Catedra de Limba si Literatura engleza

Methodology IIA, 2010

2. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Any average person in this country can tell you what teaching is about: a teacher
speaking in front of a large number of pupils who sit in rows at their desks; the pupils listen
or not. If the teacher knew how to make her pupils listen to her, education would be better.
In reality, what happens in the classroom is not so simple. The teacher is trying to
achieve several objectives at the same time. Her first task is to provide a range of learning
experiences to her pupils. Then, she needs to cater for individual differences by organizing
activities that make use of various learning resources and different tasks. She needs to
provide opportunities for the pupils to take responsibility of their own learning, while still
managing the classroom activities. In one word, she manages classroom learning.
The skills of creating and managing a successful class may be the key to the
teacher‟s success. An important part of this is to do with the teacher‟s attitude, intentions
and personality, and with her relationships with the learners. Another important part is the
organizational skills and techniques that the teacher uses, often grouped under the heading
of „classroom management‟.
Classroom management emphasizes the complexity of classroom life and focuses on
the managerial skills that the teacher needs to have and on the systematic way in which
she coordinates classroom variety and complexity. The teacher is the coordinator of a
varied and complex environment; she sets objectives, plans activities, attends to
communication and motivation and evaluates performance.
Classroom management involves both decisions and actions. The actions are what is
done in the classroom. The decisions are about whether to do these actions, when to do
them, how to do them, who to do them, etc. The essential basic skill for classroom
management is therefore to be able to recognize what options are available, to make
appropriate decisions between these options and to turn them into effective and efficient
actions. As the teacher grows in experience her awareness of possible options will also
grow.
The aim of this lecture is to help you become aware of the lesson management skills
that you need to develop. After you have completed the study of this unit on classroom
management, you should be able to:
explain what makes a lesson effective
classify patterns of interaction
explain the advantages and disadvantages of various patterns of classroom interaction
use various patterns of classroom interaction to involve all the pupils in your lessons

1 Classroom Management: Strategies and Tactics

What is it that makes a teacher successful and respected? Why do such a teacher‟s
pupils work with positive and constructive attitudes?
Both teachers and pupils have their own characteristics and habits. These influence
the effectiveness of the lesson. Like a taxi driver who knows every city street, a teacher
needs to develop a good understanding of her pupils and of herself.
Your physical presence, the way you move, sit or stand, the way you are dressed, all
have an effect on your pupils‟ perception. To some extent, these may also affect the
effectiveness of your lesson. You need to be aware of all these details, adapt your
language and your voice, your gestures, your expressions, your mime, your movements,
the frequency of eye contact with individual pupils, for all these carry a message for your
pupils.

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 Your lessons should be prepared thoroughly: materials, activities, and assessments.
When the pupils feel that you are filling time, or when you have to change activities because
you cannot find the materials, or if you are unprepared for the problems that may emerge,
you may lose your pupils‟ respect and confidence. A good idea is to prepare for each lesson
more than you need. It is always good to have a reserve activity ready in case of extra time.
As you are planning a lesson, note in advance which component(s) of the lesson you will
sacrifice if you find yourself with too little time for everything.
During the lesson, keep a watch or clock easily visible, and make sure you are aware
throughout how time is going relative to your plan. It is difficult to judge intuitively how time
is going when you are busy, and the smooth running of the lesson depends to some extent
on proper timing.
Try to create a serious impression of purpose by your contributions and by the
demands made on your pupils. This means attention to detail, and an assumption that your
pupils will take their work seriously and with a sense of responsibility. At every point in the
lesson a teacher has options. To say one thing or to say something different; to stop an
activity or to let it continue, to take some time to deal with difficult questions or to move on
with what you had previously planned. There is no single correct answer, no single route
through a lesson – though some routes may in the end prove to be much more effective
than others. Different people and different situations will create different solutions. The
lesson is created by these choices.
Long-term strategies can help you build up good standards of personal relationships
that result in good classroom atmosphere. Nevertheless, pupils are not always capable of
coping with all the stresses of their lives and they may react by laziness, insubordination,
defiance, aggression, or destructiveness. Such pupil behaviour will undermine the building
up of good classroom practice, and the effectiveness of your classes. What can you do?
Unfortunately, advice about classroom tactics is less reliable than advice about
general strategies.
The complexity of classroom life is responsible for many difficult situations.
Classroom life is multidimensional, with many different kinds of activities, many different
objectives, and many people having different needs and different styles. At any one time
you need to consider what to do next, thinking ahead of the development of the lesson,
watching the pupils‟ progress, looking out for what might disrupt the flow of the lesson.
There may be numberless unpredictables, interruptions, unforeseen difficulties, or minor
incidents. In such a context your action and reaction are driven by intuition more than by
deliberate thinking about alternative courses of action. Moreover, advice from other
teachers may not be reliable, as different teachers use different tactics with equal
(in)success.
Becoming an effective teacher is partly a matter of increasing your awareness of
what options are available. It is also about the skilful selection of the most appropriate
option at each point and efficiently, effectively turning these into actions.
What informs and influences a teacher‟s decisions between different options? Here
are some factors to bear in mind: (Scrivener, J. Learning Teaching, p. 11)
what is the aim of the activity?
What is the objective of the whole lesson?
Is what we are doing useful?
What is hindering the effectiveness of what we are doing?
What have I planned to do?
What would be the best thing to do now?
Is it time for a change of mood or pace?
Are we using time efficiently?
How do the students feel?
How do I (the teacher) Feel?
What are the possible outcomes of my actions?
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 Classroom decisions and actions are influenced by the teacher‟s own attitudes,
intentions, beliefs and values: what she thinks about learning, what is important for her in
learning, what she genuinely feels towards the students.

Teacher decisions and actions

Teacher attitudes and intentions

Teacher beliefs and values

What teacher beliefs and attitudes might underline the following

classroom activities?
a. The teacher includes a lot of student communication
activities in her lessons.
b. The teacher uses tape recordings of native speaker
conversations.
c. In every lesson the teacher includes at least one game that
involves students moving around the classroom.

1.1 Getting Organised

Some of the options the teacher needs to take come at key moments: the beginning
of the lesson, the start of an activity, the end of an activity, when a discipline problem
occurs in the lesson. A decision taken at such critical moments has great impact.
You need to develop clear routines for monitoring and controlling, for regular
organizational tasks such as taking the roll, distributing materials, clearing away at the end
of the lesson, forming pairs and groups, using equipment.
Adopt a supervisory role at regular intervals throughout the lesson. All gestures and
signals can be effective: a finger to the lips, a hand signal to sit down, a finger to beckon, a
nod to approve something to happen, a head shake to signal disapproval, etc. If it is really
necessary to speak, approach the pupil and say it quietly, not to disturb the rest of the
class.
Anticipate discipline problems and act quickly and decisively. If you are uncertain of
the cause of a disruption (which is very common), approach the disruptive pupil in a non-
critical way, asking her/him to report what progress has been made or what problems have
been encountered. Where the misbehaviour is overt, remove the pupil from any possible
audience. Set the pupil to work in a different part of the room, making it clear that s/he may
return when s/he has finished the task. This helps the pupil to accept the arrangement.
Avoid confrontation, which is public and emotionally charged, and can result in conflict
escalation.

1.2 Getting Started

A first impression is always important. Pupils tune in to the image which you present
to them from the first appearance. Make sure you arrive in time and with everything you
need for the class. Your leaving the classroom, or sending pupils to fetch forgotten items
breaks the continuity and gives an opportunity for the pupils‟ minds to wander.
Glance around to make sure the classroom and resources are in a state of
readiness, with windows open or shut (as they suit you and your pupils) and the board
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clean. If not, ask the pupils to help. Then look around to see where the pupils are sitting and
if their seating arrangement suits you. You may also need to ask pupils to put away things
from their desks.
Make sure you are ready before beginning the actual lesson. Arrange your books,
papers, etc. so that you can pick them up easily as you need them. Keep calm and do not
rush to start. The time you take to get organised may seem shorter to the pupils than you
may think. Allow your pupils to continue to talk quietly, while remaining in their seats, until
you announce that you are ready to begin the lesson. This prevents you from being under
pressure and also makes it clear that when you require silence the lesson will begin.
Make a clear and definite start. You can declare yourself ready by saying clearly and
quite loudly Good morning / afternoon, everybody and waiting for silence before going on.
Then, say briefly what the plan for the lesson is, so that your pupils can be aware of the way
they are progressing through the work, e.g. Today we’re going to learn…. We’ll be using
Unit… in our books. I’ve brought… for you to… We’ll do some pair work, too… But first of
all, I want to ask you…
When your way of beginning will become familiar to your pupils, they may even get
prepared for the lesson without you having to ask. The routine nature of this part of the
lesson establishes a secure environment. It sets up an atmosphere that is friendly but
purposeful and conducive to serious and organized work.

1.3 Moving From One Activity to Another

During a lesson, the class moves from one activity to another. You may also want to
change the pattern of interaction from time to time, so that for some part of the lesson pupils
are working with each other, in pairs or in groups. The activities you choose must suit the
objectives you have for the lesson, and many of them will be based on material in the
textbook. There is a wide range of activities which you can use:
all pupils listening to recorded material
pupils repeating individually or chorally
individual pupils responding to you
pupils reading silently (e.g. sections of the coursebook)
pupils completing written exercises individually
pupils working in pairs to complete written exercises
pupils doing oral practice in pairs
pupils solving problems in groups
pupils preparing material (stories, questions, etc.) in groups
group discussion of a topic
pupils completing tests individually, etc.
For all pupils, but especially for the weaker ones, a change of activity is motivating as
it gives a new chance to those who have not enjoyed or not done well in the last activity.

1.4 Transitions
It is a good idea to mark transition moments, using transition signals, e.g.: Right.
We’ve finished…, so we’ll leave our books for today and go on to… I want you to listen to…
and decide… There is little point in beginning a new activity while some pupils are still trying
to work out what they must do. For this reason, it is well worth checking and confirming that
everyone has understood.
Always try to move from one part of the lesson to another without allowing a gap to
occur. It is quite difficult to regain the attention of a class, particularly a large one.
Sometimes you can prepare for the next activity while the pupils are busy finishing
the previous one(e.g. you can write something on the board). It is important not to reveal all
the idea for a lesson at the beginning of the period. For instance, if you intend to use a
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picture, do not put it on show from the beginning of the class: pin it up and cover it with a
large sheet of paper that can be removed easily. When you show it to the class, the pupils
will have something fresh to focus on and their motivation will be helped. In the same way, if
you are going to use handouts, keep them until the time they are to be used arrives.
Overhead projectors are especially useful in this respect because you can prepare the
material in advance and reveal it to the class bit by bit.
Pictures and handouts should be made visible or available to all the pupils as quickly
as possible. When you have handouts or other papers to distribute to a large class, do not
try to give every paper yourself to each pupil. A number of handouts can be given to pupils
at different points in the class, asking them to take one and pass the rest on. Then wait
quietly for a few moments so that the pupils have time to look at what they have received. If
you begin speaking at once, many pupils will simply not listen as they will be preoccupied
with what they are looking at. Do not forget that for most people the eyes almost always
take precedence over the ears.

1.5 Ending a Lesson

Keep an eye on the time so that you are not in the middle of an activity when the
lesson should be ending. Give the homework towards the end but not in the last few
seconds of the lesson. If homework is given too early, some pupils may try to do it during
the lesson. If it is given too late, there may be no time to sort out any difficulties. It is often a
good idea to tell the class what the homework is and then finish the lesson with an activity
which helps with the tasks you have set. This gives an opportunity for any problems to be
raised and helps to make the pupils feel confident that they will be able to do the homework.
It is better to finish a little early rather than late, even if you have to say We’ll have to
leave this exercise until another day. It’s almost time for the end of the lesson. The pupils
will appreciate your courtesy in finishing on time. Conclude the lesson, rather than just stop
by saying something which indicates that you have finished. For instance, refer to what has
been done and to what you plan to do next.
When you are not in a hurry to your next lesson, take time gathering up your
materials and books. Then, individual pupils have an opportunity to speak to you informally,
and you may have time to say a few friendly words (in English) to some of the pupils. Of
course, you must not delay pupils and make them late for their next lesson.
Leave the classroom in good order – as you would expect to find it. You can ask the
pupils to help you. Even if it is normal in your school for a pupil to be asked to clean the
board, you should ensure that it is clean before you leave the classroom and, if necessary,
clean it yourself.

2 Patterns of Interaction
Classroom interaction is central to effective instruction. However, your pupils work
better in some circumstances than in others: some pupils may prefer a collaborative and
conversational style, with interruptions and more than one pupil talking at a time. Others
tend to be less active and yet others more independent.
The most common type of classroom interaction is that known as „IRF‟: Initiation
Response Feedback. The teacher initiates an exchange, usually in the form of a
question, one of the pupils answers, the teacher gives feedback (in the form of assessment,
correction, or comment), then initiates the next question, and so on. There are however,
alternative patterns: the initiative does not always have to be in your hands. Interaction may
be between pupils, or between a pupil and the material.
Here are some interaction patterns ordered from most teacher-dominated to most
pupil-active:

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 Teacher talk: the teacher is talking or reading aloud with all pupils listening. There may
be some kind of silent pupil response, such as writing from dictation or making notes in
notebooks. There is no initiative on the part of the pupils.
Closed-ended teacher questioning: the teacher asks a question which can get only
one „right‟ response.
Open-ended teacher questioning: the teacher asks a question to which there are a
number of possible „right‟ answers, so that more pupils answer each cue.
Choral response: the teacher gives a model which is repeated by all the class in
chorus; or gives a cue which is responded to in chorus.
Pupil initiates, teacher answers: the pupils think of questions and the teacher
responds. Such an interaction pattern can be found in guessing games. The teacher
decides who asks the question.
Five types of student grouping are common in the classroom:
Whole-class interaction: the whole class is working together with the teacher; the
pupils debate a topic or do a language task as a class. The teacher may intervene
occasionally to stimulate participation or to monitor.
Individual work: the teacher gives a task or set of tasks, and the pupils work on them
independently. They may also mix together as individuals. The teacher walks around
monitoring and assisting where necessary.
Collaboration or pair work: the pupils do the same sort of tasks as in „individual work‟,
but work together, usually in pairs. The teacher may or may not intervene. This is
different from group work where the task itself necessitates interaction.
Group work (done in small groups of three to eight pupils): the pupils work on tasks
that entail interaction, conveying information or making decisions. The teacher walks
around listening and intervenes little if at all.
Self-access: the pupils choose their own learning tasks, and work autonomously
Varying groupings is one way of enabling a variety of experiences for the learners.
The range of activity patterns is infinite, but we can group them into two main
categories:
1. whole class teacher-led activities
2. pupils‟ independent activities
teacher presentation
whole class class dialogue
pupil activities
Teacher-led activities
briefing
tutorial reviewing
discussion

individual work library work

course work
project work
homework
Independent activities pair work private study
discussions
collaborative projects
private reading
small group work use of audio/video/IT technology

Fig. 2.1 The components of classroom management

(after Philip Watehouse, Classroom Management, Network Educational Press,
Stafford, 1990, p.13)
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 2.1 Whole Class Teacher-Led Activities
These are the best known of teaching arrangements, and they are often referred to
as traditional teaching. Although traditional, if they are well done, whole class teacher-led
activities (also called „lockstep‟ teaching) can be very powerful. These activities include:
teacher presentation, class dialogue and student activities.

What are, in your opinion, the advantages of whole class teacher-

led activities? Write your answer in the space provided below and
compare it with that given at the end of the unit.

2.2 Pupils’ Independent Activities

Independent activities can be done individually, in pairs or in groups.
Independent activities can range from pupils doing exercises on their own, to
activities where pupils take charge of their own learning in self-access centres or out-of-
class activities. Such independent activities are a vital preparation for the development of
the pupils‟ learning autonomy.
When you wish your pupils to work on their own in class, you can, for instance, ask
them to read a text privately and then answer questions individually, or you can ask them to
complete worksheets with different tasks or to write tasks by themselves. You can give
them worksheets with several different tasks and allow them to choose which tasks to do.
Or you can hand out different worksheets to different pupils depending on their skills, needs
or tastes. You can allow your pupils to do some research on their own or choose what they
want to read or listen to.
Pupils enjoy to be given some degree of independence. While they need your
guidance and help, they also need their own time and space, and some freedom in making
decisions of their own. However, simply getting the pupils to work on their own is no
guarantee of a high level of motivation.
Individual work is a good opportunity for the pupils to work entirely alone. Such an
opportunity should be given frequently to all pupils. Good prior instructions are
essential, as is the need to give additional support if it is required.
Paired work is very popular and usually the classroom seating decides the pairing. It is
easy to use the pair as the normal unit for independent work and to break for individual
work occasionally, or combine with other pairs for small group work.
Small group work can be very productive, but it is not easy to manage. Many young
pupils may run into difficulties when they are left on their own. Working well as a
member of a small group is an advanced activity which even adults may find hard to
handle. That is why you need to offer constant care and monitoring of the group
progress.

3 Teacher-Led Activities
3.1 Whole Class Activities
Whole class activities play an important part in classroom management. They can be
very attractive and powerful, and they can be an opportunity for you to show your charisma.
A teacher’s presentation can be very effective if it is done for short periods and with
sparkle. The pupils can be inspired and stimulated by the charisma of a teacher with
good presentation skills.

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 Class dialogue (also known as the “Socratic method”) is a very useful method. By
skilful questioning, you can lead the thinking of the class. Class dialogue is best when it
is lively and motivating for the pupils. However, it needs firm and careful handling, as it
can lose its vitality and become mechanical and repetitive.
Pupil activities, that is giving the pupils something to do, help to bring variety into
whole class teaching. The pupils may all repeat something in the chorus; or respond to
a cue, they may take notes, or write after dictation. The teacher remains in control of
what is happening, but the pupils are given opportunities to be active.

3.2 Tutorials
Not as common as whole class teaching, mostly used in private schools, tutorials
(extra-class small group work) are also teacher led. Tutorials can make a real difference to
the quality of the pupils‟ learning. During tutorials, you can help the pupils to prepare for
their next assignment, give them guidance, indicate resources, possible problems or
standards. Reviews can also be organised during tutorials to look back at the work which
has been completed, and to assess it. Tutorials can be organised to encourage the pupils to
talk about their work, and to explore issues and ideas together, or to allow you to help them
overcome their difficulties. Working in a small group, during tutorials it is easier to identify
problems and to offer pupils more personal and individualised support.

3.3 Teacher Presentation

Whole class teaching is especially favoured when making a presentation meant to
inform, to describe or to explain. Such a presentation should not resemble a higher
education lecture. It should be informal and spontaneous, and as short as possible (no
longer than 10 minutes with younger pupils). Such an exposition can be interrupted by other
short activities, such as a dialogue or individual tasks.
If you want the presentation to achieve its objectives, it needs to have a clear
structure that the pupils can grasp. It is always helpful to present at the very beginning the
structure of the exposition. Tell your pupils first what you are going to say, then say it, and
then tell them what you have said! A way of involving the pupils is to ask them to take down
notes. Alternatively, you can give them a handout with a gapped structure of your
presentation, and ask them to complete it as you are presenting.
A thorough, high quality presentation can motivate and inspire your pupils. However,
during the presentation the pupils may want help, especially if a new topic is introduced.
They need to have a vision of the new knowledge, to understand why it is important and
relevant, how it fits in with their previous work and knowledge, how it will contribute to their
mastery of English.
A good presentation will stimulate your pupils‟ intellectual curiosity; it may review,
organize and consolidate their previous knowledge of the topic, or it can make the new
learning more personal. Also, it can give guidance to the pupils about the styles and
techniques to be used in doing work on the new topic.
At personal level your pupils may need help in order to see how they may personally
identify with the new topic, how they can build clear „images‟ of what the topic is about.
They may feel the need to share the excitement of the discovery with their classmates.
Whole class presentations are particularly valuable at the beginning, at the end and
at critical points in the lesson, such as topic changes, or where the concepts that need to be
taught are difficult. Also, after a period of time of independent activities (individual, in pairs
or in small groups), your pupils will be prepared to work again together as a class for the
consolidation of their work. At this stage, you should encourage pupil contributions, as they
can report back, discuss the issues raised during independent work, revise and consolidate,
assess the quality of the work done and evaluate the topic.

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 Teacher roles. During presentations, you are the focus of attention, playing a
number of related roles: organizer, information source, or discussion leader. The pupils are
relatively passive, listening, following instructions, responding to questions, and making
contributions when you invite them to do so.
Here are a few suggestions:
Get the attention of your class before you start. Either insist on their paying attention to
you or give them something to do (e.g. writing a title, an introductory example or
statement). This will bring the class into the work frame of mind.
Your first sentences must be attention holding. Appeal to their curiosity, surprise them,
intrigue them or move them emotionally.
Keep your voice level to the minimum necessary. A low voice creates a feeling of
expectancy, gives a sense of importance to the occasion, and builds a sense of mutual
confidence, a serious and trusting atmosphere.
Vary the volume and pace to give variety.
Occasionally, make appeal to feelings and use a more theatrical language. Temper
your projections of personality with sensitivity.
Do not forget that there is virtue in silence. A pregnant pause in a presentation can be
effective. Offer silence to your pupils so that they can reflect and consider their
responses. Build in pauses in which you invite the pupils to summaries what you have
said so far.
Be simple, be brief and be human. Start with plenty of examples and then gradually
introduce new vocabulary or more complex statements.
Remember that much communication is non-verbal; how you look, where and how you
stand, how you move are all observed and registered by the pupils.
Remember that no matter how good your presentation is, you cannot use it for
lengthy periods, as their span of attention is limited. It is better to introduce variety and more
pupil participation. The most common way of doing this is by using class dialogue.

3.4 Class Dialogue

In class dialogue, you lead the thinking of the class by asking questions and building
on the responses received from the pupils. Class dialogue should be carefully prepared.
You might start with familiar examples, with the presentation of a stimulus (a picture, a
drawing, a map, a piece of text, a recording, etc.) which has the aim of rousing the pupils‟
curiosity. Then your questioning can help the pupils to build upon their existing knowledge
and understanding. Gradually you help them to recognize general principles or rules and
finally give them opportunities to demonstrate their understanding by applying it.
Questioning is a universally used activation technique in teaching, mainly within the
IRF pattern. A question is a teacher‟s utterance which has the objective of eliciting an oral
response from the pupils. However, teacher questions are not always realised by
interrogatives, e.g. We’ll describe what is going on in this picture, Tell me what you can see
in this picture, etc. It is often hard to prepare the exact wording of the questions in advance,
as the questions need to be adapted to the responses which are received.
Getting the best responses from the pupils calls for patience and skill. In the role of
discussion leader you need to exercise a democratic, rather than an authoritarian style.
Pupil contributions must be encouraged with reinforcement, prompting and occasional
summaries as to where the discussion has reached.
Your motive in questioning is usually to get your pupils to engage with the language
material actively through speech. But there are other various reasons why you might ask a
question in the classroom:
to provide a model for language or thinking
to find out something from the pupils (facts, ideas, opinions)
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 to check or test understanding, knowledge or skill
to get the class to be active in their learning
to direct attention to the topic being learned
to inform the class via the answers of the stronger pupils rather than through your input
to provide weaker pupils with an opportunity to participate
to stimulate their thinking (logical, reflective or imaginative) and to make them probe
more deeply into issues
to get pupils to review and practise previously learnt material
to encourage their self-expression
to communicate to them that you are genuinely interested in what they think.
Questions can be classified according to various criteria:
the kind of thinking they try to elicit (plain recall, analysis, or evaluation)
whether they are „genuine‟ or „display‟ questions (does the teacher really want to know
the answer, or is she simply checking if the pupil does?)
whether they are closed- or open-ended (do they have a single right answer or many?).

Say to which of the category suggested above do the following

questions belong? Some questions may belong to more than one
category.
1. How do most people travel to work in your city or town?
……………………………………..
2. Is there a subway in your country?
……………………………………..
3. What is the number of Richard’s house on Linden Street?
……………………………………..
4. What topics do you usually talk about with someone you meet
for the first time?
……………………………………..
5. Do you like staying in a hotel?
……………………………………..

(questions from Howard Beckerman, Family Album, U.S.A, Editura Univers, 1993)

An effective questioning technique is one that elicits fairly prompt, motivated, relevant
and full responses. If your questions result in long silences, are answered by only the
strongest pupils, bore the class, or elicit only very brief or unsuccessful answers, then there
is probably something wrong. Effective questioning should follow a few criteria:
Clarity. The pupils should immediately grasp what the question means, and what kind
of answer is required. The language must be simple, clear and unambiguous.
Learning value. The questioning should start with an invitation to observe or identify.
The question should stimulate thinking and responses that will contribute to further
learning of the target material. It shouldn‟t be irrelevant, unhelpful or merely time-filling.
The key word is What?
What are the people in the picture doing?
What is the difference between these two animals?
What surprised you in this anecdote?
What is this?
Interest. The pupils should find the question interesting, challenging, stimulating.

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 Availability. Most of the pupils in the class should be able to answer the question.
However, allowing a few seconds‟ wait-time before accepting a response can make the
question available to a larger number of pupils.
Extension. The question should invite and encourage extended and/or varied answers.
Try to eliminate questions which can be answered simply by Yes or No, or by any single
word. Questions likely to get fuller answers often start with Why…?, How…?, What
would happen if…?
Grading. The questions should build up to higher levels of thinking.
The way you respond to your pupils‟ answers will affect the way they perform at the
time but also the way they will perform in the future. You will need to respond to content not
only to the language form. If there is no answer at all during questioning, if your pupils
cannot think of what to say, prompt them forwards. This kind of help has to be offered
gently, with tact and discretion.
Here are a few suggestions for managing your pupils‟ answers:
Be prepared to wait for an answer. Refrain from filling the gap immediately if the
question is met with initial silence. During the silence, use non-verbal communication,
give encouraging nods or raise your eyebrows. You may also try a short prompt. Signal
that you are actually enjoying the silence and are not in the least embarrassed or
annoyed.
Encourage pupil answers. Praise the good answers and preserve the self-esteem of
those who give wrong answers. The pupils should be sure that their responses will be
treated with respect, that they will not be put down or ridiculed if they say something
inappropriate. Give help if you see it is needed during an answer.
Try to get answers from as many pupils as possible. Responding only to the bright and
eager tends to focus attention on them at the expense of the others. A reluctant pupil
can be helped by being nominated to answer an easy question.
Encourage answers which express the pupils‟ personal thoughts or feelings, or which
are bold and imaginative. Even if it is incorrect, such an answer deserves praise.
Encourage respect for the contribution of others. Set a good example of respect,
courtesy and constructiveness and then expect it of the pupils. Do not tolerate sarcasm,
aggression, or destructive criticism.

3.5 Class Discussion

Effective questioning leads to class discussion. However, an average class may be
too big to operate as a successful discussion group. That is why you have to be in firm
control, and the rules for discussion should be clearly established. In the role of discussion
leader you need to be neutral and to exercise a democratic style.
A class discussion must be brought to a satisfactory close by summarising the main
points made and the conclusions reached. Discussion techniques are particularly useful for
topics involving personal attitudes and in problem solving.

Can you now list a few disadvantages of whole class teacher-

led teaching?

Whole class teaching is an important part of a teacher‟s repertoire of methods, and

has a lot of potential. It relies on teacher talk, which may be more or less inspiring and
motivating. That is why, during class teaching the pupils may become passive as individual

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differences are ignored and their motivation may decrease. However, class teaching has its
place in the repertoire of a teacher, provided it is not the only method in use!

4 Pupils’ Independent Activities

Before reading the next section, try to think of a few important

advantages of pupils‟ independent activities.

Independent learning is characterized by the pupils‟ active and responsible

participation in the lesson:
the pupils show study skills (personal organization and learning skills)
they take active steps to prepare for work
they show initiative in finding the resources they need for the work assigned
they show initiative in getting help from their classmates before seeking help from the
teacher
they offer help to classmates
they contribute to the task in a responsible way
they are often organized in teams
they often follow up classroom work with further investigation
they are so involved or absorbed in their work that the teacher is able to step back.
Independent learning can take place in various groupings: individual, pair or team /
small group. The pupils need to be thoroughly prepared and briefed for independent
learning tasks and they should be constantly monitored and controlled.
Two modes of independent learning can be distinguished a) supervised study
(individual or paired work), and b) supported independent work (individual, paired or small
group).

Mode Pupil Briefing Monitoring

grouping for task and control
Supervised learning individual or paired Teacher circulating
whole class
Supported individual paired or Teacher circulating
independent work small group group
Adapted after Waterhouse P., 1990, Classroom Management, Network Educational
Press, Stafford, p. 56

4.1 Supervised Learning

In supervised learning, the teacher sets a task or a series of tasks to be done
individually, or in pairs. After you give the explanation of what to do and how to do it to the
class as a whole, the individual pupils or pairs then proceed with their tasks. Your role is to
monitor – to move around the class, checking that everyone is on task, helping with
problems, making suggestions, giving advice, supervising work and behaviour. During such
an activity, you can find opportunity to talk to individuals or small groups. This system helps
the pupils to be more active and this can be an important move towards real pupil
independence.

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 However, when working individually, the pupils may feel deprived of the stimulus of
working with other people, or they may find out that they are unable to make decisions and
are still dependent on your directions.
Here are a few suggestions for how you can reduce the pupils‟ dependence on the
teacher:
brief thoroughly before the task
allocate enough time for the task
make sure the task is at the right level and the pupils can cope with it and the resources
necessary for it
encourage the pupils to seek help from each other
spend time listening to individual pupils, encouraging them to expand on their difficulties
and their problems
refrain from answering a pupil‟s question directly; try to get the same pupil to answer
the question or get another pupil to join in
intervene by asking questions of your own to find out how well they have understood
the task
do not revert to class teaching, although this may seem an economical way of solving
problems
keep a low profile, monitoring quietly and unobtrusively

4.2 Supported Independent Learning

The concept of supported independent learning or individualized learning is
sometimes identified with the provision of a self-access centre, or a full self-access learning
programme. These offer various kinds of materials, and the pupils may participate in the
choice of materials, and then work on their own, in groups or in pairs.
Individualized learning may have a more modest sense, too: the pupils are given a
measure of freedom to choose how and what they learn at a particular time. This implies
less direct teacher supervision and more learner autonomy and responsibility for learning.
Tasks and materials are adapted or selected to suit the individual.
Individualized learning is a serious attempt to provide for different learner needs and
to place a higher responsibility for learning on the learners themselves. Individualized
learning is the opposite of „lockstep‟ learning, where everyone in the class is expected to do
the same thing, at the same time, in the same way.
Procedures that allow for individual choice include:
1. Speed: how fast or slowly each individual may work (everyone being engaged in the
same basic task)
2. Level: tasks may be presented in easier or more difficult versions, so that the pupil can
choose the one that suits his/her level
3. Topic: the pupil will be able to select tasks that vary in the subject or topic, while all are
based on the same language skill or teaching point
4. Language skill or teaching point: each pupil may choose to work on a different
aspect of language (e.g. listening, grammar, reading, etc).

Try to summaries the disadvantages of pupils‟ individualized

learning.

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 5 Pupil Groupings: Pair Work and Group Work
In pair and group work pupils perform a learning task through interaction. Both pair
and group work are forms of learner activation that are of particular value in the practice of
oral fluency. They have the added advantages of fostering learner responsibility and
independence, of improving motivation and contributing to a feeling of cooperation and
warmth in the class.
Pair and group work can mark a transition from one stage of the lesson to the next.

5.1 Pair Work Organisation

The amount of practice each pupil gets is greatly increased by the use of pair work.
The pupils can sit either facing each other for conversation or side by side when looking at
the same book or paper. Pair work can be done simply by some pupils turning round or
moving along a bit to sit with a partner. Young learners tend to prefer to make pairs with
their special friends and this is often perfectly satisfactory. However, it is a good idea
sometimes to vary who sits with whom. It is sensible to be more selective about pairing if
you are planning an activity which is long, and perhaps difficult for some pupils. You may
wish to try to pair a „good‟ pupil with a less able one, if this can be done without it being too
obvious.
For quick snippets of oral practice, use random pairing which occurs as a result of
seating. This has the advantage of not interrupting the flow of the lesson too much.
To organise pair work, you need to give a clear directive, e.g. We can do this as pair
work. Will the front row please turn round and work with the people behind them. Pupils
soon get used to the idea of pairing, and a simple We’ll do this in pairs prompts them to sort
themselves out quite quickly and quietly.

5.2 Group Work Organisation

Group work tends to occur less frequently but pupils who have got used to pair work
can easily be put into groups. One way is to organise them as if for pair work, and then say
We’re going to work in bigger groups, so you three pairs make Group 1, you three Group 2,
and so on. With a class which is used to group work you may say We’re going to do the
next activity in groups. So take your notebooks and pens and get into groups of six, please.
A few moments of chaos may follow, but once group work has become a normal part of the
class routine, it will not be much trouble. Before you fix the group size, say what resources
(books, handouts, etc.) the pupils will need.
Once the groups have been formed, give clear, precise instructions about what you
want them to do. Also, give examples of what you expect and indicate how much time they
will have to complete the task. The instructions given at the beginning are crucial: if the
pupils do not understand exactly what they have to do there will be time-wasting, confusion,
and lack of effective practice. A preliminary rehearsal or „dry run‟ of a sample of the activity
with the full class can help to clarify things.
A group of 4 – 8 pupils is large enough to produce a variety of opinions and
responses, but small enough to give each pupil a sense of belonging. If each group consists
of an even number of pupils, this allows you to set activities for pairs or for the whole team.
A common approach is to start an activity with paired work and to take the results of pair
work to the whole group.
Some teachers find that having group leaders (different ones on each occasion)
and/or giving each group a name (Group A, Group B, etc. or the Wonder team, the Dream
team, etc.) helps to make the session run smoothly. At first you will probably want to name
the leaders, but in time each group can choose its own. Every group member should have a
job and be answerable to the group. The jobs should be rotated frequently. Also, every
member of the group should know that help for another member of the group is
encouraged.
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 Select tasks that are simple enough to describe easily. Sometimes it may be cost-
effective to explain some or all in Romanian.
You should be able to foresee what language will be needed, and have a preliminary
quick review of appropriate grammar or vocabulary. Also, before giving the sign to start, you
should tell the class what the arrangements are for stopping: if there is a time limit, or a set
signal for stopping. If the groups simply stop when they have finished, then you should tell
them what they will have to do next.

In the table below tick the advantages that characterise pair

work, group work or both:
pair group
work work both
increases the amount of pupil speaking time
allows pupils to work and interact independently
promotes pupil independence
allows the teacher time to work with one or two chosen
pairs
helps the classroom to become a more relaxed and more
friendly place
helps pupils to share responsibility
can be easily organised
personal relationships are less problematic
more opinions and more contributions are made public
encourages cooperation and negotiation skills
more private than whole class work
promotes learner autonomy
pupils can choose their level of participation

5.3 Pair and Group Work in Progress

While the pupils are working in pairs or groups, you have two options: either to go
from group to group, ask and contribute, or keep out of the way. You could stand at the
front, at the back or anywhere else in the classroom, and monitor what is happening, or go
round the class observing. You can be acting as monitor or as prompter, resource or tutor.

What can be your contribution during pair and group work?

During pair and group work you have an opportunity to work with individual pupils
whom you feel would benefit from your help. Do not spend too long with one pair or group
as this sometimes leads to other pupils losing interest in the task as they feel you have lost
interest in them. Pair and group work which goes on for too long causes problems as the
pupils get bored.
If you have set a time limit, this will help you to draw the activity to a close at a certain
point. In principle, you should try to finish the activity while the pupils are still enjoying it and
interested, or only just beginning to flag.
A frequent problem is that some pairs or groups will finish earlier than others, and will
want or need to do something else. When they are tired, some will be happy to just wait for
the others to finish. In other circumstances, you may ask them all to stop the activity after
the first pairs or groups have finished. This solution removes the problem of boredom, but it

Anca Cehan 15
may de-motivate those who have not yet finished. It is wise to have a reserve task planned
to occupy the members of groups who finish earlier than expected.

5.4 Feedback to Pair and Group Work

When pairs and groups stop working together, a feedback session usually takes
place. The pupils need to discuss what occurred during the activity, and you need to
provide assessment and make corrections. Feedback on the task may take many forms:
giving the right solution (if there is one)
listening to and evaluating suggestions
pooling ideas on the board
displaying materials the groups have produced
having a few pairs or groups to demonstrate the language they used, and so on.
Where the task had definite right or wrong answers, you need to ensure that it was
completed successfully. By comparing solutions, ideas, and problems, the pupils can reach
a better understanding of the task or topic.
Your main objective is to express appreciation of the effort that has been invested
and its results. Constructive feedback on pupils‟ work will enhance their motivation.
Feedback on language mistakes is only one part of the process. Feedback on language
may be integrated into the discussion of the task, or provide the focus of a separate lesson
later.
The achievements of the group members could be publicised and recorded either
individually, or as sum totals for the group. Rewards (and minor sanctions) should be given
on a pair or group basis.

Could you now summarise the disadvantages of group work?.

Some teachers may be hesitant about using pair work and group work with very
large classes. They fear that they will have difficulty in controlling the pupils. There is no
doubt that collaborative work can lead to a lot of noise if it is not controlled carefully. For this
reason, you may find it useful to explain why you want to do pair work and group work and
to impress upon the class the need to behave in a responsible way. On the first one or two
occasions when you organise pair or group work, you should be especially firm in dealing
with noisy or troublesome pupils.
Some thinking needs to be given to the life-span of the group. While permanent
groups may not be the best solution, constant changes are not advisable, either.
A group should start with a clearly defined task to be done within a defined time. This
helps the pupils build a sense of team identity but also removes the fear of being locked into
a grouping which an individual may feel uncomfortable with. While the pupils are working in
pairs or groups, you need to observe how well they interact together. You will need to
change the pairs to groups in future if you notice that some pupils cannot concentrate on
the task and talk about something else (usually in Romanian), that one pupil dominates the
group, or that some weaker pupils are lost.
The advantages of pair and group work soon become apparent. Questions directed
at the pairs or at the teams can anticipate longer, more thoughtful answers, which are the
result of group deliberation. This overcomes the main disadvantage of the class dialogue
which can degenerate into a succession of short questions, with one-word answers
supplied by the bright and eager, and the teacher jumping from one student to another in

Anca Cehan 16
search of the right answer. In the collaborative work approach, different solutions can be
explored, and pupils can learn to justify their arguments to their fellow group members.

6. Maximizing student interaction in class

Here are some ideas, selected from Scrivener‟s book:
Create an effective learning environment. Be as honestly yourself as you can be.
Respect the learners. Work on seeing things from their p[perspective as well as your
own.
Encourage a friendly, relaxed learning environment. A trusting, positive, supportive
rapport among the learners and between learners and teacher leads to a better chance
of useful interaction happening.
Ask questions rather than giving explanations.
When you want the pupils to discuss something, ask open questions.
Allow time for the pupils to listen, think, process their answer and then speak.
Really listen to what they say. Let what they say really affect what you do next. Work on
listening (1) to the student, (2) the meaning as well as (3) the language and (4) the
mistakes.
Allow thinking time without talking over it. Allow silence.
Increase opportunities for STT (Student Talking Time).
Use gestures to replace unnecessary teacher talk.
Allow students to finish their own sentences.
Make use of pairs and small groups to maximize opportunities for pupils to speak.
When possible, arrange seating so that students can all see each other and talk to each
other (in circles, squares or horseshoes rather than parallel rows). Try out seating
arrangements that allow the whole class to be the focus, rather than the teacher.
Encourage interaction between students rather than only between student and teacher
and teacher and student. Get students to ask questions, give explanations to each
other rather than always to you. Use gestures and facial expressions to encourage
them to speak and listen to each other.
Encourage co-operation rather than competition: we learn from others and from working
through our own mistakes. The result of an activity may be less important than how the
pupils are getting there.
Allow students to become more responsible for their own progress. Put them in
situations where they need to make decisions for themselves.
If a student is speaking too quietly for you to hear, walk further away, rather than closer
to them. Encourage the quiet speaker to speak louder so that the others can hear.

7. Problematic class management

Here are some common ways in which teachers unintentionally hinder or prevent
learning.
TTT (Teacher talking time)
English teachers tend to believe that silence is horrible and fill it with their own talk.
However, the more a teacher talks, the less opportunity there is for the learners. They need
time to think, to prepare what they are going to say and how they are going to say it. Allow
them the time and the quiet they need. Don‟t feel the need to fill every gap in a lesson, and
explore the possibilities of silence.

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 Echoing
If you tend to echo what the students say, start to control this; the students will get
more talking time and they will start to listen to each other more. When you echo they will
learn that they don‟t need to listen to anyone except the teacher, because they know the
teacher will repeat everything.
Helping the students with sentence completion
Often the teacher is so desperate for the students to say what she wants them to say
that she predicts the words the student will produce and often adds „tails‟ to sentence after
sentence. This kind of „doing the hard work‟ for the students is counter-productive for them.
Pupils need to learn to finish off their own sentences, using their own words and their own
ideas.
Complicated and unclear instructions
Unplanned, unstructured instructions are extremely confusing to students. They
understand a small percentage of what the teacher is saying and guess only from one or
two words they catch what the teacher is trying to say. Work out what is essential for them
to know and tell them only that.
Not checking understanding of instructions
Even the clearest instructions can be difficult to understand foe some students. So,
after you‟ve given them, check that they have been understood. A simple way is to ask a
student or two to repeat them back to you. In this way you satisfy yourself that the task has
been understood,
Asking Do you understand?
When you want to check the pupils‟ understanding, a question such as Do you
understand? is often useless. A Yes may mean “I don‟t want to seem stupid”, or “I don‟t
want to waste the class time” and not necessarily “I think I understand”. The best way to get
clear information about what students have taken in is to get them to demonstrate their
understanding, by giving examples, by repeating an instruction, by explaining their
interpretation of an idea. This provides real evidence rather than possibly untrue
information.
Fear of genuine feedback
In an active, forward-moving class the learners give constantly their teacher
feedback on what they have understood, what they think, what they need, how they feel.
Many teachers believe in the importance of open, honest feedback but find it hard to get.
This is partly due to classroom atmosphere, partly to the questions asked, and mainly to the
teacher‟s attitude and response to feedback received. If the teacher sees feedback as a
threat to herself or her position she will avoid feedback, or will defend herself against
perceived attack when she gets feedback. If she can open up to pupil feedback without self-
defence, justifications or arguments, she will find that she can start to find out what the
students are really thinking, and that she can work on responding appropriately to that.
Insufficient authority and over-politeness
Too much politeness (e.g. if you don’t mind, it would be nice if you could just... if you
feel that’s OK) can be a way in which teachers undermine themselves. A teacher needs to
be clear and say directly what needs to be done. An imperative like Stop now, please, is a
sign of natural authority.
Lack of confidence in self, learners, material, activity, etc.
A common cause of boredom in the classroom is when the material used is too
difficult and hard to recognize or too easy and unchallenging. A teacher should try to keep

Anca Cehan 18
the level of challenge right, be demanding and believe that her pupils can do more than
they are aware of being able to do – and help them to do it.
Over-helping and over-organizing
When you give pupils a task to do in a group, it‟s often best to let them get on with it.
A lot of teacher help, although well-intentioned can be perceived as „teacher interference‟
and gets in the way of students working on their own. As long as you are around they will
look for guidance, control and help. When you are not there they are forced to do the work
themselves (and learning may happen!). For teachers it can be a difficult lesson to learn –
but sometimes the students will do much better without us, if only we have the courage to
trust them.
Flying with the fastest
If you only listens to the first pupils who speak, it‟s very easy to get a false
impression of how difficult or easy something is. You may find that the strongest and fastest
students dominate and you get little idea of how the majority of the class finds the work.
This can lead you to fly at the speed of the top two or three students and to lose the rest
completely. Make sure you get constant answers and feedback from many students. Try
directing questions at individuals and sometimes actively „shh!‟ the loud ones – or simply
don‟t „hear‟ them.
No really listening (hearing language problems but not the message)
We can easily become overconcerned about the accuracy of what is said and to fail
to hear the person behind the words. Teachers frequently fail to hear what the learners say.
However, the point in learning a foreign language is to be able to communicate and receive
messages, and the mechanical production of correct English should not blind us to the
message conveyed.
Weak rapport – creation of a poor working environment
If rapport seems to be a problem, then plan work designed to focus on improving the
relationships and interaction with the class. Until the relationships are good within the class
the learning is ;likely to be of a lower quality – so it‟s worth spending time on this.
Remember that a teacher should be authentic, respectful and emphatic.

Summary
Effective lesson management needs careful planning. The cornerstone of effective
management is a clearly understood and consistently monitored set of rules and
procedures that prevents management problems in all stages of the lesson. These take into
account both the characteristics of the pupils and the physical environment of the
classroom. Lesson rules and procedures are the steps for the routines the pupils follow in
their learning activities.
While in whole class teacher-led activities opportunities for pupil participation are
limited, collaborative learning activities (pair work and group work) rely on interaction to
promote cooperative knowledge construction, increased motivation and interest.

Key Concepts

lesson management
patterns of interaction
whole class teacher-led activities
pupils‟ independent activities
class dialogue
questioning
Anca Cehan 19
 teacher feedback
supervised learning
supported independent learning
pair work
group work

Further Reading
1. Harmer, Jeremy (2001) The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman
2. Scrivener, J. (994) Learning Teaching, Heinemann
3. Underwood, Mary (1987) Effective Class management. A Practical Approach,
Longman
4. Ur, Penny (1996) A Course in Language Teaching. Practice and Theory,
Cambridge University Press

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