-fixing, 6, 309, 324, 326 Beijerinck, Martinus, 312 Bipedalism, evolution of, 416, 417, 417f,
in photosynthesis, 108, 110–113, parasitism in, 764 Bekoff, M., 754 418, 418f, 575
110f–113f as prokaryote, 320 Bell-shaped age structure diagrams, 731, Bipolar cell layer, of retina, 556–557, 557f
structure of, 58, 88, 122 in stomach, 635 731f Birch trees, water loss in, 455
universality of, 123 structure of, 67, 67f, 320, 320f Beltian bodies, 766 Bird(s)
ATP cycle, 88, 88f Bacteriophages The Bends, 649 ancestors of, 256, 290–291
ATP synthase complexes, 110, 131, 131f life cycle, 311, 311f Beneficial nutrients, 460 beak types, 403, 403f
Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH), 674 Balance, sense of, 551, 559, 562–564, 562f Bengal tigers, 809 behavior
Atrioventricular valves, 592, 592f, 594, Balanus balanoides, 761, 761f Bent grass (Agrostis scabra), 453, 453f genetically-based, 744, 744f
594f Bald eagle, 403f Berger, Lee, 418 learned, 746, 746f
Atrium, heart, 592, 592f Baleen whales, 628, 628f Bergmann’s rule, 424 characteristics of, 384, 403, 403f
Attachment stage, of viral life cycle, 311, Ball-and-socket joints, 577, 577f Beringia, 787, 787f circulatory system, 593, 593f
311f, 314, 314f, 315, 315f Ball-and-stick model, 31, 31f, 32f Bering Strait, 787, 787f communication in, 752
Auditory canal, 559, 559f Balloon angioplasty, 596, 596f Berliner, David L., 681 development, 710
Auditory (sound) communication, 752 Bamboo, 435 Beta-carotene, 154 digestive system, 630, 630f
Auditory tube, 559, 559f Bangham, Alec, 319 Bicarbonate, 30t, 37, 658, 776, 776f energy storage, 49
Australia Bañuelos, Gary, 457, 457f Biceps brachii, 579f, 580, 580f evolution of, 295f, 399f, 403
alien species in, 806 Barcoding, DNA, 299, 299f Bicuspids (premolar teeth), 632, 632f excretory system, 666, 666f
early migration to, 423, 423f Bark, 442, 442f Bicuspid valve, 592, 592f extraembryonic membranes, 715, 715f
Australopithecines, 418, 418f Barley, 435, 435f Bilateral symmetry, 379, 382, 387, 532 eyes, 549
Australopithecus aethiopicus, 416f, 418 Barnacles, 395, 395f, 761, 761f Bile, 634, 638 flight in, 403, 403f
Australopithecus afarensis, 410, 418, 418f Barr, Murray, 214 Bile canals, 638f on Galápagos Islands, 251, 278, 733,
Australopithecus africanus, 416f, 418 Barr bodies, 214 Bile duct, 638f 760, 760f
Australopithecus anamensis, 416f Barriers, as nonspecific immune defense, Bile salts, 638 group living in, 750, 763
Australopithecus boisei, 416f, 418 612, 612f Bilirubin, 600, 638 in Hawaiian Islands, 799, 799f
Australopithecus robustus, 416f, 418 Barro Colorado Island, 769 Binary fission, 321, 321f kidneys of, 670, 671
Australopithecus sediba, 418 Bartholin glands (greater vestibular Binge-eating disorder, 644 reciprocal altruism in, 751
Autoimmune disorders, 621, 621f glands), 704 Binocular vision, in primates, 413, 413f resource partitioning in, 760–761,
Autonomic motor fibers, 526f Basal bodies, 79, 79f Binomial nomenclature, 15 760f, 761f
Autonomic system, 541, 541f Basal ganglia. See Basal nuclei Biocultural evolution, 420, 422, 422f respiration in, 651, 657f
Autoploidy, 279, 279f Basal nuclei (basal ganglia), 535, 535f, Biodiversity. See also Extinctions songbird phylogeny, 304
Autosomal chromosomes, 144, 178 538 biodiversity hotspots, 801, 810 speciation, 277, 278, 278f
Autosomal dominant genetic disorders, Basement membrane, 509 competition for resources and, 453 symbiosis in, 766
178, 178f, 180, 180f Bases, 36, 36f definition of, 800 of tropical rain forest, 790
Autosomal recessive genetic disorders, Basidiocarp, 373, 373f direct value of, 802–803, 802f, 803f Bird flu (avian influenza), 313, 313f
178–179, 178f, 179f Basidiomycota, 373 distribution of, 801 Birth, 720, 720f
Autosomes, 144, 178 Basidium (basidia), 373, 373f and ecosystem stability, 453 breech, 719
Autotrophs Basilar membrane, 560, 560f habitat and, 769, 769f, 805 cesarean section, 719
definition of, 106 Basketweaver’s disease, 374 indirect value of, 804, 804f hormones in, 686
in ecosystem, 770, 773, 773f Basophils, 600f levels of complexity in, 800–801 premature, 715
prokaryotes, 323 Bass, Edward P., 780 levels of understanding, 801 Birth control, methods of, 706–707
Auxins, 446 Bat(s) preservation of, 810–811, 810f Birth weight, stabilizing selection in, 264,
AV (atrioventricular) node, 594, 594f echolocation, 550, 550f, 752 Biodiversity hotspots, 801, 810 264f
Avian influenza (bird flu), 313, 313f as keystone species, 810 Biofuels, 430–431, 814–815, 815f Bisphosphonates, 578
Axial skeleton, 572–573, 572f, 573f as placental mammal, 405 Biogas, 759 Bivalves, 391, 391f
Axillary buds, 432, 432f as pollinators, 493, 493f, 803, 803f Biogeochemical cycles, 774–776, 774f, 804 Black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer),
Axillary lymph nodes, 610f, 611 sleep in, 537 Biogeography, evidence for evolution, 258 372, 372f
Axons, 513, 527, 527f, 531f, 539, 539f vampire, 628, 628f, 751 Bioinformatics, 240–241, 240f, 800 Black Death. See Plague
motor axons, 580, 583, 583f Bates, Henry Walter, 253, 763 Biological clock, 694, 694f, 753 Black widow spider, 395f
Axon terminal, 527f Batesian mimic, 763 Biological evolution, 318, 318f Bladder. See Urinary bladder
Azalea (Rhododendron), 491f Bathypelagic zone, 793, 793f Biological species concept, 272–273 Blade, of leaf, 432f, 433
Azolla, 360 B cell receptors (BCR), 616, 616f, 617, Biological weapons, 328, 328f Blastocoel, 710, 710f
617f Bioluminescence Blastocyst, 716, 716f
B cells, 601, 611, 616, 616f, 616t, 617, 617f, genetic engineering and, 228–229, Blastopore, 390, 390f, 710f, 711, 711f

B 620
BCR. See B cell receptors
228f, 229f
Biomass, ecological pyramid and, 773,
Blastula, 390, 710, 710f
Blaylock, Mike, 457
Baboons, 415, 752–753 Beagle (ship), 250, 251f 773f Blending model of inheritance, 170
Baby boom, 731 Beaks, of birds, 254, 254f, 403, 403f Biomolecules Blepharisma, 335f
Bacillus anthracis, 297, 328 Bean seed, structure of, 495f, 498f carbon in, 44 Blindness, causes of, 555
Bacillus (bacilli), 320f, 321 Bears, grizzly (Ursus arctos horribilis), classes of, 44 Blind spot, 554
Bacteria 810, 810f functional groups and, 45, 45f Blood. See also Clotting; Red blood cells;
antibiotic resistance, 252, 322, 326 Bee(s) Bioreactors, 233 White blood cells
as biological weapons, 328 beeswax, 50 Bioremediation, 309, 309f, 759f calcium level, regulation of, 689
chemoautotrophic, 319, 793 biological clock in, 753 Biorhythms, 693 color of, 588–589
chromosomes, 320 honeybees (Apis mellifera), 753, 753f, Biosphere composition of, 511, 511f, 600, 600f
commercial uses, 323 803 aquatic ecosystems, 791–794 as connective tissue, 511
cyanobacteria (See Cyanobacteria) mimicry in, 763, 763f definition of, 12 functions of, 511, 600
denitrifying, 775 as pollinators, 249, 249f ecological study of, 728 glucose levels, regulation of, 518, 638
and disease, 309, 326, 326t Beer, brewing of, 134, 373, 435 human impact on, 12 and homeostasis, 518, 519
as domain, 14, 14f, 297 Beetles, 493, 701, 701f, 759, 759f, 763, as level of organization, 8f pH level, 37, 675
endospore formation, 321, 321f 763f terrestrial ecosystems, 785–790, 785t regulation of, 518, 600, 658, 675
evolution of, 337f Behavior Biosphere 2, 780–781 phosphate levels, regulation of, 689
functions performed by, 14 courtship, 753 Biosynthesis stage, of viral life cycle, 311, salt-water composition of, 520
generation time, 321 definition of, 744–748 311f, 314, 314f, 315, 315f water content of, 33
genetically modified, 233, 233f genetically-based, 744–745, 744f, 745f Biotechnology, definition of, 229, 230 Blood clots, immune system and, 614
gene transfer in, 322, 322f genetic vs. environmental factors in, Biotechnology products, 233. See also Blood doping, 648
habitats of, 14 183 Genetically modified organisms Blood flukes, 388, 388f
in human intestines, 766 imprinting, 746 Biotherapy, 603 Blood pressure, 599, 599f
human uses of, 309 learning, in animals, 746–747, 746f, Biotic community, in chemical cycling, arterioles and, 595, 595f
kingdoms of, 14 747f 774, 774f autonomic system and, 526

INDEX I-3

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-3 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Blood pressure—(Continued) evolution of, 419, 525 Caenorhabditis elegans, 241t Capsule, in prokaryotic cells, 67, 67f, 320,
and blood flow, 599, 602, 602f organization of, 535–538, 535f, 536f Caffeine 320f
hypertension, 596–597 ventricles of, 534, 534f as drug, 531, 674 Captive breeding programs, 812, 812f
kidneys and, 672 of mammals, 404 Calcitonin, 218, 578, 683f, 689 Capuchin monkeys, 415
measurement of, 599, 599f PET scans of, 28, 28f Calcium Carbaminohemoglobin, 658
regulation of, 551, 682, 691 of primates, 413 as biologically important ion, 30t Carbohydrates
water-salt balance and, 674 protective membranes, 534 blood levels, regulation of, 689 in diet, 639, 639t
Blood type, 604, 604f in sleep, 537 dietary requirements, 578, as energy source, 135, 136
alleles responsible for, 182, 604, 604f vertebrate, organization of, 525, 533, 641, 641t production of, in photosynthesis, 107,
and erythroblastosis fetalis, 604 533f as plant nutrient, 461t 108, 114–115, 114f, 115f
Blood vessels Brain stem, 534f, 536 storage, in bones, 571 structural, 44, 44f
and cardiovascular disease, 596 Brain tumors, 513 California structure and function
pulmonary circuit, 593, 593f, 598, 598f Brazil, rain forest destruction in, 805, 805f coast, as biodiversity hotspot, 801 complex carbohydrates, 48, 48f
systemic circuit, 593, 593f, 598, 598f Brazzein, 262 speciation in, 276, 276f simple carbohydrates, 47, 47f
types and functions, 595, 595f BRCA gene, 223, 224 Calorie (C), definition of, 86 subunits of, 46f
“Blue bloods,” 588 Breadmaking, yeast and, 373 Calvin, Melvin, 108 Carbon
Blue crabs, 791, 791f Breaking water, 720 Calvin cycle reactions atomic model of, 27, 27f
Blue-footed boobies, 274, 275f Breast cancer, 154, 224 in CAM plants, 117, 117f in biomolecules, 44
Blue grass, 730 Breast feeding, and immunity, 615, 615f in C4 plants, 116, 117f characteristics of, 44
Blue-green algae, 324. See also Breathing. See Ventilation overview of, 108, 108f, 111f and life, 26, 26f
Cyanobacteria Breech birth, 719 phases of, 114–115, 114f, 115f as organic molecule base, 44
BMI. See Body mass index Breeding, of dogs, 168–169 Calyx, 365, 365f as plant nutrient, 461t
Body cavity Bright-field microscopes, 66 Cambrian period, 292, 293t, 379 Carbon chains, 45
in roundworms, 393 Bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva), 362 Camera-type eye, 549 Carbon cycle, 776, 776f, 804
Body mass index (BMI), 51f Brittle star, 397f Camouflage, as prey defense, Carbon dioxide
Body plans Broca area, 535, 535f 763, 763f and acid-base balance, 675
evolution of, 379 Bronchioles, 654, 654f cAMP. See Cyclic adenosine carbon cycle and, 776, 776f
sac, 386, 387 Bronchitis, chronic, 660 monophosphate in cellular respiration, 124, 125, 128,
tube-within-a-tube, 387 Bronchus (bronchi), 654, 654f CAM photosynthesis, 117, 117f 129
Body shape, environmental conditions Brown algae, 336f, 337f, 344, 344f Canaliculi, 510f, 511 forests’ uptake of, 804
and, 424 Brown planthopper, 803 Cancer as greenhouse gas, 118, 804, 807
Body stalk, 716f, 717 Brown tree snake, 806 angiogenesis, 153, 223, 223f and photosynthesis, 107, 108, 114–117,
Body temperature, regulation of, 518, 519, Brunk, Conrad G., 235 anticancer drugs, 561, 619 114f, 115f, 460
519f Bryophytes, 356–357, 356f apoptosis and, 618 in respiration, 658
Bolus, 632, 633 characteristics of, 352–353, 356 behaviors and, 154 Carbonic acid, 37, 589
Bond(s) evolution of, 352f, 492, 492f breast, 154, 224 Carbonic anhydrase, 658
chemical reactivity, determinants of, 29 life cycle, 356, 357, 357f Burkitt lymphoma, 164 Carboniferous period, 292, 293t, 359, 362,
covalent, 31, 31f reproduction, 356 carcinogenesis, 153, 223, 223f 363, 364, 364f
nonpolar, 32 BT corn, 235, 235f carcinogens, 206 Carbon monoxide (CO), and respiration,
notation for, 31 Bubonic plague. See Plague carcinomas, 153 658
polar, 32 Buds causes of, 154, 164 Carbonyl groups, 45f
hydrogen, 32, 32f axillary, 432, 432f as cell division malfunction, 142–143, Carboxyl groups, 45, 45f
notation for, 32 terminal, 432, 432f 142f, 153, 222–223 Carcinogenesis, 153, 223, 223f
in water, 33–34 Buffers, pH and, 37 cervical, 143f, 153f, 314, 708 Carcinogens, 206
ionic, 30, 30f Bulb, plant, 499 colon, 142f, 154, 636 Carcinomas, 153
peptide, 52, 52f Bulbourethral gland, 702, 702f diagnosis of, 223, 620 Cardiac conduction system, 594, 594f
Bone(s). See also Skeleton Bulimia nervosa, 644, 644f diet and, 154 Cardiac cycle, 594, 594f
compact, 576, 576f Bulk feeders, 628, 628f as genetic disorder, 143 Cardiac muscle, 512, 512f
composition of, 576, 576f Bulk transport, 97t genetic mutation and, 222–223 Cardiac pacemaker, 594
as connective tissue, 510f, 511 Bullhorn acacia, 766 leukemias (See Leukemias) Cardiac veins, 596
exercise and, 581 Bullock, Sandra, 568–569 liver, 314 Cardinal, 403f
forensics, 568–569 Bullock’s oriole (Icterus bullockii), 808, lung, 143f, 154, 206, 655, 660, 660f Cardiovascular disease
functions of, 516 808f lymph nodes and, 611 causes of, 49, 50, 596, 643
growth of, 576 Bumblebees, mimicry in, 763, 763f metastasis, 153, 223, 223f, 660 cholesterol and, 643
osteoporosis, 641, 689 Bunchgrass, 453 mutations causing, sources of, 143 diet and, 643
prevention of, 578, 578f, 581 Bundle scars, 441, 441f ovarian, 224 obesity and, 51, 643
treatment of, 689 Bundle sheath(s), 444, 444f oviduct, 224 prevention of, 596–597
spongy, 576, 576f Bundle sheath cells, 116, 117f pancreatic, 143f smoking and, 655
Bone marrow Burgess shale, 282–283, 282f–283f, 292 prevention of, 581 treatment of, 237, 596, 596f
red, 145, 576, 576f Burkitt lymphoma, 164 prostate, 702 Cardiovascular system. See also Heart
yellow, 576, 576f Bursae, 577, 577f proto-oncogene mutations and, development of, 717
Bony fishes, 399f, 400–401, 400f, 668, 668f Bursitis, 577 221, 221f and exercise, 581
Book lungs, 394, 395 Buss, David, 749 sarcomas, 153, 609f and homeostasis, 518, 518f
Boreal (northern) forest, 786 Butterflies, 396, 396f in situ, 223, 223f in humans, 517, 517f
Boron, as plant nutrient, 461t coevolution in, 765 skin pulmonary circuit, 593, 593f, 598, 598f
Bossiella, 335f Edith’s, 808, 808f DNA repair and, 206 systemic circuit, 593, 593f, 598, 598f
Botox, 515, 531 metamorphosis in, 394, 394f UV radiation and, 515 Carnivores
Bottleneck effect, 263, 263f mimicry in, 763 xeroderma pigmentosum and, 206 digestive system, 627, 631, 631f
Bottlenose dolphins, 752 monarch, 763 smoking and, 154, 206, 655 in ecosystem, 770, 773, 773f
Botulism, 323, 328, 530–531 as pollinators, 249, 249f, 493, 493f treatment of, 153, 223, 237, 369, 619, as order, 405
Bovidae, 296, 298f speciation in, 279 620, 802 teeth of, 405, 626–627, 626f
Bovine growth hormone (bGH), 236, 236f viceroy, 763 tumor suppressor gene mutations and, Carnivorous plants, 350–351, 351f, 464,
Bowman capsule. See Glomerular capsule wings, 210–211, 210f, 211f 221, 221f 464f
BPG, 126f Cancer cells, characteristics of, 153 Carotenoids
Brachiator, 575
Brachiopods, evolution of, 295f C Candida albicans, 374
Canine teeth (cuspids), 632, 632f
absorption spectrum of, 109, 109f
in photosystem, 110
Brachiosaurus, 402 Cabanac, M., 754 Cannabinoids, 544 Carotid artery, 598f
Brachycardia, 648 Cabbage family, and cancer prevention, Cannabis sativa, 544 Carotid bodies, 657, 675
Bradshaw, H.D., Jr., 55 154 Cape Gannet, 729, 729f Carp, 791, 791f
Brain. See also Central nervous system Cactuses Capillaries, 591, 591f, 595, 595f, Carpal bones, 572f, 574, 574f
development of, 712 evolution of, 258 654, 654f Carpel, 365, 365f, 366f–367f, 490f, 491,
hominids, 419 leaves of, 433, 433f Capillary beds, 595, 595f, 598 494f, 495
human photosynthesis in, 117 Capillary exchange, 602, 602f Carrageenan, 344
development of, 217 phylogeny, 303, 303f Capsid, 310, 310f, 314, 314f Carrier(s), of genetic disorders, 178

I-4 INDEX

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-4 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Carrier proteins, 94, 94f, 96, 96f in plants, 69f, 69t, 99, 99f Childbirth. See Birth and gene expression, 214–215, 221,
“Carrion flowers,” 493 in prokaryotic cells, 67, 67f Childhood diseases, viral, 314, 314t 221f
Carrying capacity, 732, 732f Cenozoic era, 240, 292, 293t, 294f, 365, Children structure of, 70, 214f
Cars, electric, 814–815, 815f 415 operant conditioning and, 747 Chromatin remodeling complex, 215, 215f
Cartilage, 510f, 511, 571 Centipedes, 395, 395f Chimpanzees, 413f Chromosome(s)
articular, 576, 576f, 577 Central nervous system (CNS), 526, 526f, altruism in, 751 abnormalities
hyaline, 510f, 511, 576, 576f, 577 533, 533f, 534 communication, 752, 753f of chromosome number, 162–163,
torn, 577 neurotransmitters in, 531 emotions, 754, 754f 162f, 163f, 163t
Cartilaginous fishes, 399f, 400, 400f, 668, sensory receptor communication with, evolution of, 414f of sex chromosomes, 163, 164t
668f 551, 551f genome, vs. humans, 410 of structure, 164, 164f
Cartilaginous joints, 577 Central vacuole, 69f, 74–75, 74f, 97 genome of, 242, 242f autosomal, 144, 178
Casparian strip, 463 Centrioles, 68f, 79, 148, 148f human-chimpanzee differences, bacterial, 320
Catabolism, 135, 135f Centromere, 144, 144f, 146, 146f, 155 410–411, 410f daughter, 146, 147, 147f, 148f–149f,
Cataracts, 555 Centrosomes, 68f, 69, 69f human relation to, 242 149
Caterpillars in cell cycle, 148, 148f learning in, 747 eukaryotic, 70
defenses, 763 function of, 78 Chinchillas, 742, 742f formation of, 214
as substrate feeders, 628, 628f Cephalization, 387, 398, 532, 533 Chiroptera, as order, 405 in reproduction, 146, 146f
Cattle egrets, 764 Cephalopods, 391, 391f Chitin, 48, 370, 394, 570 separation in meiosis, 155, 155f
Caucasians, skeletal remains of, 569 Cephalothorax, 394f, 395, 395f Chlamydial infection, 708 gene linkage on, 173
Caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), 36 Ceratium, 335f Chlamydomonas, 160, 345, 345f as gene location, 185
Cave paintings, 422, 422f Cerebellum, 533f, 534f, 536, 539f Chloride homologous, 155, 155f, 156, 156f
CBOL. See Consortium for the Barcoding Cerebral cortex, 535, 538 as biologically important ion, 30t alleles on, 173, 173f
of Life Cerebral hemispheres, 535, 535f dietary requirements, 641 human, number of, 146, 155, 155f
CBP, 180 Cerebral lobes, 538 Chloride ion channel, 179 independent alignment of, 156
CCK (cholecystokinin), 636, 636f Cerebrospinal fluid, 513, 534 Chlorine, as plant nutrient, 461t independent assortment of, 156–157,
Cech, Thomas, 318 Cerebrum, 533, 533f, 534f, 535, 535f Chlorocruorin, 589 157f
Cecum (ceca), 627, 630, 631, 631f, 632f, Cerumin, 50 Chlorofluoro-carbons (CFCs), 807 in karyotypes, 144, 144f
636, 636f Cervical cancer, 143f, 153f, 708 Chlorophyll lampbrush, 215, 215f
Cell(s). See also Animal cells; Eukaryotic Cervical vertebrae, 572f, 573 a, 109, 109f, 110, 111 prokaryotic, 67
cells; Prokaryotic cells Cervidae, 296, 298f b, 109, 109f, 110 Chromosome number
animal vs. plant, 69t Cervix, 704, 704f, 720, 720f color of, 105 abnormalities of, 162–163, 162f, 163f,
as basic unit of life, 64 Cesarean section, 719 and fall leaf color, 109 163t
differentiation (See Differentiation) Cetaceans, 405 in light reactions, 108 diploid, 146
energy use by, 86 CF. See Cystic fibrosis location of, 76, 107 haploid (n), 146
ATP cycle and, 58, 58f, 88–89, CFCs (chlorofluoro-carbons), 807 in photosystem, 110 Chronic bronchitis, 660
88f, 89f CF gene, 95, 95f Chlorophyta, 345 Chronic myelogenous leukemia, 164
efficiency of conversion, 87 C4 plants, 116–117, 117f Chlorophytes, 336f, 337f Chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder
as level of organization, 8f, 9, 508, 508f Chagas disease, 333, 338 Chloroplasts, 80t (COPD), 660
origin of, 317–319 Channel proteins, 94, 94f, 97 in angiosperms, 438 Chthamalus stellatus, 761, 761f
osmosis and, 97 Char, 812 ATP generation in, 110, 110f Chyme, 634
in plants vs. animals, 69t Chara, 346, 346f, 352, 353f communication by, 76–77 Chymosin, 233
preexisting cells as only source of, 64 Character in C4 plants, 116, 117f Chytrids, 370–371, 371f
size of, 65, 65f ancestral, 298 evolution of, 77, 77f, 112 Cilia, 79, 79f, 80t
surface-area-to-volume ratio of, 65, 65f definition of, 296 function of, 76, 110 in invertebrate excretory systems, 667,
Cell body, of neuron, 513, 527, 527f, 531, derived, 298 origin of, 76, 334, 334f, 335, 335f 667f
531f Character displacement, 760–761, 760f, and photosynthesis, 76, 107, 107f in oviducts, 704
Cell cycle, 145f, 146–150, 148f–149f, 150f 761f in plant cell anatomy, 69f of Paramecium, 340, 340f
control signals, 152, 152f Charales, 352 structure of, 76, 76f in respiratory system, 654, 654f, 655
Cell division, 144–150 Charophytes, 336f, 337f, 352–353 Chloroquine, 369 Ciliary body, 554, 554f
and cancer, 142–143, 142f, 153, 222–223 Cheese CHNOPS, 26. See also Carbon; Hydrogen; Ciliary muscle, 555, 555f
in eukaryotes, 145–150, 145f, fungi and, 374 Nitrogen; Oxygen; Phosphorus; Ciliates, 335, 335f, 336f, 337f, 340, 340f
148f–149f, 150f, 152, 152f and genetic engineering, 233 Sulfur Cinchona ledgeriana, 500
microtubules in, 79 Cheetahs, 84–85, 263, 736, 752, 752f Choanocytes, 385, 385f Cinchona tree, 369
Cell-mediated immunity, 616, 616f, Chemical communication, 752, 752f Choanoflagellates, 336f, 337f, 379 Cinnamon fern (osmunda cinnamomea),
618–619, 619f Chemical cycling, in ecosystems, 771, Cholecystokinin (CCK), 636, 636f 360, 360f
Cell plate, 150, 150f 771f, 774–776, 774f Cholesterol, 51. See also High-density Circadian rhythms
Cell recognition proteins, 94 Chemical digestion, 629, 629f, 632, 634, lipoprotein (HDL); Low-density melatonin and, 694, 694f
Cell suspension culture, 500 634f lipoprotein (LDL) pineal gland and, 693
Cell theory, 9 Chemical energy, as energy type, 86 blood levels, testing of, 597 and plant stoma, 456
history of, 62–63 Chemical equations, for photosynthesis, and cardiovascular disease, 597, 640, Circulatory systems
principles of, 64 31 643 of amphibians, 401
Cellular respiration, 124–132 Chemical evolution, 318, 318f in diet, 640, 640f in birds, 403
ATP payoff of, 132, 132f Chemical reactivity in phospholipid bilayer, 93, 93f closed, 591, 591f
citric acid cycle, 125, 125f, 129, 129f, determinants of, 29 structure of, 50, 50f double-loop, 593, 593f
132, 132f of water, 34 Chondrichthyes. See Jawless fishes echinoderms, 397
efficiency of, 132 Chemiosmosis, 113, 113f, 131, 131f, 132, Chondrocytes, 576f of fish, 401
electron transport chain, 125, 125f, 132f Chondrus crispus, 344, 344f functions of, 590
130–131, 131f, 132, 132f Chemistry, definition of, 26 Chordates of invertebrates, 590–591, 590f, 591f
equation for, 124 Chemoautotrophs characteristics of, 384, 398, 398f open, 591, 591f
evolution of, 326 bacteria, 319, 793 evolution of, 382f, 398–399 single-loop, 593, 593f
as exergonic reaction, 88 prokaryotes, 323 invertebrate, 398, 398f vertebrates, 593, 593f (See also Cardio-
glycolysis, 125, 125f, 126, 127f, 132, 132f Chemoheterotrophs, prokaryotic, 323 vertebrate (See Vertebrate(s)) vascular system)
and muscle contraction, 584 Chemoreceptors, 550, 551, 552–553, 552f, Chorion, 402f, 404, 715, 715f, 717, 718 Circumcision, 702
overview, 76, 124–125, 124f, 125f 553f Chorionic villi, 716f, 717, 718 Cirrhosis, 638
phases of, 125, 125f Chemosynthetic autotrophs, 323, 323f, Chorionic villi sampling (CVS), 179, 181 Cisplatin, 561
preparatory reaction, 125, 128, 132, 132f 770 Choroid, 554, 554f Citric acid cycle, 125, 125f, 129, 129f,
in respiration process, 650 Chestnut blight, 372 Christmas tree worm, 392 132, 132f
Cellular slime molds, 342 Chewing tobacco, 655 Chromatids Citrus canker, 800
Cellular stage of development, 710, 710f Chicago disease, 374 in mitosis, 148–149, 148f–149f Clade, 300, 301t
Cellulose, 48, 48f Chicken(s) sister, 146, 146f, 148f–149f, 149, 155, Cladistics, 300–301, 301t, 302
Cell wall, 80t development, 710, 711, 711f, 712 155f Cladograms, 300, 300f, 301f, 302f
in archaea, 325 meat color in, 131 Chromatin Clams, 391, 524, 524f, 591, 628, 652, 729
in bacteria, 320, 320f Chickenpox, 314 in cell anatomy, 68f, 69f, 70f Clam worm (Nereis), 392, 392f
in fungi, 370 Chidocytes, 386, 386f definition of, 146 Clarkia, alloploidy in, 279, 279f

INDEX I-5

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-5 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Clark’s nutcrackers, 766, 766f, 808 Coastal redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens), Competitive inhibition, 92, 92f genetically-engineered, 235, 235f
Class, 14, 14t, 296, 298f 362 Complement, 612–613, 612f, 613f history of, 280, 280f, 368
Classical conditioning, 747, 747f Cobra, 211f Complementary base pairing, 57, 194, kernel
Classification of organisms, 296, 298f, Cocaine 195f, 196 germination of, 498, 498f
303–304, 303f, 304f. See also cocaine psychosis, 543 Complete digestive tracts, 630–631, 630f, structure of, 498, 498f
Phylogeny; Taxonomy effects of, 543–544, 544f, 597 631f McClintock’s research on, 205, 205f
Linnean, 296, 298, 298f, 300–301, 304 urine tests for, 673 Compound, definition of, 29 types, 368
taxa, 14, 14t, 296, 298f Coccus (cocci), 320f, 321 Compound eye, 548–549 uses, 435
three-domain system, 297, 297f Coccyx, 572f, 573 Compound light microscopes, 66, 66f water loss in, 455
viruses, 310 Cochlea, 559, 560, 560f Concentration gradient, 96 Corolla, 365, 365f
Clavicle, 572f, 574, 574f Cochlear canal, 560f Conclusion, in scientific method, 5, 5f Coronary arteries, 596, 598
Clay, in soil, 462 Cochlear nerve, 560f Condenser lens, 66, 66f Coronary bypass operation, 596, 596f
Cleaning symbiosis, 766, 766f Cod, 735, 809 Conditioning Corpus callosum, 534f, 535, 538f
Cleavage, 383, 383f, 710, 710f, 716 Codeine, neurotransmitters and, 531, 544 classical, 747, 747f Corpus luteum, 705, 705f, 706, 706f, 716
Cleavage furrow, 148f–149f, 150, 150f Coding DNA, 239, 239f operant, 747 Cortex, in angiosperms, 438, 439f, 440f
Clements, F. E., 767 Codominance, 182 Condoms, 707f Corticotropin-releasing hormone, 690
Climate Codons, 198–199, 198f Conduction deafness, 561 Cortisol, 690–691
change start, 202 Condyloid joints, 577 Cortisone, 614, 691
and extinctions, 807 stop, 201, 202 Cone cells, 95, 413, 548, 549, 550, Costal cartilages, 572f
forests and, 804 Coelom, 383, 383f, 390, 390f, 392, 392f, 556–557, 557f Costa Rica, forest preservation in, 118
greenhouse gases and, 420–421, 776 711, 711f, 712, 712f Cone-headed katydid, 787f Cotton aphids, 803
and mass extinction, 295 Coelomates, 390 Cone snail, 406 Cotton (Gossypium), 369, 369f
and ocean currents, 774 Coenzyme(s), 91 Confuciusornis, 256 Cotyledons, 365, 434, 434f, 495, 495f,
projected rise in temperature, Coenzyme Q, 130f, 131, 131f Congenital hypothyroidism (cretinism), 498, 498f
118, 118f Coevolution, 248–249, 495, 701, 765, 765f 689, 689f Coumadin, 92
and P-Tr (Permian-Triassic) Cofactors, 91 Conidium (conidia), 373 Countercurrent exchange, in gills, 652,
extinction, 289 Coffee, 368 Conifer(s), 362, 362f, 442 652f
response of organisms to, 808 Cohesion, of water molecules, 33, 454 Coniferous forest, 783, 783f, 785t, 786, Coupled reactions, 89, 89f
tropical rain forests and, 118 Cohesion-tension model, 454–455, 455f 786f Courtship behavior, 753
of coniferous forest, 786 Cohorts, 730 Conjugation Covalent bonds, 31, 31f
of desert, 789 Cola, 368 in bacteria, 322, 322f nonpolar, 32
Earth’s rotation and, 782, 782f Colchicine, 79 in ciliates, 340, 340f notation for, 31
ocean currents and, 784 Cold, as viral disease, 314 Conjunctiva, 554 polar, 32
and rainfall, 782–784 Cold receptors, 550 Connective tissue, 510–511, 510f Cows, digestion in, 48
regulation of, by natural areas, 804, Coleochaete, 352, 353, 353f Connell, Joseph, 761 Coxal bones, 572f, 574, 574f
804f Coleoptile, 498f Conservation biology, 17, 800, 802 Crabs, 395, 395f, 532, 533f, 564, 766
of savanna, 789 Coleorhiza, 498f Conservation of energy, law of, 87 Crack cocaine, 544
solar energy and, 782, 782f Collagen, 99, 510, 510f, 511 Consortium for the Barcoding of Life Cranial nerves, 526, 526f, 539, 539f
of temperate deciduous forest, 788 Collar cells, 385, 385f (CBOL), 299 Crayfish, 394, 394f, 395
of temperate grassland, 788, 788f Collecting ducts, 670–671, 671f, 672f Constancy, homeostasis and, 518 Creatine phosphate (CP) pathway, and
and temperature, 782–784 Collenchyma cells, 436–437, 436f Consumers, 770, 771, 771f muscle contraction, 584
and terrestrial ecosystems, 785 Colon, 632f, 636, 636f Consumption, 738 Creosote (Larrea tridentata), 729, 729f
topography and, 783, 783f cancer of, 142f, 154, 636 Contact dermatitis, 622 Cretaceous period, 293t, 295, 493
of tropical rain forest, 790, 790f polyps in, 636 Contact inhibition, 152, 153 Cretinism (congenital hypothyroidism),
of tundra biosystem, 786 Colonial flagellate hypothesis, 379, 379f Continental drift, 294–295, 294f 689, 689f
winds and, 782, 782f Colonization, and alien species Continental shelf, 792f Crick, Francis H. C., 55, 194, 195f
Climax community, 767 introduction, 806 Contour farming, 816, 816f Crickets, 752
Climax-pattern model of succession, 767 Colony, green algae, 345–346, 346f Contraceptive implants, 707, 707f Cri du chat syndrome, 164
Clitoris, 704, 704f Coloration, warning, 763, 763f Contraceptive injections, 707 Crimean-Congo fever, 328
Cloaca, 404, 629f, 630, 630f, 666, 670 Color blindness, 95, 186, 186f, 557 Contractile ring, 150, 150f Cristae, 76, 124f, 128, 128f, 130, 131, 131f
Clonal selection model, 617, 617f Color vision, 413, 413f, 557. See also Cone Contractile tissue. See Muscle(s) Critical period, in imprinting, 746
Cloning cells Contractile vacuole, 339, 339f Crocodiles, 290, 303
of animals Columbus, Christopher, 368, 369 in paramecia, 520, 520f Crocodilians, circulatory system of, 593
benefits and drawbacks, 231, 231f Columnar epithelium, 509, 509f Contraction, of muscle, 89, 89f, 580–581, Cro-Magnons, 421, 422, 422f, 423, 423f,
ethics of, 231 Commensalism, 323, 764, 764f, 764t 582–584, 582f, 583f 424
types, 230, 230f Common ancestor, 13, 18 Control groups, 6 Crop (agricultural product), rotation of, 6
definition of, 232 evidence for, 256–258 Control signals, in cell cycle, 152, 152f Crop (digestive tract component), 630,
of humans, 230 phylogeny and, 298, 298f Control systems 630f
of plants, 500, 500f Common bile duct, 638f for cell division, 152, 152f Crop rotation, 816
therapeutic, 230, 230f, 231 Common hepatic duct, 638f of human body, 516, 516f Crossing-over, 156–157, 156f
Closed circulatory system, 591, 591f Communication Convergent evolution, 303 Cross-pollination, 494
Clostridium botulinum, 326, 328, 530–531 by animals, 752–753, 752f, 753f Cooksonia, 358, 358f Crustaceans, 395, 395f
Clostridium tetani, 297, 321f, 580 chemical, 752, 752f COPD (Chronic obstructive pulmonary excretory system, 667
Clotting. See also Hemophilia definition of, 752 disorder), 660 reproduction, 700
inhibition of, 92 of nucleus with cytoplasm, 70 Copepods, 395, 395f respiration in, 652
process of, 603, 603f between organelles, 76–77 Copper symbiosis in, 766
Clotting factor(s), synthetic, 186 tactile, 753, 753f dietary requirements, 641 Crustose lichens, 371, 371f
Clotting factor IX, 186 visual, 752–753 as plant nutrient, 461t Cry9C protein, 235, 235f
Clotting factor VIII, 186 Community Coral C3 plants, 116, 116f
Clownfishes, 764, 764f change over time, 769–771 body form, 386f Cuboidal epithelium, 509, 509f
Club drugs, 543 climax, 767 global warming and, 807, 807f Cuckoo, 765, 765f
Club fungi, 371f, 373 definition of, 728 Coral reefs, 793, 805, 805f Cud, chewing of, 631
Club mosses, 356, 358, 358f, 364, 364f ecological study of, 728 bleaching of, 807, 807f Culture
Clumped population distribution, 729, 729f interaction of populations in, 760–766 formation of, 335 definition of, 420
Cnidarians, 386, 386f, 532, 564 as level of organization, 8f regeneration of, 813 spread of, 420
characteristics of, 384 Compact bone, 510f, 511, 576, 576f Coral snake, 763 Cup fungi, 372, 372f
evolution of, 382f Companion cells, 437f, 452 Cork, 436, 436f, 442, 442f Cupula, 562, 562f, 564
reproduction, 700 Comparative genomics, 241, 241t Cork cambium, 436, 436f, 442, 442f Curculin, 262
respiration in, 650 Competition for resources Corms, 499, 499f Cushing syndrome, 691, 691f
CNS. See Central nervous system and biodiversity, 453 Cornea, 554, 554f Cuspids (canine teeth), 632, 632f
CO1. See Cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 and population control, 734, 734f Corn smut, 374 Cuticle
Coal, origin of, 106, 292, 293t, 364, 776 and resource partitioning, 760–761, Corn (Zea mays), 368f, 435f in angiosperms, 436, 438, 444, 444f,
Coal mining, 738 760f, 761f artificial selection and, 280, 280f 445, 455
Coastal ecosystems, 792, 792f, 805 Competitive exclusion principle, 760 flowers, 495 in sporophyte plants, 355, 355f

I-6 INDEX

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-6 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Cutin, 438 Defecation (elimination), in digestion obesity and, 643 Dihybrid crosses, 174–187, 174f, 176f
Cuvier, Georges, 251 process, 629, 629f plasma membrane proteins and, 95 definition of, 174
CVS. See Chorionic villi sampling Defense mechanisms prevention of, 95 phenotypic results, 174–175, 174f, 175f
Cyanide, 92, 130 plant epidermal projections, 446 symptoms of, 673 Dinoflagellates, 147, 147f, 335f, 336f,
Cyanobacteria, 112f, 324, 324f plant toxins, 79, 446 Diagnostic traits, 272 337f, 343, 343f
in eukaryotic evolution, 77 stinging, 2, 3f Dialysate, 676 Dinosaurs
mutualism in, 371 Dehydration reaction, 46, 46f, 49, 49f, 52, Diamondback rattlesnake, 402f behavior, 290–291
photosynthesis in, 297, 323, 324 52f Diaphragm (anatomical feature), 654f, birds as descendants of, 291
structure of, 67, 112 Delayed allergic response, 622, 622t 656, 657f evolution of, 292, 293t, 402
Cycads, 362, 362f Deletions, 164, 164f Diaphragm (birth control device), 707, extinction of, 293t
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate Deltoid, 579f 707f motherhood among, 290–291
(cAMP), 684, 685f Demographic transition, 737 Diastole, 594 nests of, 290–291
Cyclosporine, 621 Denaturation Diastolic pressure, 599 size of, 402
Cyclotella, 343f of enzyme, 91 Diatom(s), 106f, 147, 147f, 335f, 336f, Dioecious plants, 491
Cysteine, 52f of protein, 53–54 337f, 343, 343f Dionaea muscipula (Venus flytrap),
Cystic fibrosis (CF) Dendrite, 513, 527, 527f, 540f Diatomaceous earth, 343 350–351, 350f
bioinformatics and, 241 Dendritic cells, 613, 614, 616, 616t, 618 Dicots, 434 Diplid (2n) chromosome number, 146
cause and symptoms, 95, 95f, 179, 204 Dengue fever, 314 Didinium nasutum, 762 Diploid life cycle, in animals, 160, 160f,
heterozygote advantage and, 266 Denitrifying bacteria, 775 Didiniums, 340 384
inheritance pattern, 182 Dense fibrous connective tissue, 510f, 511 Diencephalon, 534f, 536, 538 Diploid phase
research on, 236 Density-dependent factors, in population Diet. See also Food in algae, 345, 345f
treatment of, 179f, 237 regulation, 733f, 734, 734f, 735 and cancer, 154 in angiosperms, 366f–367f, 494f
Cysts, protozoan, 335, 338, 339, 341 Density-independent factors, in population carbohydrates, 639, 639t in ferns, 361, 361f
Cytochrome(s), 130 regulation, 733, 733f, 735 and cardiovascular disease, 597, 643 in fungi, 372f
Cytochrome c, 130f, 131, 131f, 258 Dental caries, 633 cholesterol in, 640, 640f in mosses, 357f
Cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (CO1), Deoxyribonucleic acid. See DNA dietary requirements, 641, 641t in pine trees, 363, 363f
299 Deoxyribose, 47, 57, 57t, 192, 192f eating disorders, 644, 644f in plant life cycle, 160, 160f, 354, 354f
Cytokines, 612f, 613, 614, 614f, 616, 617, Depolarization, in action potential, essential amino acids, 640 Diplomonads, 336f, 337f
617f, 618–619, 621 528–529, 529f fat, 597, 636, 640, 640t Directional selection, 264f, 265
Cytokinesis, 145, 145f, 150, 150f, 321f Depo-Provera, 707f fiber, 639 Direct selection, 750
Cytoplasm Derived characters, 298 fish in, 597, 640, 643 Disaccharides, 47, 47f
in eukaryotic cells, 68, 68f, 69f Dermatitis, contact, 622 fruit in, 642 Disease. See also specific diseases
in prokaryotic cells, 67 Dermis, 515, 515f, 558, 558f lipids, 640, 640t amoeboids and, 339
translational control in, 221, 221f Descending colon, 632f, 636 minerals in, 641, 641t arachnid-borne, 395
Cytoplasmic segregation, 713, 713f Descent with modification, 256 and obesity, 51 bacteria and, 309, 326, 326t
Cytoplasmic streaming, 78 Desert, 785f, 785t, 789, 789f and osteoporosis, 578 emergent, 313
Cytosine (C), 57, 57f, 57t, 192, 192f, 198f Detrital food webs, 772f, 773 protein, 640 and extinctions, 805f, 809, 809f
Cytoskeleton, 68f, 78, 78f, 80t Detritus, 770, 772f, 773 vegetables in, 642 fungi and, 374, 374f
Cytotoxic T cells, 616, 616f, 616t, 618, Deuterostomes, 382f, 383, 383f, 390, 390f, vegetarian diets, 640 genes and (See Genetic disorders)
618f, 619, 619f, 621 397 vitamins in, 642, 642t lysosomal storage diseases, 74
Development, 710–720 Differential permeability, of plasma mycoses, 374, 374f
in animals, 216, 258, 380, 380f membrane, 94, 94f obesity and, 643

D apoptosis and, 216

cellular differentiation, 713, 713f
Differentiation, 153, 713, 713f, 714. See
also Specialization
parasitic flatworms, 388, 388f
parasitic roundworms, 393, 393f
Daddy longlegs (harvestmen), 395 in deuterostomes, 390, 390f Diffusion plasma membrane proteins and, 95
Dairy, lactose intolerance and, 637 and evolution, 284–285, 284f facilitate, 96, 96f, 97t protists and, 332–333, 335, 339, 341,
Dall sheep, 730–731, 730f, 731f in frogs, 380, 380f simple, 96, 96f 341f
Dams, 815 gene expression Digestion protozoans and, 332, 338
Dandelions, 735, 735f, 806 control of, 216 chemical, 629, 629f, 632, 634, 634f sporozoans and, 341, 341f
Dart, Raymond, 418 and evolution, 284–285, 284f, 285f in digestive process, 629, 629f viral
Darwin, Charles in humans, 715–720 mechanical, 629, 632 in animals, 313–315
on emotion in animals, 754 cellular stage, 710 overview of, 629, 629f in humans, 313–315
on evolution, 256 embryonic development, 715, 715f, Digestive system in plants, 312, 312f
life and work of, 250–251, 251f 716–717, 716f, 717f annelids, 392 Disruptive selection, 264f, 265
Mendel and, 170 extraembryonic membranes, 715, birds, 630, 630f Distal convoluted tubule, 670, 671f, 672f
on natural selection, 16, 252–253 715f carnivores, 627, 631, 631f Distemper, 809
On the Origin of Species, 253 fetal development, 715, 718–719, complete digestive tracts, 630–631, Diuretics, 674
Darwin’s finches (Geospiza fortis), 733, 718f, 719f, 719t 630f, 631f Divergent evolution, 303
733f organ stages, 712 disease of Diversity. See also Biodiversity
Data tissue stage, 711 bacterial, 326t in humans, 259, 259f, 424, 424f
fossil record, 303 morphogenesis, 713, 714, 714f viral, 314t DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
molecular, 303–304 in protostomes, 390, 390f earthworms, 630, 630f bacterial, mutation rate, 321
morphological, 303 sustainable, 811 flatworms, 387, 387f coding, 239, 239f
in phylogeny, 303–304 in vertebrates, 710–714 herbivore mammals, 627, 631, 631f deletions, 164, 164f
in scientific method, 5 cellular stage, 710, 710f and homeostasis, 518 digestion of, 634
Date rape drugs, 543 organ stages, 712, 712f human, bacteria in, 766 duplications, 164, 164f
Daughter cells, 146, 158, 158f–159f, 161, tissue stage, 710f, 711, 711f humans, 632–637, 632f evolution of, 319
161f Devonian period, 293t, 295, 295f, 492 characteristics of, 627, 629 function of, 56–57
Daughter chromosomes, 146, 147, 147f, Dewlaps, 277, 277f esophagus, 633, 633f and genetic inheritance, 10
148f–149f, 149 DEXA. See Dual energy X-ray large intestine, 636, 636f history of research on, 194, 194f
Daylilies (Hemerocallis), 491f absorptiometry liver, 638 hydrogen bonding in, 32
Deafness, types of, 561 Diabetes overview, 517, 517f inversions, 164, 164f
Deamer, David, 319 diabetes insipidus, 686 pancreas, 638, 638f mitochondrial (See Mitochondrial
Deamination, 135 prevalence of, 692 small intestine, 634f, 635, 635f DNA)
Death angel, 374 retinopathy in, 555 stomach, 634, 634f noncoding, 239, 239f
Deceleration phase, of S-shaped curve, symptoms of, 692 incomplete digestive tracts, 630, 630f unique, 240
732, 732f treatment of, 693 omnivores, 627 origin of, 316
Decibel level, and hearing damage, 561, type 1, 692–693 phases of digestion, 629, 629f and phylogenetic research, 303–304,
561t obesity and, 51 planarians, 630, 630f 304f
Deciduous trees, 433 type 2, 692–693 roundworms, 393 as polymer of nucleotides, 192–193
Decomposers, 323, 758, 759, 759f, 770, and acidosis, 675 ruminants, 627 proofreading of, 206
771, 771f causes of, 615 Digitalis, 500 repetitive, 239
Deer, white-tailed, 405f, 726–727, 726f, diagnosis of, 673 Digitoxin, 500 replication (See Replication)
727f diet and, 643 Digoxin, 500 RNA vs., 316

INDEX I-7

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-7 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 DNA—(Continued) Duchenne muscular dystrophy, 186, Ecotone, 728 Endocrine glands, 509, 518, 636, 683f
similarity in all organisms, 258 214–215 Ecotourism, 804, 804f Endocrine system
steroid hormones and, 685, 685f Duckbill platypus, 404, 404f Ecstasy, 543 adrenal glands, 683f, 690–691, 690f
structure Dung beetles, 759, 759f Ectoderm, 387, 710f, 711, 711f, 711t, 712, and behavior, 745
bases, 57, 192, 192f Duodenum, 634, 636, 636f, 638f 712f, 713, 714, 714f, 717 gonads, 683f
chemical structure, 57, 192, 192f Duplications, 164, 164f, 262, 262f Ectoparasites, 764 and homeostasis, 518
complementary base pairing, 57, Dwarfism Ectopic pregnancy, 704 hypothalamus and, 683f, 686–687,
194, 195f achondroplasia, 180 Ectotherms, 402 687f, 689, 690–691, 690f
double helix structure, 56f, 57, 57f, among Amish, 263, 263f EDB. See Ethylene dibromide nervous system and, 682, 682f, 682t,
194, 195f pituitary, 688, 688f Edenspace Systems Corporation, 457 683f
and function, 194 Dynein, 79 Edith’s checkerspot butterfly (Euphydryas ovaries, 683f
overview of, 56–57 Dysentery, amoebic, 332, 339 chalcedona), 808, 808f overview of, 516, 516f, 683f
thymine dimers, 206, 206f Dystrophin, 186 E (exit) site, 200–201, 202, 202f pancreas, 683f, 692, 692f (See also
translocations, 164, 164f Effacement, 720 Pancreas)
unique nocoding, 240 Efferent arteriole, 671, 671f, 672, 672f parathyroid glands, 683f, 689
DNA barcoding, 299, 299f
DNA-binding proteins E Efferent neurons. See Motor (efferent)
neurons
pineal gland, 534f, 536, 683f, 693
pituitary glands, 533, 533f, 534f, 683f,
and gene regulation in eukaryotes, Eardrum, 559, 559f Efficiency, sustainability and, 813 686–687, 687f
213, 213f Early metaphase, 148f–149f Egg(s). See also Oocyte testes in, 683f
and gene regulation in prokaryotes, Early prophase, 148f–149f amniotic, 399, 402, 402f, 403, 404 thymus gland, 610f, 611, 611f, 618, 683f
212, 212f Ears. See also Hearing in angiosperms, 490, 490f, 494f, 495 thyroid gland, 683f, 689, 689f
DNA fingerprinting, 197 and balance, 559, 562–564, 562f frog, structure of, 713, 713f Endocrine tissue, 692
DNA ligase, 232 damage to, 561, 561f, 561t genetic testing of, 181, 181f Endoderm, 387, 710f, 711, 711f, 711t, 712,
DNA microarrays, 240, 240f evolution of, 564 shelled, evolution of, 699 712f, 713, 714, 714f, 717
DNA polymerase, 196, 206, 238 mammal, anatomy, 559, 559f Egg-laying hormone (ELH), 745 Endodermis, in angiosperms, 438–439,
DNA repair sound detection in, 560, 560f Ejaculation, 702, 703 439f, 440f, 463f
genetic mutation and, 206 Earth Ejaculatory duct, 702, 702f Endolymph, 563d
DNA replication, 196–197, 196f atmosphere (See Atmosphere) Elastin, 99, 164 Endomembrane system, 68, 75, 75f
cell cycle controls and, 152 rotation of, and climate, 782, 782f Electrical energy, as energy type, 86 Endometrium, 704, 704f
complementary base pairing and, 57, 196 Earthstar fungus, 370f Electric cars, 814–815, 815f Endoparasites, 764
in eukaryotic cell cycle, 145, 145f, 146 Earthworms Electrocardiogram (ECG), 594 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER). See also
in prokaryotic cell cycle, 321, 321f anatomy, 392f Electromagnetic receptors, 550, 550f Endomembrane system
as semiconservative replication, 196, blood, 589, 591 Electromagnetic spectrum, 109 in cell anatomy, 68, 68f, 69f
196f characteristics of, 392 Electron(s), 27, 27f, 27t function of, 80t
in test tube, 197, 197f circulatory system, 591, 591f Electron acceptor, in photosystem, in lipid synthesis, 72
DNA sequencers, 238, 238f classification of, 392 110–113, 110f–113f in protein synthesis, 72
Dogs digestive system, 630, 630f Electronegativity, 32 ribosome attachment to, 71, 71f,
breeding of, 168–169 and energy flow in ecosystems, 773 Electron microscopes, 65, 65f, 66, 66f 72, 72f
genetic disorders in, 164–165 excretory system, 667, 667f Electron models, 31, 31f, 32f rough, 68f, 69f, 72, 72f, 75, 75f
Doldrums, 782, 782f hydrostatic skeleton, 570, 570f Electron shells, 27, 27f smooth, 68f, 69f, 72, 72f, 75, 75f
Dolly the sheep, 230, 231 nephridia of, 520, 520f Electron transport chains (ETCs) structure of, 72
Domain(s), 14, 14t, 296, 298f. See also nervous system, 532, 532f in cellular respiration, 125, 125f, Endorphins, 531, 542, 542t, 543
Archaea; Bacteria; Eukaryotes reproduction, 700 130–131, 131f, 132, 132f Endoskeleton, 571, 571f
three domain system, 297, 297f respiration in, 651, 651f in photosynthesis, 110–113, 110f–113f of sponge, 385
Domains, 296f salt-water balance in, 520, 520f Elements Endosperm, 495
Dominance hierarchies, 750 as scavenger, 759 definition of, 26 Endospores, 321, 321f
Dominant alleles, 173 Earwax, 559 and life, 26, 26f Endosymbiosis, 77, 334, 334f
Dopamine, 530, 531, 542, 542t, 543, 754 East wind drift, 784f periodic table, 29, 29f Endosymbiotic theory, 76, 334
Dormancy Eating disorders, 644, 644f Elephantiasis, 393, 393f Endotherms, 403
in seeds, 498 Ebola virus, 309f, 313, 328 Elephants, 754 Endotoxins, 326
Dormitory effect, 681 Ecdysozoa, 382f, 383, 393 Elephant seals, 648, 648f, 680 Energy
Dorsal fin, 400f Echinoderms, 397, 397f ELH. See Egg-laying hormone acquisition of, as characteristic of
Dorsal horn, 540f characteristics of, 384 ELH gene, 745 life, 9
Dorsal root ganglion, 539, 539f endoskeleton, 571 Elimination (defecation), in digestion ATP as currency of, 58, 58f, 88, 258
Dorsal tubular nerve cord, as chordate evolution of, 382f process, 629, 629f conservation of, 87
characteristic, 398, 398f reproduction, 700 El Niño-Southern Oscillation, 784, 794, conversion, efficiency of, 87
Double bonds, 44 Echolocation, 550, 550f, 752 794f definition of, 9, 86
Double fertilization, in angiosperms, Ecological engineering, 780 Elongation, in translation, 202, 202f, 203f first law of thermodynamics, 87, 771
366f–367f, 367, 494f, 495, 495f Ecological niches Elongation factors, 202 flow of, in ecosystems, 771–773, 771f,
Double helix structure of DNA, 56f, 57, and adaptive radiation, 278 Embolus, 596 772f
194, 195f and resource partitioning, 760–761, Embryo forms of, 86
Doubling time, 737 760f, 761f of angiosperm, development of, 496, glucose as source of, 47, 47f, 48
Down syndrome, 162, 163, 163f, 163t, 164 Ecological pyramid, 773, 773f 496f kinetic, 86, 86f
Draculin, 628 Ecological succession, 767–768, 767f animal pole, 710 organelles and, 76–77
Dragonfly, 396f Ecology vegetal pole, 710 organisms’ need for, 86
Drosophilia melanogaster (fruit flies) definition of, 770 Embryonic development, in humans, 715, potential, 86, 86f
development, 216 subjects of study, 728, 728f 715f, 716–717, 716f, 717f renewable, 813, 813f
genetic studies with, 185, 185f EcoRI, 232 Embryonic disk, 717 second law of thermodynamics, 87
genome of, 241t Ecosystems, 770–771 Embryonic stem cells, 145, 151, 151f, 230 storage, 88
Drug(s). See Pharmaceuticals abiotic components, 770 Embryophyta, 353 in animals, 48, 48f, 49, 49f
Drug abuse. See also specific drugs aquatic, 791–794 Embryo sac, in angiosperms, 366, in plants, 48, 48f, 49, 49f
and addiction, 543, 544 biotic components, 770 366f–367f, 490, 490f, 492, 494f, Sun as ultimate source of, 84–85, 106
and cardiovascular disease, 597 buffering mechanisms, 37–38 495 units of, 86
definition of, 542 as characteristic of life, 18 Emergent disease, 313 Energy consumption, 738
hallucinogenic plants, 369 chemical cycling in, 774–776, 774f Emission, in male orgasm, 702 Energy of activation (Ea), 90, 90f
neurotransmitter-interfering drugs, definition of, 12 Emotional bonding, hormones and, 686 Energy-related organelles, 76–77
543–544 diversity of, and biodiversity, 801 Emotions English bulldog, 168f
urinalysis testing, 673 ecological pyramid, 773, 773f of animals, 754, 754f Enhancers, 213, 213f
Drupes, 497 ecological study of, 728 neurotransmitters and, 542 Ensatina, speciation in, 276, 276f
Dryopithecines, 415 energy flow in, 771–773, 771f, 772f Emphysema, 660 Entamoeba histolytica, 332, 339, 339f
Dryopithecus, 415 as level of organization, 8f, 12 Endangered species, 17, 800, 810 Entomology, 396
Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry pond, in winter, 35, 35f Endergonic reactions, 88 Entropy, 87
(DEXA), 578 stability of, and biodiversity, 453 Endler, John, 265 Envelope, viral, 310, 310f
Dubois, Eugene, 419 terrestrial, 785–789, 785t Endocarp, 497 Enveloped viruses, 310

I-8 INDEX

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-8 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Environment. See also Ecosystems stem cell research, 230, 231 of bipedalism, 416, 417, 417f, 418, 575 Evolutionary systematics, 300–301, 301f,
and body shape, 424 transgenic organisms, 406 of birds, 295f, 399f, 403 302f
and human evolution, 424 Ethnic groups, origin of, 424 of body plans, 379 Exchange pool, in chemical cycling, 774,
impact on genetic expression, 183 Ethyl alcohol, fermentation and, 134 of brachiopods, 295f 774f
internal, regulation of (See Ethylene dibromide (EDB), 206 of bryophytes, 492, 492f Excitotoxicity, 538
Homeostasis) ETS. See Environmental tobacco smoke of cellular respiration, 326 Excretory system. See also Urinary
“nature vs. nurture” question, 744–748 Euchromatin, 214, 215, 215f as characteristic of life, 18 system
in population control, 733, 733f Eudicots, 365, 434, 434f chemical, 318, 318f in annelids, 392
and prokaryotes, importance of, 326 embryo development in, 496, 496f of chloroplasts, 77, 77f echinoderms, 397
protists, importance of, 335 flowers, 434, 434f, 490–491, 491f coevolution, 248–249, 495, 765, 765f in flatworms, 387, 387f
Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), 655 leaves, 434, 434f, 438, 438f, 439f, 444, common ancestor, evidence for, invertebrates, 667, 667f
Enzymatic proteins, 94, 94f 444f 256–258 waste product types and
Enzyme(s), 90–92 roots, 434, 434f, 439, 440–441, 440f convergent, 303 characteristics, 666, 666f
active site, 90, 90f seeds, 434f cyanobacteria, 324 Exercise
in clearing of neurotransmitters, 531 stems, 434, 434f, 438, 439f Darwin on, 256 aerobic, 136, 136f
coenzymes, 91 Eudicotyledones, 365 developmental genes and, 284–285, benefits of, 136, 581
cofactors, 91 Euglena, 106f 284f and cardiovascular disease, 597
definition of, 46, 90 Euglena deces, 338 of dinosaurs, 292, 293t fat burning in, 136, 136f
denaturation of, 91 Euglenoids directionlessness of, 261 and osteoporosis, 578, 578f
DNA repair, 206 characteristics of, 338, 338f divergent, 303 recommendations on, 581t
function of, 52, 90 evolution of, 336f, 337f of DNA, 319 Exergonic reactions, 88
induced fit model of, 90 Eukarya domain, 14–15, 15f, 297 of ear in mammals, 564 Exocarp, 497
inhibitors, 92, 92f Eukaryotes early research on, 251–253 Exocrine glands, 509
in protein synthesis, 202 cell cycle, 145f, 146–150, 148f–149f, of Equus, 286, 286f Exocrine tissue, 692
rate of reaction, factors in, 91 150f eukaryotes, 325 Exocytosis, 73, 73f, 75, 75f
restriction, 232, 232f control signals, 152, 152f of eukaryotes, 336f, 337 Exophthalmic goiter, 689, 689f
similarity in all organisms, 258 cell division, 145–150, 145f, 148f–149f, of eukaryotic cells, 77, 77f Exoskeleton, 394, 396, 570, 570f
Enzyme-substrate complex, 90, 90f 150f evidence for, 255–258 Exotoxins, 326
Eocene epoch, 293t control system for, 152, 152f, 153 of fish, 292, 293t, 399f Experiment, in scientific method, 5, 5f
Eosinophils, 600f, 613 chromosomes, 70 of flowers, 493, 493f Experimental variables, 5
EPA. See Environmental Protection Agency formation of, 214, 214f of fungi, 337f, 371f Expiration, 656, 656f
Epicotyl, 496, 496f, 498f in reproduction, 146, 146f of gas-exchange surfaces, 650 Exploitation of resources
Epidermis separation in meiosis, 155, 155f glycolysis and, 126 and extinctions, 805f, 807, 809
of angiosperms, 436, 436f, 438, 438f, definition of, 14 of homeostasis, 520 and sustainable development, 811
439f, 444, 444f as domain, 14–15, 15f, 297 and homeotic genes, 216 Exponential growth, in populations, 732,
of humans, 515, 515f evolution of, 325, 336f, 337 of humans, 410–424 732f, 737, 737f
touch and, 558, 558f gene expression control in, 213–221 biocultural, 420, 422, 422f Exponential growth phase
Epididymis, 702, 702f chromatin structure and, 214–215, bipedalism, 416, 418, 418f of J-shaped curve, 732, 732f
Epiglottis, 633, 633f, 654, 654f 221, 221f environment and, 424 of S-shaped curve, 732, 732f
Epinephrine (adrenaline), 683f, 684, 690, cloning (See Cloning) evidence of, 285 Expulsion, in male orgasm, 702
690f in development, 216 evolutionary tree, 414f, 415 Extensor digitorum longus, 579f
Epipelagic zone, 793, 793f posttranscriptional control, 221, hominid predecessors, 416–418, External fertilization, 700, 700f
Epiphytes, 764, 790, 790f 221f 416f, 418f External oblique, 579f
Episiotomy, 720 posttranslational controls, 221, human-chimpanzee differences, External respiration
Epithelial tissue, 508–509, 509f 221f 410–411, 410f gas exchange in, 658, 659f
Epochs, 292, 293t synopsis of, 221, 221f origin of Homo genus, 419 overview of, 650, 650f
Equator, 782, 782f transcriptional control, 213, 213f, replacement model, 421, 421f types of, 650–651, 651f
Equatorial countercurrent, 784f 221, 221f of insects, 295f Extinctions. See also Biodiversity
Equilibrium population, 735, 735f, 769, translational controls, 221, 221f of jaws, 399, 400, 400f causes of, 805–808
769f initiation in, 202 of kidneys, 668–669 current rate of, 800
Equus, evolution of, 286, 286f protists as, 334 of life, 24–25, 317–319 definition of, 292
ER. See Endoplasmic reticulum Eukaryotic big-bang hypothesis, 337 macroevolution, 272 disease and, 809, 809f
Eras, 292, 293t Eukaryotic cells of mammalian ear, 564 mass
Erection, 702 evolution of, 77, 77f of mammals, 292, 293t, 295f causes of, 295
Ergot, 374, 384 organelles in, 68–69, 68f, 69f of marsupials, 404 in geological timescale, 292, 293t,
Ergotism, 374 origin of, 765 of mitochondria, 77, 77f 295f
Erosion, prevention of, 804 ribosomes in, 71 molecular, 55 press/pulse theory of, 295
Erythroblastosis fetalis, 604 size of, 68 of nervous system, 532–533 overexploitation and, 809
Erythrocytes. See Red blood cells specialization of, 142–143 parallel, 303 Pleistocene overkill, 422
Erythropoietin, 601, 601f structure of, 67, 68f, 69f, 76–77 of photosynthesis, 105, 112 Extraembryonic membranes,
Erythroxylon coca, 543 Euphorbia, evolution of, 258 of placental mammals, 294, 715, 715f
Escherichia coli, 15f, 309f Euphotic zone, 792f, 793 298, 336f Ex vivo gene therapy, 237, 237f
commensalism in, 323 Eustachian tube, 559, 559f of plants, 105, 292, 293t, 337f, Eye(s). See also Vision
exotoxins, 326 Eutrophication, 775, 791, 807 351–352, 351f, 352f, 359, 362, bird, 549
as heterotroph, 297 Eutrophic lakes, 323, 323f, 791, 791f 365, 492, 492f camera-type, 549
in large intestine, 636 Everglades, restoration of, 811 of plasma membrane, 100 compound, 548–549
Esophagus, 633, 633f Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA), 811 of pollination by insects, 493 development of, 284, 284f, 285f
Essential amino acids, 640 Evergreens, 362, 433 of poriferans, 295f evolution of, 549
Estrogen Evolution. See also Microevolution; of prokaryotes, 292, 293t, 336f formation of, 714
and bone strength, 578 Natural selection; Speciation of protists, 335, 337, 337f human, 549, 554–557
in endocrine system, 683f of animals, 336f, 337f, 380–383 of protocells, 318, 318f, 319, 319f abnormalities, common,
functional groups and, 45, 45f body plans, 379 of reptiles, 292, 293t, 399f, 402 556, 556f
and ovarian cycle, 706, 706f colonial flagellate hypothesis, of sleep, 537 anatomy, 554, 554f
production of, 705 379, 379f speciation and, 272 blindness, causes of, 555
and uterine cycle, 706, 706f evolutionary tree, 382, 382f of spindle apparatus, 147, 147f communication with visual
Estrogen-progestin therapy, and cancer, molecular data, 382 transposition and, 205 cortex, 556–557
154 multinucleate hypothesis, 379 undirected nature of, 286, 286f eyestrain, 555
Estuaries, 792, 805 applications of, 17 of upright stance, 575 focusing of, 555, 555f
ETC. See Electron transport chains archaea, 325 of vertebrates 20/20 vision, 556
Ethane, functional groups and, 45 of archaea, 337f ancestral chordate, 283 vision correction,
Ethanol, functional groups and, 45 of bacteria, 337f evolutionary tree, 399, 399f 556, 556f
Ethics as basic theory of biology, 13 Evolutionary (phylogenetic) trees, 13, insect, 548–549, 550
cloning, 231 biocultural, 420, 422, 422f 298, 298f, 301, 301f, 302f vertebrate, 549, 554–557
genetic engineering, 229 biological, 318, 318f Evolutionary species concept, 272 visual range of, 65, 65f

INDEX I-9

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-9 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Eyespots Fibrous joints, 577 petals, 365, 365f, 490f, 491 and evolutionary species concept, 272
in Chlamydomonas, 345, 345f Fibula, 572f, 574f, 575 pollinators and, 493, 493f speciation and, 281–283
false, 763, 763f Fiddleheads, 360 structure, generalized, 365, 365f transitional, 256, 256f
in flatworms, 387 Fight or flight response, 541 Flower fly, 763, 763f wood, 443, 443f
on moths and butterflies, 210–211, Filament(s) Flowering plants. See Angiosperms Fossil fuels
210f, 211f in algae, 345 Flu, as viral disease, 314 and carbon cycle, 776
of fungus (hypha), 370, 370f Fluid feeders, 628, 628f and global warming, 118
in stamen, 365, 365f, 366f–367f, 490f, Fluid-mosaic model, 93 origin of, 776

F 491f, 494f
Filarial worm, 393
Flukes, 388, 388f
Fluoride treatments, for teeth, 633
Fossil record
continental drift and, 294–295
Facial bones, 573, 573f Filter feeders, 385, 628, 628f Flycatchers, speciation in, 273, 273f, 277 data, 303
Facilitate diffusion, 96, 96f, 97t Fimbriae, 704, 704f Focusing, of eye, 555, 555f evolution, evidence of, 255
Facilitation model of succession, 767 Finches Folacin, dietary requirements, 642t geological timescale and, 292, 293t
Facultative anaerobes, 323 on Galápagos islands, 254, 254f, 733, Folic acid, dietary requirements, 642t hominids, 418, 419f
FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide), 124, 733f, 760, 760f Foliose lichens, 371, 371f phylogenetic research and, 303, 303f
129, 129f, 130, 130f, 132 speciation in, 278 Follicle, in oocyte production, 705, 705f, primates, 415, 415f
FADH2, 125, 125f, 129, 129f, 130, 130f, Fingerprints, 515 706, 706f Founder effect, 263, 263f, 423
131, 131f, 132, 132f Fire ants, 2–3, 2f, 3f Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 683f, Fovea centralis, 554, 554f, 557
Fall equinox, 782f First law of thermodynamics, 87, 771 686, 687f, 703, 706, 706f Fowl pest disease, 328
Fallopian tubes. See Oviducts First messenger, 684, 684f Follicular phase, of ovarian cycle, 706, 706f Fox, Sidney, 319
Familial hypercholesterolemia, 182, 237 First polar body, 705, 705f Fontanels, 572, 718 Foxes
Family, as taxon, 14, 14t, 296, 298f Fischer lovebirds (Agapornis fischeri), Food. See also Diet digestion in, 631, 631f
FAP. See Fixed action patterns 744, 744f allergic reaction to, 622 domesticated, 252, 252f
Farming. See Agriculture Fish angiosperms and, 368, 368f Frameshift mutations, 204
Farsightedness (hyperopia), 556, 556f bony, 399f, 400–401, 400f, 668, 668f caloric value of, 86 Francisella tularensis, 328
Fast-twitch muscle fibers, 584, 584f cartilaginous, 399f, 400, 400f, 668, carcinogens in, 206 Franklin, Rosalind, 194, 194f
Fats 668f corn, development of, 280, 280f, 368 Free-diving, by humans, 648, 649
in body characteristics of, 384 fermentation and, 134, 134f, 373, 374 Free radicals
burning, with exercise, 136, 136f circulatory system, 593, 593f foraging for, 748, 748f detoxification of, 154
formation of, 135 in diet, 597, 640, 643 fungi, 373, 374 effect of, 206, 597
in diet, 597, 636, 640, 640t evolution of, 292, 293t, 399f genetically engineered, 233, 234, 235, Freshwater bony fishes, 668, 668f
digestion of, 634, 634f excretory system, 666, 666f 235f Fresh water ecosystems, 791, 791f, 804,
as energy source, 135, 136 group living in, 750, 763 macromolecules in, 46, 46f 805
structure of, 49, 49f jawless, 399f, 400, 400f polyploid plants, 279, 279f Fresh water supplies, 815, 815f
Fatty acids, 49, 49f kidneys of, 670 Food and Drug Administration, U.S., 233, Frogs, 401, 401f
FBN1 gene, 184 lateral line system in, 400, 564, 564f 235, 406 development, 380, 380f, 710, 711, 711f,
Feathers, in birds, 403 lobe-finned, 401 Food chains, 773 712, 712f, 714, 714f
Feather star, 397f in ocean ecosystem, 793, 793f Food vacuole, 339, 339f, 340, 340f egg, structure of, 713, 713f
Feces, composition of, 636 overfishing, 809, 809f Food webs reproduction, 698, 698f
Feeding strategies, of animals, 628, 628f and pet trade, 809 alien species and, 806 reproductive barriers in, 274
Female(s), human ray-finned, 400–401 detrital, 772f, 773 Fronds, 360, 360f
external genitals, 704, 704f reproduction, 698, 700 and energy flow in ecosystems, Frontal bone, 572, 572f, 573f
and iron in diet, 641 respiration in, 651, 651f, 652, 652f 772–773, 772f Frontal lobe, 535, 535f, 538, 539f
and osteoporosis, 578 speciation in, 276–277, 277f grazing, 772–773, 772f Fruit, 366f–367f, 367
reproductive system, 704–706, 704f, symbiosis in, 766, 766f Foot, of mollusc, 391, 391f anatomy of, 497, 497f
705f Fish hatcheries, 812, 812f Foot-and-mouth disease, 328 development of, 490, 494f, 497
and sexual selection, 749 Fishing, 738, 809, 809f Foraging, 748 in diet, 642
Female gametophyte, 363, 363f, Fish oil supplements, 643 Foramen magnum, 572 evolution of, 365
366f–367f, 490, 490f, 494, 495 Fitzroy, Robert, 250 Foraminiferans, 336f, 337f, 339, 339f types of, 497, 497f
Femur, 572f, 574, 574f Fixed action patterns (FAP), 746, 746f Forebrain, 525, 533, 533f Fruit flies. See Drosophilia melanogaster
Fer-de-lance pit viper, 406 Flagellates, 336f Foreign antigens, 615 Fruiting body, 342
Fermentation Flagellin, 320 Forelimbs Fruticose lichens, 371, 371f
ATP yield from, 125, 133 Flagellum (flagella), 67, 67f, 79, 79f, 80t, mobile, in primates, 412–413 FSH. See Follicle-stimulating hormone
foods produced by, 134, 134f, 373, 374 320, 320f of vertebrates, as homologous Functional genomics, 240–241
in metabolism, 125, 133, 133f in Chlamydomonas, 345, 345f structures, 303 Functional groups, 45, 45f
and muscle contraction, 584 in sponge collar cells, 385, 385f Forensics, 568–569 Fungus (fungi), 370–374
Ferns, 360–361, 360f tinsel, 338 Foreskin, 702, 702f animals vs., 370
in Carboniferous period, 364, 364f Flame cells, 387, 387f, 667, 667f Forest(s) characteristics of, 370, 372
characteristics of, 353 Flamingo, 403f acid rain and, 38, 38f classification of, 297
diversity of, 360, 360f Flat-head Lake, Montana, 801, 801f boreal (northern), 786 club, 371f, 373
economic value, 360–361 Flatulence, 637 and carbon cycle, 776 and disease, 374, 374f
evolution of, 492, 492f Flatworms, 389, 389f in Carboniferous period, 364, 364f economic importance, 374
life cycle, 354–355, 361, 361f characteristics of, 384 climate amelioration by, 804 evolution of, 336f, 337f, 371f
uses of, 360 chemoreceptors in, 552 coniferous, 783, 783f, 785t, 786, 786f as kingdom, 15, 15f
Fertile Crescent, 422 circulatory system, lack of, 590, 590f early, 443, 443f life cycle, 160, 370, 372, 372f
Fertility rate, U.S., 738 evolution of, 382f economic exploitation of, 803 main phyla, 372–373
Fertilization free-living, 387 energy flow in, 772–773, 772f mutualism in, 370, 370f, 446, 446f
chromosome number and, 155 hydrostatic skeleton, 570 montane coniferous, 783, 783f, 786 mycorrhizal, 371, 371f, 464, 464f, 766
double, in angiosperms, 366f–367f, parasitic, 388, 388f temperate deciduous, 783, 783f, 785f, parasitism in, 764
367, 494f, 495, 495f reproduction, 700 785t, 788, 788f plants vs., 370
external, 700, 700f respiration in, 651 temperate rain, 785f, 786 sac, 371f, 372–373, 372f
and genetic variation, 156 Flexor carpi group, 579f tropical deciduous, 785f zygospore, 371f, 372
in humans, 704, 705, 716 Flight, in birds, 403, 403f tropical rain, 783, 783f, 785f, 785t,
Fertilizers, and chemical cycling, 774–775 Flooding, natural regulation of, 804 790, 790f, 805, 805f, 810
Fetal development, in humans, 715,
718–719, 718f, 719f, 719t
Florida scrub jay, 751
Flounders, 763, 763f
and global warming, 118, 118f
tropical seasonal, 785f G
Fever, 613 Flower(s) water-holding ability, 804, 804f GABA, 531, 542, 542t, 543
Fever blisters, 314 anatomy of, 490–491, 490f Formed elements, of blood, 600, 600f GABA transaminase, 531
Fiber, in diet, 639 complete and incomplete, 365, 365f, Formosan termite, 806 Galápagos Islands
Fibers, plant, 437 491 fosB gene, in mice, 745, 745f alien species on, 806
Fibrillin, 184 in eudicots, 434, 434f, 491, 491f Fossil(s) birds on, 251, 254, 254f, 278, 733,
Fibrin, 603, 603f evolution of, 352f, 493, 493f Burgess shale, 282–283, 282f–283f 760, 760f
Fibrinolysin, 706 in monocots, 434, 434f, 491, 491f early research on, 250f, 251 lizards on, 251, 276
Fibroblasts, 510, 510f perfect and imperfect, 491 as evidence for evolution, 255–256, 255f resource partitioning on, 760, 760f

I-10 INDEX

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-10 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Gallbladder, 634, 636, 636f, 638, 638f posttranslational controls, 221, frameshift, 204 Giraffes
Gamete(s) 221f germ-line, 204 adaptation in, 250f, 251, 252
as haploid, 146 synopsis of, 221, 221f and microevolution, 260, 261 sleep in, 537
isolation, as reproductive barrier, transcriptional control, 213, 213f, mutagens, 143, 206 Girdling, 458
274–275 221, 221f point, 204, 204f Gizzard, 629, 630, 630f
meiosis and, 155 translational controls, 221, 221f and proteins, 58, 58f Gland
production of, 160, 160f, 700 in prokaryotes, 212, 212f in proto-oncogenes, 221, 221f definition of, 509
Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT), 709 Gene flow rate of, 261 endocrine, 509, 683f
Gametocytes, 341f and microevolution, 261, 261f somaclonal variations, 500 exocrine, 509
Gametophytes, 160, 160f, 354, 354f migration and, 423 somatic, 204 secretions, and immune system, 612
in angiosperms, 355, 366f–367f, 490, Gene linkage, 173 spontaneous, 206 Glanders, 328
490f Gene locus, 173, 173f transposons and, 204, 205, 205f Glass, David, 457
in bryophytes, 356, 357, 357f Gene migration. See Gene flow in tumor-suppressing genes, 221, 221f Glaucoma, 555
evolution of, 492, 492f Gene pharming, 236 Genetic profile, 240 Glia-derived growth factor, 513
in ferns, 354–355, 361, 361f Gene pool, 260 Genetic testing, 179, 181, 186 Glial cells. See Neuroglia
in pines, 363, 363f Generations, alternation of, in amniocentesis, 179, 181 Gliding joints, 577
Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), 543 angiosperms, 354, 354f chorionic villi sampling (CVS), Global warming
Ganglion cell layer, of retina, 556–557, Generation time, of bacteria, 321 179, 181 and extinctions, 807
557f Gene regulation. See Gene expression preimplantation diagnosis, 181, 181f forests and, 804
Ganglion (ganglia), 532, 540 control Genetic variation greenhouse gases and, 776
Gap junctions, in animal cells, 99, 99f, Gene theory, 10 advantages and disadvantages of, 157 and ocean currents, 784
508–509 Gene therapy alternative splicing and, 218, 218f projected rise in temperature, 118, 118f
Gardasil, 708 applications of, 237, 237f and biodiversity, 801 response of organisms to, 808
Garden peas. See Pisum sativum ex vivo, 237, 237f captive breeding and, 812 tropical rain forests and, 118
Garter snakes (Thamnophis elegans), 745 overview, 228, 229 chromosome number changes, Globin, 588
Gas chromatography, 673 in vitro fertilization and, 181 162–163, 162f, 163f, 163t Globular stage, of angiosperm embryo
Gas denitrification, 775, 775f in vivo, 237 conservation biology and, 800–801 development, 496, 496f
Gas exchange. See also Respiration Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) definition of, 800 Gloeocapsa, 106f, 324f
countercurrent exchange, in gills, 652, animals, 236, 236f fertilization and, 156 Glomerular capsule (Bowman capsule),
652f bacteria, 233, 233f migration and, 423 670, 671f
evolution of surfaces, 650 food products, 233, 234, 234f, 235, sexual reproduction and, 156–157, Glomerular filtration, 672–675
in external respiration, 658, 659f 235f 157f, 160 Glomerulus, 671, 671f, 672
in internal respiration, 658, 659f overview, 228–229 in small populations, 736 Glottis, 633, 633f
respiration surface, characteristics plants, 234, 234f, 235, 235f Gene transfer, in bacteria, 322, 322f Glucagon, 638, 683f, 692, 692f
of, 650 Genetic code, 198–199, 198f Genital herpes, 314, 708 Glucocorticoids, 683f, 690–691, 690f, 691
Gas gangrene, 323 Genetic disorders Genital organs Glucose
Gastric juice, 634, 634f autosomal dominant, 178, 178f, 180, female, 704, 704f blood levels, regulation of, 518, 638
Gastric pits, 634, 634f 180f male, 702, 702f breakdown of, ATP created in, 88
Gastrin, 636, 636f autosomal recessive, 178–179, 178f, Genital tract, differentiation of, 718 in cellular respiration, 124, 124f, 126,
Gastrocnemius, 579f 179f Genital warts, 708 127f
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), cancer as, 143 Genome(s). See also Human genome; production of, in photosynthesis, 107,
633 chromosome number abnormalities, Human genome project 108
Gastropods, 391, 391f 162–163, 162f, 163f, 163t comparative genomics, 241 storage of, 48, 48f
Gastrovascular cavity, 386 chromosome structure abnormalities, of model organisms, 241t structure and function of, 47, 47f
Gastrula 164, 164f size of, 241t Glutamate, 538
early, 710f, 711 and disease, 95 viral, 310 Glutamic acid, 52f
late, 710f, 711 dog breeding and, 168–169 Genomics, 240–241, 241t Glycerol, 49
Gastrulation, 710f, 711, 717 in dogs, 164–165 Genotype, definition of, 173 Glycocalyx, 93
Gated ion channels, and action potential, incomplete dominant, 182 Gentamicin, 561 Glycogen, 48, 48f
528–529, 528f, 529f pleiotropy, 184, 184f Genus, 14, 14t, 296, 298f Glycolipids, 93
Gause, G. F., 760, 762 screening for, 169 Geological timescale, 292, 293t Glycolysis, 125, 125f, 126, 127f, 132, 132f
Gazelles, 765 sex chromosome abnormalities, 163, Geology, uniformitarianism in, 251 Glycoproteins, 72, 93
Gehring, Walter, 284 163t GERD. See Gastroesophageal reflux Glyoxysomes, 74
Gel electrophoresis, 344 X-linked, 186, 186f disease GMOs. See Genetically modified
Gelidium, 344 Genetic diversity. See Genetic variation Germination, 498, 498f organisms
Gene(s) Genetic drift, and microevolution, 260, Germ layers Gnetophytes, 362, 362f
chromosome as location of, 185 263 in animals, 383, 383f, 711, 711f, 711t, GnRH. See Gonadotropin-releasing
definition of, 10 Genetic engineering. See also Cloning; 712, 712f, 714, 714f hormone
developmental, and evolution, Gene therapy; Genetically in cnidarians, 386 Goiter, simple, 689, 689f
284–285, 284f, 285f modified organisms in flatworms, 387 Goldfinch, 701
in eukaryotic cells, 70 animal pharming, 406 Germ-line mutations, 204 Golgi, Camillo, 73
function of, 57 applications, 233–238 Gestation Golgi apparatus. See also Endomembrane
homeotic, 216, 216f, 714 and bacteria, 309 in humans, 715 (See also Development, system
homologous, 241 overview, 228 in humans; Pregnancy) in cell anatomy, 68, 68f, 69f
“nature vs. nurture” question, 744–748 Genetic inheritance in primates, 413 cytokinesis and, 150
structural, 212, 212f blending model of, 170 GH. See Growth hormone function of, 80t
Gene amplification, in cancer cells, 153 as characteristic of life, 10 GHB. See Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid in lipid synthesis, 73
Gene cloning codominance, 182 Giant kelp, 344 in protein synthesis, 73
recombinant DNA technology, 232, environmental factors and, 183 Giardia lamblia, 338 structure of, 73, 73f
232f incomplete dominance, 182, 182f Giardiasis, 333 Golgi tendon organs, 558, 558f
Gene expression. See also Transcription; Mendel’s experiments, 170–172, 170f, Gibbons, 412f Gonad(s)
Translation 171f, 172f, 174, 174f, 176, 176f Gibbons, evolution of, 412f, 414f in endocrine system, 683f
environmental factors and, 183 multifactorial traits, 183 GIFT. See Gamete intrafallopian transfer functions of, 700
overview of, 203, 203f, 203t multiple alleles, 182 Gigantism, 688, 688f Gonadotropic hormones (FSH, LH), 683f,
participants in, 203t particulate theory of, 170f, 171, Gila monster, 402f 686, 687f, 703, 709
small RNAs and, 218–219, 219f 172–173 Gills Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH),
Gene expression control pleiotropy, 184, 184f in arthropods, 394 703, 706
in eukaryotes, 213–221 polygenic, 183, 183f in crayfish, 394f, 395 Gondwana, 294f
chromatin structure and, 214–215, X-linked alleles, 185, 185f in fish, 400–401, 593 Gonoccus, 708
221, 221f Genetic mutation, 204–206 structure and function of, 650, 651, Gonorrhea, 320, 326, 327, 327f, 708, 802
cloning (See Cloning) beneficial, 262 651f, 652, 652f, 667 Gonyaulax, 343, 343f
in development, 216 and cancer, 143, 222–223 tracheal, 653 Gooseneck barnacles, 395f
posttranscriptional control, 221, causes of, 143, 205–206 Gingivitis, 633 Gorgas, William C., 332
221f definition of, 204 Ginkgo trees, 362, 362f Gorillas, 413f, 414f, 735, 735f

INDEX I-11

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-11 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Graafian (vesicular) follicle, 705, 705f size of, and biodiversity, 769, 769f Hemoglobin lymphatic system and, 610
Gracilaria, 344 stratification of, 769 and gas exchange, 658, 659f negative feedback mechanisms in,
Gracile, defined, 418 Habituation, 747 HBA, 179, 266 519, 519f
Gradualistic model of speciation, 281, 281f Haddock, 809 HBS, 179, 266 organ systems and, 516
Grains, 368, 368f Haeckel, Ernst, 728 as protein, 52 in plants, 445–446, 445f, 446f
fungal diseases of, 374 Hagfish, 400 reduced, 658 reflex actions and, 541
refinement of, 639 Hair, of mammals, 404 in sickle cell disease, 266 water and, 25
Grant, Peter and Rosemary, 254 Hair cells, in ear, 560, 561, 561f, structure and function of, 588, 600 Homeotic genes, 216, 216f, 714
Granum (grana), 69f, 76, 76f, 107, 107f 562–563, 562f Hemolymph, 590 Hominids
Granzymes, 618, 619f Hallucinogenic plants, 369 Hemolysis, 97 characteristics of, 410
Grasshoppers, 396, 396f, 591, 591f Halophiles, 297, 325, 325f Hemophilia, 186, 205, 603 early, examples of, 416
Grassland ecosystem, 785t Hammer (malleus), 559, 559f, 560 Hemophilia A, 186 evolution of, 414f, 415, 416f
temperate grassland, 785f, 788, 788f Hand Hemophilia B, 186 Hominins, 415
Graves disease, 689 bones of, 574, 574f Hemorrhagic fevers, 313, 328 Hominoids, 414f
Gravitational balance, 562–563, 563f joints of, 577 Hemorrhoids, 599 Homo. See also Human(s)
Gray crescent, 713, 713f Handheld DNA barcoding device, 299 Hemp, 369 origin of, 217, 419
Gray matter, 534, 540f Hantavirus, 313 Hendry, Andrew, 276–277 species, 416f, 419
Gray whales, 550f Haploid (n) chromosome number, 146 Hennig, Willi, 300 Homo erectus, 416f, 419, 420, 421f
Grazing food web, 772–773, 772f Haploid phase Hepatic artery, 638, 638f Homo ergaster, 416f, 419, 419f, 421, 421f
Great Barrier Reef, 801 in algae, 345, 345f Hepatic portal vein, 638, 638f Homo floresiensis, 419
Great blue heron, 630 in angiosperms, 366f–367f, 494f Hepatic veins, 638 Homo habilis, 416f, 419, 420
Greater vestibular glands (Bartholin in ferns, 361, 361f Hepatitis, 638 Homologous chromosomes, 144, 144f,
glands), 704 in fungi, 372f Hepatitis A, 638 155, 155f, 156, 156f
Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, 810 in mosses, 357f Hepatitis B, 617, 638 alleles on, 173, 173f
Great Lakes, and lake effect snow, 783 in pine trees, 363, 363f Hepatitis C, 638 Homologous genes, 241
Green algae, 335f, 345–346, 345f, 346f, 793 in plant life cycle, 160, 160f, 354, 354f Herbaceous plants, 438, 442 Homologous structures, 303
evolution of, 379 HapMap project, 259f Herbicides, resistance to, 816 Homologues. See Homologous
mutualism in, 371 Hard palate, 632, 632f Herbivores chromosomes
as plant ancestor, 352–353 Hardwood, 362 digestive system, 627, 631, 631f Homo neanderthalensis, 416f, 422
Green glands, 667 Hardy, G. H., 260 in ecosystem, 770, 771, 771f, 773, 773f Homo rudolfensis, 416f, 419
Greenhouse effect, 776 Hardy-Weinberg principle, 260, 736 teeth of, 405, 626f, 627 Homo sapiens, 416f, 421–422, 422f, 423,
Greenhouse gases, 118, 325, 776, 807 Harlequin toad, 808, 809 Hermaphrodites, 387 423f, 424, 424f
Green sea turtle, 402f Hart’s tongue fern (Campyloneurum Heroin, and neurotransmitters, 531, 544 Homozygous dominant individuals, 173
Griffith, Frederick, 322 scolopendrium), 360, 360f Herpes testcross for, 176, 176f
Grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis), Harvestmen (daddy longlegs), 395 type 1, 314 Homozygous individuals, 173
810, 810f Hatcheries, 812, 812f type 2, 314 Homozygous recessive individuals, 173
Grooming, 753, 753f Haustoria, 464 Herpes simplex virus (HSV), 708 H1N1 virus, 313
Ground meristem, 440, 440f, 441, Haversian systems, 576 Heterochromatin, 214–215, 215f Honeybees (Apis mellifera), 753,
441f, 496 Hawaiian field cricket, 254 Heterocysts, 324 753f, 803
Ground pine (Lycopodium), 358, 358f Hawaiian honeycreepers, speciation in, Heterotrophs, 106, 770 Hoofed mammals, 404–405
Ground tissues, 436–437, 436f, 438 278, 278f Heterozygote advantage, 266 Hooke, Robert, 62
Groundwater depletion, 815 Hawaiian Islands Heterozygous individuals, 173 Hookworms, 393
Group living, adaptive benefits of, 750 extinction of native species in, testcross for, 176, 176f Horizons, in soil, 462f
Growth, angiosperms 798–799, 806 Hex A. See Hexosaminidase A Hormones. See also Plant hormones
primary, 440–441, 440f, 441f rain patterns in, 783 Hexosaminidase A (Hex A), 179 digestive system and, 636, 636f
secondary, 442–443, 442f Hawk moth, 249 HGP. See Human Genome Project endocrine system and, 516, 516f
Growth hormone (GH), 683f, 686, Hay fever, 622 High-density lipoprotein (HDL), 51, 581, functions of, 52, 682, 682f, 682t, 683f
687f, 688 HCG. See Human chorionic gonadotropin 597, 643. See also Cholesterol glia-derived growth factor, 513
Growth plate, in bone, 576, 576f HDL. See High-density lipoprotein Hindbrain, 525, 533, 533f homeostasis and, 688–693
G0 stage, 145, 145f, 152 HDL (high-density lipoprotein), 581, 597, Hind limbs, evolution and, 285 metabolism and, 688–693
G1 stage, 145, 145f 643 Hindlimbs, mobile, of primates, 412–413 nontropic, 686
G2 stage, 145, 145f Head, of animals, 524–525 Hinge joints, 577, 577f peptide, action of, 684, 684f
G3P, 114f, 115, 115f, 126, 127f Head louse, 396f Hip bones (coxal bones), 572f, 574, 574f as protein, 52
Guam, alien species on, 806 Health. See also Disease; Medicine Hip dysplasia, in dogs, 164–165, 169, 169f sex
Guanine (G), 57, 57f, 57t, 192, 192f, 198f acid rain and, 38 Hippocampus, 538, 538f female, 705
Guard cells, 436, 436f, 444, 444f, 456, 456f radiation and, 28 Hippocrates, 673 male, 703
Guinea pigs, 742 smoking and, 655, 660 Hippopotamuses, 753 steroid, action of, 684f, 685
Gulf Stream, 784, 784f Hearing. See also Ears Hirudin, 392 target cells, 682, 684f
Gullet, of Paramecium, 340, 340f damage to, 561, 561f, 561t Hirudines, 392 thyroid, 684
Gum disease, 633 process of, 560, 560f Histamines, 601, 614, 614f, 622, 622f, 622t tropic, 686, 686f
Guppies, directional selection in, 265 receptors for, 550, 550f, 559, 560 Histones, 146, 214–215, 214f, 215f water-salt balance and, 674–675
Guttation, 454, 454f Heart Histone tail, 215f Hormone therapy, and cancer, 154
Gymnosperms, 362–363, 362f anatomy of, 592, 592f HIV/AIDS, 315, 315f Horner, Jack, 290–291
in Carboniferous forest, 364, 364f cardiac cycle, 594, 594f immune system and, 608–609, 608f Hornets, mimicry in, 763, 763f
characteristics of, 353 defects in, 592, 594 mutation of, 313 Hornworts, 356, 356f
coniferous forest, 786, 786f development of, 717, 717f opportunistic infections in, 374, 609 Horse(s), 404–405, 626f
diversity of, 362, 362f PET scans of, 28 polymerase chain reaction in testing Horseshoe crabs, 395f, 589, 802
evolution of, 352f, 492, 492f Heart attack, 596, 598 for, 197 Horsetails, 359, 359f
life cycle, 363, 363f Heartbeat, 594, 594f symptoms, 609 Horticulture, and introduction of alien
Heart murmur, 592 testing for, 197 species, 806
Heart stage, of angiosperm embryo HIV provirus, 315 Host, 764

H development, 496, 496f

Heartwood, 442–443
Hodgkin disease, 802
Hog cholera, 328
Houseflies, 396f
chemoreceptors in, 552
Habitat Heat, as energy source, 86 Holocene epoch, 293t Housekeeping genes, 213, 213f
and biodiversity, 769, 769f, 805 Heat receptors, 550 Homeobox, 216 Hox genes, 211, 216, 284–285, 285f, 379,
and competition for resources, Height, growth hormone and, 688 Homeodomain, 216 714
760, 760f Helicase, 196 Homeostasis. See also Osmoregulation Hox proteins, 714
ecological study of, 728 Helicobacter pylori, 635 in animals, 518–519 HPV. See Human papillomavirus
fragmentation of, 810 Helper T cells, 616, 616f, 616t, 617, 617f, as characteristic of life, 11, 18 HR. See Hypersensitive response
isolation of, as reproductive 618–619 constancy and, 518 HSV. See Herpes simplex virus
barrier, 274 Heme groups, 588, 658, 659f definition of, 11 Huber, Claudia, 318
loss of, 805, 805f Hemocoel, 590, 653 digestion and, 629 Human(s). See also under specific topics
preservation of, 810, 810f Hemocyanin, 589, 590 evolution of, 520 acid rain, health effects of, 38
restoration of, 811 Hemodialysis, 676 hormones and, 688–693 adaptive social behavior, 751

I-12 INDEX

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-12 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 amino acid synthesis in, 135 Hydrolytic reaction. See Hydrolysis Immunosuppressive drugs, 621 Integration
behavior, genetically-based, 745 reaction Impalas, 750 of neural stimuli, 526, 526f, 531, 531f,
birth weight, stabilizing selection in, Hydrophilic molecules, 34, 45 Implantation, 715, 716 551
264, 264f Hydrophobic molecules, 34, 45 Imprinting, 746 of visual stimuli, 557
chimpanzees and, relation of, 242 Hydroponics, 460–461 Inbreeding, 168–169, 736 Integration stage, in viral life cycle, 311,
chromosomes, number of, 146, 155, Hydrostatic skeleton, 390, 570, 570f Incisors, 632, 632f 311f, 315, 315f
155f Hydrothermal vents, 793 Inclusive fitness, 750 Integrin, 99
cloning of, 230 and origin of organic molecules, Incomplete digestive tracts, 630, 630f Integumentary system, in humans, 516,
diversity in, 259, 259f, 424, 424f 317–318, 317f Incomplete dominance, 182, 182f 516f
early, characteristics of, 419 prokaryotes in, 323, 323f Incus (anvil), 559, 559f, 560, 564 Intercalated disks, in cardiac muscle, 512,
ethnic groups, origin of, 424 Hydroxide ions, and pH, 36, 36f Independent alignment, of chromosomes, 512f
free-diving by, 649 Hydroxyl groups, 45, 45f 156 Intercostal muscles, 656f, 657f
genome, vs. chimpanzee, 410 Hyman, Flo, 184 Independent assortment Intercostal nerves, 657f
height in, 688 Hyperopia (farsightedness), 556, 556f of chromosomes, 156, 157f Interferons, 612f, 613, 619
ions, biologically important, 30, 30t Hypertension, 596–597 Mendel’s law of, 174–176 Interkinesis, 156, 158f–159f
language and, 752 Hyperthyroidism, 689 India, climate, 783 Interleukins, 619
life cycle, 160, 160f Hypertonic solutions, 97 Indian corn, 205, 205f Intermediate filaments, 68f, 78, 78f
mating in, 749 Hyperventilation, 658 Indian pipe, 464 Intermembrane space, in mitochondria,
migration patterns of early, 423, 423f Hypha, 370, 370f, 766 Indian spectacled cobra, 211f 124f
organ systems of, 516–517, 516f, 517f Hypodermis, 515 Indirect selection, 750–751 Internal environment, regulation of. See
pharyngeal pouches in, 398 Hypothalamus, 533, 533f, 534f, 536, 538f, Indonesia Homeostasis
pheromones and, 681 550 as biodiversity hotspot, 801 Internal respiration
posture of, 575, 575f in endocrine system, 683f, 686–687, habitat loss in, 805 gas exchange in, 658, 659f
primate characteristics and, 412–413 687f, 689, 690–691, 690f Induced fit model, 90 overview of, 650, 650f
proteome, 240 homeostasis and, 519 Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, 151, International Committee on Taxonomy of
respiratory system (See Respiratory in nervous system, 683f, 686–687, 687f 151f Viruses, 312
system) and ovarian cycle, 706 Induction, 714, 714f Interneurons, 527, 527f, 534
as single species, 273, 273f pheromones and, 681 Inductive reasoning, in scientific Internode, of angiosperm, 432, 432f,
sky burials, 758, 758f sleep and, 537 method, 4 441f
teeth, 627, 632–633, 632f testes, control of, 703 Industrialization, and global warming, Interphase, 145, 145f
viral diseases, 313–315, 313f Hypothesis, in scientific method, 4, 5f 118 Interstitial cell-stimulating hormone
visual communication, 753 Hypothyroidism, 689 Industrial melanism, 260, 736 (ICSH), 703
and wildlife, value of, 802–803, 802f, Hypotonic solutions, 97 Inferior vena cava, 592, 592f, 598, 598f, Intertidal zone, 792, 792f
803f Hypoventilation, 658 638 Intervertebral disks, 573
Human activity. See also Pollution Hyracotherium, 286, 286f Inflammatory response, 612f, 614, 614f Intestinal tract. See Digestive system
and chemical cycling, 774–775, 774f, H zone, 582, 582f counteracting of, 691 Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI),
775, 775f, 776, 776f Influenza virus, 310f 709
Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), Ingestion, 629, 629f Intrauterine device (IUD), 706–707, 707f
716
Human genome I Ingroup, 301t
Inguinal lymph nodes, 610f, 611
Introns
function of, 239, 239f
similarity to other vertebrates, 236 IAA. See Indoleacetic acid Inheritance. See Genetic inheritance Invasive tumors, 153
size of, 241t Iberomesornis, 256 Inhibition, of enzyme activity, 92, 92f Inversions, 164, 164f
Human Genome Project (HGP), 238 Ibuprofin, 614 Inhibition model of succession, 767 Invertebrates
Human papillomavirus (HPV), 153f, 708 Ich (fish disease), 340 Initiation, of translation, 202, 202f, 203f aquatic, respiration in, 651
Humboldt Current, 784, 784f Ichthyophthirius, 340 Initiation factors, 202 chordates, 398, 398f
Humerus, 572f, 574, 574f ICSH. See Interstitial cell-stimulating Initiator tRNA, 202, 202f circulatory systems, 590–591, 590f,
Hummingbirds hormone Inner cell mass, 716, 716f 591f
excretory system, 666 ICSI. See Intracytoplasmic sperm injection Inner ear, 559, 559f, 560, 560f excretory system, 667, 667f
as pollinators, 249 Ig. See Immunoglobulin Inorganic nutrient pool, and energy flow major phyla, 384
Humoral immunity, 617 IgE, 622, 622f, 622t in ecosystems, 771, 771f nervous system, 532, 532f
Humpback whales, 752 IGF-1. See Insulinlike growth factor 1 Insect(s). See also specific insects osmoregulation in, 664
Humus, 462, 462f IgG, 617, 617f, 622 anatomy, generalized, 396, 396f reproduction, 700, 700f
Hunchback (kyphosis), 573 Iguanas, 11f, 276, 754 blood of, 589 In vitro fertilization (IVF), 691, 709
Hunter-gatherers, 420, 420f Immediate allergic response, 622, 622t chemoreceptors in, 552, 552f gene therapy, 181
Hunting and gathering, 422 Immune system circulatory system, 591, 591f preimplantation diagnosis, 181, 181f
Huntingtin, 180 abnormalities in, 621–622 as disease vectors, 313, 332, 332f, 341, In vivo gene therapy, 237
Huntington’s disease, 180, 180f, 535 AIDS and, 608–609, 608f 341f, 393 Involuntary muscle, 512, 512f
Hurricane patterns, in U.S., 794, 794f allergic reactions, 622, 622f, 622t evolution of, 295f Iodine
Hyaline cartilage, 510f, 511, 576, 576f, 577 antibody-mediated immunity, 616, excretory system, 666, 666f, 667 dietary requirements, 641t
Hybridized species 616f, 617, 617f eye of, 548–549, 550 and hypothyroidism, 689
animals, 270–271, 270f, 271f, 275, 275f autoimmune disorders, 621, 621f mimicry in, 763, 763f Iodine-131, 28
corn, development of, 280, 280f barriers to entry, 612, 612f nervous system, 533 Ion(s), biologically, 30, 30t
plants, alloploidy in, 279, 279f cell-mediated immunity, 616, 616f, and pheromones, 680 Ionic bonds, 30, 30f
sterility of, 271, 275, 275f, 279 618–619, 619f plant viruses and, 312 iPS. See Induced pluripotent stem (iPS)
Hybridomas, 620, 620f fever, 613 as pollinators, 248–249, 249f, 365, 493, cells
Hydras, 532, 532f, 570 in humans, 517 493f, 803 Iris, 554, 554f
circulatory system, lack of, 590, 590f inflammatory response, 612f, 614, 614f reproduction, 396, 700 Irish potato famine, 234, 342, 800
reproduction, 700, 700f lymphatic system and, 610–611, 610f, respiration in, 651, 651f, 653, 653f Iron
respiration in, 650, 650f 611f as scavengers, 759 dietary requirements, 641, 641t
survivorship curve, 731, 731f monoclonal antibodies, 620, 620f, 673 success of, plants and, 367 as plant nutrient, 461t
Hydrocarbons, 44 natural killer cells, 612f, 613 of tropical rain forest, 790 Iron-sulfur world hypothesis, 317–318,
Hydrochloric acid, 36 nonspecific defenses, 612–614, 612f Insecticides, and pollinators, 367 317f
in stomach, 634 phagocytes, 612f, 613, 614 Insectivores, 405 Island(s), alien species on, 799, 806
Hydroelectric energy, 814, 814f protective proteins, 612–613, 612f, 613f Insight learning, 747 Island biogeography, model of, 769, 769f
Hydrogen specific immunity, 615–620 Insomnia, 536 Islets of Langerhans. See Pancreatic islets
and life, 26, 26f active, 615 Inspiration, 656, 656f Isolating mechanisms
as plant nutrient, 461t cells involved in, 616t Insulin postzygotic, 275, 275f, 277
as transportation fuel, 815 passive, 615 and diabetes, 643 prezygotic, 274–275, 274f, 275f, 277
Hydrogen bonds, 32, 32f tissue rejection, 621 function of, 48, 638, 683f, 692–693, Isomers, 45, 45f
notation for, 32 white blood cells and, 511 692f Isoniazid, 206
in water, 33–34 Immunization, 615, 615f, 617 from pigs, 406 Isotonic solutions, 97, 97f
Hydrogen ion gradients, 110–113 Immunoglobulin (Ig; antibodies), 601, synthetic, 233 Isotopes
Hydrogen ions, and pH, 36, 36f 610, 617, 617f, 622, 622f, 622t Insulinlike growth factor 1 definition of, 27
Hydrolysis reaction, 46, 46f, 49f, 52f Immunokine, 406 (IGF-1), 688 radioactive, 27–28 (See also Radiation)

INDEX I-13

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-13 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 IUD. See Intrauterine device Lactate, 133, 133f Legumes Limulus amoebocyte lysate, 802
IVF. See In vitro fertilization Lacteals, 610, 634f, 635 fruits in, 497 Linkage groups, 173
Lactose, 47, 637 nitrogen fixing in, 6 Linnaeus, Carolus, 296
Lactose intolerance, 637 Leishmaniasis, 333, 333f, 338 Linnean classification of organisms, 296,

J Lacunae, 510f, 511, 576f

Ladderlike nervous system, 387, 532
Lemurs, 412f, 414f, 787f
Lens, of eye, 554, 554f, 555, 555f
298, 298f, 300–301, 304
cladistics replaces, 302
Jackals, 751 Ladybugs (Coccinella), 802f, 803 Lenticels, 436, 436f, 442, 442f Lions, 405f, 750, 809
Jacob, François, 212 Lagena, 564f Leon Springs pupfish (Cyprinodan Lipase, 634, 634f
Janzen, Dan, 759 Lagomorphans, 405 bovinus), 812 Lipids, 46f
Japan current, 784f Lag phase Leopards, 753 in diet, 640, 640t
Jaundice, 638 of J-shaped curve, 732, 732f Leprosy, 802 fats and oils, 49, 49f
Jaw(s), evolution of, 399, 400, 400f of S-shaped curve, 732, 732f Less-developed countries (LDCs) phospholipids, structure of, 50, 50f
Jawless fishes, 399f, 400, 400f Lake effect snow, 783 population growth in, 737, 737f steroids, structure of, 50, 50f
Jellyfish, 386, 386f, 532 Lake Okeechobee, 811 Lethargus, 537 subunits of, 46f
Jet lag, 536 Lakes, 791, 791f Leucine, 199 synthesis of
Joint(s) acid rain and, 38, 38f Leukemias, 153 endoplasmic reticulum in, 72
in arthropods, 394, 394f eutrophication of, 807 chronic myelogenous, 164 Golgi apparatus in, 73
structure and function of, 577, 577f Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste de, 251 treatment of, 802 waxes, structure of, 50, 50f
types of, 577 Laminaria, 344 Leukocytes. See White blood cells Lipoproteins, 600. See also High-density
Joint capsules, 577 Laminarin, 344 Lewis, Edward B., 216 lipoprotein; Low-density
Jordan, Karl, 249 Lampbrush chromosomes, 215, 215f Lewis, Warren, 714 lipoprotein
J-shaped curve, characteristics of, Lampreys, 400, 400f Lewontin, Richard, 424 Liposomes, 319, 319f
732, 732f Lance fluke, 765 Lianas, 790, 790f Little bluestem (Schizachyrium
Jugular vein, 598f Lancelets, 398, 398f, 399f, 710, 710f, 711, Lichens, 324, 345, 371, 371f, 766 scoparium), 453, 453f
Junction proteins, 94, 94f 711f Licht, Louis, 457 Liver, 638f
Jurassic period, 293t, 294f, 404 Land fungi, 370 Life disorders of, 638
Landscape diversity, and biodiversity, 801 cell as basic unit of, 64 functions of, 598, 634, 638, 666, 674,
Landscape preservation, 810 characteristics of, 18 675f

K Language
in animals, 752–753, 753f
elements basic to, 26, 26f
history of, 292, 293t
glycogen storage in, 48
and homeostasis, 518
Kanamycin, 561 human development of, 420, 422 levels of organization, 8f structure of, 638
Kangaroos, 404 La Niña, 794, 794f molecules of (See Organic molecules) Liverworts, 356, 356f
Kaposi sarcoma, 609f Lantern flies, 763, 763f origin of, 24–25, 317–319 Lizards, 402, 402f
Karyotypes, 144, 144f, 163, 164 Lanugo, 719 on other planets, 25 on Galápagos Islands, 251, 276
Katydids, 763 Large intestine, human, 636, 636f, 637 pH range required by, 37 reproduction, 700
Kelp, 106f, 344 Larva water and, 24–25, 25f, 33–35 speciation in, 276, 277, 277f
Keratin, 515 fire ant, 3, 3f Life cycle LM. See Light micrograph
Ketamine (special K), 543 Larynx (voice box), 633, 654, 654f algae, 160, 160f, 344, 345, 345f Loam, 462
Keystone species, 810 LASIK surgery, 556 angiosperms, 365–368, 366f–367f, Lobe(s), of brain, 535, 535f
Kidneys Latent operant conditioning, 747 490–491 Lobe-finned fishes, 401
and acid-base balance, 675 Lateral line system, 400, 564, 564f bacteriophages, 311, 311f Lobsters, 564, 564f, 589, 589f
artificial, 676, 676f Latissimus dorsi, 579f blood flukes, 388, 388f Logistic growth, 732, 732f, 735
evolution of, 668–669 Laughing gulls, 746, 746f, 753 bryophytes, 356, 357, 357f Longhorn beetle, 763, 763f
and homeostasis, 518 Laurasia, 294f ferns, 361, 361f Long-term memory, 538
human Law of independent assortment, fungi, 160, 370, 372, 372f Long-term potentiation (LTP), 538
function of, 670, 670f 174–176 gymnosperms, 363, 363f Loop of Henle. See Loop of the nephron
structure of, 670–671, 671f Law of segregation (Mendel), 172–173, humans, 160, 160f Loop of the nephron (loop of Henle), 670,
in urinary system, 670, 670f 172f, 182 mitosis and meiosis in, 160, 160f, 354, 671f, 672f, 674, 674f
urine concentration, 674–675, Laws of probability, Mendel’s laws and, 354f Loose fibrous connective tissue, 510, 510f
674f, 675f 175 mosses, 357, 357f Lophotrochozoa, evolution of, 382, 382f
urine formation, 573f, 672–673 Laws of thermodynamics, 87 pine trees, 363, 363f Lordosis (swayback), 573
structure of, 670–671, 671f LDCs. See Less-developed countries plants, 160, 160f, 354, 354f Lorenzo’s Oil (film), 74
Kidney stones, 641t, 670 LDL (low-density lipoprotein), 597, 643 tapeworms, 388, 388f Low-density lipoprotein (LDL), 51, 597,
Killer whale (orca; Orcinus orca), 272f, Leaf curl fungi, 372 viruses, 311, 314, 314f, 315, 315f 643. See also Cholesterol
405f, 809 Leafhopper, 396f water molds, 342 LTP. See Long-term potentiation
Kilocalories, 86 Leaf (leaves) Life history, 735 Lucy, 410, 418, 418f
Kinesin, 79, 79f cells, 444f Life tables, 730, 730f Lucy’s baby, 418
Kinetic energy, 86, 86f color of, 104–105, 109 Ligaments, 510f, 511, 571, 577, 577f Lumbar vertebrae, 572f, 573
Kinetochores, 144, 147, 147f, 148–149 eudicots, 434, 434f, 438, 438f, 439f, Ligers, 270–271, 270f Lumber, 369
Kingdom, 14–15, 14t, 296, 298f 444, 444f Light Lumen
Kingdoms, 296f monocots, 434, 434f, 444 and photosynthesis, 104–105 of blood vessels, 509
Kinins, 601 sessile, 433 Light micrograph (LM), 66 of ER, 71, 71f, 72, 72f
Kinocilium, 563, 563f structure and function, 432–433, 432f, Light microscopes, 65, 65f, 66, 66f Lungs
Kin selection, 750–751 433f, 444, 444f Light reactions, in photosynthesis, cancer of, 143f, 154, 206, 655, 660,
Klinefelter syndrome, 163, 163t tissues, 438, 438f, 439f 108–113 660f
Klipspringers, 752 of vascular plants, structure of, 355, absorption of solar energy, 109, 109f evolution of, 401
Knop, William, 460–461 355f overview, 108, 108f gas exchange in, 96
Koalas, 404, 404f veins in, 107, 107f, 434, 434f, 438, production of ATP and NADPH, human, 654, 654f
Kovalick, Walter W., 457 439f, 444, 444f, 445f 110–113, 110f–113f diseases of, 660, 660f
Kress, John, 299 and water transport in plants, 455, Lignin, 437 smoking and, 655, 655f
Krill, 395, 628 455f Limb(s). See also Appendages; Joint(s) structure of, 650, 651, 651f
Kudzu, 806, 806f Leaf primordia, 441, 441f development of, 284 Lupus, 621, 621f
Kyphosis (hunchback), 573 Leaf scars, 441, 441f forelimbs Luteal phase, of ovarian cycle, 706, 706f
Learning mobile, in primates, 412–413 Luteinizing hormone (LH), 683f, 686,
in animals, 746–747, 746f, 747f of vertebrates, as homologous 687f, 703, 706, 706f

L associative learning, 747, 747f

insight learning, 747
structures, 303
hindlimbs, mobile, of primates,
Lycophytes, 358, 358f
Lycopodium (Ground pine), 358f
Lab-grown bladders, 676 brain areas in, 538 412–413 Lyell, Charles, 251, 253
Lab-grown tissue, 151 Leatherback turtles, 736, 736f lower, bones of, 574–575, 574f Lye (sodium hydroxide), 36
Labia majora, 704, 704f Leeches, 392, 392f, 603, 603f, 628 of primates, 413f Lyme disease, 395, 727
Labia minora, 704, 704f Leeching, zone of, 462f upper, bones of, 574, 574f Lymph, 517, 602, 610
Labor, 720 Left atrium, 592, 592f Limb buds, 717, 717f Lymphatic capillaries, 602, 602f, 610, 610f
Lac operon, 212–213, 212f Left hemisphere, 535 Limbic system, 538, 538f, 553 Lymphatic duct, 610
Lactase, 637 Left ventricle, 592, 592f Limiting factors, on population, 729 Lymphatic organs, 610f, 611, 611f

I-14 INDEX

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-14 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Lymphatic system, 517, 517f, 610–611 osmoregulation in, 669 evolution and, 17 Metabolic pool, 135, 135f
bones and, 571 pheromones and, 680–681 medicinal plants, 360, 369 Metabolism
functions of, 610 placental, 404–405, 405f monoclonal antibodies, 620 as characteristic of life, 9
and homeostasis, 518 evolution of, 294, 298 prokaryotes, important, 326, 326t definition of, 9
organs, 610f, 611, 611f reproduction, overview of, 699 radiation in, 28, 28f hormones and, 688–693
Lymphatic vessels, 610, 610f respiration in, 651, 651f transplants origin of, 319
Lymph nodes, 517, 610f, 611, 611f skeleton, functions of, 571 and tissue rejection, 621 proteins and, 52
Lymphocytes, 600f, 601, 610, 611f, smell receptors in, 553, 553f xenotransplantation, 236, 406, 621 regulation of, 688–693
616–619, 616t taste receptors in, 550, 552–553, 552f value of wildlife, 802, 802f Metacarpal bones, 572f, 574, 574f
Lynx, Canadian, 762, 762f terrestrial, respiration in, 650, 651f vertebrate products in, 406, 406f Metamorphosis
Lysine, 52f Mammary glands, 404 Medulla oblongata, 533f, 534f, 536, 657 in arthropods, 394, 394f
Lysis, definition of, 97 Manatees, evolution of, 285 Medullary cavity, 576, 576f in butterflies, 394, 394f
Lysogenic cells, 311 Mandible, 573, 573f Medusa body form, in cnidarians, 386, in tunicates, 398
Lysogenic cycle, 311, 311f Manganese, as plant nutrient, 461t 386f Metaphase
Lysosomal storage diseases, 74 Mangold, Hilde, 714 Meerkats, 751, 751f in meiosis
Lysosomes, 68, 68f, 74, 74f, 80t. See also Mangrove swamps, 792, 792f, 805 Megakaryocytes, 603 metaphase I, 158, 158f–159f, 160,
Endomembrane system Manometers, 599 Megaphylls, 359–360, 359f, 360f 161f
Lysozyme, 311, 612, 632 Mantle, of mollusc, 391, 391f Megaspores, 363, 363f, 366, 366f–367f, metaphase II, 158f–159f, 159
Lystrosaurus, 294 Maple tree fruits, 497f 490, 490f, 492, 494f in mitosis, 145f, 148f–149f, 161f
Lytic cycle, 311, 311f Marburg fever, 328 Meiosis, 155–161 Metaphase plate, 148f–149f
Marfan syndrome, 184, 184f chromosome separation in, 155, 155f Metapopulations, 810
Marijuana in life cycle, 160, 160f Metastasis, 153, 223, 223f, 660

M effects of, 544

urine tests for, 673
meiosis I, 155, 155f, 156, 156f, 157f,
158, 158f–159f, 161, 161f
Metastatic tumors, 153
Metatarsal bones, 572f, 574f, 575
Mabinlin, 262 Marine bony fishes, 668, 668f nondisjunction in, 162, 162f Meteorites, and mass extinction, 295
MacArthur, Robert, 761, 769 Marine ecosystems, 792–793, 792f, 793f, in oogenesis, human, 705, 705f Methadone, 544
Macaws (Ara macao), 805, 805f 805, 809 meiosis II, 155, 155f, 157f, 158f–159f, Methamphetamine, 543
Macrocystis, 344 Marine snail (Aplysia), 745 159, 161, 161f Methane, as greenhouse gas, 325, 776,
Macroevolution, 272 Mars, life on, 25 nondisjunction in, 162, 162f 807
Macromolecules, 46, 46f Marshall, Barry, 635 in oogenesis, human, 705, 705f Methanobrevibacter smithii, 637
Macronucleus, of ciliate, 340, 340f Marsupials, 294, 404, 404f Mendel’s laws and, 173, 174 Methanogens, 297, 323, 325, 325f
Macronutrients, 460, 461t Martins, 761 nondisjunction in, 162, 162f Methanosarcina mazei, 15f
Macrophages, 601, 612, 612f, 613, 614, Masseter, 579f in plant life cycle, 354, 354f, 490, 490f, Methicillin, 17
614f, 616, 616t, 618–619, 618f Mass extinctions. See Extinctions 494f Methionine, 52f
Macular degeneration, 555 Mass number. See Atomic mass vs. mitosis, 161, 161f MHC (major histocompatibility complex)
Madagascar, 801, 810 Mast cells, 612, 614, 614f Melanin, 204, 515 protein, 618, 621
Madagascar star orchid, 249 Master developmental regulatory genes, Melanocytes, 515 Microarrays, 240, 240f
Mad cow disease, 220 216 Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), Microbes
Maggots, 628, 759 Mastoiditis, 572 687 classification of, 309
Magnesium, dietary requirements, 641t Mastoid process, 569, 573f Melatonin, 536, 683f, 691, 691f, 693, 694, as decomposers, 759
Maiasaura, 291, 291f Mastoid sinuses, 572 694f Microevolution
Maidenhair fern (Adiantum pedantum), Maternal determinants, 713 Membrane attack complex, 612 causes of, 259–261
360, 360f Maternal inheritance, 423 Membrane potential, 528 definition of, 259
Maintenance systems, in humans, 517, 517f Mating Memory detection of, 260
Maize, 280 assortative, 261 brain areas, 538 Hardy-Weinberg principle, 260
Maize chlorotic dwarf virus (MCDV), 17 in birds, 403 types of, 538 Microglia, 513, 527
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) courtship behavior, 753 Memory B cells, 616, 616t, 617, 617f Micrographs, definition of, 66
protein, 618 in humans, 749 Memory T cells, 616, 616f, 616t, 618, 618f, Micronucleus, of ciliate, 340, 340f
Makela, Bob, 290–291 for life, 701 619 Micronutrients, 460, 461t
Malaria nonrandom, 261 Mendel, Gregor, 169, 170–172, 170f, 171f, Microphylls, 359, 359f
avian, 799 random, 261 172f, 174, 174f, 176, 176f Micro RNAs (miRNA), 219, 219f
sickle-cell disease and, 58, 58f, Matrix Mendel’s laws Microscopes
184, 266 in animal cell, 99, 99f human genetic inheritance and, 178–181 resolution of, 66, 66f
spread of, 332, 332f, 333f, 341, 341f in connective tissue, 510, 510f law of independent assortment, types of, 66, 66f
treatment of, 369, 500 mitochondrial, 76, 128, 128f, 129, 174–176 visual range of, 65, 65f
vaccine for, 617 131, 131f law of segregation, 172–173, 172f, 182 Microspheres, and origin of cellular life,
Male Matter, definition of, 26 and laws of probability, 175 319, 319f
orgasm, 702 Maturation stage, of viral life cycle, 311, Meninges, 534, 534f Microspores, 363, 363f, 366, 366f–367f,
reproductive system, human, 702–703, 311f, 314, 314f, 315, 315f Meningitis, 534 490, 490f, 494f
702f, 703f Mature embryo stage, in angiosperms, Meniscus (menisci), 577, 577f Microtubules, 68f, 69f, 78–79, 78f
sexual selection and, 749 496, 496f Menstrual cycle, 681, 706, 706f Microvilli
Male gametophyte, 363, 363f, 366f–367f, Mature mRNA, 221f Menstruation. See Menstrual cycle actin in, 79
490, 490f, 495 Maxilla, 572f Meristem, 440, 442, 442f in intestines, 65, 78, 635, 635f
Maleus, 564 Maxillae, 573, 573f apical, 436, 440, 440f, 441, 441f, 496 in taste buds, 552–553, 552f
Mallard, 701, 701f Maxillary glands, 667 and cloning of plants, 500, 500f Midbrain, 525, 533, 533f, 534f, 536
Malleus (hammer), 559, 559f, 560 Mayr, Ernst, 276 ground, 440, 440f, 441, 441f, 496 Middle ear, 559, 559f, 560, 561
Malpighian tubules, 667 Mayr, Gerald, 290 Meristem tissue, 353 Middle lamella, 99, 99f
Maltase, 634f, 635 McClintock, Barbara, 205, 205f, 240 Merozoites, 341f Miescher, Johann Friedrich, 192
Malthus, Thomas, 252, 252f, 253 MCDV. See Maize chlorotic dwarf virus Mesocarp, 497 Migration
Maltose, formation and breakdown of, MDCs. See More-developed countries Mesoderm, 387, 390, 710f, 711, 711f, 711t, of birds, 403
47, 47f MDMA (methylenedioxymethampheta- 712, 712f, 713, 714, 714f, 717 of early humans, 423, 423f
Mammal(s) mine), 543 Mesoglea, 386, 386f Miller, Stanley, 317, 317f
aquatic, diving in, 648–649 Meadow Brown butterfly, 279 Mesopelagic zone, 793, 793f Millipedes, 395, 395f
characteristics of, 384, 404–405 Mealybug, 396f Mesophyll Mimicry, as prey defense, 763, 763f
chemoreceptors in, 552–553, 552f, 553f Measles, 314, 615 in angiosperms, 438, 439f, 444 Mineralocorticoids, 683f, 690–691, 690f
circulatory system, 593, 593f Mechanical digestion, 629, 632 in C3 plants, 107, 107f, 111, 116, 117f Minerals
ear of, anatomy, 559, 559f Mechanical energy, as energy type, 86 in C4 plants, 116, 117f definition of, 26
evolution of, 292, 293t, 295f, 399f, 404 Mechanical isolation, as reproductive palisade, 438, 444, 444f, 445f dietary requirements, 641, 641t
excretory system, 666 barrier, 274 spongy, 438, 444, 444f, 445f plant absorption of, 462–463,
heart in, 592, 592f Mechanoreceptors, 550, 558, 558f, 559, Mesozoic era, 292, 293t, 294f 462f, 463f
kidneys, structure of, 670–671, 670f 560 Messenger RNA (mRNA). See mRNA as plant nutrients, 460–461, 461t
marsupials, 294, 404, 404f Medical imaging, 28, 28f Metabolic pathways. See also Cellular Mining, 738
monotremes, 404, 404f Medicine. See also Disease; respiration; Fermentation Miocene epoch, 293t
origin of, 256 Pharmaceuticals regulation of, 92, 92f miRNA. See Micro RNAs

INDEX I-15

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-15 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Mitchell, Peter, 110 Mononucleosis, 314 contraction, 89, 89f, 580–581, 582–584, principles of, 16, 253
Mites, 395 Monosaccharides, 47 582f, 583f reinforcement of speciation by, 277
Mitochondria Monosomy, 162 development of, 712 stabilizing selection, 264, 264f, 266
ATP generation in, 76, 110, 122–123, Monotremes, 404, 404f skeletal, 512, 512f, 579–584 undirected nature of, 286
124–125, 125f, 128–132 Monsoons, origin of, 783 antagonistic pairs, 580, 580f Wallace on, 253
in cell anatomy, 68f, 69f Mons pubis, 704, 704f contraction of, 89, 89f, 580–581, “Nature vs. nurture” question, 744–748
communication by, 76–77 Montane coniferous forest, 783, 783f, 786 582–584, 582f, 583f Nautiluses, 391, 391f
evolution of, 77, 77f More-developed countries (MDCs) fast- and slow-twitch fibers, 584, Navel, 720
function of, 76 population growth in, 737, 737f, 738 584f NCI. See National Cancer Institute
in muscle, 131 Morels, 372 functions, 579, 579f NE. See Norepinephrine
origin of, 76, 334, 334f Morgan, Thomas H., 185 motor units, 580–581, 580f Neandertals, 197
structure of, 76, 76f, 124f, 128, 128f Morphine muscle cells, 582, 582f Nearsightedness (myopia), 556, 556f
Mitochondrial DNA, 76 and neurotransmitters, 531, 544 neuromuscular junction, 583, 583f Negative feedback mechanisms
human evolution and, 421, 424 Morphogenesis, 713, 714, 714f proprioceptors and, 558, 558f in endocrine system, 682, 692
migration history of humans and, 423 Morula, 710, 710f, 716 smooth, 512, 512f in homeostasis, 519, 519f
and phylogenetic research, 304 Mosaic evolution, 418 spindles, 558, 558f in nervous system, 682
Mitochondrial Eve hypothesis, 421 Mosquitoes striation in, 512, 512f, 582 Neisseria gonorrhoeae, 320, 326, 327,
Mitosis, 145f, 146–150, 148–149, climate change and, 808 Muscle cells, 582, 582f 327f, 708
148f–149f as disease vectors, 313, 332, 332f, 341, Muscle dysmorphia, 644, 644f Nematocysts, 386, 386f
kinetochore in, 147, 147f 341f, 393 Muscle fiber, 512, 512f Nematoda, 393, 393f
in life cycle, 160, 160f Moss(es), 106f, 356, 356f Muscle tissue, 512, 512f Nemertine worms, 389, 389f
in plant life cycle, 354, 354f, 490f, 494f diversity of, 356 Muscular dystrophy, 186 Nephridium (nephridia), 392, 392f, 520,
vs. meiosis, 161, 161f life cycle, 357, 357f Muscular hydrostats, 570 520f, 667, 667f
Mitotic spindle, 148 Motherhood, among dinosaurs, 290–291 Muscular system Nephrons, 670–671, 671f, 674, 674f
Model(s) Mothers, surrogate, 709 and homeostasis, 518 Nereis, 392
atomic, 29, 29f Moths in humans, 516, 516f Nereocystis, 344
molecular, 31, 31f, 32f chemical communication, 752 Mushrooms, 373, 373f, 374 Nerve(s). See also Neurons
in science, 27 chemoreceptors in, 552, 552f Mussels, 391, 391f anatomy of, 513, 539, 539f
in scientific method, 5 pheromones in, 274 Mutagens, 143, 206 as animal characteristic, 380
Model of island biogeography, 769, 769f as pollinators, 249 Mutation. See Genetic mutation nerve impulses, 528–531, 528f, 529f, 530f
Model organisms, in genome sequencing, wings, 210–211, 210f, 211f Mutualism, 764t, 766, 766f transverse, 387, 387f
241t Motion sickness, 563 in fungi, 370, 370f, 371, 446, 446f Nerve cord, dorsal tubular, as chordate
Molars, 632, 632f Motor axons, 580, 583, 583f herbivore digestive system and, 631 characteristic, 398, 398f
Molds. See Slime molds; Water molds Motor (efferent) neurons, 527, 540f in lichens, 371 Nerve fibers, 527, 539
Molecular biology, evidence for evolution, Motor molecules, 78 and plant nutrition, 464, 464f Nerve net, 532, 532f
258, 258f Motor output system, in humans, 516, in prokaryotes, 323 Nervous system
Molecular clocks, and phylogenetic 516f, 526, 526f Myasthenia gravis, 621 in arthropods, 394
research, 304 Motor speech area, 535f Mycelium, 370, 370f bacterial diseases, 326t
Molecular data, and phylogenetic Mountain(s), and climate, 783, 783f Mycorrhizae, 371, 371f, 464, 464f, 766 and behavior, 745
research, 303–304, 304f Mountain gorillas, 735, 735f Mycorrhizal fungi, 371, 371f development of, 712, 712f, 717
Molecular evolution, 55 Mountain zone ecosystem, 785f Mycoses, 374, 374f in echinoderms, 397
Molecular models, 31, 31f, 32f Mouse (Mus musculus) Myelin sheath, 513, 527, 527f endocrine system and, 682, 682f,
Molecule(s) bioluminescent, 229f Myofibrils, 582, 582f 682t, 683f
definition of, 29 fosB gene in, 745, 745f Myoglobin, 648 evolution of, 532–533
formation of, 29 genome, sequencing of, 241t Myopia (nearsightedness), 556, 556f in flatworms, 387, 387f
hydrophilic, 34, 45 maternal behavior in, 745, 745f Myosin, 78, 89, 89f, 512, 582–583, 582f, formation of, 714
hydrophobic, 34, 45 transgenic, in research, 236, 236f 583f and homeostasis, 518
as level of organization, 8f, 9 Mouth, and digestion, 632, 632f Myrtle trees (Myrica faya), 806 in humans, 516, 516f, 657, 657f
Mole rats, 742–743 MPTP, 92 Myxedema, 689 in invertebrates, 532, 532f
Molluscs, 391, 391f mRNA (messenger RNA) ladderlike, 532
blood of, 589 function of, 70 and muscle contraction, 583
characteristics of, 384
circulatory system, 591
mature, 221f
posttranscriptional processing of, 221, N in vertebrates, 533, 533f
central nervous system (CNS),
evolution of, 382f 221f NAD+, 124, 126, 127f, 128, 129f, 130, 526, 526f, 531, 533, 533f, 534
exoskeleton, 570 primary, 221f 130f, 133, 133f peripheral nervous system (PNS),
nervous system, 532, 533f steroid hormones and, 685, 685f NADH, 124, 125, 125f, 126, 127f, 128, 526, 526f, 539–541, 539f, 541f
respiration in, 652 in transcription, 203, 203f 129, 129f, 130, 130f, 131, 131f, autonomic system, 541, 541f
Molting, in arthropods, 394 in translation, 70, 71, 71f, 200–202, 132, 132f somatic system, 540, 540f
Molybdenum, as plant nutrient, 461t 201f, 203, 203f NADP+, 108, 111–112, 111f, 113f viral diseases, 314t
Monarch butterfly, 763 MRSA (methicillin-resistant NADPH Nervous tissue, 513
Mongooses, as alien species, 806, 806f Staphylococcus aureus), 17, 326 in Calvin cycle, 114–115, 114f, 115f Nests, dinosaur, 290–291
Monkey flowers, 55 MSH. See Melanocyte-stimulating production in light reactions, 108, Neural crest, 712
Monkeys hormone 110–113, 111f, 113f Neural folds, 717
baboons, 415, 752–753 M stage (mitotic stage), 145, 145f, NADP reductase, 113, 113f Neural plate, 712, 712f
characteristics of, 412–413 148–149, 148f–149f Naked mole rats (Heterocephalus glaber), Neural tube, 712, 712f, 717
evolution of, 415, 415f Mucous membranes, immune system 743, 743f Neurofibrillary tangles, 538
new world, 412f, 414f, 415 and, 612, 612f Naked seeds, 362, 363 Neurofibril nodes. See Nodes of Ranvier
old world, 412f, 414f, 415 Mucous plug, 720 Naked viruses, 310 Neurofibromatosis (von Recklinghausen
skeletal system, 415 Mucus, in stomach, 634 Nasal bones, 573, 573f disease), 180
Monoclonal antibodies, 620, 620f, 673 Mudflats, 792, 792f Nasopharynx, 633, 633f Neurofibromin, 180
Monocots, 365, 434, 434f, 435, 435f Mules, 271, 275, 275f National Cancer Institute (NCI), 369 Neuroglia, 513, 527
embryo development in, 496 Müller, Fritz, 763 National Collegiate Athletic Association, Neuromodulators, 531
flowers, 434, 434f, 491, 491f Müllerian mimics, 763 673 Neuromuscular junction, 583, 583f
leaves, 434, 434f, 444 Multifactorial traits, 183 Native Americans, skeletal remains of, Neurons
roots, 434, 434f Multinucleate hypothesis, 379 569 action potential
seeds, 434f Multiple alleles, 182 Natriuresis, 674 mechanism of, 528–529, 528f, 529f
stems, 434f, 438, 439f Multiple fruits, 497 Natural killer cells, 612f, 613 speed of, 529, 529f
Monocotyledons, 365 Multiple sclerosis, 406, 529, 615 Natural selection, 177 communication between
Monocytes, 600, 600f, 601, 611f, 614 Multiregional continuity model alleles in, 177 (neurotransmitters), 530–531, 530f
Monod, Jacques, 212 of human ethnic diversity, 424 Darwin on, 16, 252–253 excitotoxicity, 538
Monoecious plants, 491 Mumps, 314, 615, 632 directional selection, 264f, 265 functions of, 527
Monogamy, 701 Muscle(s) disruptive selection, 264f, 265 integration of stimuli, 531, 531f
Monohybrid crosses, 172, 172f as animal characteristic, 380 life history and, 735 refractory period, 529
Monomers, 46, 46f cardiac, 512, 512f and microevolution, 260, 264–266 resting potential, 528, 528f

I-16 INDEX

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-16 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 structure of, 513, 527, 527f Nuclein, 192 Oncogenes, 221, 221f overview of, 664–665
types of, 527 Nucleoid, 67, 320, 320f One-trait testcrosses, 176, 176f in vertebrates
Neurosecretory cells, 683f, 686–687, 687f Nucleolus, 68f, 69f, 70, 70f One-way ventilation mechanism, 657, 657f aquatic, 668, 668f
Neurotransmitters, 530–531, 530f Nucleoplasm, 70f On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 253 terrestrial, 669, 669f
behavior and, 542 Nucleosomes, 214, 214f Oocyte, human, 704, 705, 705f Osmosis, 97
clearing of, 531 Nucleotidase enzymes, 635 Oogenesis, 160, 705, 705f Osteichthyes. See Bony fishes
drugs and, 543–544 Nucleotides, 192–193 Oomycota, 342 Osteocytes, 576, 576f
emotion and, 542 digestion of, 635 Open circulatory system, 590–591, 591f Osteons, 510f, 511, 576, 576f
Neurula, 712, 712f structure of, 57, 57f, 192 Operant conditioning, 747 Osteoporosis, 641, 689
Neutrons, 27, 27f, 27t Nucleus Operators, 212, 212f prevention of, 578, 578f, 581
Neutrophils, 600f, 601, 612, 612f, 613, anatomy of, 70, 70f Operculum, 652, 652f treatment of, 689
614, 618–619 in animal cell, 68f Operon model, 212–213, 212f Ostium (ostia), 591, 591f
Newts, 401 of cancer cell, 153 Operons, 212–213, 212f Ostrich fern (Matteucia truthiopteris), 360
New world monkeys, 412f, 414f, 415 communication with cytoplasm, 70 Ophrys apifera, 249, 249f Otolith(s), 277, 562, 563, 563f
Niacin, 91, 642t division of (See Mitosis) Opiates, 544, 673 Otolithic membrane, 562, 563f
Niche specialization, 760–761, 760f, 761f evolution of, 77, 77f Opium, 544 Otosclerosis, 561
Nicotine function of, 80t Opossums, 294, 404, 404f Outbreak (film), 313
effects on body, 543 of neuron, 513 Opossum shrimp (Mysis relicta), 801, 801f Outer ear, 559, 559f, 560
Nicotinic acid, dietary requirements, 642t in plant cell, 69f Opportunistic infections (OIs), AIDS and, Outgroup, 300, 301t
La Niña, 794, 794f Nummulites, 339 609 Out-of-Africa hypothesis, 421, 423, 423f
Nitrate, in nitrogen cycle, 775, 775f Nursing, hormones in, 686 Opportunistic populations, 735, 735f Oval window, 559, 559f, 560, 560f, 564f
Nitrification, 775, 775f Nutrients, plant Opportunity Mars rover, 25 Ovarian cancer, 224
Nitrifying bacteria, 323 beneficial nutrients, 460 Opposable thumbs, in primates, Ovarian cycle, 706, 706f
Nitrites, and cancer, 154 deficiency, 461f 412, 413f Ovary(ies)
Nitrogen essential nutrients, 460–461, 461t Opsin, 556–557 angiosperm, 365, 365f, 366f–367f, 490,
blood levels, and The Bends, 649 and mutualistic relationships, 464, Optic lobe, 533f 490f, 491, 494f
and life, 26, 26f 464f Optic nerve, 539f functions of, 700
plant competition for, 453 Nutrition, 639–645. See also Diet Optimal foraging model, 748, 748f human, 704, 704f
Nitrogen cycle, 775, 775f, 804 carbohydrates, 639, 639t Oral disk, 400f development of, 718
Nitrogen fertilizers, 6, 6f lipids, 640, 640t Oral thrush, 374, 374f in endocrine system, 683f
Nitrogen fixation, 775, 775f minerals, 641, 641t Orangutans, 412f, 414f and hormones, 684, 705
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 6, 309, 324, 326, in prokaryotes, 323, 323f Orbicularis oculi, 579f Overexploitation, and extinctions, 805f,
464 protein, 640 Orbicularis oris, 579f 807, 809
Nitrogenous waste products, types and vitamins, 642, 642t Orca (killer whale; Orcinus orca), 272f, Oviduct cancer, 224
characteristics, 666, 666f 405f, 809 Oviducts, 704, 704f
Nitrogen oxides, and acid deposition, 775, Orchids, adaptation in, 249 mallard, 701, 701f
807
Nitrous oxide, 776 O Order
as taxon, 14, 14t, 296, 298f
Oviraptor, 291
Ovulation, 704, 705, 705f, 706, 706f
Nobel Prize, 110, 205, 212, 318, 635, 713 Obesity Ordovician period, 292, 293t, 295, 295f Ovules, 355, 355f, 365, 365f, 366,
Noble gases, 29 cardiovascular disease and, 51, 643 Organ(s). See also Organ systems 366f–367f, 490, 490f, 494f
Nociceptors. See Pain receptors causes of, 639, 643 as level of organization, 8f, 508, 508f Oxidation
Nodal tissue, 594, 594f controlling, 51 structure and function of, 515 in cellular respiration, 124, 126, 127f,
Node, of angiosperm, 432, 432f and diabetes, 643, 692, 693 Organelles 129
Nodes of Ranvier, 527, 527f, 529, 529f diabetes and, 51 in animal cells, 68f definition of, 108
Noise, hearing loss and, 561t diet and, 51 communication between, 76–77 Oxygen
Nomenclature, binomial, 15 diseases associated with, 51, 643 definition of, 68 in cellular respiration, 130, 130f
Noncoding DNA, 239, 239f Objective lens, 66, 66f energy-related, 76–77 cyanobacteria and, 112
unique, 240 Obligate anaerobes, 323 functions of, 80t in early atmosphere, 324, 326
Noncompetitive inhibition, 92, 92f Observation, in scientific method, 4, 5f in plant cells, 69f and life, 26, 26f
Noncyclic pathway, in light reactions, 110 Obstructive pulmonary disorders, 660 replication, in cell cycle, 145 as photosynthesis product, 108, 111
Nondisjunction, and chromosome Occipital bone, 572, 572f, 573f Organic, definition of, 58 as plant nutrient, 461t
abnormalities, 162–163, 162f Occipital lobe, 535, 535f Organic chemicals, environmental impact in respiration, 658
Nonionina, 335f Ocean(s) of, 807 Oxygen debt, 133, 133f, 584
Nonpolar covalent bonds, 32 benthos, as biodiversity frontier, 801 Organic chemistry, 44 Oxyhemoglobin, 658
Nonrandom mating, and microevolution, as carbon dioxide sink, 118 Organic farming, 6, 816 Oxytocin, 683f, 686–687, 687f
260, 261 currents, 784, 784f Organic molecules Oysters, 391, 731, 731f
Nonrenewable resources, 814 diatomaceous earth and, 343 backbone of, 45 Ozone depletion, 807
Nonspecific immune defenses, 612–614, as ecosystem, 793, 793f carbon chain of, 45
612f sediment, 339 functional groups of, 45, 45f
Nontropic hormones, 686
Nonvascular plants. See Bryophytes
temperature conservation properties
of, 34
isomers, 45, 45f
origin of, 317–318, 317f P
Nonylphenols, 807 Oceanic ridges, 793 Organisms p53, 220, 221
Noradrenaline. See Norepinephrine Ocelot, 787f elements basic to, 26, 26f Pain receptors (nociceptors), 550
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline; NE), Octane, 44 energy needs of, 86 Pakicetus, 256
530–531, 541, 542, 542t, 683f, Octaploid plants, 279 as level of organization, 8f, 9, 508, Pakicetus attocki, 272f
690, 690f Octet rule, 29 508f Pakistan, erosion in, 804
Norrell, Mark, 291 Octopuses, 391, 391f, 524, 524f molecules of (See Organic molecules) Palade, George, 73
Northern elephant seal (Mirounga Ocular lens, 66, 66f pH range required by, 37 Paleocene epoch, 293t
angustirostris), 648, 648f Oil(s), structure of, 49, 49f Organization, levels of, in organisms, 8f Paleontology, 251, 255
Northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis Oil glands, 515, 515f Organ of Corti, 560, 561, 561f Paleozoic era, 292, 293t, 294f
caurina), 810, 810f OIs. See Opportunistic infections Organ systems Palisade mesophyll, 438, 444, 444f, 445f
Nose, in respiration, 654, 654f Oldowan tools, 420 and homeostasis, 518 Palm trees (Arecaceae), 369, 369f, 443f
Notochords, 283, 398, 398f, 712, 712f Old world monkeys, 412f, 414f, 415 as level of organization, 8f, 9, 387, Pancreas, 638f
Novotny, Milos, 680–681 Olfactory bulb, 533f, 538f, 539f, 553f 508, 508f cancer of, 143f
Nuclear energy, as energy type, 86 Olfactory cells, 553, 553f overview of, 516–517, 516f, 517f in endocrine system, 683f, 692, 692f
Nuclear envelope, 68f, 69f, 70, 70f, 77, Olfactory epithelium, 553f Orgasm functions of, 634, 638, 638f, 692, 692f
77f Olfactory receptors, 553, 553f female, 704 Pancreatic amylase, 634, 634f, 638
Nuclear pores, 69f, 70, 70f Olfactory tract, 538f, 553f male, 702 Pancreatic duct, 638f
Nucleases, 634 Oligocene epoch, 293t Ornia ochracea, 254 Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans),
Nucleic acids. See also DNA; RNA Oligochaetes, 392 Orphrys apitera, 766 692
definition of, 57 Oligodendrocytes, 513, 527 Oscillatoria, 112f, 324f Pancreatic juice, 638, 638f
digestion of, 629, 629f Oligotrophic lakes, 791, 791f Osmoregulation Pangaea, 294, 294f
origin of term, 192 Omega-3 unsaturated fatty acids, 643 homeostasis and, 520 Pantothenic acid, dietary requirements,
subunits of, 46f Omnivores, 405, 627, 770 in mammals, 672–675 642t

INDEX I-17

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-17 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Papillae, 552, 552f Pepsin, 634 Phloem rays, 442, 442f Pillbugs, 667
Parabasalids, 336f, 337f Peptidases, 634f, 635 Phloem sap, 452 Pilocene epoch, 293t
Paramecium, 340, 340f, 520, 520f, 760, Peptide(s), definition of, 52 Phloem transport, 458–459, 458f, 459f Pineal gland, 534f, 536, 683f, 693
760f Peptide bonds, 52, 52f Phosphate Pineapple, 497f
Paramecium aurelia, 760, 760f Peptide hormones, action of, 684, 685f as biologically important ion, 30t Pine trees, life cycle of, 363, 363f
Paramecium caudatum, 760, 760f, 762 Peptidoglycan, 48, 320 blood levels, regulation of, 689 Pinkeye, viral, 314
Paramylon, 338 Percussion vests, 179, 179f Phosphate groups, 45f Pinna, 559, 559f
Paraplegia, 534 Peregrine falcons, 680 Phospholipid(s), structure of, 50, 50f Pinworms, 393
Parapodia, 651 Perennial plants, 433 Phospholipid bilayer Pisum sativum (garden pea)
Parasite, 764 Perforins, 618, 619f proteins embedded in, 93–95, 93f, 94f anatomy, 171, 171f
Parasitic flagellates, 338 Pericarp, 497, 497f structure of, 93, 93f assortative mating in, 171, 171f
Parasitism, 764, 764t Pericycle, 438–439, 463f Phosphorus Mendel’s experiments with, 170–172,
in arachnids, 395 Periderm, 436f, 442, 442f dietary requirements, 641t 170f, 171f, 172f, 174, 174f, 176,
and coevolution, 765 Period gene, 753 and life, 26, 26f 176f
ectoparasites, 764 Periodic table, 29, 29f Phosphorus cycle, 774–775, 774f, 804 Pith, in angiosperms, 438, 439f, 442, 442f
endoparasites, 764 Periodontitis, 633 Photoautotrophs, 323, 770 Pituitary dwarfism, 688
in flatworms, 388, 388f Periosteum, 576, 576f Photomicrograph, 66 Pituitary glands, 533, 533f, 534f
fluid feeders, 628, 628f Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 526, Photopigment proteins, 95 anterior, 683f, 686, 687f
and population control, 734 526f. See also Sensory receptors Photoreceptors, 550, 554. See also Cone posterior, 683f, 686–687, 687f
as predation, 762 Perissodactyla, 405 cells; Rod cells PKU. See Phenylketonuria
prey defenses, 762–763, 763f Peristalsis, 633 Photosynthesis Placenta, 404, 716f, 717, 718, 718f, 720, 720f
in prokaryotes, 323 Peritonitis, 636 absorption spectrums of photosyn- Placental mammals, 294, 298, 404–405,
in roundworms, 393 Peritubular capillary network, 671, 671f, thetic pigments, 109, 109f 405f
Parasitoids, 762 672, 672f ATP production in, 110–113, 110f–113f Plague, 328
Parasympathetic division, 526f, 541, 541f Permafrost, 786 C3, 116, 116f Planarians, 387, 387f, 532, 532f
Parathyroid glands, 683f, 689 Permian period, 293t, 294f, 295, 295f C4, 116–117, 117f chemoreceptors in, 552
Parathyroid hormone (PTH), 683f, 689 Peroxisomes, 68f, 74 Calvin Cycle reactions circulatory system, lack of, 590, 590f
Parenchyma cells, 436, 436f, 438, 440, Peruvian Amazon, economic exploitation in CAM plants, 117, 117f digestive system, 630, 630f
441, 442, 444 of, 803 in C 4 plants, 116, 117f excretory system, 667, 667f
Parent cells, 146 PERV. See Porcine endogenous retrovirus overview of, 108, 108f, 111f reproduction, 700
Parent material, in soil, 462f Pest control, biological, 803 phases of, 114–115, 114f, 115f respiration in, 650
Parietal bone, 572, 572f, 573f Pesticides, resistance to, 17, 816 CAM, 117, 117f Plankton, 335
Parietal lobes, 535, 535f PET. See Positron-emission tomography chemical equation for, 31 Plant(s). See also Angiosperms;
Parkinson disease, 220, 513, 531, 535 Petals, 365, 365f, 490f, 491 chloroplasts in, 76, 107, 107f Bryophytes; Ferns; Gymno-
Parsimony, 301, 301t Petiole, 432f, 433 in cyanobacteria, 297, 323, 324 sperms; Photosynthesis; Vascular
Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Virginia Peyer patches, 611 equation for, 108 plants
creeper), 296f PGD. See Preimplantation genetic evolution of, 105, 112 adaptation to land environment,
Parthenogenesis, 700 diagnosis (PGD) leaf structure and, 444, 444f, 445, 445f 248–249, 249f
Partially hydrogenated oils, 643 p16 gene, 221 light colors in, 104–105 algae as ancestor of, 352–353
Particulate theory of inheritance, 171, pH light reactions in, 108–113 as amino acid source, 309
172–173 of blood, 37, 675 absorption of solar energy, 109, 109f artificial selection in, 252, 252f
Partitioning in space, 117 regulation of, 518, 600, 658, 675 overview, 108, 108f asexual reproduction in, 499–500,
Partitioning in time, 117 buffers, 37 production of ATP and NADPH, 499f, 500f
Parturition, 720, 720f and enzymatic reactions, 91 110–113, 110f–113f carnivorous, 350–351, 351f, 464, 464f
Parviz, Babak, 299 and life, required range for, 37 and oxygenation of atmosphere, 319 characteristics of, 353
Passive immunity, 615 pH scale, 37, 37f oxygen released in, 108, 111 classification of, 297
Passive transport, 96, 96f of small intestine, 634 photosystems in, 110–113, 111f, 113f cloning of, 500, 500f
Pasteur, Louis, 134 of stomach, 634 phytoplankton and, 343 color of, 104–105
Patagonian hare, 258 of urine, 675 as redox reaction, 108 of coniferous forest, 786
Patella, 572f Phages. See Bacteriophages as source of energy on Earth, 9, 84–85, defense mechanisms, 79, 446
Pattern formation, 713 Phagocytes, immune system and, 612f, 106 of desert, 789
Pavlov, Ivan, 747 613, 614 stomata and, 445–446 dioecious, 491
Pax6 gene, 216, 284, 284f, 285f Phagocytosis, 339 tropisms and, 446, 446f energy storage in, 48, 48f, 49, 49f
PCBs, 309 Phalanges, 572f, 574, 574f, 575 and water, 108, 111, 455 environmental response by
PCP, urine tests for, 673 Pharmaceuticals. See also Drug abuse Photosynthetic organisms, 770 circadian rhythms
PCR. See Polymerase chain reaction anticancer drugs, 561, 619 Photosynthetic pigments, absorption and plant stoma, 456
Peaches, 497 anti-inflammatory drugs, 614 spectrums of, 109, 109f tropisms, 446, 446f
Peach-faced lovebirds (Agapornis antiviral drugs, and herpes, 708 Photosystem I (PS I), 110–113, 111f, 113f evolution of, 105, 292, 293t, 336f, 337f,
roseicollis), 744, 744f cell suspension culture and, 500 Photosystem II (PS II), 110–113, 111f, 113f 351–352, 351f, 352f, 359, 362,
Pearls, 391 cnidarians as source of, 386, 386f Phrenic nerve, 657f 365, 492, 492f
Peas. See Pisum sativum (garden pea) gene pharming, 236 pH scale, 37, 37f flowering (See Angiosperms)
Pectin, 99 immunosuppressive drugs, 621 Phycocyanin, 324 fungi vs., 370
Pectoral fin, 400f medicinal plants, 369 Phylogenetic cladistics, 300, 300f, 301, genetically modified, 234, 234f, 235,
Pectoral girdle, 572f, 574, 574f vertebrate products, 406, 406f 301f, 302f 235f
Pectoralis major, 579f wildlife, importance of, 802 Phylogenetic (evolutionary) trees, 298, growth
Pedigrees, 178, 178f Pharyngeal pouches, 398, 398f, 717f 298f, 301, 301f, 302f primary, 440–441, 440f, 441f
Pelagic zone, 792f, 793, 793f Pharynx, 633, 633f, 654, 654f Phylogeny secondary, 442–443, 442f
Pellagra, 91 Phenotype(s) definition of, 298 herbaceous, 438
Pellicle, 340, 340f definition of, 173 Linnean classification and, 298 homeostasis in, 445–446, 445f, 446f
Pelvic fin genes, 285 frequency distribution of, 264, 264f phylogenetic trees, 298, 298f, 301, hormones (See Plant hormones)
Pelvic girdle, 572f, 574, 574f genetic mutation and, 204 301f, 302f as kingdom, 15, 15f
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), 327, 708 Phenylalanine, 52f, 179, 204 tracing of, 303–304, 303f, 304f life cycle of, 160, 160f, 354, 354f
Penetration stage, of viral life cycle, 311, Phenylketonuria (PKU), 179, 204, 237 Phylum, 14, 14t, 296, 298f of marine ecosystems, 802, 802f
311f, 314, 314f, 315, 315f Pheromones Phytophthora infestans, 342 mineral requirements, determining,
Penguins, 16, 16f chemoreceptors and, 552, 552f Phytoplankton, 343, 770, 792, 793 460–461
Penicillin, 374, 802 as communication, 752 Phytoremediation, 457 monoecious, 491
Penicillium, 374 humans and, 681 PID. See Pelvic inflammatory disease mycorrhizae and, 371, 371f, 464, 464f,
Penis and insect behavior, 3, 680 Pigs 766
anatomy of, 702, 702f mammals and, 680–681, 743 bioluminescent, 229f nutrients
function of, 698–699 as reproductive barrier, 274 feral, environmental damage from, beneficial nutrients, 460
of mallard, 701, 701f Philippines, erosion in, 804 799, 806 deficiency, 461f
of seed beetle, 701, 701f Phloem, 358, 358f, 434, 434f, 437, 437f, Pikaia, 283 essential nutrients, 460–461, 461t
Pentaploids, 162 439f, 440f, 441, 441f, 442, 442f, Pileated woodpecker, 403f and mutualistic relationships,
Peppered moth, 260, 736 446, 446f, 452, 452f, 463f Pili, 67, 67f, 320, 320f 464, 464f

I-18 INDEX

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-18 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 parasitism in, 764 Polar nuclei, in angiosperms, 366, Postnatal tail, as chordate characteristic, as order, 405
perennial, 433 366f–367f 398 reproduction, 413
phytoremediation, 457 Polio, 314, 617 Postreproductive age, 731, 731f Prime mover, 580
polyploid, 162, 279, 279f Pollen grains, 355, 363, 363f, 366, Postsynaptic membrane, 530, 530f Primitive streak, 711, 711f, 717
of savanna, 789 366f–367f, 490, 490f, 494f Posttranscriptional control, 218, 221, 221f Principles of Geology (Lyell), 251
species, number of, 351 Pollen sac, 494f Posttranscriptional processing, 221, 221f Prion, 315
sporophyte dominance in, 354–355 Pollen tubes, 490, 494f, 495 Posttranslational controls, 220, 220f, 221, PRL. See Prolactin
sucrose transport in, 47 Pollination, 363, 363f, 366f–367f, 367, 221f Probability, Mendel’s laws and, 175
sugar transport in, 459, 459f 488–489, 494–495, 494f, 495f Posttranslational processing, 203, 203f Proboscideans, 405
of temperate deciduous forest, 788 Pollinators, 488–489, 494–495 Posture, evolution and, 575 Proboscis, 389
of temperate grassland, 788, 788f adaptation in, 248–249, 249f Postzygotic isolating mechanisms, 275, Procambium, 440, 440f, 441, 441f
and terrestrial ecosystems, 785 coevolution of, 766 275f, 277 Proconsul (fossil), 415, 415f
of tropical rain forest, 790, 790f decline in, 367 Potassium Producers, 770, 771, 771f
in tundra biosystem, 786 evolution of, 365 as biologically important ion, 30t Profile, genetic, 240
variegation in, 312, 312f mechanical isolation in, 274 dietary requirements, 641t Progesterone, 683f, 705, 706, 706f, 709f, 718
viral diseases, 312, 312f molecular evolution and, 55 as plant nutrient, 461t Proglottids, 388, 388f
water transport in, 33, 33f value of, 803, 803f Potassium gates, action potential and, Prokaryotes, 320–327. See also Archaea;
Plant cells Pollution 529, 529f Bacteria
anatomy, 69f biogeochemical cycles and, 804 Potatoes, genetically modified, 234, 234f autotrophic, 323
animal cells vs., 69t and extinction, 807, 807f Potato famine (Ireland, 1840s), 234, 342 chemoheterotrophic, 323
cell cycle in, 145f, 146–150, 148f–149f, and susceptibility to disease, 809 Potential energy, 86, 86f chromosomes, 67, 67f
150f Polychaetes, 392, 651 Powdery mildews, 372 definition of, 14
cell wall of, 69f, 99, 99f Polyculture, 816, 816f P (peptide) site, 202, 202f environmental importance of, 326
central vacuole of, 69f, 74–75, 74f Polydactylism, in Amish, 263, 263f Prairie evolution of, 292, 293t
cytokinesis in, 150, 150f Polygenic inheritance, 183, 183f short-grass, 788 in extreme environments, 91
mitosis in, 148–149, 148f–149f Polymer(s), 46, 46f tall-grass, 788 gene regulation in, 212, 212f
turgor pressure in, 97 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 197, Prebiotic soup hypothesis, 317, 317f initiation in, 202
Plant hormones, 446, 446f 238, 238f Precambrian time, 292, 293t medical importance, 326, 326t
abscisic acid (ABA), 456 Polyp(s), in colon, 636 Precipitation. See Rain nutrition, 323, 323f
auxins, 446 Polyp body form, in cnidarians, 386, 386f Precision farming, 816 reproduction, 321, 321f
in cloning of plants, 500 Polypeptide(s) Predation shapes, common, 320, 320f
overview, 446, 446f definition of, 52 coevolution in, 765 structure of, 320, 320f
Plaque folding of, 201, 203 and jaws, evolution of, 399, 400 Prokaryotic cells
in blood vessels, 51, 596, 596f, 597, synthesis (See Translation) and population control, 734, 734f protein synthesis in, 320
597f, 643 Polyploidy, 162, 279, 279f population dynamics in, 762, 762f ribosomes in, 71
dental, 633 Polyps, colon, 636 Pregnancy. See also Sexual reproduction, structure of, 67, 67f
Plasma, 600, 600f Polyribosomes, 68f, 71, 201 in humans Prolactin (PRL), 683f, 686, 687f, 807
Plasma cells, 616, 616f, 616t, 620, 620f Polysaccharides, 48, 48f, 629, 629f ectopic, 704 Proliferative phase, of uterine cycle, 706,
Plasma membrane, 80t, 93–98 Polysomes, 203 health habits and, 717 706f
bacterial, 320, 320f Ponds, 791 sexually-transmitted diseases and, 708 Promoters, 212, 212f
differential permeability of, 94, 94f Pons, 534f, 536 smoking in, 655 Proofreading, of DNA, 206
in eukaryotic cells, 68, 68f, 69f Population(s), 729–732 symptoms of, 717, 718 Property, definition of, 26
evolution of, 100 age structure diagrams, 731, 731f trimesters, 715 Prophages, 311
origin of, 319 annual growth rate, 730 Pregnancy tests, 620 Prophase
phospholipid bilayer, structure of, biotic potential of, 730 Prehensile hands and feet, in primates, 413f in meiosis
93, 93f carrying capacity and, 732, 732f Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), prophase I, 158, 158f–159f, 161f
in prokaryotic cells, 67, 67f definition of, 259, 728 181, 181f, 197 prophase II, 158f–159f, 159
proteins embedded in, 93–95, 93f, 94f ecological study of, 728 Premolar teeth (bicuspids), 632, 632f in mitosis, 145f, 148f–149f, 161f
of sensory receptors, 551 equilibrium, 735, 735f, 769, 769f Pre-mRNA alternative splicing, 218, 218f Proprioceptors, 551, 558, 558f
structure of, 93–94, 93f growth, patterns of, 732, 732f Preparatory (prep) reaction, 125, 128, Prop root, 498f
transport across, 96–98 human, 737 132, 132f Prosimians, 412f, 413, 415
Plasma proteins, 600, 600f, 602, 638 demographic transition, 737 Prereproductive age, 731, 731f Prostate cancer, 702
Plasmids, 232, 320, 322 doubling time, 737 Pressoreceptors, 551 Prostate gland, 702, 702f
Plasmin, 603 growth of, 737, 737f Press/pulse theory of mass extinctions, 295 Protease, 220, 220f, 315
Plasmodesma(ta), 99, 99f in more- vs. less-developed Pressure-flow model, 458–459, 459f Proteasome, 220, 220f
Plasmodial slime molds, 342, 342f countries, 737, 737f Pressure receptors, in skin, 559 Protective proteins, 612–613, 612f, 613f
Plasmodium, 332, 333f, 341, 765, 765f as level of organization, 8f Presumptive notochord, 712, 712f Protein(s)
Plasmolysis, 97 limiting factors, 729 Presynaptic membrane, 530, 530f as amino acid sequence, 52–53, 53f
Plastids, 76 predator-prey dynamics and, 762, 762f Prey, defenses of, 762–763, 763f carrier, 94, 94f, 96, 96f
Platelets, 511, 511f regulation of Prezygotic isolating mechanisms, cell recognition, 94
Plate tectonics, 294 density-dependent factors, 733f, 274–275, 274f, 275f, 277 channel, 94, 94f, 97
Play, in animals, 754 734, 734f, 735 Primary endosymbiosis, 334, 334f chaperone, 201
Pleated sheet, 54, 54f density-independent factors, 733, Primary follicle, 705, 705f denaturation of, 53–54
Pleiotropy, 184, 184f 733f, 735 Primary growth, 440–441, 440f, 441f in diet, 640
Pleistocene epoch, 293t sink, 810 Primary motor area, 535, 535f digestion of, 629, 629f, 634, 634f
Pleistocene overkill, 422 small, 736 Primary mRNA, 221f DNA-binding, 212, 212f
Pluripotent, 151 source, 810 Primary oocyte, 705, 705f as energy source, 135, 136
Pneumocystis carinii, 341 sustainability of U.S., 738 Primary phloem, 441, 441f enzymatic, 94, 94f
PNS. See Peripheral nervous system Population density, 729 Primary somatosensory area, 535, 535f folding of, 201, 203
Poachers, 807 Population distribution, 729, 729f Primary structure, of protein, 54, 54f functions of, 52
Point mutations, 204, 204f Population genetics Primary visual area, 535, 535f genetic mutations and, 58, 58f
Poison(s) Hardy-Weinberg principle, 260 Primary xylem, 441, 441f hox, 714
cellular respiration inhibitors, 130, microevolution, detection of, 260 Primates junction, 94, 94f
131, 131f Porcupines, 742, 742f, 763 arboreal life of, 412–413 levels of organization in, 54, 54f
cytochrome blockers, 130 Poriferans, 295f, 385 characteristics of, 410, 412–413 metabolism and, 52
endotoxins, 326 Porphyra, 344 diversity of, 412f in motion, 52
exotoxins, 326 Porphyria, 184 evolution of in phospholipid bilayer, 93–95, 93f, 94f
mushrooms, 374 Portal system, 598 common ancestor, 414f, 415 protective, 612–613, 612f, 613f
as plant defense, 79, 446 Portuguese man-of-war, 386f evolutionary tree, 414f, 415 receptor, 94, 94f, 100f
Poison-dart frog, 406, 406f, 787f Positive feedback, hormones and, 686 human-chimpanzee differences, shape of, 52–53
Poison ivy, 622 Positron-emission tomography (PET), 28, 410–411, 410f similarity in all organisms, 258
Polar bodies, 181, 181f, 705, 705f 28f group living in, 750 structural, 52
Polar covalent bonds, 32 Posterior compartment, of eye, 554, 554f mobile limbs in, 412–413 subunits of, 46f
Polar ice ecosystem, 785f Posterior pituitary, 683f, 686–687, 687f opposable thumbs in, 412 sweet-tasting, 262

INDEX I-19

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-19 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Protein synthesis, 70–73. See also Pupil, 554, 554f Recycling, 813, 813f Reproductive system
Transcription; Translation Purines, 192, 192f Red algae, 104–105, 335f, 336f, 337f, 344, in flatworms, 387, 387f
in cell cycle, 145 Purse-sein fishing, 809, 809f 344f, 793 human, 517, 517f
endoplasmic reticulum in, 72 Pyloric sphincter, 634 Red-backed cleaning shrimp, 395f female, 704–706, 704f, 705f
genetic information and, 70 Pyramid-shaped age structure diagrams, Red blood cells (erythrocytes) male, 702–703, 702f, 703f
Golgi apparatus in, 73, 73f 731, 731f hemolysis, 97 in mammals, 404
overview of, 203, 203f Pyrenoid, 338, 345, 345f malaria and, 332, 333f, 341, 341f Reproductive technologies, 709, 709f
in prokaryotic cells, 320 Pyrimidines, 192, 192f respiration and, 658 Reptiles
pulse-labeling in, 73, 73f Pyruvate, 125, 125f, 126, 127f, 128, 133, in sickle-cell disease, 184, 184f, 266 characteristics of, 384, 402, 402f
ribosomes in, 71 133f structure and function of, 511, 511f, circulatory system, 593, 593f
RNA and, 70 518, 600, 600f enzymatic reactions in, 91, 91f
Proteinuria, 673 Red bone marrow evolution of, 292, 293t, 399f, 402
Proteome, 240
Proteomics, 240 Q functions of, 576, 576f, 600
and immune system, 610f, 611, 616, 618
extraembryonic membranes, 715
kidneys of, 670, 671
Prothrombin activator, 603 Quadriceps femoris group, 579f stem cells in, 145 osmoregulation in, 669
Protists, 332–346 Quadriplegia, 534 Red bread molds, 372 phylogeny, 302f
as ancestor of animals, 381 Quaternary period, 293t Red deer, 750 reproduction, 698–699
characteristics of, 14–15, 15f Quaternary structure, of protein, 54, 54f Red-green color blindness, 95 respiration in, 656–657
classification of, 14–15, 297 Quillworts, 358 Red kangaroo, 729 RER. See Rough ER
and disease, 332–333, 335, 339, 341, Quinine, 369, 500 Redox reaction Reservoir, in chemical cycling, 774, 774f
341f, 369 cellular respiration as, 124 Resource(s)
diversity of, 335 definition of, 108 competition for, and biodiversity, 453
as eukaryotes, 334
evolution of, 335, 336f, 337, R photosynthesis as, 108
Red pulp, of spleen, 611, 611f
definition of, 729
exploitation of
337f, 379 Rabbits Reduced hemoglobin, 658 and extinctions, 805f, 807, 809
mold-like, 342, 342f digestion in, 627, 631, 631f Reduction, definition of, 108 and sustainable development, 811
parasitism in, 764 evolution of, 258 Redwood trees, 786 nonrenewable, 814
reproduction, 335 Rabies, 313 Refinement, of grains, 639 and population, 729, 737
Protocell(s), evolution of, 318, 318f, 319, Radial symmetry, 379, 382, 397 Reflex actions, 534, 541, 541f, 551, 633 renewable, 814–815
319f Radiant energy, as energy type, 86 Reflex arc, 540, 540f resource partitioning, 760–761, 760f,
Protoderm, 440, 440f, 441, 441f Radiation Reflexes, 540 761f
Protons, 27, 27f, 27t and cancer, 154 Refractory period Respiration
Proto-oncogenes, 221, 221f health effects of, 28 of axon, 529 energy used in, 650, 651f
Protostomes, 383, 383f, 390, 390f as mutagen, 206 following male orgasm, 702 external
Protozoans, 338–341 uses of, 27–28, 28f Regeneration, in sponges, 385 gas exchange in, 658, 659f
amoeboids, 335, 339, 339f Radicle, 496, 496f Regulatory gene, 212, 212f, 217 overview of, 650f
ciliates, 335, 340, 340f Radiolarians, 336f, 337f, 339, 339f Reindeer (Rangifer), 734 types of, 650–651, 651f
classification of, 335 Radiotherapy, 28, 28f Reinforcement, of isolating mechanisms, in humans, water loss in, 651
cysts, 335, 338, 339, 341 Radius, 572f, 574, 574f 277 internal
and disease, 333, 338 Radon, and cancer, 154 Release stage, of viral life cycle, 311, 311f, gas exchange in, 658, 659f
mutualism in, 766 Radula, 391, 391f 314, 314f, 315, 315f overview of, 650, 650f
sporozoans, 341, 341f Raggiana Bird of Paradise, 753 Rembrandt tulips, 312f steps of, 650, 650f
types of, 338 Rain Remnin, 134 Respiratory center, 657, 657f, 675
Proviruses, HIV, 315 acid, 38, 38f, 775, 807 Remoras, 764 Respiratory diseases
Proximal convoluted tubule, 670, 671f, mountains and, 783, 783f REM sleep, 537, 537f bacterial, 326t
672f, 673, 674 pH of, 38 Renal artery, 598, 598f viral, 314t
Prozac, 531 Rainfall, climate and, 782–784 Renal calculus (kidney stones), 670 Respiratory pigment, 588–589, 648
Pseudocoelom, 390, 390f Rain forest Renal cortex, 670, 671f Respiratory system
Pseudocoelomates, 390, 390f, 590 as biodiversity frontier, 801 Renal medulla, 670, 671f, 674, 674f and acid-base balance, 675
Pseudogenes, 242 temperate, 785f, 786 Renal pelvis, 670, 671f amphibians, 401
Pseudomyrmex ferruginea, 766 tropical, 783, 783f, 785f, 785t, 790, Renal vein, 598, 598f arthropods, 394
Pseudoplasmodium, 342 790f, 805, 805f, 810 Renewable energy, 813, 813f, 814–815, birds, 403
Pseudopods, 78, 339, 339f and global warming, 118, 118f 814f, 815f echinoderms, 397
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar Rain shadow, 783, 783f Renewable resources, 814–815 fish, 400–401
epithelium, 509, 509f Random mating, and microevolution, 260, Renin, 674, 691 and homeostasis, 518
Pseudostratified epithelium, 509 261 Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, humans, 654–660
PS I. See Photosystem I Random population distribution, 729, 674, 675f, 691 breathing rate, regulation of, 657,
PS II. See Photosystem II 729f Rennet, 233 657f, 675
Psilotum, 360 Range, of species, 729 Repetitive DNA, 239 disorders of, 660, 660f
PTH. See Parathyroid hormone RAS. See Reticular activating system Replacement model gas exchange, 658, 659f
Puberty Raspberries, 497f of human ethnic diversity, 424 overview of, 517, 517f, 654, 654f
regulation of onset, 536 Rat(s), 752, 754, 806 of human evolution, 421, 421f smoking and, 655
and secondary sex characteristics, 703 Rat poison, 92 Replication. See DNA replication ventilation, 656, 656f
Pubic symphysis, 574, 574f Ray(s), 400, 571 Repolarization, in action potential, 529, 529f water loss, 651
Puffballs, 373, 373f Ray-finned fishes, 400–401 Repressor, 212, 212f, 213, 213f Restoration ecology, 811
Pulmonary arteries, 592, 592f, 598f, 659f RB gene, 223 Reproduction. See also Asexual Restriction enzymes, 232, 232f
Pulmonary circuit, 593, 593f, 598, 598f Reaction(s) reproduction; Sexual Restrictive pulmonary disorders, 660
Pulmonary disorders coupled, 89, 89f reproduction RET gene, 223
lung cancer, 143f, 154, 206, 655, 660, endergonic, 88 animals Reticular activating system (RAS), 536,
660f exergonic, 88 asexual, 700, 700f 551
obstructive, 660 Reaction center, of photosystem, 110, 110f, overview of, 698–699 Reticular formation, 536, 536f
restrictive, 660 111, 111f sexual, 700, 700f Retina, 554, 554f, 555, 556–557, 557f
Pulmonary semilunar valve, 592 Receptacle, 365, 365f, 490f, 491 as characteristic of life, 9, 18 disorders of, 555
Pulmonary trunk, 592, 592f Receptor proteins, 94, 94f, 100f marsupials, 404 Retinal, 556–557
Pulmonary veins, 592, 592f, 659f Recessive alleles, 173, 261 parthenogenesis, 700 Retinoblastoma protein (RB), 221
Pulse, 594 Reciprocal altruism, 751 plants, adaptations to land environ- Retroviruses, 315, 315f
Pulse-labeling, of protein secretion Recombinant DNA technology, 232, 232f, ment, 354–355 Reverse transcriptase, 315, 315f
pathway, 73, 73f 233 prokaryotes, 321, 321f Reverse transcription, and origin of DNA,
Punctuated equilibrium model of Recombinant gametes. See Crossing-over water as necessity for, 25 319
speciation, 281, 281f Recruitment, 581 Reproduction rate, in primates, 413 Reznick, David, 265
Punnett square, 174f, 175, 175f, 260, 260f Rectum, 632f, 636, 636f Reproductive age, 731, 731f R groups of amino acids, 53
Pupae, fire ant, 3 Rectus abdominis, 579f Reproductive cloning, 230, 230f, 231 Rhesus monkeys, 415

I-20 INDEX

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-20 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Rheumatic fever, 592, 621 RNA world, 318 Salt marshes, 791, 791f, 792 Secondary follicle, 705, 705f
Rheumatoid arthritis, 621, 621f Robust, defined, 418 Salt-tolerant crops, 234, 234f Secondary growth, 442–443, 442f
Rhinoceros, 809 Rockhopper penguins, 16, 16f Salt-water balance, maintenance of, 520, Secondary oocyte, 705, 705f
Rhizobium, 464 Rockweed (Fucus), 344, 344f 520f, 674–675, 674f, 675f Secondary sex characteristics, 703, 705
Rhizomes, 499, 499f Rocky Mountain spotted fever, 395 San Andreas fault, 294, 294f Secondary structure, of protein, 54, 54f
Rhizopus stolonifer (Black bread mold), Rocky shores, 792, 792f Sand, in soil, 462 Secondary succession, 767f
372, 372f Rod cells, 413, 548, 550, 556–557, 557f Sand dollar, 397f Second law of thermodynamics, 87, 771
Rhodopsin, 556–557 Rodents, as order, 405 Sandy shores, 792 Second messenger, 684, 684f
Rh system, 604 Rodhocetus, 256, 272f Sanger, Frederick, 52 Second polar body, 705, 705f
Rib cage, 573, 573f Rohypnol (roofies), 543 San Joaquin valley, 815 Secretin, 636, 636f
Riboflavin Rönn, Johanna, 701 Saprolegnia, 342 Secretion (exocytosis), 73, 73f, 75, 75f
deficiency in, 91 Roofies (rohypnol), 543 Saprotrophs, 323, 759 Secretory phase, of uterine cycle, 706,
dietary requirements, 642t Root cap, 440, 440f Sap wood, 442 706f
Ribonucleic acid. See RNA Root hairs, 432f, 433, 433f, 436, 436f, Sarcolemma, 582, 582f, 583f Sedimentation, and fossils, 255
Ribose, 47, 57, 57f, 57t, 192, 192f 440–441, 440f Sarcomas, 153, 609f Seed(s)
Ribosomal RNA. See rRNA Root nodules, 464, 464f Sarcomeres, 582, 582f anatomy of, 495f, 498f
Ribosomes Root pressure, 454 Sarcoplasmic reticulum, 582, 582f, 583 dispersal of, 488–489
in animal cells, 68f Roots, evolution of, 492, 492f Sargassum, 344 embryo development in, 496, 496f
attachment to ER, 71, 71f, 72, 72f Root system Sarin, 92, 92f evolution of, 352f, 362, 492, 492f
function of, 80t eudicots, 434, 434f, 439, 440–441, 440f SARS. See Severe acute respiratory formation of, 490–495, 494f
in plant cells, 69f growth, 440–441, 440f syndrome germination, 498, 498f
in prokaryotic cells, 67, 67f, 203, 203f, monocots, 434, 434f Sartorius, 579f naked, 362, 363
320 structure and function of, 432, 432f, SA (sinoatrial) node, 594, 594f Seed beetle, 701, 701f
in protein synthesis, 71, 201, 201f, 433, 433f Saturated fatty acids, 49, 597, 640, 640f, Seed coat, 495, 495f
202, 202f tissues, 438–439, 438f, 439f 643 Seed cones, 492
structure of, 201, 201f, 202, 202f water and mineral uptake, 462, 462f Savannas, 785f, 789, 789f Seed ferns, 364, 364f
Ribozymes, 318, 319 and water transport in plants, 455, Scanning electron micrograph (SEM), 66 Seedless vascular plants, 358f, 360–361
Ribs, 572f 455f Scanning electron microscopes, 66, 66f characteristics of, 353
Rice, William, 701 Root tip, 432f, 433 Scapula, 572f, 574, 574f diversity of, 358, 358f
Rice blast disease, 374 Rose gardener’s disease, 374 Scarlet kingsnake, 763 economic value of, 360–361
Rice (Oryza), 368, 368f, 435, 435f, Rosy periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), Scavengers, 758–759, 758f, 770, 771, 771f evolution of, 352f
802–803 802, 802f SCFAs. See Short-chain fatty acids life cycle, 361, 361f
Rice paddies, 360 Rotational balance, 562–563, 562f Schemski, Douglas W., 55 Segmentation
Rickets, 30, 642 Rothschild, Lionel Walker, 249 Schistosoma, 388, 388f in annelids, 392
Rieppel, Olivier C., 303 Rough ER (RER), 68f, 69f, 72, 72f, 75, 75f Schistosomiasis, 388, 388f in arthropods, 397
Rift Valley fever, 328 Round window, 559, 559f Schleiden, Matthias, 63 in lancelets, 398
Right atrium, 592, 592f Roundworms, 390f Schwann, Theodor, 63 Selam (fossil), 418
Right hemisphere, 535 anatomy, 393 Schwann cells, 527, 527f Selection
Right lymphatic duct, 610 characteristics of, 384 SCID (severe combined immunodefi- artificial, 252, 252f, 280, 280f
Right ventricle, 592, 592f circulatory system, 590 ciency), treatment of, 237 natural (See Natural selection)
Right whales, 754 evolution of, 382f Science sexual, 749
Rigor mortis, 583 as parasite, 393, 393f models in, 27 Selenium, dietary requirements, 641t
Ring-tailed lemur, 412f reproduction, 700 Scientific method Self-antigens, 615
Ringworm, 374, 374f sleep in, 537 steps in, 4, 5f Self-pollination, 494
RISC. See RNA-induced silencing complex rRNA (ribosomal RNA) Scientific names, 15 SEM. See Scanning electron micrograph
Rivers, 791, 791f function of, 200 Scientific process, 4 Semen (seminal fluid)
RNA-first hypothesis, 318 production of, 70, 200 Scientific theory, 5 characteristics of, 702
RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), Rubber, 369, 369f Sclera, 554, 554f propulsion through reproductive tract,
219 Rubber trees (Hevea), 803f Sclerenchyma cells, 436f, 437, 438, 444, 686
RNA polymerase RuBP, 114–115, 114f, 115f 444f Semicircular canals, 559, 559f, 562–563,
DNA-binding proteins and, 212, 212f, RuBP carboxylase, 114–115, 114f Sclerids (stone cells), 437 562f
213, 213f Rugae, 634, 634f SCN. See Suprachiasmatic nucleus Semiconservative replication, 196, 196f
RNA (ribonucleic acid) Rumen, 631, 631f Scolex, 388, 388f Semidesert, 785f
digestion of, 634 Ruminants, digestion in, 48, 627, 631, Scoliosis, 573 Semilunar valves, 592, 592f, 594
DNA vs., 316 631f Scorpions, 395, 667 Seminal fluid. See Semen
enzymatic function of, 318, 319 Runner’s high, 531 Scrotum, 702, 702f Seminal vesicles, 702
as first macromolecule, 316, 318, 319 Rwanda, biogas in, 759 Sea anemone, 386f, 532, 764, 764f, 766 Seminiferous tubules, 703, 703f
function of, 57 Seabirds, territoriality among, 748 Sensation, as brain phenomenon, 513, 551
messenger (mRNA) Sea breezes, origin of, 783 Sense organs, in flatworms, 387, 387f
function of, 70
mature, 221f S Sea cucumber, 397f
Seagrass beds, destruction of, 805
Sensory adaptation, 551
Sensory (afferent) neurons, 527, 527f, 540f
posttranscriptional processing of, Sac body plan, 386, 387 Seagulls, osmoregulation in, 669, 669f Sensory receptors
221, 221f Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 241t Sea lettuce (Ulva), 346, 346f bilateral symmetry in, 533
primary, 221f Saccule, 562–563, 564, 564f Sea lily, 397f categories of, 550
in transcription, 203, 203f Sac fungi, 371f, 372–373, 372f Sea lions, and overfishing, 809 chemoreceptors, 550, 551, 552–553,
in translation, 70, 71, 71f, 200–202, Sacral vertebrae, 573 Seals 552f, 553f
201f, 203, 203f Sacrum, 572f, 574 elephant, 680 communication with CNS, 551, 551f
in origin of DNA, 316 Saddle joints, 577 northern elephant (Mirounga angusti- electromagnetic receptors, 550, 550f
as polymer of nucleotides, 192–193 Safrole, 206 rostris), 648, 648f mechanoreceptors, 550, 559, 560
production of, 70 Sahelanthropus tchadensis, 416, 416f and overfishing, 809 olfactory receptors, 553, 553f
ribosomal (rRNA) St. Paul Island, 734 Weddell (Leptonychotes weddelli), 648 pain receptors (nociceptors), 550
function of, 200 Salamanders, 276, 276f, 401, 401f, 651 Sea otters, 809 photoreceptors, 550, 554 (See also
production of, 70, 200 Salinization, of soil, 234 Seasickness, 563 Cone cells; Rod cells)
small, 218–219, 219f Saliva, 632 Seasons in skin, 515, 515f
structure Salivary amylase, 632 melatonin and, 694 taste receptors, 550, 552–553, 552f
bases, 57, 57t, 192, 192f Salivary glands, 632, 632f source of, 782, 782f thermoreceptors, 550, 550f
chemical structure, 57, 57f, 57t, Sally lightfoot crab, 395f Sea squirts (tunicates), 398, 398f, 399f Sensory system, in humans, 516, 516f
192, 192f Salmon, 276–277, 277f, 812 Sea stars, 397, 397f Sepal, 365, 365f, 490f, 491
overview, 57, 57f Salmonella, 326 Sea turtles, 736, 736f Septa, 392, 392f
transfer (tRNA) Salt(s), 30 Sea urchins, 397f, 524, 524f, 809 Septate hypha, 370, 370f
function of, 70, 202, 202f Saltatory conduction, 529, 529f Seaweeds, 344, 345 September 11th terrorist attacks
initiator, 202, 202f Salt-cured foods, and cancer, 154 Secondary endosymbiosis, 334, 334f dust from, and lung disease, 660, 660f

INDEX I-21

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-21 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Septum, heart, 592, 592f Siberia, 787, 787f Skull, human, 534f, 572–573, 572f, 573f Solvent, definition of, 34, 97
SER. See Smooth ER Siberian tigers, 809 Sky burials, 758, 758f Somaclonal variations, 500
Serine, 52f, 199 Sickle-cell disease Sleep Somatic cells
Serotonin, 531, 542, 542t, 543 causes and symptoms, 179 evolution of, 537 cell cycle in, 145f, 146–150,
Sertoli cells, 703, 703f as genetic disease, 58, 58f, 204 importance of, 537 148f–149f
Serum, 603 hemoglobin in, 266 melatonin and, 694, 694f Somatic embryogenesis, 500, 500f
Sessile animals, 382 malaria and, 184, 266 Sleep cycle, 537, 537f Somatic motor fibers, 526f
Sessile leaves, 433 pleiotropy in, 184, 184f Sleep deprivation, 537 Somatic mutations, 204
Setae, 392, 392f Sickle-cell trait, 179 Sleep latency, 694 Somatic system, 526, 526f, 540, 540f
Set point, 519 SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome), Sleep stages, 537, 537f Somites, 712, 712f
Severe acute respiratory syndrome 655 Slime layer, 320 Song learning, in birds, 746
(SARS), 309f, 313, 313f Sierra Nevada mountains, 783 Slime molds, 336f, 337f, 342, 342f Sorus (sori), 361, 361f
Severe combined deficiency syndrome Sieve plate, 437, 437f Slow-twitch muscle fibers, 584, 584f Sound (auditory) communication, 752
(SCID), 237 Sieve tube(s), 437, 437f, 458 Small interfering RNAs (siRNA), 219, 219f Source, in pressure-flow model, 459
Sex characteristics, secondary, 703, 705 Sieve-tube members, 437, 437f, 452, 452f, Small intestine, human, 634, 634f, 635, Source population, 810
Sex chromosomes, 144, 155, 155f 458 635f South Africa, as biodiversity hotspot, 801
abnormalities in, 163, 163t Sieve-tube plates, 459 Small populations, adaptability of, 736 South America, Humboldt Current and,
Sex hormones Sigmoid colon, 632f, 636 Smallpox, 328, 617 784, 784f
adrenal cortex and, 690 Signaling molecules, 100f Small RNA, 218–219, 219f South Beach diet, 639
and bone strength, 578 Signal transduction pathways Smell receptors, 550, 553, 553f Southern Oscillation. See El Niño-South-
and development, 718 oncogenes and, 221, 221f Smoked foods, and cancer, 154 ern Oscillation
female, 705 in plasma membrane, 100f Smoking Soviet Union, wheat failure in, 800
male, 703 Silkworm, 680 and cancer, 154, 206, 655 Space-filling model, 31, 31f, 32f
production of, 703 Silt, in soil, 462 and cardiovascular disease, 596–597 Specialization. See also Differentiation
Sex pili, 322 Silurian period, 293t and chronic bronchitis, 509 of eukaryotic cells, 142–143
Sexual arms race, 701 Simple diffusion, 96, 96f effects of nicotine, 543 Special K (ketamine), 543
Sexual development, regulation of, 693 Simple fruits, 497 health effects, 655, 660 Speciation
Sexually-transmitted diseases, 314t, 326t, Simple goiter, 689, 689f quitting, 543 adaptive radiation, 278, 278f
338, 708, 708t. See also specific Simple muscle twitch, 580, 580f Smooth ER (SER), 68f, 69f, 72, 72f, 75, 75f definition of, 272
diseases Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), Smooth muscle, 512, 512f gradualistic model, 281, 281f
Sexual recombination, and microevolu- 259 Snails, 265, 564 punctuated equilibrium model of,
tion, 261 Sink, in pressure-flow model, 458–459, Snakes, 402, 402f 281, 281f
Sexual reproduction. See also Meiosis 459f behavior, genetically-based, 745 reinforcement of, by natural selection,
advantages and disadvantages of, 157 Sink population, 810 brown tree snake, 806 277
in algae, 345, 345f Sinoris, 256 chemoreceptors in, 552 sympatric, 279–280
in angiosperms, 355, 490–495 Sinuses coral snake, 763 undirected nature of, 286, 286f
in animals, 700, 700f cranial, 572 diamondback rattlesnake, 402f Species
in ciliates, 340, 340f in lymph nodes, 611 fer-de-lance pit viper, 406 biological species concept, 272–273
in diatoms, 343 siRNA. See Small interfering RNAs garter (Thamnophis elegans), 745 definition of, 272–273, 296, 298f
in fungi, 370, 372, 372f, 373, 373f (siRNA) mimicry in, 763 evolutionary species concept, 272
and genetic variation, 156–157, 157f, Sister chromatids, 144, 144f, 146, 146f, scarlet kingsnake, 763 hybridized, 270–271, 270f, 271f
160 148f–149f, 149, 155, 155f thermoreceptors in, 550, 550f keystone, 810
in humans, 702–709 Skates, 400 Snoring, 632 life history of, 735
and disease (See Sexually- Skeletal muscle, 512, 512f, 579–584 Snowshoe hare, 762, 762f postzygotic isolating mechanisms, 275,
transmitted diseases) antagonistic pairs, 580, 580f SNPs. See Single nucleotide 275f, 277
female reproductive system, 517, contraction of, 89, 89f, 580–581, polymorphisms prezygotic isolating mechanisms,
517f, 704–706, 704f, 705f 582–584, 582f, 583f Snuff, 655 274–275, 274f, 275f, 277
male reproductive system, 517, fast- and slow-twitch fibers, 584, 584f Soay sheep (Ovis aries), 808, 808f reproductive barriers, 274–275, 274f,
517f, 702–703, 702f, 703f functions, 579, 579f Social behavior, as adaptive, 750–751, 275f
reproductive technologies, 709, motor units, 580–581, 580f 750f, 751f as taxon, 14, 14t
709f muscle cells, 582, 582f Society, 752 Species richness, 769
water and, 25, 25f neuromuscular junction, 583, 583f sustainable, 813, 813f Specific epithet, 15
in insects, 396 proprioceptors and, 558, 558f Sociobiology, 750 Specific immunity. See Immune system
in protists, 335 Skeleton Sodium Spemann, Hans, 713, 714
in reptiles, 402 appendicular, 572, 572f, 574–575, 574f as biologically important ion, 30t Sperm
in sponges, 385 axial, 572–573, 572f, 573f dietary requirements, 641, 641t human, 702, 703, 703f
in sporozoans, 341 endoskeleton, 571, 571f Sodium chloride, formation of, 30, 30f plant, 490, 490f, 492, 492f, 494f, 495
Sexual satisfaction, hormones and, 686 of sponge, 385 Sodium gates, and action potential, Spermatids, 703, 703f
Sexual selection, 749 exoskeleton, 394, 396, 559f, 570 528–529, 529f Spermatogenesis, 160, 703, 703f
Shape and homeostasis, 576 Sodium hydroxide, dissociation of, 36 Spermicidal jelly, 707f
of organism, genetic expression and, human, 516, 516f Sodium-potassium pump, and neuron Sphagnum, 356
284–285, 285f appendicular, 572, 574–575, 574f resting potential, 528, 528f Sphenoid bones, 572, 572f, 573f
of proteins, 52–53 axial, 572–573, 572f, 573f Soft palate, 632, 632f, 654 Sphincters, 633
Shared ancestral trait, 300 functions of, 571 Soft spots, 577 Spices, 368
Shared derived trait, 300, 301t gender differences, 569, 569f Softwood, 362 Spicules, 385, 385f
Sharks, 400, 400f, 571, 666, 764 hydrostatic, 390, 570, 570f Soil Spider(s), 395, 395f, 667
Sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon mammal, functions of, 571 composition of, 462 Spider monkeys, 415
variegatas), 812 of vertebrates, 571 erosion, prevention of, 804 Spike mosses, 358
Shell, of mollusc, 391, 391f Skill memory, 538 formation of, 324 Spinal cord, 526, 526f, 533f, 534f. See also
Shin, 574, 575 Skin salinization, 234 Central nervous system
Shingles, 314 anatomy of, 515, 515f Soil profiles, 462, 462f anatomy of, 534
Shock, anaphylactic, 622 and homeostasis, 519 Solar energy, 814f development of, 533, 712, 717
Shoot system, 432–433, 432f, 433f, 441, immune system and, 612, 612f and energy flow in ecosystems, 771, function of, 534
441f touch receptors in, 558, 558f 771f injury to
Shore crabs, foraging by, 748, 748f Skin cancer sustainability and, 814 effects of, 534
Shores DNA repair and, 206 Solar radiation, climate and, 782, 782f Spinal nerves, 526, 526f, 539, 539f
rocky, 792, 792f UV radiation and, 515 Soldierfish, 400f Spindle, muscle, 558, 558f
sandy, 792 xeroderma pigmentosum and, 206 Solute, definition of, 34, 97 Spindle apparatus, 146
Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), 637 Skin diseases Solution(s) Spindle apparatus, evolution of, 147, 147f
Short-grass prairie, 788 bacterial, 326t definition of, 34, 97 Spindle fibers, 148, 148f–149f
Short-term memory, 538 viral, 314t hypertonic, 97 Spindle poles, 148f–149f
Shrimps, 395, 395f, 667 Skin gills, 397, 397f hypotonic, 97 Spinks, Lorna, 543
Shrubland, 785f Skinner, B. F., 747, 754 isotonic, 97, 97f Spiny anteater, 404

I-22 INDEX

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-22 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Spiracles, in insect tracheal system, 653, Sternum, 572f, 574 Sugar(s) Systematics. See also Classification of
653f Steroid(s) conversion to glucose, 639 organisms; Phylogeny
Spirillum (spirilla), 320f, 321 in phospholipid bilayer, 93 in diet, 639, 639t definition of, 296
Spirogyra, 345, 345f, 352 structure of, 50, 50f disaccharides, 47, 47f evolutionary, 300–301, 301f, 302f
Spleen, 610f, 611, 611f, 649 Steroid hormones, action of, 685, 685f monsaccharides, 47 phylogenetic cladistics, 300, 300f, 301,
Sponges, 385, 385f, 532 Stickleback fish, 285 polysaccharides, 48, 48f 301f, 302f
characteristics of, 384 Sticky ends, of DNA, 232 transport in plants, 459, 459f Systematics and the Origin of Species
evolution of, 382f Stigma, 365, 365f, 366f–367f, 490f, 491, Sugar beets, 368 (Mayr), 276
reproduction, 700 494f, 495 Sugarcane, 368 Systemic circuit, 593, 593f, 598, 598f
Spongin, 385 Stimuli Sulcus (sulci), 535, 535f Systemic diseases, bacterial, 326t
Spongy bone, 576, 576f definition of, 550 Sulfhydryl groups, 45f Systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus),
Spongy mesophyll, 438, 444, 444f, 445f response to, as characteristic of life, Sulfur 621, 621f
Sporangium, 342, 342f, 358, 358f, 361, 11, 11f, 18 and life, 26, 26f Systole, 594
361f, 372, 372f Stinging, as defense mechanisms, 2, 3f Sulfur dioxide, and acid deposition, 775, Systolic pressure, 599
Spores Stinkhorns, 373 807
of fungus, 370, 370f Stirrup (stapes), 559, 559f, 560, 560f, 562 Sulphur, as plant nutrient, 461t
of mosses, 357, 357f
of pine, 363, 363f
Stolons, 499, 499f
Stomach, human, 634, 634f, 636f
Summer solstice, 782f
Summer wood, 442 T
in plant life cycle, 354, 354f hormones produced by, 636 Sundew plants, 351, 351f, 464, 464f Tacrolimus, 621
of protists, 335 hydrochloric acid in, 36 Sunflower, 106f Tactile communication, 753, 753f
of slime mold, 342, 342f ulcers, 635 Sunglasses, categories of, 555 Tadpoles, 380, 380f, 401
Sporophytes Stomata (stoma) Sunlight Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), 388, 388f
in angiosperms, 366f–367f, 490, 490f, functions of, 107, 111, 355, 355f, 438, absorption spectrums of photosyn- Taiga, 785f, 785t, 786, 786f
494f 444 thetic pigments, 109, 109f Tailbone (coccyx), 572f, 573
in bryophytes, 356, 357, 357f in leaf anatomy, 107, 107f, 439f, 444f electromagnetic spectrum, 109 Tall-grass prairie, 788
dominance, as land adaptation, opening and closing of, 355, 436, as source of energy on Earth, 84–85, Tandem repeat, 239–240
354–355, 354f 445–446, 445f, 456, 456f 106 Tapeworms, 388, 388f
embryo development, 496, 496f in plant anatomy, 455, 455f Sunscreen, 154 Taq DNA polymerase, 238
evolution of, 492, 492f structure of, 436, 436f Superior vena cava, 592f, 598f Tarbela Dam, Pakistan, 804
in ferns, 354, 361, 361f and water loss, 455 Superorganisms, fire ants as, 3 Target cells, 682, 684f
of pine, 363, 363f Stone cells (sclerids), 437 Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), 694 Tarsal bones, 572f, 574f, 575
in plant life cycle, 160, 160f, 354 Stone fly, larva of, 791, 791f Surface-area-to-volume ratio Tarsiers, 412f, 414f
Sporozoans, 341, 341f Stone fruits, 497 of cells, 65, 65f Tasmanian wolf/tiger, 404
Sporozoites, 341f Stoneworts, 346, 346f, 352–353 of eukaryotic cells, 68 Taste buds, 552–553, 552f
Springboks, 763, 765 Stop codons, 201, 202 of human bodies, 424 Taste receptors, 550, 552–553, 552f
Spring equinox, 782f Stramenopiles, 336f Surface tension, of water, 33, 33f Taxonomy, 14–15
Spring wood, 442 Strata (stratum), 251, 255 Surrogate mothers, 709 binomial naming system, 296
Spurges, phylogeny, 303, 303f Stratification Survival of the fittest, 253 definition of, 14, 296
Squamous epithelium, 509, 509f of habitat, 769 Survivorship, 730, 730f taxa, 14, 14t, 296, 298f
Squids, 391, 532, 532f, 549, 549f, 589, in temperate deciduous forest, 788 Survivorship curve, 730–731, 731f Taxon (taxa), 14, 14t, 296, 298f
590, 652 Stratified epithelium, 509 Suspension feeders, 385 Tay-Sachs disease, 74, 179, 182
SRY (sex-determining region of Y Strauss, Levi, 369 Sustainable agriculture, 816, 816f Tbx5 gene, 284
chromosome), 236, 236f Strawberries, 497f Sustainable development, 811 T cell receptors (TCR), 616, 618, 618f
S-shaped curve, characteristics of, 732, Strawberry plants, asexual reproduction Sustainable society, 813, 813f T cells, 601, 608, 608f, 611, 616, 616f,
732f in, 499, 499f Swallowing, 633 616t, 618–619, 619f
S stage, 145, 145f Streams, 791, 791f Swallows, 761, 808, 808f TCR. See T cell receptors
Stabilizing selection, 264, 264f, 266 Streptococcus pneumoniae, Griffith’s Swan, 701 Tea, 368
Stable equilibrium phase, of S-shaped research on, 322 Swayback (lordosis), 573 Tectonic plates, 294
curve, 732, 732f Streptomycin, 561, 802 Sweat glands, 515, 515f, 519 Teeth
Stamen, 365, 365f, 366f–367f, 490f, 491, Stress, adrenal glands and, 686f, Sweet-tasting proteins, 262 carnivores, 405, 626–627, 626f
494f 690–691 Swifts, 761 decay in, 633
Stanley, Stephen, 217 Striation, in muscle fiber, 512, 512f, 582 Swim bladder, 400 herbivores, 405, 626f, 627
Stanley, Wendell, 312 Strobilys, 358, 358f Swimmerets, of crayfish, 394f, 395 human, 627, 632–633, 632f
Stapes (stirrup), 559, 559f, 560, 560f, 562, Stroke, 596 Swine fever, 328 omnivores, 627
564f Stroma, 76, 76f, 107, 107f, 108, 114, 114f Swine flu, 313 Teleogryllus oceanicus, 254
Starch, 48, 48f Stromatolites, 324 Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), Telophase
dietary, sources of, 639 Strong acids, 36 430–431 in meiosis
digestion of, 632, 634, 634f Strong bases, 36 Symbiosis, 764, 764f telophase I, 158, 158f–159f, 161f
Starfish, 571, 571f Structural carbohydrates, 44, 44f and coevolution, 765 telophase II, 158f–159f
StarLink corn, 235, 235f Structural genes, 212, 212f cyanobacteria, 324 in mitosis, 145f, 148f–149f, 161f
Start codons, 202 Structural polysaccharides, 48, 48f in green algae, 345 Telson, 394f, 395
Statocysts, 564, 564f Style, 365, 365f, 366f–367f, 490f, 491, lichens, 324 TEM. See Transmission electron
Statoliths, 564, 564f 494f, 495 in protists, 334, 334f, 335 micrograph
Stem(s), angiosperm Subatomic particles, 27, 27f, 27t Symmetry Temperate deciduous forest, 783, 783f,
eudicots, 434, 434f, 438, 439f Subclavian veins, 610f bilateral, 379, 387, 532, 533 785f, 785t, 788, 788f
monocots, 434f, 438, 439f Subcutaneous layer, 515, 515f radial, 379, 382, 397 Temperate grassland, 785f, 788, 788f
structure and function, 432, 432f Subduction zone, 294 sexual selection and, 749 Temperate rain forest, 785f, 786
tissues, 438, 438f, 439f Suberin, 436, 438, 442 Sympathetic division, 526f, 541, 541f Temperature
and water transport in plants, 455, Suboxone, 544 Sympatric speciation, 279–280 and climate, 782–784
455f Subsidence, 815 Synapses, neural, 530, 530f, 538 and enzymatic reactions, 91, 91f
Stem cells, 230 Subsoil, 462f Synapsids, 256 global warming, 118, 118f
adult, 142, 145, 149, 151, 230 Substance P, 531 Synapsis, of homologous chromosomes, sensation, 558, 558f
and animal cloning, 231 Substrate feeders, 628, 628f 155, 156, 156f Template strand, 196, 196f
embryonic, 145, 151, 151f, 230 Substrate-level ATP synthesis, 126, 126f, Synaptic cleft, 530, 530f, 583, 583f Temporal bone, 572, 572f, 573f
ethics of research on, 230, 231 127f Syndactyly, 216 Temporal isolation, as reproductive
induced pluripotent, 151, 151f Substrates, 90, 90f Syndrome(s) barrier, 274, 275f
and tissue engineering, 621 Succession, ecological, 767–768, 767f chromosome number abnormalities, 163 Temporal lobe, 535, 535f
Stentor, 340, 340f Succulents, photosynthesis in, 117 chromosome structure abnormalities, Tendons, 510f, 511, 571, 577, 580
Stents, 596, 596f Suckers, 499 164, 164f Teosinte, 368
Stereocilia, 560, 560f, 561, 562–563, 562f Sucrose, 47 definition of, 163 Terminal bud, 432, 432f, 441, 441f
Stereoscopic vision, 413, 413f, 549, 557 Suctoria, 340 Synovial fluid, 577 Terminal bud scale scars, 441, 441f
Sterility, of hybridized species, 271, 275, Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), Synovial joints, 577, 577f Termination stage, in translation, 202, 203f
275f 655 Syphilis, 309f, 708, 802 Termites, 48, 752, 766, 790, 806

INDEX I-23

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-23 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Terrestrial ecosystems, 785–790, 785t Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), Transduction Tropic hormones, 686, 686f
Territoriality, 748 683f, 686, 687f, 689 in bacteria, 322 Tropisms, 446, 446f
Territory, of animal, 748 Thyroid tumors, 689 Trans fats, 49, 597, 640, 643, 643f Trout, 791, 791f
Terrorism, biological weapons and, 328 Thyroxine (T4), 683f, 689 Transfer RNA. See tRNA Truffles, 371, 372
Tertiary period, 293t Tibet, sky burials in, 758, 758f Transformation, in bacteria, 322, 322f Trumpet manucodes, 750
Tertiary structure, of protein, 54, 54f Tibia, 572f, 574, 574f, 575 Transform boundary, 294, 294f Trypanosoma, 333
Test(s), of amoeboids, 339, 339f Ticks, 395 Transgenic organisms, 233, 406. See also Trypanosoma brucei, 333, 338
Testcrosses, 176 Tidal ventilation mechanism, 656–657, Genetically modified organisms Trypanosoma cruzi, 333, 338
one-trait, 176, 176f 656f Transitional fossils, 256, 256f Trypsin, 634, 634f
two-trait, 176, 176f Tigers, 626f Translation, 200–202 Tryptophan, 213, 213f
Testes, 702, 702f Bengal, 809 elongation, 202, 202f, 203f Tsetse fly, 333
control of function, 703 Siberian, 809 initiation, 202, 202f, 203f TSH. See Thyroid-stimulating hormone
development of, 718 Tasmanian wolf/tiger, 404 overview of, 198, 203, 203f T system, 582
in endocrine system, 683f Tight junctions, in animal cells, 99, 99f, termination, 202 T tubules, 582, 582f, 583
functions of, 700 508–509 translocation, 202 Tuataras, 402, 402f
and hormones, 684 Tigons, 271 Translational controls, 220, 220f, 221, 221f Tuberculosis, 326, 622
structure and function of, 703, 703f Tilman, G. David, 453 Translation repressor protein, 220, 220f Tubers, 499, 499f
Test groups, 5 Tineas, 374, 374f Translocation Tube-within-a-tube body plan, 387
Testing, in scientific method, 4, 5f Tinsel flagellum, 338 of chromosome segment, 164, 164f Tube worms, 323f, 589f
Testosterone Tissue(s) in translation, 202 Tubular reabsorption, 672–673, 672f
and bone strength, 578 of angiosperms, 436–439, 436f–439f Transmission electron micrograph (TEM), Tubular secretion, 672f, 673
in endocrine system, 683f animal, 508–513 66 Tubulin, 78, 78f
functional groups and, 45, 45f connective tissue, 510–511, 510f Transmission electron microscopes, 66, Tularemia, 328
functions of, 50, 703 epithelial tissue, 508–509, 509f 66f Tulips (Tulipa), 312f, 369f
Tetanus (disease), 323, 580, 617 muscular tissue, 512, 512f Transpiration, 455, 455f Tumor(s)
Tetanus (of muscle), 580, 580f nervous tissue, 513 Transplantation formation of, 142–143, 153
Tetracycline, 802 lab-grown, 151 and tissue rejection, 621 invasive, 153
Tetrads, 156, 156f, 158, 158f–159f, 161, as level of organization, 8f, 508, 508f xenotransplantation, 236, 406, 621 metastatic, 153
161f Tissue culture, 500 Transport in neurofibromatosis, 180
Tetraploids, 162, 279, 280 Tissue engineering, 621 active, 97t thyroid, 689
Tetrapods, 399 Tissue fluid, 517, 518, 518f, 602, 602f bulk, 97t Tumor necrosis factor (TNF), 619
Thailand cobra, 406 Tissue stage, of development, 710f, 711, passive, 96, 96f Tumor suppressor genes, 221, 221f
Thalamus, 533, 533f, 534f, 536, 536f, 711f Transport proteins, 52 Tundra, 783, 783f, 785f, 785t,
538f, 551 Tmesipteris, 360 Transport systems, in humans, 517, 517f 786, 786f
Thalidomide, 718 TMV. See Tobacco mosaic virus Transport vesicles, 72, 73, 73f, 75, 75f, Tunicates (sea squirts), 398–399, 398f,
Thaumatin, 262 TNF. See Tumor necrosis factor 76–77 399f
THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), 544 Toads, 401 Transposons, 204, 205, 205f, 240 Turgor pressure, in plant cells, 97
Therapeutic cloning, 230, 230f, 231 Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), 312, 312f, Transverse colon, 632f, 636 Turkey vulture, 403f
Therapsids, 404 446 Transverse nerves, 387, 387f Turner syndrome, 163, 163t
Thermoacidophiles, 297, 325, 325f Tolerance model of succession, 767 Trapezius, 579f Turtles, 303, 402, 402f, 809
Thermocycler, 238f Tomatoes, 234, 497 Tree(s). See also Forest(s); Wood(s) sea, 736, 736f
Thermodynamics Tongue, 632, 632f annual rings, 442–443 Two-trait testcrosses, 176, 176f
first law of, 87, 771 Tonsillectomy, 632 deciduous, 433 Tympanic canal, 560f
second law of, 87, 771 Tonsillitis, 632 evergreen, 371, 433 Tympanic membrane, 559, 559f, 560
Thermophiles, 324 Tonsils, 610f, 611, 632, 632f fungal diseases, 372–373 Typhlosole, 630, 630f
Thermoreceptors, 550, 550f Tools, use by early humans, 420, 422, trunk of, 436, 436f Typhoid fever, heterozygote advantage
Thermus aquaticus, 238 422f Tree ferns, 364, 364f and, 266
Thiamine, dietary requirements, 642t Tooth. See Teeth Tree frog, 401f Tyrannosaurus rex, 402
Thompson, D’Arcy, 284 Topography, and climate, 783, 783f Tree swallow (Tachycieta), 808, 808f Tyrosine, 204
Thoracic cage, 572f Topsoil, 462f Treponema pallidum, 708 Tyto alba, 299f
Thoracic cavity, 656 Torn cartilage, 577 Triassic period, 293t, 295, 362
Thoracic duct, 610 Torpedo stage, of angiosperm embryo Triceps brachii, 579f, 580, 580f
Thoracic vertebrae, 572f, 573
Thorax, of insect, 396
development, 496, 496f
Tortoises, giant, on Galápagos, 806
Trichinosis, 393, 393f
Trichocysts, 340, 340f U
Threatened species, 800, 810 Tortoiseshell cat, 214–215, 215f Trichomes, 444 Ulcers, stomach, 635
Three-domain system, 297, 297f Totipotency Trichomonas vaginalis, 338, 708 Ulna, 572f, 574, 574f
3PG, 114f, 115, 115f, 116, 126f of plant cells, 500 Trichomoniasis, 708 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation
Threshold, of action potential, 528–529, Touch, sense of, 551, 558, 558f Tricuspid valve, 592, 592f and eye disease, 555
528f, 529f, 531, 531f Touch receptors, 558, 558f Triglycerides, 49 and genetic mutation, 206
Thrombin, 603 Toxicysts, 340 in diet, 640, 640t insect vision and, 549, 550
Thromboembolism, 596 Toxoplasma gondii, 341 digestion of, 629f ozone layer depletion and, 807
Thrombus, 596 Toxoplasmosis, 341 Triiodothyronine (T3), 683f, 689 and skin cancer, 515
Thumbs, in primates, 412 Tracers, 28 Triplet code, genetic code as, 198 Ulva (sea lettuce), 346, 346f
Thylakoid(s) Trachea Triploid(s), 162, 279 Umbilical cord, 716f, 717, 718
in photosynthesis, 107, 108, 110–113, in birds, 657f Triploid endosperm, in angiosperms, U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization,
111f, 113f in humans, 509, 509f, 633, 633f, 654, 366f–367f, 367 809
in photosynthetic cyanobacteria, 323 654f Trisomy, 162 Unami, 553
in plant anatomy, 76, 76f, 107, 107f Tracheal gills, 653 Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), 162, 163, Uncoating, of virus, 314, 314f, 315, 315f
Thylakoid membrane Tracheal system 163f, 163t, 164 Understory, 788
in photosynthesis, 107, 108, 110–113, in arthropods, 394 tRNA (transfer RNA) Ungulates, 404–405
111f, 113f in insects, 591, 651, 651f, 653, 653f function of, 70, 202, 202f Uniformitarianism, 251
in plant anatomy, 76, 107, 107f Tracheids, 437, 437f, 442, 442f, 452, 454, initiator, 202, 202f Uniform population distribution, 729, 729f
Thylakoid space, 76, 76f, 107, 107f, 111, 454f Trochophore larva, 387 Unique noncoding DNA, 240
113, 113f Tracheoles, 653, 653f Trochozoa, 383 United States
Thymic hormones, 611 Tracts, in white matter, 534 Trophic level, 773 hurricane patterns in, 794, 794f
Thymine dimers, 206, 206f Trade winds, 782, 782f Trophoblast, 716, 716f, 717 population sustainability in, 738
Thymine (T), 57, 57t, 192, 192f Transcription, 198–199 Trophozoites, 341f Unpacking, 215, 215f
Thymosins, 611, 683f overview of, 203, 203f Tropical deciduous forest, 785f Unsaturated fatty acids, 49, 640, 643
Thymus gland, 610f, 611, 611f, Transcription activators, 213, 213f Tropical rain forests, 783, 783f, 785f, 785t, Unwinding of DNA, 196, 196f
618, 683f Transcriptional control, 213, 213f, 221, 790, 790f, 805, 805f, 810 Upright stance, evolution of, 416, 418,
Thyroid gland, 683f, 689, 689f 221f and global warming, 118, 118f 418f, 575
Thyroid hormones, 685 Transcription factors, 213, 213f Tropical seasonal forest, 785f Upwelling, 784, 784f

I-24 INDEX

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-24 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 Uracil (U), 57, 57f, 57t, 192, 192f, 198f Vegetative reproduction. See Asexual and disease Warren, Robin, 635
Urea, 518, 638, 640, 666, 666f reproduction in animals, 313–315 Warts, 314, 708
Urea cycle, 666 VEGF (vascular endothelial growth in humans, 313–315 Wasp, 396f
Uremia, 676 factor), 237 in plants, 312, 312f Waste disposal, biogeochemical cycles
Ureters, 516, 670, 670f Veins enveloped, 310 and, 804
Urethra, 670, 670f, 702, 702f in human circulatory system, 592, 595, genetic material of, 310, 312 Waste products, types and characteristics,
Urey, Harold, 317, 317f 595f, 599, 599f infection by, 311f, 314, 314f, 315, 315f 666, 666f
Uric acid, 403, 666, 666f in leaves, 107, 107f, 434, 438, 439f, life cycle, 311, 314, 314f, 315, 315f Water
Urinalysis, 673 444, 444f, 445f naked, 310 and animal development, 715
Urinary bladder, 509, 670, 670f Vena cava (venae cavae), 592f, 598, 598f and origin of DNA, 316 bodies of, and climate, 783
lab-grown, 676 Ventilation (breathing), 650, 656–657, parasitism in, 764 in cellular respiration, 124, 125, 130,
Urinary system. See also Kidneys 657f size of, 310 130f
components of, 508, 508f and pH levels, 37 structure of, 310, 310f and chemical reactions, facilitation
functions of, 516 rate, regulation of, 657, 657f, 675 Visceral mass, of mollusc, 391, 391f of, 34
human, 517, 517f, 670, 670f Ventricles Visceral muscle, 512, 512f conservation, 815, 815f
Urine brain, 534, 534f Visceral sensory fibers, 526f dissociation of, 36, 36f
concentration of, 674–675, 674f, 675f heart, 592, 592f Vision. See also Eye(s) eutrophication of, 775
formation of, 573f, 670, 670f, 672–673 Ventricular fibrillation, 594 color, 413, 413f, 557 (See also Cone frozen, density of, 35, 35f
pH of, 675 Venules, 595 cells) life and, 24–25, 25f, 33–35
Urn-shaped age structure diagrams, 731, Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula), image processing, 556–557 and photosynthesis, 108, 111, 455
731f 350–351, 350f, 433, 433f panoramic, 549 plants, water transport in, 33, 33f
Uropods, of crayfish, 394f, 395 Vermiform appendix, 611, 636, 636f photoreceptors and, 550, 554 (See also properties of, 33–35
Uterine cycle, 706, 706f Vernix caseosa, 719 Cone cells; Rod cells) purification of, biogeochemical cycles
Uterine tubes. See Oviducts Vertebrae, 572f, 573 in primates, 413, 413f and, 804
Uterus, 404, 704, 704f Vertebral column, 573 stereoscopic (three-dimensional), 413, root uptake of, 462–463, 462f, 463f
Utricle, 562–563, 564, 564f Vertebrate(s), 398–406 413f, 549, 557 surface tension of, 33, 33f
Uvula, 632, 632f aquatic Visual accommodation, 555, 555f temperature conservation properties
osmoreguation in, 668, 668f Visual communication, 752–753 of, 34
respiration in, 651 Visual cortex, eye communication with, water-salt balance, maintenance of,

V blood of, 588–589

brain, organization of, 525, Vitamin(s)
556–557 674–675, 674f, 675f
Water column, in xylem, 454, 455f
Vaccines, 615, 615f, 617 533, 533f dietary requirements, 642, 642t Water cycle, and waste disposal, 804
HIV, 313 characteristics of, 399 and synthesis of coenzymes, 91 Water hyacinth, 806
Vacuole, central, 97 chemoreceptors in, 552, 552f Vitamin A, 154 Water molds, 336f, 337f, 342
Vacuoles chordate characteristics in, 398, 398f dietary requirements, 642, 642t Water molecules
central, of plant cell, 69f, 74–75, 74f circulatory system, 593, 593f and vision, 556–557 cohesion of, 33
functions of, 74–75, 80t development in, 710–714 Vitamin B1, dietary requirements, 642t models of, 32f
in paramecia, 520, 520f cellular stage, 710, 710f Vitamin B2, dietary requirements, 642t Water striders, 33, 33f
Vagina, 704, 704f organ stages, 712, 712f Vitamin B6, dietary requirements, 642t Water vascular system, 397, 397f
Vaginal orifice, 704f tissue stage, 710f, 711, 711f Vitamin B12 Watson, James D., 55, 194, 195f
Vaginitis, 338 evolution of dietary requirements, 642t Wattieza, 443, 443f
Vagus nerve, 539, 539f ancestral chordate, 283, 398–399 sources of, 323 Waxes, structure of, 50, 50f
Valence shell, 29 evolutionary tree, 399, 399f Vitamin C Weaverbirds, 750
Valine, 52f kidneys in, 668–669 and cancer prevention, 154 Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddelli),
Valium, 531 eye of, 549, 554–557 dietary requirements, 642, 642t 648
Valves forelimbs of, as homologous struc- Vitamin D Wegener, Alfred, 294
heart, 592, 592f tures, 303 and absorption of calcium, 689 Weight (human). See also Obesity
in invertebrate circulatory system, kidneys of, 670 dietary requirements, 642, 642t excessive, and cardiovascular disease,
591, 591f major phyla, 384 and sunlight, 424, 578 597
in lymphatic vessels, 610, 610f medical importance, 406, 406f Vitamin-deficiency disorders, 91 management strategies for, 136, 136f,
in veins, 595, 595f, 599, 599f nervous system, 533, 533f Vitamin E, dietary requirements, 642, 639, 639f
Vampire bats, 628, 628f, 751 central nervous system (CNS), 531, 642t Weinberg, W., 260
Van Helmont, Jean-Baptiste, 460 533, 533f, 534 Vitamin K Weisheit, Chris, 184
van Niel, C. B., 118 peripheral nervous system (PNS), dietary requirements, 642t Wernicke area, 535f
Varicose veins, 599 539–541, 539f, 540, 541f sources of, 323, 636 Western lowland gorilla, 413f, 414f
Variegation, in plants, 312, 312f autonomic system, 541, 541f Vitreous humor, 554, 554f West Nile virus, 313
Variola virus, 328 somatic system, 540, 540f VNO. See Vomeronasal organ West wind drift, 784f
Vascular bundles, 438, 439f organ systems of, 516–517, 516f, 517f Vocal cords, 654 Wetlands, 791, 805
Vascular cambium, 441, 441f, 442, 442f skeleton of, 387, 571 Voice box (larynx), 633, 654, 654f Whales
Vascular cylinder, 438 terrestrial Voluntary muscle, 512, 512f ancestors of, 256, 256f, 272, 272f
Vascular endothelial growth factor osmoregulation in, 669, 669f Volvox, 346, 346f, 379 baleen, 628, 628f
(VEGF), 237 respiration in, 651, 651f, 656–657, Vomeronasal organ (VNO), 552, 681 communication in, 752
Vascular plants, 360–369. See also 656f, 657f von Recklinghausen disease (neurofi- courtship in, 754
Angiosperms; Gymnosperms Vertigo, 563, 577 bromatosis), 180 evolution of, 285
evolution of, 359 Vesicles, 68f von Sachs, Julius, 460–461 gray, 550f
leaf structure, 355, 355f function of, 80t V1RL1 gene, 681 humpback, 752
seedless, 358, 360–361 lysosomes, 74, 74f Vulcanization, 369 killer (orca; Orcinus orca), 272f, 405f,
characteristics of, 353 peroxisomes, 74 Vultures, 758, 758f 809
diversity of, 358, 358f transport, 72, 73, 73f, 75, 75f, 76–77 Vulva, 704, 704f osmoregulation in, 669
economic value, 360–361 Vesicular (Graafian) follicle, 705, 705f right, 754
evolution of, 352f Vessel elements, 437, 437f, 452, 454, Wheat failure, in Soviet Union, 800
life cycle, 361, 361f
Vascular tissue, of angiosperm, 432, 432f,
454f
Vestibular canal, 560f W Wheat (Triticum), 368, 368f, 435, 435f
Whisk ferns, 360, 360f
437, 437f Vestibule, 559, 559f Wachtershaüser, Gunter, 318 Whitebark pine, 766, 766f
monocot vs. eudicot, 434, 434f Viceroy butterfly, 763 Waggle dance, 753, 753f White blood cells (leukocytes)
Vas deferens, 702, 702f Villus (villi), 635, 635f Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), 749 movement of, 79
Vector, definition of, 232 Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus Walcott, Charles Doolittle, 282 structure and function of, 74, 511, 511f,
Vegetables quinquefolia), 296 Walking sticks, 763 518, 601
artificial selection in, 252, 252f Viroid, 315 Wallace, Alfred Russel, 253 types of, 600, 600f, 601
in diet, 642 Virus(es), 310–316 Warblers, niche specialization in, 761, 761f White Cliffs of Dover, 339, 339f
Vegetal pole, of embryo, 710 as biological weapons, 328 Warfarin, 92 White-crowned sparrows, 746
Vegetarian diets, 640 classification of, 310 Warning coloration, 763, 763f White-faced monkey, 412f

INDEX I-25

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-25 31/07/10 12:51 PM

 White-handed gibbon, 412f Wood(s) Xylem rays, 442, 442f
White matter, 534, 540f fossilization of, 443, 443f Xylem sap, 452 Z
White pulp, of spleen, 611, 611f heartwood, 442–443 Zea mays. See Corn
White-tailed deer, 405f, 726–727, lumber, 369 Zebra mussels, 806
726f, 727f
Whitfield, Arthur, 197
sap, 442
as secondary growth, 442–443, 442f Y Zinc
dietary requirements, 641t
WHR. See Waist-to-hip ratio soft and hard, 362 Yamanaka, Shinya, 151 as plant nutrient, 461t
Wild chinook salmon, 17 Woodpecker, pileated, 403f Y chromosomes, 155, 155f Ziram, 206
Wildlife, value to humans, 802–803, 802f, Woody eudicots, secondary growth in, Yeast(s) Z lines, 582, 582f
803f 442–443, 442f budding, 372, 373f Zone of cell division, 440, 440f
Wilkins, Maurice H. F., 194 Woody twigs, anatomy of, 441, 441f classification of, 372 Zone of elongation, 440f, 441
Williams syndrome, 164 Wrinkles, in skin, 515 fermentation and, 133, 133f, Zone of leeching, 462f
Wilson, E. O., 769 Würsig, B., 754 134, 373 Zone of maturation, 440f, 441
Wind power, 814, 814f genome of, 241t Zooflagellates, 338
Winds spindle apparatus in, 147, Zooplankton, 339, 793
climate and, 782, 782f
ocean currents and, 784 X 147f
Yeast infections, 374
Zoos, breeding programs at,
812, 812f
Wine and winemaking, 134, 373 X chromosomes, 155, 155f Yellow bone marrow, 576, 576f Zoospores, 345, 345f
Wings Xenotransplantation, 236, 406, 621 Yellow fever, 314 Zooxanthellae, 793
of moths and butterflies, 210–211, Xeroderma pigmentosum, 206, 206f Yellow jacket wasp, 763, 763f Zygomatic bones, 573, 573f
210f, 211f X-linked alleles, 185, 185f Yellowstone National Park, 810 Zygomycota, 372
vertebrate, as homologous structure, 303 X-linked genetic disorders, 186, 186f Yellow trumpet pitcher (Sarracenia flava), Zygospore(s), 345, 345f
Winter solstice, 782f X-ray crystallography, DNA diffraction 351, 351f Zygospore fungi, 371f, 372
Winter twig, 441, 441f pattern, 194, 194f Yersinia pestis, 328 Zygote
Wisdom teeth, 632 X-rays, and cancer, 154, 206 Yoho National Park, 282–283 in angiosperm life cycle,
Woese, Carl, 297 Xylem, 358, 358f, 434, 434f, 437, 437f, Yolk, 710 496, 496f
Wolves, 754 439, 439f, 441, 441f, 442, 442f, Yolk plug, 711, 711f development of, 710, 710f
Women. See Female(s), human 446, 452, 454–455, 455f Yolk sac, 402f, 715, 715f, 716–717 in human life cycle, 705
Women’s Health Institute, 154 in angiosperms, 440f YUP gene, 55 in life cycle, generally, 160, 160f

I-26 INDEX

mad03482_ind_I-1-I-26.indd I-26 31/07/10 12:51 PM