Frontiers of Architectural Research (2013) 2, 243–251

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

www.elsevier.com/locate/foar

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns

Yahya Abdullahin, Mohamed Rashid Bin Embi1

Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor 81310, Malaysia

Received 18 December 2012; received in revised form 27 March 2013; accepted 28 March 2013

KEYWORDS Abstract
Islamic geometrical This research demonstrates the suitability of applying Islamic geometrical patterns (IGPs) to
patterns; architectural elements in terms of time scale accuracy and style matching. To this end, a
Islamic art; detailed survey is conducted on the decorative patterns of 100 surviving buildings in the Muslim
Islamic architecture; architectural world. The patterns are analyzed and chronologically organized to determine the
History of Islamic
earliest surviving examples of these adorable ornaments. The origins and radical artistic
architecture;
movements throughout the history of IGPs are identified. With consideration for regional
History of
architecture impact, this study depicts the evolution of IGPs, from the early stages to the late 18th century.
& 2013. Higher Education Press Limited Company. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.
Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.

1. Introduction three questions that guide this work are as follows. (1) When
were IGPs introduced to Islamic architecture? (2) When was
For centuries, Islamic geometrical patterns (IGPs) have been each type of IGP introduced to Muslim architects and artisans?
used as decorative elements on walls, ceilings, doors, (3) Where were the patterns developed and by whom? A
domes, and minarets. However, the absence of guidelines sketch that demonstrates the evolution of IGPs throughout
and codes on the application of these ornaments often leads the history of Islamic architecture is also presented.
to inappropriate use in terms of time scale accuracy and
architectural style matching.
This study investigates IGPs under historical and regional 2. Method
perspectives to elucidate the issues related to their suitability
and appropriate use as decorative elements for buildings. The This research is based on descriptive approaches, for which
our goals were to collect data on surviving geometrical
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 167765548. patterns and classify them on the basis of time scale and
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Y. Abdullahi), regionalism. Such approaches provide dialectic answers to a
[email protected] (M.R.E. Embi). wide range of philosophical and architectural questions,
1
Tel.: +60 75530611. such as when or where a particular pattern was extensively
Peer review under responsibility of Southeast University. used. The literature review presents a selected collection of
100 well-known surviving buildings from West Africa to the
Indian subcontinent; the collection historically spans nearly
12 centuries, dating back to the early stages of Islam up to
the 18th century. It covers the most important classic

2095-2635 & 2013. Higher Education Press Limited Company. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2013.03.002
244 Y. Abdullahi, M.R.B. Embi

architectural treasures of the Islamic world. For this reason, 4. Types of Islamic geometrical patterns
this study comprehensively referred to not only encyclope-
dias on architectural history, but also regional/local archi- The definitions and classifications of IGPs are beyond the
tectural studies. scope of this article, but a brief description of IGP types is
provided.

3. When and how did geometry penetrate

Islamic architecture?

The expansion and development of geometry through

Islamic art and architecture can be related to the significant
growth of science and technology in the Middle East, Iran,
and Central Asia during the 8th and 9th centuries; such
progress was prompted by translations of ancient texts from
languages such as Greek and Sanskrit (Turner, 1997). By the
10th century, original Muslim contributions to science
became significant. The earliest written document on
geometry in the Islamic history of science is that authored
by Khwarizmi in the early 9th century (Mohamed, 2000).
Thus, history of Islamic geometrical ornaments is character-
ized by a gap of nearly three centuries—from the rise of
Islam in the early 7th century to the late 9th century, when
the earliest example of geometrical decorations can be
traced from the surviving buildings of the Muslim world
(Table 1). Fig. 1 First level of IGP classification.

Table 1 Time chart of the evolution of IGPs throughout history.

Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns 245

For centuries, the compass and straight edge were the surviving building from this period is the Dome of Rock,
only tools used to construct polygons and required angles. which was built in 688–691 CE (Grube and Michell, 1995).
Therefore, all IGPs originate from the harmonious subdivi- This structure is lavishly decorated with vegetal and geo-
sions of circles and are based on templates of circle grids. metrical motifs, but most of its ornaments—geometrical
Some researchers stated that the use of the circle is a way motifs in particular—are later additions and are not classi-
of expressing the Unity of Islam (Critchlow, 1976; Akkach, fied as products of the Umayyad era.
2005). According to this doctrine, the circle and its center is In 705 CE, substantial parts of the Damascus Christian
the point at which all Islamic patterns begin; the circle is a Temple were converted into the Great Mosque of Damascus
symbol of a religion that emphasizes One God and the role (Flood, 2001). The original decorative patterns were floral,
of Mecca, which is the center of Islam toward which all resembling the rich gardens and natural landscape of
Moslems face in prayer. Damascus. The floor finishing of the courtyard was repaired
Most IGPs are based on constructive polygons, such as the and refurbished a number of times; its geometrical designs
hexagon and octagon. Star polygons, which are fundamental are therefore also later additions and not original. The
elements of IGPs, are created by connecting the vertices of finishing surfaces and facades of Umayyad buildings are
constructive polygons. From this category emerged the first mostly molded stucco, mosaic, and wall paintings, with
level of IGP classification (El-Said et al., 1993; Broug, 2008). figural and floral motifs. By the end of the Umayyad era,
For instance, all patterns whose main elements are from a however, the use of figural patterns in mosques became
hexagon or a hexagram are classified as 6-point geometrical limited. Our survey shows no sign of the use of geometrical
patterns; a star is called a 6-point star (Fig. 1). Accordingly, motifs, but vegetal ornaments remain common features of
patterns are labeled as 8-, 10-, 12-…point geometrical Umayyad architecture.
patterns. Fig. 1 shows that at a certain level, the sides of
the two adjacent rays of the 6-point star become parallel or
divergent, thereby creating a deformed hexagon (i.e., 4.2. Abbasids architecture (750–1258 CE)
rosette petals). Interestingly, the evolution of IGPs follows
a difficult path of construction, in which polygons are built The Great Mosque of Kairouan (Tunisia), originally con-
from the most easily formed shape (i.e., hexagon) to more structed in 670 CE and rebuilt in 836 CE, is an excellent
complicated polygons and stars. example of Abbasid-Aghlabid buildings. The ornaments on
this building are designed primarily with vegetal and floral
motifs, but some elementary geometrical shapes are also
4.1. Umayyad architecture (660–750 CE) observed. These solitary geometrical shapes (Fig. 2) are
among the earliest attempts to apply geometrical orna-
By the end of the 7th and early 8th centuries, vegetal and ments in Islamic architecture.
floral patterns derived from Sassanid and Byzantine archi- The simple 6- and 8-point geometrical patterns used in
tecture became common in Islamic architecture. A popular the Mosque of Ibn-Tulun (876–879 CE) are among the

Fig. 2 The Great Mosque of Kairouan; basic geometrical shapes of interior decoration.

Fig. 3 Mihrab of Great Mosque of Cordoba (left) and 9th century carved stucco from Samarra in Iraq.

Fig. 4 Ibn-Tulun Mosque in Egypt (first two panels from left); Abbasid Palace in Baghdad (last two panels).
246 Y. Abdullahi, M.R.B. Embi

earliest examples of woven geometrical patterns in Muslim abstract 6-point geometrical design) were added during the
decorative arts (Fig. 3). Caliph al-Hafiz (1129–1149). Another Mihrab with significant
The Mosque of Ibn-Tulun is considered a milestone in geometrical decorations was built during the Ottoman
terms of its introduction of geometrical patterns to Islamic restoration in the 18th century (Behrens-Abouseif, 1992).
architecture. By the end of the 9th century, geometrical The Al-Juyushi Mosque (1085 CE) in Cairo is a relatively
motifs received a warm welcome from Muslim architects small structure, whose most significant surviving element is
and artisans. The extensive influence of geometry consider- the lavishly carved stucco of its Mihrab, with floral and
ably affected other aspects of Islamic architecture. For geometrical patterns. The abstract 6-point patterns over
example, the transformation from the naturalism of early the spandrel of the Mihrab are similar to Seljuk style. The
Islamic ornaments to new levels of abstraction was an Al-Aqmar Mosque (1125 CE) in Cairo is an outstanding
immediate effect of geometry on floral ornaments. Samarra example of mature Fatimid architecture. Its façade is
vegetal motifs are the products of this era, during which elaborately filled with calligraphic, vegetal, and geometri-
application shifted from the stem scrolling of continuously cal decorations. However, the motifs are a replication of
running volutes (sinusoidal growth) to circle grids and previously introduced designs. Another remarkable Fatimid
tangential circles (Fig. 3). building is the Mosque of Al-Salih-Tala'i (1160 CE), which is
The Abbasid Palace in Baghdad (1230 CE) and the closely similar to the Al-Aqmar Mosque in terms of structure
Madrasa of Mustansiriyeh (1233 CE) are adorned with and decorative techniques (Fletcher and Cruickshank,
Muqarnas decorations and detailed geometrical patterns of 1996). As with the Al-Aqmar Mosque, 6- and 8-point star
carved brickwork and terracotta. These structures are shapes can be found in the form of projected sculptural
excellent representatives of the architectural traditions decorations over the walls. A perfectly proportioned 12-
and techniques of the late Abbasid and early Seljuk eras. point pattern is carved over the Minbar—an addition during
From such structures, one finds some of the earliest the Mamluk era in 1300 CE. The carved wooden door, which
examples of rosette petals introduced to 8- and 12-point dates back to 1303, is also decorated with 8- and 12-point
star patterns (Fig. 4). geometrical rosette patterns.
Architectural decorations and ornaments, such as wall Early Fatimid decorative ornaments are commonly in the
paintings, carved wood, stone, stucco, terracotta, and form of isolated elements, rather than entire surface-
brickwork, became highly popular in the Abbasid era. By covering patterns. Geometrical patterns became prevalent
the late 8th and early 9th centuries, geometrical shapes because of the heavy influence of Seljuk architecture in the
were introduced to surface decoration. However, woven late Fatimid era.
geometrical patterns (6- and 8-point patterns) began dom-
inating Islamic architecture only during the late 9th century.
4.4. Seljuk architecture (1038–1194 CE): first
artistic movement
4.3. Fatimid's architecture (909–1171 CE)
The Seljuks exerted tremendous efforts in transforming
Al-Azhar Mosque (970–972 CE) was the first mosque and their ornaments from floral and figural into geometrical
Madrasa to be built by the Fatimids in Cairo. Parts of the decorations, and their architecture is strongly characterized
original stucco panels (with vegetal motifs) and window by geometrical patterns. Seljuk architects and artisans
screens (with geometrical designs) survived. However, the designed sophisticated patterns; abstract 6- and 8-point
stucco works above the windows and on the walls (with an geometrical patterns can be observed throughout this era

Fig. 5 Tower of Kharaqan in Qazvin, 12-point, 6-point, abstract 6-point, and 8-point geometrical patterns.

Fig. 6 Great Mosque of Isfahan in Iran (left); Barsian Friday Mosque, 9- and 13-point patterns (center-left).
Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns 247

(Table 1). The abstract 6-point patterns, which are based on geometrical ornaments in this building are window grilles
Tetractys motifs, were extensively used by Muslim archi- with the same 12-point patterns as those found in the
tects in both Seljuk and late Fatimid buildings, such as the Kharaqan tombs in Iran.
Al-Juyushi Mosque. The Qalawun Complex in Cairo (1283–1285 CE) has
The Tomb Towers of Kharaqan (Fig. 5), built from 1067 to attractive finishing surfaces with geometrical motifs. Its
1093 CE in the Qazvin province of Iran, are examples of early window grilles, doors, walls, and ceilings are adorned with
Seljuk architecture. The Towers' facades are elaborately deco- repeated 6-, 8-, and 12-point patterns, making this monu-
rated with very fine ornamental panels, each having different ment one of the most outstanding representatives of
patterns, including stars and abstract geometrical motifs. Mamluk heritage. The mausoleum's Mihrab is decorated with
Constructed almost at the same time as the Abbasid Palace 10-point geometrical patterns, which may be the earliest of
in Baghdad, Madrasa Al-Firdaws (1236 CE) in Aleppo, Syria their type. Aside from these patterns, all the other orna-
features a Mihrab crown over which rosette petals adorn the ments are replicas of Seljuk and Fatimid styles.
star patterns. The marble Mihrab is decorated with geometrical Highly advanced 6- and 8-point geometrical patterns
patterns that have remarkably detailed 8-point rosette arrange- similar to those in the Qalawun Mosque adorn the Mosque
ments. The Friday Mosque of Isfahan was developed largely of Al-Nasir Mohammad (1318–1334 CE). An almost identical
during the Seljuk era. It is a perfect example of a structure 10-point geometrical pattern also appears in the hood of its
adorned with detailed Seljuk decorative patterns made of Mihrab (Fig. 7).
brickwork (Grube and Michell, 1995). The Sultan Hassan Complex (1356–1361 CE) has brilliant
Fig. 6 shows that during the late 11th and early 12th floral decorative patterns, but its most striking features are the
century, 5- and 8-point star concepts were frequently used most advanced types of 6-, 8-, 10-, and 12-point patterns and
in decorative elements and the techniques of integrating one of the earliest examples of 16-point patterns, found in the
these decorative concepts with structural elements had panels of its wooden Minbar (Fig. 7). Although 16-point stars
already been invented. Apart from the common 6- and adorn the dome of the Hasan Sadaqah Mausoleum (1321 CE in
8-point geometrical patterns, other amazing patterns can Cairo), the 16-point patterns in the Sultan Hassan Complex are
be found on the walls of the southern domed area, which astonishingly complex and combined with 9-, 10-, and 12-point
dates back to 1086 CE. The first wall features the rarest stars and rosettes. Surprisingly, signs of a 20-point star can be
examples of patterns containing a heptagon, and another found on the suspended grand bronze lantern of the sanctuary.
wall is adorned with what may be one of the earliest The Sultan Hassan Complex was built during the early stages of
examples of 10-point geometrical patterns. the second artistic movement in the history of IGPs; during
Geometrical patterns were developed to a significant this period, Muslim architects and artisans began combining
extent by the Seljuks. A survey of the decorative patterns of multiple types of patterns (such as 6-, 8-, 9-, and 10-point
this era—from the early stages to the time at which the patterns) in a single decorative arrangement (Table 1).
Friday Mosque of Isfahan was constructed—reveals an artis- Similar examples of 6-, 8-, 10-, 12-, and 16-point patterns
tic movement that drove radical change in the application characterize the decorative elements of the Khanqah of Sultan
of conventional geometrical patterns (e.g., the introduction Faraj-Ibn-Barquq (1399–1411 CE) and the Muayyad Mosque
of highly complex and sophisticated 10-point geometrical (1415–1421 CE), both located in Cairo. The external decoration
patterns, as well as abstract 6- and 8-point geometrical of the Sultan Qaybtay Mosque's (1472–1475 CE) dome is a
patterns). This movement continued on to the Barsian carved geometrical pattern, one of the earliest examples of its
Friday Mosque (1098), to the early 13th century when type in Cairo (Yeomans, 2006). Combined and complex geome-
unique 7-, 9-, 11-, and 13-point patterns (patterns of trical patterns are also found in this building, and combinations
nonconstructible polygons) were used (Fig. 6). of 10-, 9-, and 16-point (over the apex) patterns embellish the
carved patterns of the dome. Another design element is the
4.5. Mamluk architecture (1250–1517 CE): second combination of 10- and 16-point patterns over the carved
artistic movement vertical panels of the mosque's wooden Minbar (Fig. 7).
The same styles were repeated in the buildings constructed
The Mosque of Baybar (1267 CE) is one of the earliest during the next decades. These buildings include the Amir
buildings built by the Mamluks in Cairo. The only noticeable Qijmas Al-Ishaqi Mosque (1480–1481 CE), Sultan Qansuh al-

Fig. 7 From left: hood of Mihrab in the Mosque of Al-Nasir Mohammad; Sultan Hassan Complex in Cairo; 16-point geometrical
patterns on the entrance doors; carved wooden Minbar and dome of Qaybtay Mosque.
248 Y. Abdullahi, M.R.B. Embi

Ghuri Complex, and Wikala of al-Ghori (1505–1515 CE). All features; instead, Iznik tiles with floral motifs form the
three are demonstrations that during the late 15th and early essential decorative element of these buildings. Among them,
16th centuries, 16-point and combined geometrical patterns the Rustam Pasha Mosque (1560–1563 CE) in Istanbul is the
were highly popular among Mamluk architects and artisans. A most famous for its exquisite Iznik tile works with floral patterns
few examples of 10-point patterns are also evident in the Amir that cover most of the finishing surfaces. A few 10- and 12-point
Qijmas Al-Ishaqi Mosque and the Wikala of al-Ghori. patterns characterize the design of the wooden doors, Minbar,
and wooden ceiling of the right gallery of the main praying hall.
These patterns are replicas of the styles that were used in
4.6. Ottoman architecture (1290–1923 CE) earlier buildings. The Selimiye Complex (1568–1575 CE) in
Edirne is the most celebrated and most exquisite building
A survey of early Ottoman buildings, such as the Yesil Mosque designed by the great architect Sinan (Freely, 2011). Similar
of Iznik (1378–1392 CE) and Ulu-Cami or the Great Mosque of to most Ottoman buildings, however, the complex features only
Bursa (1396–1400 CE), shows that early Ottoman buildings are a few geometrical patterns on its carved marble Minbar and
characterized by moderately decorative patterns and that by window crowns (Fig. 8).
the end of the 14th century, geometrical patterns were not In general, Ottoman architects favored floral and vegetal
popular among Ottoman architects and artisans. Except for the patterns over geometrical decorations, whose use was
extensive 6-, 8-, and 10-point patterns on the walls, ceilings, limited to door and Minbar panels. Ottoman architects and
and doors (Fig. 8) of the Yesil Mosque of Bursa (1421 CE), artisans preferred 6-, 5-, and eventually 10- and 12-point
geometrical ornaments are generally only secondary decorative patterns over the 8- and 16-point geometrical patterns that
elements in Ottoman buildings. For instance, only a few were very popular among Mamluk artisans.
attractive 6- and 10-point patterns can be found over the main
entrance doors, portal, and Minbar of the Bayezid II Complex
(1501–1508 CE; Fig. 8). The same approach was applied to the 4.7. Safavid architecture (1501–1736 CE)
Shezade Complex (1544–1548 CE), designed by Ottoman
master architect Sinan. Although this mosque is one of the Safavid architects used geometrical ornaments in both religious
most ambitious architectural masterpieces of the Ottoman and secular buildings. An example of a nonreligious building
Empire (Blair and Bloom, 1995), the application of geometrical with geometrical patterns is the Ali-Qapu Palace in Isfahan
patterns was limited to only a few 10-point patterns over the (1598 CE), having 8- and 10-point patterns on its high columned
mosque's Minbar and wooden doors (Fig. 8). balcony (Fig. 9). Another secular building characterized by an
Some other striking buildings, such as the Suleymaniye extensive use of geometrical patterns is the Chehel Sutun
Complex (1551–1558 CE), Sokollu-Mehmet-Pasha in Luleburgaz Palace (1645–1647 CE), also located in Isfahan. The wooden
(1560–1565 CE), Haseki-Hurrem Baths (1556 CE), and Sokollu- ceiling at its entrance is designed with a variety of geometrical
Mehmet-Pasha in Istanbul (1571–1574 CE), were constructed by patterns that consist of different 8- and 10-point patterns.
Ottomans during the mid-16th century onward. In these Usually in secular buildings, inside elements of geometrical
structures, geometrical patterns are only secondary decorative patterns are filled with vegetal motifs, while in many survived

Fig. 8 From left: Yesil Mosque in Bursa (first two images); Minbar of Bayezid Complex; wooden doors of Shezade Complex; window
crown of Selimiye Complex.

Fig. 9 From left: Ali-Qapu Palace; Chehel-Sutun Palace; Hakim Mosque of Isfahan; Friday Mosque of Isfahan.
Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns 249

religious buildings of this period, geometric ornaments and structure of this era. Aside from the various elegant types of
calligraphic inscriptions are mixed. A remarkable example of 6-, 8-, and 10-point patterns, 14-point geometrical patterns
this style is the Hakim Mosque of Isfahan (1656–1662 CE). Its adorn the piers of its main dome (Fig. 10); such patterns are the
facades are highly decorated with tiles and brickwork of rarest of their kind. Throughout the next decades, geometrical
geometrical motifs, as well as inscriptions of Nastaliq calligra- ornaments became an essential decorative element in Mughal
phy. Similar to the other buildings from this period, the mosque architecture, in which vegetal motifs were used as subsidiary
is dominantly embellished with 8- and 10-point patterns; other and filler decoratives in some cases. The Tomb of Akbar the
types of patterns are limited to either grilles or furniture Great (1612 CE) and the Etimad-ud-Daulah Tomb (1628 in
(Fig. 9). Agra) are representative structures of this period. Both struc-
Decorative patterns with geometrical and floral motifs tures are completely covered with inlaid marble and sandstone
were commonly used in both secular and religious Safavid with 6-,8-, 10-, and 12-point patterns. In terms of geometrical
buildings. These patterns were applied all over internal and ornaments, another remarkable Mughal building is the Lahore
external surfaces using carved stucco, wood, colored Fort Complex, built during the 16th and 17th centuries.
glasses, polychromatic tiles, lattice, and stone. The proces- Appealing geometrical patterns embellish the stone floor
sing detail of surviving Safavid decorative patterns shows finishing of the Sheesh-Mahal, the fountain courtyard, and the
that these artisans preferred 8- and 10-point geometrical mosaics of the surrounding wall (Fig. 10).
patterns. In contrast to Mamluk architecture, Safavid archi- In Mughal architecture, red sandstone, white marble, and
tecture features fewer combined patterns, but these com- polychromatic tiles are the main cladding and decorative
plex patterns were still common throughout the 16th and materials (Asher, 1992). IGPs are one of the key decorative
17th centuries in Iran and central Asia. elements of both secular and religious buildings. Unlike their
predecessors, particularly the Mamluks, Mughal architects
avoided highly detailed geometrical arrangements, such as
4.8. Mughal architecture (1526–1737 CE)
12- and 16-point patterns. Instead, they exerted great effort
to create accurate and perfect proportions of pattern shapes
Early surviving Mughal buildings, including the Sher-Shah
and angles. Nonetheless, the rarest 14-point geometrical
Mausoleum (1545 CE), are decorated with paintings and tiles
patterns can be found in some Mughal buildings. Another
of floral motifs. Some highly attractive examples of 6- and
distinguishable feature is that Mughal architects used geo-
8-point patterns are found on the marble flooring, window
metrical patterns in floor finishing designs and carved window
grilles, and balcony railings of the Mausoleum of Humayun in
railings more than any other Islamic architectural styles.
Delhi (1566 CE). Dominant 6- and 8-point patterns are also
repeated in the Red Fort of Agra (1580 CE). Additionally,
some examples of 12-point and very few simple 10-point 4.9. Muslims of Spain
patterns can be found in this complex (Fig. 10).
By the end of the 16th century, Mughal architects began to The important surviving buildings of Spain's Muslims are the
more frequently use 10-point geometrical patterns. The Friday Great Mosque of Cordoba (785–987 CE), Aljaferia Palace in
Mosque of Fatehpur-Sikri (1596 CE) is a representative Zaragoza (mid-11th century), and Great Mosque of Seville

Fig. 10 From left: Humayun Tomb in Delhi; Red Fort in Agra; Friday Mosque of Fatehpur-Sikri; Etimad-ud-Daulah tomb; Lahore Fort
in Pakistan.

Fig. 11 Alhambra Palace in Spain, showing details of 6-, 8-, 12-, and 16-point geometrical patterns.
250 Y. Abdullahi, M.R.B. Embi

(1182 CE) (Goodwin, 1991). The Alhambra Palace (1338– debates and important contribution to nature of numbers and
1390 CE) in Granada is considered one of the most splendid their relation with that of nature (Critchlow, 1989), mystical
palaces made by Muslims (Clévenot and Degeorge, 2000). Tetractys motifs and symbol merged to traditional geometric
Almost all the surfaces are richly decorated with the finest patterns. The result was the invention of abstract 6-point
floral and geometrical motifs. Although geometrical orna- geometrical patterns based on the Tetractys symbol and 12-
ments were extensively used with profusely colored and point star patterns that are associated with 12 zodiacal
intricate renders, highly complex patterns, such as 7-, 9-, sectors. These decorative elements adorn the facades of
and 14-point patterns, are missing. Even a 10-point pattern the Tomb of Kharaqan (1067) in Iran. Another number
cannot be found and only the simplest 16-point pattern was associated with mysticism and cosmology was seven, which
applied (Fig. 11). represents the seventh heaven in the Islamic perspective. In
construction, this number is used to generate a 14-point star,
which is a symbol of the Fourteen Infallibles, particularly for
5. Conclusion
Shiite Muslims. Thus, despite the difficulties of building a
heptagon, for which no definite method had been established
This research chronologically and regionally traced the evolu-
(nonconstructible polygon), Muslim architects built decent
tion of Islamic geometrical patterns. The results show how
approximation methods for drawing heptagons, 7-point stars,
regional influence and the prevailing lifestyles during ruling
and geometrical patterns. This achievement came in con-
dynasties determined the diversity of Islamic ornaments and
currence with the rise of the Shiite dynasties in the central
geometrical patterns. For example, basic 6- and 8-point
provinces of Iran. The earliest examples can be found in the
geometrical patterns, introduced during the late 9th century,
Friday Mosque of Isfahan (1086 CE).
are the most pervasive Islamic ornaments. Aside from their
The earliest 10-point geometrical pattern also dates back
originality, the simplicity in construction of these patterns
to the 11th century. The number 10 is not only linked to the
drove architects to use such ornaments in almost all building
Tetractys symbol, but is also a double of a pentagon; an
elements, from floor finishes to minaret surfaces. Whilst the
entire book can be written on the golden proportions and
difficulty of the abstract and the complexity of nonconstruc-
sacred properties of the pentagon.
tible geometrical patterns limited their application to acces-
A 9-point geometrical pattern is another example of the
sible elements (Qibla walls, window screens), particularly in
influence of cosmological ideas on Islamic geometrical
Iran and central Asia. Another interesting result is that in
ornaments, particularly during the 11th century. The Ennea-
contrast to the architects and artisans from other Islamic
gram is associated with the Great Conjunction (Jupiter and
states, those from Anatolia paid less attention to ornaments
Saturn conjunction cycle). Enneagon is also a nonconstruc-
and geometrical patterns; they focused more extensively on
tible polygon, but Muslim architects discovered its method
other aspects of architecture, such as form and master
of approximation in the late 11th century. The introduction
planning. For this reason, only a few examples of complex
of the approximation methods for 7- and 9-sided polygons
and sophisticated patterns (aside from the simplest ones) can
and stars helped Muslim architects and artisans invent
be found in Anatolia.
practical approaches to illustrating other nonconstructible
The relatively stable government and economy during the
polygons and producing relatively accurate 11- and 13-sided
Mamluk period encouraged architects to design very fine
polygons and their stars. Some of the earliest examples of
and detailed ornaments that are unique in terms of com-
these ornaments can be seen in the Barsian Friday Mosque
plexity. The intricate 16-point patterns remained popular in
(1098 CE) in Iran.
North Africa and Islamic Spain, but only minimally influ-
By the late 12th century, methods of constructing poly-
enced eastern regions, such as Persia, Anatolia, and the
gons, stars, and patterns on the basis of simple or single-
Mughal region.
layer circle grids were known throughout the Muslim
Simpler patterns were popular in the Indian subcontinent,
architectural realm. This development was followed by
which may be attributed to the passion of Indian artisans for
the introduction of more sophisticated and dynamic pat-
symmetrical designs and their insistence on covering all
terns based on multi-circle grids. Simpler types were
exterior surfaces with ornaments. Such coverage would be
developed by a subgrid associated with an original grid
difficult to achieve when complex patterns are used.
and central points, but under a different scale. This
development further popularized the use of more detailed
5.1. Scientific progress patterns in the early 13th century.
By the early 14th century, along with the advent of the
This research also illustrated scientific progress and knowl- wealthy Mamluk dynasty, more detailed patterns (e.g., 16- and
edge expansion in the history of Islamic architecture. These 18-point geometrical patterns) were developed through multi-
developments began with simple geometrical shapes con- ples of primary 8- and 9-point patterns. Finally, highly complex
structed from a circle and a set of tangential circles with patterns developing from multi-girds of different geometries
the same radius (Critchlow, 1976), as seen in the Great were discovered. An exquisite example is the door panels in the
Mosque of Kairouan during the early 9th century. By the late Sultan Hassan Mosque (1363 CE), which shows a combination
9th century, grids of circles were introduced in the Ibn-Tulun of an underlying grid for 16-point geometry and a sub-grid of a
Mosque. The grids were used as constructive bases for the 12-point geometrical pattern.
simplest regular and semi-regular tiling with equilateral The time chart in Table 1 depicts the evolution of IGPs
triangles, squares, hexagons, and octagons. from their early stages to the late 18th century. In this
Then, contemporary to rise of Persian philosophers and context, this study demonstrates the suitability of patterns
cosmologists from Abu Sahl Al-Tustari to Sohravadi who had for the buildings inspired by a particular era in terms of
Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns 251

relevant time scale accuracy and architectural style El-Said, I., et al., 1993.Islamic Art and Architecture: The System of
matching. Geometric Design. Garnet Pub.
Fletcher, B., Cruickshank, D., 1996. History of Architecture, 20th
ed. Architectural Press.
References Flood, F.B., 2001. The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the
Makings of an Umayyad Visual Culture. Brill.
Akkach, S., 2005. Cosmology and Architecture in Premodern Islam: Freely, J., 2011. History of Ottoman Architecture, WIT Press.
An Architectural Reading of Mystical Ideas. State University of Goodwin, G., 1991. Islamic Spain. Penguin.
New York Press. Grube, E.J., Michell, G., 1995. Architecture of the Islamic World: Its
Asher, C.E.B., 1992. Architecture of Mughal India. Cambridge History and Social Meaning with a Complete Survey of Key
University Press. Monuments and 758 Illustrations, 112 in Colour. Thames &
Behrens-Abouseif, D., 1992. Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Hudson.
Introduction. Brill. Mohamed, M., 2000. Great Muslim Mathematicians. Universiti
Blair, S., Bloom, J.M., 1995. The Art and Architecture of Islam. Yale Teknologi Malaysia.
University Press. Turner, H.R., 1997. Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated
Broug, E., 2008. Islamic Geometric Patterns. Thames & Hudson. Introduction. University of Texas.
Clévenot, D., Degeorge, G., 2000. Ornament and Decoration in Yeomans, R., 2006. The Art and Architecture of Islamic Cairo.
Islamic Architecture. Thames & Hudson. Garnet Pub. Ltd.
Critchlow, K., 1976. Islamic Patterns: An Analytical and Cosmolo-
gical Approach. Schocken Books.