THE MOLE CONCEPT

A pair contains two (2) items, a dozen contains 12 items while a gross contains 144 items.
Similarly, one mole of a substance contains 6.02 x 1023 identical particles. . These particles
may be atoms, molecules or ions depending on the nature of the substance, which is
influenced by the type of bonding exhibited.

One mole of a substance may also be referred to as the amount of substance that contains as
many elementary particles as there are carbon atoms in 12g of carbon – 12 isotope.

The number 6.20 x 1023 is known as the Avogadro’s number/constant (after the inventor in
1811)

Note:
1. The number of particles making up a mole are irrespective of their masses, e.g. 1g of
hydrogen atoms contains 6.02 x 1023 H atoms 16g of oxygen atoms contain 6.02 x 1023
O atoms.
2. The relative formula mass of any compound contains 6.02 x 10 23 molecules or ions.
For instance 40g of sodiumhydroxide contain 1 mole of sodium hydroxide ions.

Number of moles of a substance = Mass of given substance

Mass of 1 mole of that substance

Example 1
Calculate the number of moles and hence the number of particles in
(a) 2.3g of sodium atoms
(b) 3.0g of carbon atoms
(c) 88g of carbondioxide molecules
(d) 2g of sodiumhydroxide

(a) Atomic mass of sodium is 23g

1 mole of sodium weighs 23g
23 g of sodium contain 1 mole of Na atoms
1 g of sodium contains 1/23 moles of Na atriums

 23g of sodium contain 2.3 moles of Na atoms

23
= 0.1 Moles of Na atoms
1 mole of a substance contains 6.02 x 1023 particles
1 mole of sodium contains 6.02 x 1023 Na atoms
0.1 mole of sodium contain 6.02 x 1022 Na atoms.

(b) 12g of carbon contain 1 mole of C atoms 1g of carbon contains 1/12 moles of C atoms

 30g of carbon contain 3/12 moles of C atoms

= 0.25 moles of C atoms
1 mole of carbon contains 6.02 x 1023 C atoms
 0.25 nikes if carbon contain (6.02 x 1023 x 0.25) C atoms
= 1.505 x 1023 C atoms
 2

(c) Formula mass of carbondioxide, CO2 = (12 x 1) x(16 x 2) = 44g

44g of carbondioxide contain 1 mole of CO2 molecules
1 g of carbondioxide contains 1/44 moles of CO2 molecules
 88g of carbondioxide contain 88/44 moles of CO2 molecules
= 2 moles of CO2 molecules
1 mole of carbondioxide contains 6.02 x 1023 CO2 molecules
2 moles of carbondioxide contain (6.02 x 1023 x 2) CO2 molecules
= 1.204 x 1024 CO2 molecules

(d) Formula mass of sodium hydroxide, NaOH is (23 x 1)+(16 x 1)+(1x1) = 40g
40g of sodiumhydroxide contain 1 mole of NaOH ions 1g of sodiumhydroxide contains
1
/40 moles of NaOH ions
 0.05 moles of sodiumhydroxide contain (6.02 x 1023 x 0.05) NaOH ions
= 3.01 x 1022 NaOH ions

Example 2
What is the mass of the following?
(a) 0.4 moles of neon gas
(b) 0.8 moles of sodium chloride
(c) 1.25 moles of methane
atomic masses: Ne =20, Na = 23, Cl= 35.5, C=12, H = 1

Solution:
(a) A molecule of neon gas is in the form Ne (as the atom)
So, 1 mole of neon gas weighs 20g
 0.4 moles of neon gas weigh 20 x 0.4
= 8g

(b) Sodium chloride, NaCl: (23 x 1) + (35.5 x 1) = 58.5g

1 mole of sodium chloride weighs 58.5g
0.8 moles of sodium chloride weigh 58.5 x 0.8 = 46.8g

(c) Methane, CH4 formula mass is (12 x 1) + 1 x 4) = 16g

1 mole of methane weighs 16g
 1.25 moles of methane weigh 16 x 1.25 = 20g

Molar volume
Avogadoro’s law states that 1 mole of any gas occupies the same volume at
standard conditions of temperature and pressure.
Or
An equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure contain an equal number of molecules.

The molar volumes is the volume occupied by 1 mole of any gas at standard
conditions.

At standard temperature of 273K (0oC) and pressure of 760 mmHg (known as

s.t.p 1 mole of any gas occupies 22,400cm3 (22.4 dm3 or 22.4 litres)
 3

Number of moles of gas = volume of gas

Molar volume

(i) at s.t.p, n = volume of gas at s.t.p

22,400

(ii) at room temperature, n = volume of gas at rt

24,000

Examples 3
What is the volume of the following gases?
(a) 16g of oxygen gas at s.t.p
(b) 34g of ammonia gas at room temperature/pressure
atomic masses: H = 1, N = 14, O = 16

Solution:
(a) Oxygen gas exists as O2. Mole. Molecular mass is (16 x 2) = 32g
32g of oxygen contain 1 mole of O2
1g of oxygen contain 1/32 moles of O2
16g of oxygen contain 16/32 moles of O2 = 0.5 moles of O2
But 1 mole of a gas (oxygen) occupies 22400cm3 at s.t.p
0.5 moles of oxygen occupy 22400 x 0.5 cm3 at s.t.p = 11200 cm3

(b) Ammonia, NH3 molecular mass is (14 x 1) +(1 x 3) = 17g.

17g of ammonia contain 1 mole of NH3
1g of ammonia contain 1/17 moles of NH3
34g of ammonia contain 34/17 moles of NH3 = 2 moles of NH3

But 1 mole of ammonia occupies 24000 cm3 at rt

2 moles of ammonia occupy 24000 x 2 cm3 at rt = 48,000 cm3

Exercise 1
What is the mass of the following gases
(i) 60 litres of chlorine at room temperature
(ii) 5.6 dm3 of sulphurdioxide gas at s.t.p
Atomic masses: 0.16, S =32 , Cl = 35.5

Example 4
(a) 25g of calcium carbonate were completely reacted with excess hydrochloric
acid. Calculate the volume of carbondioxide gas liberated at room temperature.

(b) What is the volume of gas liberated at s.t.p when 4g of marble chips are strongly
heated until no further change?

Solution

(a) Calcium carbonate CaCO3: (40 x 1) +(12 x 1) +16 x 3) 100g.

100g of calcium carbonate contain 1 mole of CaCO3

25g of Calcium carbonate contain 1 x 25 moles of CaCO3 = 0.25 moles

 4

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

But 1 mole of CO2 occupies 24,000 cm3 at room temp

0.25 moles of CO2 occupy 24,000 x 0.25 cm3 = 6,000 cm3 at room temp.

(b) Marble chips are calcium carbonate, CaCO3

100g of calcium carbonate contain 1 mole of CaCO3
4g of calcium carbonate contain 1 x 4 moles of CaCO3 = 0.04 moles of
100

CaCO3(s) heat CaO(s) + CO2(g)

1 mole of CaCO3 produces 1 mole of CO2

0.04 moles of CaCO3 produce 0.04 moles of CO2
But 1 mole of CO2 occupies 22,400 cm3 at s.t.p
0.04 moles of CO2 occupy 22,400 x 0.04 cm3 at s.t.p = 896 cm3 at s.t.p

Shorter approach to (b)

Formula mass of CaCO3 is (40 x 1) + (12 x 1) + (16 x 3) = 100g.
heat
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

1 mole of CaCO3 liberate 1 mole of CO2

100g of CaCO3 liberate 22,400 cm3 of CO2 at s.t.p
1g of CaCO3 liberates 22400 cm3 of CO2 at s.t.p
4g of CaCO3 liberate 22400 x 4 cm3 of CO2 at s.t.p = 896 cm3
100

For solutions, a molar solution is that which contains one mole of solute in one litre
of solution. Eg 1M sodium hydroxide solution is one that contains 40g of sodium
hydroxide dissolved in 1 litre (1000cm3) of water.
The term molar (denoted by capital M) refers to the number of moles of that solute
dissolved in 1 litre of solution.

Note: When making solutions, solid solvents have negligible contribution to the
volume of the solution and so making 1 litre of solution you dissolve the solid in a
litre of water.
For the case of liquid solvents they contribute to the volume and so, the required
liquid solvent is measured into the volumetric flask to which distilled water is
carefully added to make a litre of solution.

Molarity is number of moles of a given solute in one litre of solution.

Example 5:
What is the molarity of the following?
(a) 49g of sulphuric acid in 1 litre of solution
(b) 1.4g if potassiumhydroxide in 50cm3 of solution atomic masses :
H = 1, O =16, S = 32, K= 39
 5

Solution
(a) Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 (1 x 2)+(32 x 1)+(16 x 4) = 98g.
98g of sulphuric acid contain 1 mole of H2SO4
1 g of sulphuric acid contains 1/98 moles of H2SO4
49g of sulphuric acid contain 1 x 49 moles of H2SO4 = 0.5 moles
0.5 moles
Since molarity is the number of moles of solute in a litre of solution, therefore
the molarity is 0.5M.

(b) Potasiumhydroxide KOH, (39 x 1) +(16 x 1) +(1x1) = 56g

56g of potassiumhydroxide contain 1 mole of KOH
1g of potassiumhydroxide contains 1/56 moles of KOH
1.4g of potassiumhydroxide contain 1x1.4 = 0.025 moles of KOH
56
50cm3 of solution contain 0.025 moles of KOH
1cm3 of solution contains 0.025 moles of KOH = 0.5 moles of KOH
50
Molarity of solution is 0.5M

Example 6:
Find the mass of solute in the following solutions
(a) 1 litre of 0.02M solution of sodiumhydroxide
(b) 20cm3 of 2M copper (II) sulphate solution
Atomic masses: H = 1, O = 16, Na = 23, S = 32, Cu = 64

Solution:
(a) Sodiumhydroxide, NaOH: (23 x 1) +(16 x 1) +(1x1) = 40g
1 litre of sodiumhydroxide solution contains 0.02 moles of NaOH

But 1 mole of NaOH weighs 40g

0.02 moles of NaOH weigh 40 x 0.02 g = 0.8g

(b) Copper (II) sulphate, CuSO4: (64x1)+(32x1)+(16x4) = 160g

1000 cm3 of solution contain 2 moles of CuSO4
20cm3 of solution contain 2 x 20 moles of CuSO4 = 0.04 moles of CuSO4
1000

But 1 mole of CuSO4 weighs 160g

0.04 moles of CuSO4 weigh 160 x 0.04 = 6.4g

Example 7:

Determine the number of moles of hydrogen ions in:

(a) 50cm3 of 2M hydrochloric acid
(b) 40cm3 of 0.2M sulphuric acid
 6

Solution:
(a) 1000 cm3 of solution contain 2 moles of HCl
1cm3 of solution contain 2/1000 moles of HCl

 50cm3 of solution contain 2 x 50 moles of HCL

1000
= 0.1 moles of HCl
HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl – (aq)

1 mole of HCl ionises to produce 1 mole of H+

0.1 moles of HCl ionise to produce 0.1 moles of H+ so, 50cm3 of 2M
hydrochloric acid contain 0.1 moles of H+

(b) 1000cm3 of solution contain 0.2 moles of H2SO4

1 cm3 of solution contains 0.2 moles of H2SO4

40cm3 of solution contain 0.2 x 40 moles of H2SO4

1000
= 0.008 moles of H2SO4
H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42 –(aq)
1 mole of H2SO4 ionises to produce 2 moles of H+ ions
0.008 moles of H2SO4 ionise to produce 2 x 0.008 moles of H+
= 0.016 moles of H+
Exercise 2
Determine the number of moles of
(i) chloride ions in 20cm3 of 1m copper (II) chloride solution
(ii) nitrate ions in 200cm3 of 0.5M potassium nitrate solution
(iii) sodium ions in 50cm3 of 0.4M sodium carbonate solution

Example 8
Determine the volume of 2M sodium hydroxide solution which is required to
completely neutralise 25cm3 of 0.8M solution of sulphuric acid.

Solution:
100 cm3 of sulphuric acid contain 0.8 moles of H2SO4
1cm3 of sulphuric acid contains 0.8 moles of H2SO4
1000
25 cm of sulphuric acid contain 0.8 x 25 moles of H2SO4
3

1000
= 0.02 moles of H2SO4

H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaO(H(aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O(l)

1 mole of H2SO4 reacts with 2 moles of NaOH
0.02 moles of H2SO4 react with 2 x 0.02 moles of NaOH
= 0.04 moles of NaOH

But 2 moles of NaOH are contained in 1000 cm3 of solution

0.04 moles of NaOH are contained in 1000 x 0.04 cm3 of solution
2
= 20cm3
The volume of sodium hydroxide solution required is 20cm3
 7

Example 9
13.8g of a metal carbonate, M2CO3 were dissolved in 1000 cm3 of water to make
a solution FA1, FA2 is a 0.5M solution of sulphuric acid. 40 cm3 of FA2 required
20 cm3 of FA1 for complete neutralisation.
Determine:
(i) the molarity of FA1
(ii) the molar mass of the carbonate
(iii) the formula of the compound

Solution:
(i) 1000 cm3 of FA2 contain 0.05 moles of H2SO4
1 cm3 of FA2 contains 0.05 moles of H2SO4

H2SO4 (aq) + M2CO3 (aq) M2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

1 mole of H2SO4 reacts with 1 mole of M2CO3

0.002 moles of H2SO4 reacted with 0.002 moles of M2CO3
20cm3 of FAl contain 0.002 molesmoles of M2CO3
20
1000cm3 of FA1 contain 0.002 x 1000 moles of M2CO3
20
molarity of FAl is 0.1M

(ii) Since 1000 cm3 of FA1 contain 0.1 moles of M2CO3 and to make this
solution , 13.8g of M2CO3 was dissolved in 1000 cm3
0.1 moles of M2CO3 weigh 13.8g
1 mole of M2CO3 weighs 13.8 g
0.1
The molar mass of M2CO3 is 138g.
(iii) Formula mass = total mass of the individual atoms present.
Let the mass of M be Y
M2CO3 : (Y x 2) +(12 x 1) +(16 x 3) = 138
2Y +12 + 48 = 138
2Y = 138 – 60
2Y = 78
Y = 39g

The element with atomic mass 39 is potassium, K.

The formula of the carbonate M2CO3 is K2CO3

Example 10
113.2g of anhydrous sodium carbonate were dissolved in 1 litre of water, of this solution,
20cm3 required 40 cm3 of 0.1M hydrochloric acid for complete neutralisation. Determine
the percentage purity of the sodium carbonate.
 8

Solution:
1000cm3 of hydrochloric acid contain 0.1 moles of HCl
1cm3 of hydrochloric acid contains 0.1 moles of HCl
1000
40 cm3 of hydrochloric acid contain 0.1 x 40 moles of HCl
1000
= 0.004 moles of HCl
2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
2 moles of HCl react with 1 mole of Na2CO3
1 mole of HCl reacts with ½ moles of Na2CO3
0.004 moles of HCl react with ½ x 0.004 moles of Na2CO3
So, moles of Na2CO3 that reacted were 0.002 moles

20cm3 of sodium carbonate solution contained 0.002 moles of Na2CO3 1000cm3 of sodium
carbonate solution contained 0.002 x 1000 moles
20
= 0.1 moles of Na2CO3
Formula mass of Na2CO3: (23 x 2)+(12 x 1) +(15 x 3) = 106g
1 mole of Na2 CO3 weighs 106g
0.1 moles of Na2CO3 weigh 106 x 0.1g = 10.6 g
The actual mass of pure Na2CO3 was 10.6g
Percentage purity of the sample = 10.6 x 100
13.2
= 80.3%
Example 11
To what volume can 25cm3 of 2M hydrochloric acid be diluted to make a 0.8M
hydrochloric acid solution?

Solution:
Determine the moles of HCl in 25cm3 of 2M acid solution. 1000 cm3 of hydrochloric acid
contain 2 moles of HCl 1 cm3 of hydrochloric acid contains 2/1000 moles of HCl
25cm3 of hydrochloric acid contain 2 x 25 moles of HCl = 0.05 moles of HCl
1000

To make a 0.8M solution, 0.8 moles of HCl should be in 1000 cm3

0.8 moles of HCl are in 1000 cm3 of solution
1 mole of HCl is in 1000 cm3 of solution
 0.05 moles of HCl will be in 1000 x 0.05 cm3 of solution = 62.5cm3
0.8

Example 12:
4.00g of an alloy of zinc and copper were reacted with excess hydrochloric acid. 840cm3 of
hydrogen gas were produced at s.t.p. Determine the percentage of copper in the alloy. Cu =
64, Zn = 65, 1 mole of gas occupies 22400cm3 at s.t.p

Solution:
Since copper is below hydrogen in the reactivity series, it does not react with dilute acids,
therefore the hydrogen gas was produced by the reaction of Zinc with the acid.
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
 9

1 mole of hydrogen gas is produced by 1 mole of zinc 22400 cm3 of hydrogen gas are
produced by 65g of Zn
1 cm3 of hydrogen gas is produced by 65 g of Zn
22400

 840 cm3 of hydrogen gas is produced by 65 x 840 g of Zn

22499
The mass of Zinc in the alloy is 2.44g.
Mass of copper in the alloy is 400 – 2.44
= 1.56g
Percentage of copper in the alloy = 1.56 x 100
4.00
= 39%

Exercise 3

(i) Given that 40 cm3 of 0.4M sodium hydroxide solution reacted completely with
20cm3 of a 0.8M solution of acid X. Determine the basicity of acid X
(ii) 25cm3 of 0.2M hydrochloric acid required 38.5cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution
for complete neutralisation. Determine the molarity of the sodium hydroxide
solution.
(iii) To what volume can 12.5cm3 of 2M sulphuric acid be diluted to make a 0.5M
solution of the acid?
(iv) 3.8g of a mixture containing zinc carbonate and zinc sulphate was reacted with
excess hydrochloric acid and 480 cm3 of a gas was produced at room temperature
and pressure.
(a) identify the gas
(b) calculate the percentage of zinc sulphate in the mixture.

(v) When 3.22 g of a hydrated sodium sulphate Na2SO4nH2O was heated until there was
no further change, 1.42g of the residue remained. Determine the value of n.

The gas laws

1. Boyle’s law states that the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to
its pressure at constant temperature. i.e V α 1 or P α 1
P V

 PV = constant (at constant temperature) P1V1 = P2V2

The volume of the gas doubles of the pressure is halved or the volume becomes half if
the pressure is doubled.

2. Charles’s law states that the volume of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to
its absolute temperature at constant pressure i. e V α T
V
/T = a constant

V1 = V2
T1 T2 (at constant pressure)
 10

This implies that given that the pressure of a gas system is maintained constant, the
increase in temperature leads to an increase in the volume of the system and the reverse
when temperature decreases.

3. Combined Gas law

This combines Boyle’s and Charles’ law and so given the variation of volume of a gas
when both pressure and temperature change.
V α 1 and VT
P
Vα T
P

V α 1 and V α T
P
Vα T
P
PV = a constant
T

P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2

Note:
The temperatures used must be absolute i.e. in the Kelvin scale.
Absolute temperature = 273 + celiceous temperature e.g. 25oC in the absolute scale is
= 273 x 25 = 298K

Example 13
(a) Given that a mass of gas occupies 120 cm3 at 25oC, what volume will this gas occupy
when the temperature increases by 40oC at constant pressure.
(b) A gas X occupies 320 cm3 when a pressure of 780mmHg is exerted on it. Determine the
decrease in pressure that will allow the volume to increase to 400cm3 given that the
temperature remains constant.
(c) The volume of a given mass of gas is 480cm3 at 30oC and 740mmHg pressure. What
will be its volume at s.t.p

Solution:
(a) Using Charles’ law V1 = V2
T1 T2
V1 = 120cm3 T1 = 25 + 273 = 298K
V2 = ? T2 = T1 + 40 = 298 + 40 = 338K
V2 = V1 x T2 = 120 x 338
T1 298
(b) Using Boyle’s law P1V1 = P2V2
P1 = 780 V1 = 320 cm3 P2 =? V2 = 400cm3
P2 = P1V1 = 780 x 320
V2 400
P2 = 624 mmHg
The change (decrease) in pressure = 780 – 624 = 156 mmHg
 11

(c) Using the combined gas law P1V1 = P2V2

T1 T2

P1 = 740mmg V1 = 480 cm3 T1 = 273 + 30 = 303K

P2 = 760 mmHg V2 = ? T2 = 273K
V2 = P1V1 x T2 = 740 x 480 x 273
T1 P2 303 x 760
3
V2 = 421 cm
Gay Lussac’s law of combining volumes. It states that when gases react they do so in
volumes which bear a simple ratio to each other and to the volume of any gaseous product,
all volumes being measured under the same conditions of temperature and pressure.

Note:
Avogadro’s hypothesis states that equal volumes of gases under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules.
e.g 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g) water vapour (steam)
2 volumes 1 volume 2 volumes

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

1 volume 3 volumes 2 volumes

In the case of ammonia, 100cm3 of nitrogen would require 300 cm3 of hydrogen to produce
200cm3 of ammonia.

Example 14
A mixture of 30cm3 of methane and 70cm3 of oxygen were exploded. Determine the
volume of gas(es) at the end of the reaction if the system is cooled to room temperature.

Solution:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Note at room temperature water is in liquid form
Gases: Methane : Oxygen Carbondioxide
Before 30cm3 70cm3 O
3 3
Volume reacted 30cm 60cm –
Volume after r x n 10 cm3 30 cm3 (formed)

Volume of gas present after reaction : 10 x 30

= 40 cm3

Exercise 4
(a) A given mass of gas occupies 230 cm3 at 65oC. Determine its volume at room
temperature given that there is no change in pressure. (room temperature = 25oC)

(b) 2g of calcium carbonate are heated to 400oC until there is no further change. Determine
the volume of carbondioxide at that temperature given that the reaction proceeds at 760
mmHg pressure.
(use 1 mole of gas at s.t.p = 22400 cm3 Ca = 40, O = 16, C = 12
CaCO3(s) heat CaO(s) + CO2(g)
 12

(c) A mixture of 40cm3 of hydrogen and 50cm3 of oxygen gases was exploded and the
system cooled to room temperature. Determine the volume of gas (es) at the end of the
reaction.

(d) Determine the volume of hydrogen chloride gas produced when 20cm3 of hydrogen gas
are exploded with 30cm3 of chlorine gas.

Ionic equations:
During the development process, write and balance the molecular equation of the
reaction. Write the ions present in the reactants and products. Cancel the ions that
appear on both sides of the equation (those that are similar)

Note:
When writing ionic equations, covalent compounds (except HCl in solution) and
insoluble compounds do not form free ions but the rest of the ionic compounds form
ions.

Examples
(a) NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
OH(aq) + H+ (aq) H2O(l)
This is the ionic equation for the neutralisation reaction (acid/hydroxide)

(b) (i) Na2CO3(aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
2Na+(aq) + CO32 – (aq) + 2H+(aq) SO42 – (aq) 2Na+(aq) + SO42 –(aq) +
H2O(l) + CO2(g)

CO32 –(aq) + 2H+(aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g)

This is the ionic equation for the reaction between a soluble carbonate and a dilute
acid.

(ii) For an insoluble carbonate like

CaCO3, PbCO3, ZnCO3 CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl – (aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl– (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

(c) Precipitation reactions

These are reactions in which two (2) soluble salts (solutions) are reacted to produce an
insoluble salt and a soluble salt. The insoluble salt is of major importance.

(i) Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) BaCO3(s) + 2Na2NO3(aq)

Ba2+(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + CO32–(aq) BaCO3(s) 2Na+(aq) + 2NO3–(aq)

Ba2+(aq) + CO32–(aq) BaCO3(s). White ppt

Also Ba2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) BaSO4(s) white ppt

(ii) AgNO3(aq) + HCl(aq) AgCl(s) + HNO3(aq)

Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) AgCl(s) white ppt

(iii) Pb(NO3)2(Aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(s) + KNO3(aq)

 13

(d) Displacement reactions reactions/Redox reactions.

(i) Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
2+
Fe(s) + Cu (aq) Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s)

(ii) 2KBr(aq) + Cl2(g) 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)

2Br – (aq) + Cl2(g) 2Cl– (aq) + Br2 (aq)
Reddish brown solution
Br2+(l) + 2I– (aq) 2Br – (aq) + I2(aq)
Brown solution

Oxidation of Iron (II) chloride to iron (III) chloride by chlorine

2FeCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(aq)
e2+
2F (aq) + Cl2(g) 2Fe3+(aq) + 2Cl– (aq)
 14

CHAPTER 2

EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON SUBSTANCES

An electric current is a stream of electrons (past moving) from one point to another,
through a solid or liquid.

Cells Bulb
A

Solid substance

Some solid substances allow current to go through them and so the bulb gives light;
these solids are therefore known as conductors. However other solids like wood, plastic,
do not allow the flow of current and these are known as insulators or non-conductors.
Conductors use their force mobile (valency) electrons which move about in the solid
transferring the stream of electrons (electric current) hence the conduction.

Cells
A bulb

Electrode

Liquid substance (electrolyte)

Solutions of ionic compounds and molten ionic compounds conduct electricity in the
liquid state and are known as electrolytes. Electrolytes use the free mobile ions which
transmit the electrons from one point to another. As the electric current flows through
these liquids, the liquids (compounds) are decomposed. Liquids which do not transmit
electricity are known as non-electrolytes.

Definitions:

1. An electrolyte is a compound, which when in solution or molten state conducts

electricity and is decomposed by the electric current going through it.

Electrolytes are classified as strong or weak. Strong electrolytes are good

conductors of electricity and completely ionise in water (or when heated) e.g dilute
 15

sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide solution, copper (II) sulphate
solution, etc.
BX H2O B+(aq) + X – (aq) solution
BX heat B+(l) + X – (l) molten

Weak electrolytes partially ionise and so have fewer ions per unit volume to
transmit the electric current: E.g aqueous ammonia, ethanoic acid, carbonic acid,
etc.

DY D+(aq) + Y– (aq)

2. Electrodes are the two poles of metal or carbon at which the electric current enters
or leaves the electrolyte.
3. Anode is the electrode at which electrons enter the external circuit. This is where
oxidation takes place.
4. Cathode is the electrode at which electrons leave the external circuit. This is where
reduction takes place.

Note
1. Non electrolytes do not ionise at all; they exist as molecules. Mainly organic
compounds and many other covalent compounds.
2. Hydrogen chloride is a covalent compound; it completely ionises when dissolved in
water and so these ions can transmit electricity, however, when dissolved in
benzene or methylbenzene, it does not form any ions, and so, can not conduct
electricity when in organic solvents.

Electrolysis

An electrolyte contains ions which are charged atoms or radicals.

An ionic salt contains both negative and positive ions which are strongly bound to one
another; when the compound is dissolved in water or is heated strongly, the ions break
away from each other and become mobile.

cells

Anode   cathode

Electrolyte

The positive ions (cations) mole towards the cathode and the negative ions (anions)
mole towards the Anode.
 16

Demonstration of the movement of ions in electrolysis

Put a filter paper on a watch glass and clamp its ends using crocodile clips. Carefully
add water to the paper drop by drop until it is all wet. Drop a small crystal of potassium
permanganate on the middle of the wet paper. Connect the clips to a 20 volts direct
supply and switch on

K+
(+) ()
MnO4
Observation:
The purple colour moves to only one of the clips (connected to the positive terminal)
i.e. the anode. KmnO4(s) H2O K+(aq) + MnO4(aq)

The permanganate ion is purple while the potassium ion is colourless. So, the purple
colour is due to the movement of the negatively charged permanganate ion (MnO4)
towards the anode.

(+) Battery ()

Anode anions () cathode

(electrons leave the electrolyte) (electrons enter the
electrolyte )

During electrolysis the battery moves electrons through a wire to the electrodes. Inside
the circuit, electrons flow from the cathode into the electrolyte and enter the battery
through the anode.

Reactions at the Electrodes:

The negative ions are repelled at the cathode and are attracted to the anode where they
deposit their electrons (these electrons move into the battery and finally to the cathode).
The positive ions are attracted to the cathode from where they gain electrons and get
discharged
At the anode
2Cl – (aq) – 2e Cl2 or 2Cl – (aq) Cl2(g) + 2e
– +
4OH (aq) 2H2O(s) O2(g) + 4e
–
2Br (aq) Br2(l/aq)

At the cathode

2H+(aq) + 2e H2 (g)
Cu2+ + 2e Cu (s)
Na+(aq) + e Na (s)
 17

Selective discharge of ions

When two or more ions of similar charge are present in a solution under similar
conditions e.g Na+ and H+ or OH– and SO42 – , one is preferentially discharged and the
selection of the ion discharge depends on a number of factors which include:

1. Position of the ion in the electrochemical series

K+
C2+
Na+
Mg2+
Zn2+ SO42 –
Fe2+ NO3 –
To cathode Pb2+ Cl – to anode
H+ Br –
Cu2+ 1–
Ag+ OH –

Given that all the other factors are constant; any ion will be discharged from
solution in preference to those above it in the series. e.g. sodium hydroxide solution
contains Na+ and H+ (from water). H+ ions are discharged in preference to the Na+
ions and so hydrogen gas is evolved at the cathode. In copper (II) sulphate solution,
there are SO42 – and OH – ions as the negative ions; the OH – ions are discharged in
preference to the SO42 – ions and so oxygen gas is evolved at the anode.

Note: For the cations, the ones below are easily reduced compared to the ones above
them while on the side of anions, the ones below are easily oxidised compared to
the ones above them.

2. Concentration of the electrolyte

The discharge of an ion is promoted by its increase in concentration. Therefore, the
ion in the larger concentration is preferentially discharged.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid contains Cl – and OH – (from water) as
negative ions; since the Cl – are in higher concentration they are discharged in
preference to the OH – ions, hence liberating chlorine at the anode. In dilute
hydrochloric acid, the OH – ions are in a larger concentration than the Cl – ions,
therefore, the OH – ions are discharged in preference to the Cl – ions

3. Nature of the electrode

In the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution, when using platinum/carbon
cathode, H+ ions are discharged according to the order of the series while when
using mercury cathode, Na+ ions are discharged forming a sodium amalgam (in this
case the concentration of the sodium chloride solution should be high)
 18

In the electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solution, when using a platinum or carbon
anode, OH ions are discharged liberating oxygen gas whereas the use of a copper
foil as the mode, the copper anode itself gradually dissolves and goes into solution.

Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid

Dissociation: H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42 – (aq)
Ionisation of water H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH – (aq)
At the anode, both the SO4 and OH – ions migrate there but the OH– are
2–

preferentially discharged; they lose their electrons to the anode forming water and
oxygen
4OH– 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e

H+, the only positive ions move to the cathode, receive electrons and become atoms
which combine to form molecules of hydrogen gas
H+(aq) + e H; H+H H2(g)
Or 2H+(aq) + 2e H2(g)

Note: When four OH – ions are discharged at the anode, the four electrons deposited
there migrate to the cathode from where they discharged four H+ ions that produce
two (2) moles of hydrogen gas and so the volume of hydrogen produced is twice
that of oxygen at the anode.
4OH – (aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g) 4e 1 gas volume
4H+ (aq) + 4e 2H2(g) 2 gas volumes

The discharge of the OH – ions consequently leads to the ionisation of more water
to replace the OH – ions but at the same time more H+ ions are also produced. The
mass of the acid remains constant but that of water continuously decreases and so
the concentration of the acid generally increases.
The final change is that only water decomposes and the process is called the
‘electrolysis of water’ i.e 2H2O(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g)
Oxygen
Hydrogen

Dilute sulphuric acid

Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphata solution

Bissociation CuSO4(aq) Cu2+(Aq) + SO42 – (aq)
Ionisation of water H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH – (aq)

(a) Using platinum anode

The OH– ions are discharged in preference to the SO42 – ions and so oxygen gas is
liberated at the anode 4OH– (aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e
 19

More water ionises to replace the OH– ions; at the same time the H– ions increase
producing an acidic state around the anode.
On the other hand copper is deposited at the cathode Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(S) .
2+
Since the Cu ions are continuously discharged, the concentration of the copper (II)
sulphate decreases and its blue colour fades and may become colourless if the
process continues for a longer time. Since the more H+ ions produced are not
discharged, the solution becomes more and more acidic and so the pH of the
solution decreases.

(b) Using copper electrodes

Both Cu2+ and H+ ions migrate to the cathode, but the Cu2+ ions being lower in the
series, they are preferentially discharged, receive electrons and get deposited as
copper, Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(S)
At the anode, both SO42– and OH– ions move there, but neither is discharged. Instead
the copper anode gradually dissolves, leaving electrons at the anode.
Electrode ionisation: Cu(S) Cu2+(aq) + 2e.
As a result, there is loss in mass at the anode while the cathode gains an
equal mass of copper. The concentration of the copper (II) sulphate solution does
not change.

D.C supply

– Cathode
Anode +

Copper (II) sulphate

Solution.

Electrolysis of sodium chloride solution

Dissociation NaCl(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl – (aq)

Ionisation of water H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH– (aq)
At the cathode, the H+ ions being lower in the series, they are preferentially
discharged liberating hydrogen gas 2H+(aq) + 2e H2 (g)

As a result, more water ionises to restore the H+ ions producing OH– ions as well
and so the solution becomes more alkaline (the pH increases)

As the anode, both Cl– and OH – ions migrate there; since the Cl– ions are in a
greater concentration, they are discharged forming chlorine gas.
2Cl – (aq) Cl2(g) + 2e

Note: Practically the chlorine gas produced is less than one volume since some
oxygen is produced, especially when the Cl– ions are getting used up.
 20

Electrolysis of brine (concentrated sodium chloride)

Essential, only Na+ and Cl– ions exist, therefore chlorine gas is produced at the
anode and if a mercury cathode is used so
2Cl – (aq) Cl2(g) + 2e

Note: Practically the chlorine gas produced is less than one volume since some
oxygen is produced, especially when the Cl – ions getting used up.

Electrolysis of brine (concentrated sodium chloride)

Essentially, only Na+ and Cl – 1 ions exist, therefore chlorine gas is produced at the
anode and if a mercury cathode is used sodium is deposited forming sodium
amalgam, when dropped in water forms sodium hydroxide
Anode: 2Cl – (aq) Cl2(g) + 2e
+
Cathode: Na (aq) + e Na(S)
Carbon anodes +Ve
Chlorine

Used brine Brine

Sodium Mercury
amalgam

Mercury cathode – ve

FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS

1. Faraday’s first law states that the mass of a substance liberated at (or dissolved
from) an electrode during electrolysis is proportional to the quantity of
electricity passing through the electrolyte.

2. Faraday’s second law States that when the same quantity of electricity is passed
through solutions of different electrolytes the relative number of moles of
elements deposited are inversely proportional to the charges on the ions of each
of the elements respectively.
From the two laws, the amount of a substance liberated during electrolysis
depends on:
(i) the amount of steady current
(ii) the time of passing the steady current
(iii) the charge on the ion of the element

Illustration of Faraday’s 2nd law

When a steady current of 0.5A coulometers of silver nitrate and copper (II)
sulphate solutions in series for 30 minutes, 1.0073g of silver were deposited in
the first and 0.296l g of copper in the second. Given atomic masses: Ag = 108,
Cu = 63.5g
Number of Moles of copper deposited = 0.2961
63.5
= 0.00466
 21

Number of moles of silver deposited = 1.0073

108
= 0.0093
Mole ratio Silver : Copper
0.0093: 0.00466
2 : 1
This shows that when the same quantity of electricity is used, the number of moles
of silver deposited is twice the number of moles of copper at the respective cathodes
Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu (S)
2A+g(aq) + 2e 2Ag (S)

Note: For a univalent iron, one mole of electrons (1 Faraday) is required to liberate
one mole of that substance while for a divalent ion, two moles of electrons are
required to liberate one mole of that particular substance.
1 Faraday of electricity = 96.500 coulombs

M+(aq) + e M(S)
M2+(aq) + 2e M(S)
Mn+ (aq)+ ne M(S)

Example 1
Determine the mass of silver and the volume of oxygen liberated at S.t.p when
9650C of electricity are passed through silver nitrate solution.
Ag = 108g
Solution: 1 mole of gas = 22400cm3

AgNO3(aq) Ag+(aq) + NO3 – (aq)

H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH – (aq)

Anode reaction: 40H – (aq) 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e

Cathode reaction : Ag+ (aq) + e Ag (S)
1 mole of electrons (lF) deposits 1 mole of silver 96500 coulombs deposit 108g of
silver
1 coulomb deposits 108 g of silver
96500

 9650 coulombs deposit 108 x 9650 g of silver

96500
= 10.8g
4 moles of OH– ions lose 4 moles of electrons to liberate 1 mole of oxygen
gas .
4 x 96500C liberate 22400cm3 of oxygen

1C liberates 22400 cm3 of oxygen

4 x 96500
= 560 cm3 of oxygen
 22

Example 2
The same quantity of electricity was passed through three coulometers,
depositing copper in the first, silver in the second and liberated 200cm3 of
hydrogen (at s.t.p) in the third. Determine the mass of copper and silver
deposited. Cu = 63.5g, Ag = 108, 1 mole of gas = 22400cm3

Solution:
2H+(aq) + 2e H2 (g)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu (S)
Ag+(aq) + e Ag(S)

1 mole of hydrogen gas is liberated by 2 faradays 22400cm3 of hydrogen

are liberated by 2 x 96500 C
 200 cm3 of hydrogen are liberated by 2 x 96500 x 200
22400

Quantity of electricity used = 1723.2C

2 Faraday of electricity deposit 1 mole of copper 2 x 96500C of electricity

deposit 63.5g of copper
 1723.2C of electricity deposit 63.5 x 1723.2 g of copper
2 x 96500
Mass of copper deposited = 0.567g

1 Faraday of electricity deposits 1 mole of silver 96500C of electricity

deposit 108g of silver
 1723.2C of electricity deposit 108 x 1723.2 g of silver
96500
Mass of silver deposited = 1.93g

Example 3

(a) A current of 0.85 amps is passed through dilute sulphuric acid for 42 minutes
using carbon electrodes. Calculate the volume of gas at S.t.p produced at the
anode. (1 mole of gas occupies 22400cm3 at S.t.p, IF = 96500C)

(b) Molten lead (II) bromide was electrolysed between two carbon electrodes
(i) Explain why lead (II) bromide was electrolysed in the molten state and
not in the Solid state.
(ii) State what was observed at the anode and cathode.

Solution:
(a) Ionisation of sulphuric acid H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42 – (aq)
Ionisation of water H2O(l) H+(aq) + CH– (aq)

Quantity of electricity used: It = 0.85 x (42 x 60)

= 2142 coulombs
 23

Anode reaction : 40H – (aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e

4 Faradays of electricity liberate 1 mole of oxygen
4 x 96500C of electricity liberate 22400cm3 of oxygen
 2142C of electricity liberate 22400 x 2142 cm3
4 x 96500
= 124.3 cm3

(b) (i) The ions in solid lead (II) bronide are fixed in position, and since they can
not move solid lead (II) bromide cannot transmit electricity. 1 molten lead (II)
bromide the ions are free and move from one point to another, therefore, can
transmit electricity.

(ii) At the anode: 2Br – (l) Br2(g) + 2e

Bubbles of a reddish brown gas are given off.
At the cathode: Pb2+ + 2e Pb(S)

A grey shiny solid Shiny solid is deposited (there is increase in mass)

Exercise: 1
(a) A steady current of 0.65A was passed for 35 minutes through acidified water using
carbon electrodes .
(i) State the electrode at which oxygen was liberated
(ii) Calculate the mass of oxygen liberated (0 = 16, IF = 96500C)

(b) Copper (II) sulphate solution was electrolysed using carbon electrodes.
(i) State what was observed at the anode and cathode
(ii) Briefly explain your answer in (i) above
(iii) Briefly explain what happens to the colour and pH of the solution if the process
goes on for long

(c) Copper metal is purified by electrolysis

(i) Name the substance used as: anode, cathode, electrolyte
(ii) Write the equation for the reaction that takes place at the: anode and cathode
respectively.
(iii) Define oxidation in terms of electrons.

Electrochemical cells bulb

1. A simple cell

Copper zinc H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42– (aq)

H2O (l) H+(aq) +OH – (aq)

Hydrogen dilute
bubbles sulphuric acid
 24

The zinc rod dissolves slowly and goes into solution as zinc ions.
Zn(S) Zn2+(aq) + 2e

Here each of the znc atoms leaves 2 electrons on the plate which gives the zinc
electrode a negative potential relative to the solution.

The electrons move from the zinc electrode to the copper where they are gained by the
H+ ions. 2H+(aq)+ 2e H2 (g)
Inside the solution, the zinc ions displace the hydrogen ions and so zinc sulphate
solution is formed. The electron flow is from the zinc plate (Anode) to the copper plate
(cathode).

2. Daneil cell
This is a modification of the simple electrochemical cell.

Zinc copper
(–) (+)

Copper (II) sulphate

Zinc sulphate solution
Solution porous partition

Anode reaction:
Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e

Cathode reaction
Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s)

Cell convention
Zn(S)/Zn2+(aq)/ Cu2+(aq) /Cu(s)

Copper
Zinc

Copper (II)
Sulphate solution
Salt bridge
Zinc sulphate
Solution
 25

Anode reaction
Zn(s) Zn2+(Aq) + 2e

Cathode reaction: Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s)

Overall cell reaction

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) E = 1.1V

Cell convention
Zn(s)/Zn2+(aq) // Cu2+(aq) / Cu(s)

Energy given out by the cell

This is also seen as work done by the cell.
Energy = – nEF
Where n – number of electrons used/transferred
E – is the standard electrode potential of the cell.
F – Faraday’s constant (96500C)
e.g. from the above cell, E = +1.1V, n = 2
Energy = –2x1.1 x 96500
= –212300 joules (–212.3kj)

Note: The negative sign shows that the cell produces energy; on the other hand if the
cell had a negative potential, the energy would be positive (energy taken in)

Application of electrolysis

1. electroplating:
This is the coating of objects with a layer of another metal by electrolysis for passing an
electric current through a solution of the metal with the object to be coated as the
cathode)

The object to be coated is cleaned and made the cathode The anode is made of the metal
required for coating. Both the object (cathode) and the coating metal (anode are
immersed into a solution of the metal.
A steady direct current is switched on and the process allowed to proceed for some
time.

Example: When copper plating

Anode – strip of pure copper
Cathode – object to be coated
Electrolyte – copper (II) sulphate solution.

2. Purification of copper
A strip of copper is made the cathode and the impure rod is made the anode.
Bothelectrodes are immersed in copper (II) sulphate solution and a d.c supply switched
on. As the anode dissolves, the impurities collect t the bottom of the cell and the pure
Cu2+ ions go into solution. From the solution, the Cu2+ ions migrate to the cathode
where they get electrons and are discharged as copper metal.
Anode: Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e
Cathode : Cu2+(aq)+2e Cu(s)
 26

3. Extraction of metals
Electrolysis is used to extract the highly electropositive metals like potassium, sodiim,
calcium, magnesium and Aluminium. The common salts/compounds of the metals are
cleared to remove the impurities, roasted to drive off any moisture and then melted. The
molten compound is used as the electrolyte while carbon or other non-reactive materials
(but conductors) are used as the electrodes.

4. Manufacture of sodium hydroxide

See the electrolysis of brine.
During the electrolysis of concentrated sodiumchloride solution (brine) using the
mercury cathode, the sodium ions are discharged at the mercury cathode forming
sodium amalgam. The amalgam is poured into tanks of water; the mercury does not
react but sodium independently reacts with water forming sodiumhydroxide and
hydrogen gas. The sodiumhydroxide solution is evaporated to allow crystallisation.

5. Manufacture of chlorine gas

During the electrolysis of brine, chlorine gas is given off at the anode, and it bubbles
out of the electrolyte and finally collected from above.

6. Other gases may be produced by electrolysis;

Hydrogen and oxygen from the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid (acidified water)
Comparison of electrolysis and electrochemical cells
Electrochemical cell Electrolytic cell
1. Generates its own emf Requires an external suply of emf
2. uses two different electrolytes Uses one electrolyte
3. uses two different electrodes each in Usually uses one type of electrode (similar)
its own electrolyte

4. the anode is negative while the Anode is positive (charge induced by the
cathode is positive external cell)

Exercise 2

(a) (i) What is meant by the term electroplating

(ii) Give two effects of electroplating
(iii) Briefly explain the principle of electroplating
(iv) Draw a labelled diagram of apparatus that can be used in the laboratory to copper
plate an object. Write equations for reactions at the different electrodes.

(b) The cell convention for an electrochemical cell is shown below. Zn(s)/Zn2+(aq) // Pb2+
(aq) / Pb(s)
(i) Name two substances that could be used as electrolytes
(ii) State which of the electrodes is the cathode
(iii) Write equation for the overall cell reaction.
 27

(c) Y Zinc

Copper vessel

Porous pot
Copper (II) sulphate
solution zinc sulphate
solution

(i) Write equation for overall cell reaction

(ii) State what would be observed if the reaction was allowed to continue for a
long time
(iii) The reading of the voltmeter was 1.1V, calculate the energy produced in kj.

3. HEAT OF REACTIONS:
(ENTHALPY CHANGES)

The heat content of a chemical system is denoted by H while the changes in heat are
denoted by H . i.e H = H(pdts) – H(rctts)

From the kinetic theory of matter, all forms of matter contain some amount of energy – heat
energy. This internal energy is usually measured using the temperature; it is responsible for
the form of movement of the particles – solids (vibration),. In liquids particles move from
one point to another within the liquid while the gas contains the most amount of energy the
particles move randomly and are not restricted.
A chemical system comprises reactants, products and the surrounding. The reactants
may absorb or give out heat to the surrounding as they form products. But it is not easy to
measure the heat content of the reactants or the products, so we can measure the
temperature change of the surrounding in order to account for the het changes.

Example:
In the reaction of hydrochloric acid and sodiumhydroxide, when the hydrogen chloride
particles react with the sodiumhydroxide particles within, the water that makes their
solutions and so when the particles lose heat as they form sodium chloride, the heat lost is
gained by the water and so the temperature of the reaction mixture increases.
Head given out = heat absorbed by surrounding
= mass of surrounding X S.H.C of surrounding
X temperature change of surrounding
Heat given out = MC

An Endothermic reaction is a type of reaction in which the reactants gain/absorb heat from
the surrounding in order to form products. This shows that the products will have more heat
energy compared to the reactants; as a result the heat change will be positive (+ H)
e.g. C(s)+25(s) CS2 (l); H = +106Kjnol – 1
An exothermic reaction is a type of reaction in which the reacts lose/give out heat to the
surrounding in order to form products. In this case the temperature of the surrounding
 28

increases but internally, the heat energy of the products will be less than that of the
reactants, and so the resultant heat change will be negative ( – H)
e.g. C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g); H = – 390 kjmol – 1

Enthalpy of formation Hf
This is the heat change that occurs when one mole of a compound is formed from its
components in their standard states
e.g. water H2(g) + ½ O2(g) H2)(l) + Hf
3
Ammonia ½ N2(g) + /2H2(g) NH3(g) + Hf

Enthalpy of combustion HC
This is the heat change that occurs when one mole of a substance is completely burnt in
‘excess’ oxygen
e.g. hydrogen H2(g) + ½ O2(g) H2O(l); H = – 286 kjmol – 1
carbon C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g); H = – 393 kjmol – 1
Ethanol C2HSOH(l) + 2O2(g) 2CO2(g) H = – 1367 kjmol – 1
methane CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2HO(g) H = –1560 kjmol – 1

Enthalpy of Neutralisation H neut

This is the amount of heat change that occurs when an acid reacts with an alkali to form
one mole of water e.g. HCl (aq) + NaOH(aq) Nacl(aq) + H2O(l) + Hneut

½ H2SO4(aq) + KOH(aq) ½ K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + Hneut

Enthalpy of solution Hsoln

This is the heat change that occurs when one mole of a compound completely dissolves in
water. E.g. The enthalpy of solution of sulphuric acid is negative i.e. when conc sulphuric
acid is dissolved in water, heat is given to the surrounding and so the solution and container
become hotter/warmer (exothermic). The Hsoln of ammonium nitrate is positive; the
container becomes cooler/colder (endothermic)

Enthalpy of displacement
This is the heat change that occurs when one mole of an element is displaced from its
solution ions e.g. zinc or iron, being higher in the reactivity series displace copper from its
solution e.g. copper (II) sulphate solution.
–
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s) H= 218 kjmol – 1

Or Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

Zinc reduces copper (II) ions to coper and the zinc is oxidised
Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s); H = – 151 kjmol – 1

The enthalpy of displacement of copper by zinc is more negative than that by iron,
indicting that zinc which is higher in the reactivity series is a stronger reducing agent.

Experiment to determine the enthalpy of combustion of Ethanol

Requirements: Ethanol, wick, small bottle and cover, thin walled tin can, thermometer,
water.

Procedure:
Pour some ethanol into the small bottle, cover the bottle. Make a hole in the cover and
insert the wick. Measure the initial mass of the bottle and contents, Mi measure a specific
 29

amount of water into the tin can (Mw). Measure and record the initial temperature of the
water (1)
Clamp the tin can just above the lamp ;and then light the wick. Allow the process to run for
about 10 minutes. Turn off the lamp and immediately read and record the final temperature
of the water (2) Measure and record the final mass of the bottle and contents (lamp) – Mf

Thermometer

Clamp

water

Wick
Lamp
Ethanol

Treatment of results
Specific heat capacity of water (S.H.C) = 4.2Jg – 1 k – 1
Mass of ethanol burnt = (Mi – Mf)
Temperature change of water = 2 – 1

Assume that: the tin can has negligible heat capacity

- no heat is lost to the surrounding but all is taken in by the water.

Heat evolved = Heat absorbed by the water

= MC
= Mw x 4.2 x (2 - 1)
= 4.2 Mw(2 - 1) joules

But this heat was produced by only (Mi – Mf)g of ethanol 1 mole of ethanol, (2H5OH)
weighs: (12 x 2) + (1 x 6 + (16 x 1 ) = 46g

(Mi – Mf)g of ethanol produce 4.2 Mw(2 - 1 ) jouls

46g of ethanol produce 4.2Mw(2 – Q1) x 46

(Mi – Mf)

Example 1:
When 2.0g of propanol were burnt, the heat evolved raised the temperature of 260g of
water from 22oC to 68.5oC. Determine the enthalpy of combustion propanol.
(R.F.M of propanol, C3H8OH = 60; S.H.C of water = 42jg – 1 oC – 1)

Solution:
Heat evolved = Heat absorbed by water
= Mass X specific heat capacity X temp change
= 260 x 4.2 x (68.5 – 22)
= 1092 x 46.5
= 50778 joules.
 30

2g of propanol produce 50778 joules

60g (1 mole) of propanol produce 50778 x 60 j
2
= 1523340 joules

Since heat was given out, then the enthalpy change is negative.
- Enthalpy of combustion of propanol. = – 1523.34 Kjmol – 1

Experiment to determine the enthalpy of neutralisation of hydrochloric acid with

sodiumhydroxide solution

Requirements: 2M hydrochloric acid, 2M sodiumhydroxide solution, 3 beakers (one

plastic), burette, pipette, thermometer, phenolphthalein indicator

Procedure: Put the alkali and acid in separate beakers. Measure and record the temperatures
of the acid and alkali separately (but clean the thermometer before measuring the other)
Alkali - K, acid - a pipette 25cm3 of the acid into the plastic beaker. Add two drops of
phenolphthalein indicator. Titrate the acid with the alkali from the burette until the solution
mixture just turns pink. Read and record the volume, V2, of the alkali used. Measure the
final temperature of the mixture, K + a = 1
2
Density of solution = 1gm – 3, S.H.c of solution = 4.2Jg – 1 oC – 1
Mass = density x volume  Mass, M = (25 + V2) X 1
= (25 + V2)g
Heat produced = Heat absorbed by solution
= MC
= (25 + V2) x 4.2 x (2 - 1) joules
NaOH(aq) +HCL (aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
1000cm3 of hydrochloric acid contain 2 moles of HCl
25cm3 of hydrochloric acid contain 2 x 25 moles of HCl
1000
= 0.05 moles of HCl
But 1 mole of HCl produces 1 mole of water.

 0.05 moles of HCl produce 0.05 moles of water.

So, 0.05 moles of water produced (25 x V2)x 4.2 x (2 - 1) j
 1 mole of water produces 4.2 (25 + V2)( 2 - 1) joules
0.05

Example 2
When 25cm3 of 1M hydrochloric acid and 25cm3 of 1M sodiumhydroxide solution both at
23oC were mixed. The mixture was stirred and the final temperature of the mixture rose to
28oC. Determine the enththalpy of neutralisation of the acid.
(Density of solution = 1 gcm – 3 , S.C.H of solution = 4.2Jg – 1 oC – 1 )

Solution:
Total volume of mixture = 25 + 25 = 50cm3
Mass of mixture (Vp): 50 x 1 = 50g
Heat produced = Heat absorbed by mixture (MC)
= 50 x 4.2 x (23 – 23)
= 1050 joules
 31

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

1000 cm3 of hydrochloric acid contain 1 mole of HCl 25cm3 of hydrochloric acid contain 1
x 25 moles of HCl
1000
 1 mole of water produced 1050 joules
0.0125
= 42000 joules
–
The enthalpy of neutralisation = 42 Kjmol – 1

Note:
1. The enthalpy/ heat determined using our laboratory results are likely to be lower than
the theoretical value due to:
- heat losses to the surrounding which are not accounted for
- the container absorbs heat but is not accounted for
- some heat may also be lost by radiation and convection.

2. The enthalpy of neutralisation of a strong acid and strong alkali is larger than that of
strong acid and weak alkali since the weak alkali cannot ionise completely hence
producing few hydroxide ions.
Neutralisation reaction: H+(aq) + OH – (aq) H2O(l)

Exercise 1
(a) The enthalpy of combustion of carbon is –393 Kjmol – 1 . Determine the amount of heat
produced when 60g of charcoal are completely burnt in oxygen. (C = 12g)

(b) The enthalpy of combustion of methane is –1560 Kjmol - 1 . Determine the volume of
methane required to change the temperature of 100g of water by 20oC at s.t.p. (1 mole
of gas = 22400cm3, S.H.C of water = 4.2 jg – 1 oC – 1)

(c) 25cm3 of 2M hydrochloric acid at 24oC reacted with 25cm3 of 2M sodium hydroxide
solution at 22oC. The mixture was stirred and the final temperature of the mixture rose
to 31oC. Determine the enthalpy of neutralisation of the acid.

(d) 1.3g of zinc powder were added to 100cm3 of 1m copper (II) sulphate solution and the
temperature of the solution rose by 10.5oC. Determine the enthalpy of displacement of
copper (Cu = 64, Zn = 65, density of solution = 1gcm–3, S.H.C = 4.2 Jg – 1 K – 1 )

RATES OF REACTIONS:
A given reaction may be followed by observing the reactants being used up or products
being formed in specific time intervals; therefore
The rate of a chemical reaction is the amount of products formed per unit time.
OR: The rate of a chemical reaction is the amount of reactants used up per unit time.
A reaction that goes to completion in a shorter time is said to have a higher rate of a
reaction than that which takes a longer time. The rate at which the reaction proceeds is
influenced by a number of factors that include:
1. temperature of the reaction mixture
2. concentration of the reactants (solutions)
3. surface area of the reactants (solids)
4. pressure of the reaction system (gases)
5. presence of a catalyst
*Effect of (sun) light.
 32

Note:
To investigate the effect of each of these conditions, vary only one keeping the others
constant.

Demonstration to investigate the effect of temperature

Using a measuring cylinder, add 50cm3 of sodium thiosulphate solution (0.1M) to a conical
flask. Warm the solution to about 32oC. Mark a small cross on white paper and on it place
the flask. Add 5cm3 of 1M hydrochloric acid to the warm solution and simultaneously start
a stop clock. Stop the clock when the cross just disappears (as seen from above through the
solution.) Read and record the time taken.
Repeat the procedure for different solution temperatures.
Tabulate your results including 1/time .

Table of results

Temperature /oC 30 40 50 60 70 80
– – – – – –
Time/S
1 – – – – – –
/time/S

Plot graphs of : temp Vs time and 1/time Vs temp

Graph of temperature Vs time:

Temp oC
The temperature of reaction
Mixture is inversely proportional
To the time taken for a reaction i.e.
The higher the temperature the smaller
The time taken

Time/s

Graph of 1/time Vs temperature

1
/ time / S –1 1
/time is proportional to rate
 the rate of a reaction is
directly proportional to the
temperature of reaction
mixture i.e. the higher the
temperature the higher the
rate.

Temperature/ oC
* Graph of product against time:
 33

Products
(Volume 60oC
50oC At high temperatures,
30oC the volume of products
is high in short time
intervals.

Time/s

Demonstration to investigate the effect of concentration

Using a measuring cylinder, add 40,30, 20 and 10cm3 of 0.1M sodium thiosulphate solution
to four separate conical flasks. To the last three flasks add 10,20, and 30cm3 of water to
make the total volume 40cm3 respectively.
Male a small cross on white paper and on it place one conical flask at a time. To the first
flask, add 5cm3 of 1M hydrochloric acid and simultaneously start a stop clock. Mix by
swirling.
Look at the cross from above through the liquid. Stop the stop clock when the cross just
disappears. Read and record the time taken. Repeat the procedure for the other three flasks.
Tabulate your results including 1/time.

Table of results.

Concentration (flask) 1 2 3 4
Time/s
1 –1
/time/S

1
/time is proportional to rate and so can represent rate.
Plot graphs of concentration against time and that of 1/time (rate against concentration.

Concentration Concentration is inversely

Proportional to time taken
i.e. As the concentration
decreases the time taken for
a reaction to go to completion
increases.

Time/s
 34

Graph of 1/time against concentration.

1
/time
(rate)

Concentration

Since 1/time is proportional to rate, this shows that the rate is directly proportional to
concentration i.e. increase in concentration increases the rate of reaction

Demonstration to investigate the effect of surface area.

Add 40cm3 of 1m hydrochloric acid to a conical flask. Add 2g of medium size marble chips
and plung cotton wool in the neck of the flask to prevent acid spray. Immediately place the
flask on a direct weighing balance, and note the mass every 30 seconds for about 10
minutes. Repeat the procedure for smaller marble chips and then calcium carbonate powder
(all of mass 2g) Tabulate your results and for each of the sets of results plot a graph of mass
against time on the same axes.

Time interval/min 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

Mass (using large chips)
Mass (using small chips)
Mass (using powder)

Graph of mass against time

Mass of flask large

contents small
X powder

t1 t2 t3
time/s
All reactions and at mass X. The reaction of the powder ends fastest after time t1
followed by the small chips ending after time t2 while the large chips end last.
 35

Demonstration to investigate the effect of a catalyst.

Measure 25cm3 of hydrogen peroxide solution into a conical flask. Immediately cork the
flask and fit a delivery tube connected too syringe with a friction less piston (it should be
calibrated)

Read and record the volume of the oxygen gas collected at intervals of 30 seconds. Repeat
the procedure by using 25cm3 of hydrogen peroxide and add 2g of mangenese (IV) oxide to
the solution and immediately cork the flask.

Tabulate the results

Calibrated syringe

Oxygen
Frictionless
Piston

Hydrogen peroxide
solution

Manganese (IV) oxide

Table of results:

Time interval/min 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Volume of O2 (without catalyst)
Volume of O2 (with catalyst)

Plot graphs of volume of oxygen collected against time for each of the sets on the same
axes.
 36

Graph of volume of oxygen Vs time

Volume of
Oxygen

with The reaction with a

catalyst catalyst had a higher
rate than that without
without And so the reaction wit
catalyst with a catalyst takes
shorter.

time/min

Effect of light
Mixtures of hydrogen and chlorine or chlorine and methane do not react in the dark; they
react slowly in diffuse light and explode in direct sunlight. Sunlight is also essential for
photosynthesis in plants. When a photographic film is expose to light, it darkens due to the
decomposition of the silver salts.

Kinetic theory explaining the effect of these factors:

1. Temperature:
Increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of the particles leading to an
increase in their speed. As a result there are more collisions per unit time hence the
increase in the rate of the reaction. A decrease in temperature leads to the reverse.

2. Concentration.
Increase in concentration of a reaction mixture increases the number of particles per
unit volume and so the number of collisions per unit time increase hence the increase in
the rate of the reaction. Decrease in concentration causes the reverse.

Note: concentration affects reactants in solution.

3. Pressure:
Increase in pressure of a gas mixture essentially decreases the volume of the system and
so the number of particles per unit volume increases; as a result , the number of
collisions per unit time increase hence the increase in the rate of reaction.

4. Surface area/particle size

When a large lamp of a solid is broken down into smaller particles its surface area
increases, and so the number of particles exposed increases. When the surface area
increases the number of collisions per unit time increase hence the increase in the rate
of reaction.
Note: a powder has the largest surface area.
 37

5. Catalyst:
Surface catalysts (solids) increase the surface area for the reaction and so lower the
‘activation energy’ which is the minimum energy required for any particle to undergo a
chemical reaction. Catalysts lower the activation energy and therefore increase the
number of effective collisions per unit time hence the increase in the rate of the
reaction.
Note: A catalyst is a substance used in small amounts attars the rate of the reaction but
remains unchanged at the end of the reaction.

Common catalysts
Preparation of :Ammonia - Iron (finely divided)
Nitrogen monoxide from ammonia – platinum
Sulphur trioxide from SO2 – platinum of vanadium (V) oxide
Hydrogen (from HCl + Zn) – Copper(II) sulphate ‘
Oxygen (from H2O2) – manganese (IV) oxide
Alkanes from Alkenes/Alkynes – Nickel or platinum

Reversible reactions:
These are reactions that proceed in the forward and backward directions. At one
point the forward and backward rates of the reaction are equal, this state is known as the
dynamic equilibrium.

Illustration of reversibility of reactions:

Pour a few cm3 of bromine water in a beaker and stand it on white paper. Use a dropper to
add a few drops of sodiumhydroxide solution to the bromine water.

Observation:
The brown solution turns colourless. Using another dopper, add dilute sulphuric acid drop
by drop.
Observation: The colourless solution turns brown again
Br2(aq) + H2O(l) H+(aq) + Br – (aq) + HbrO(aq)

The addition of sodiumhydroxide introduces OH – ions which remove the H+ ions and so
the reaction proceeds forward in order to replace the H+ ions that have been consumed.

Note: bromine is brown while HBr(aq) is colourless. When the acid is added, the reaction
proceeds backwards to reduce the increasing concentration of the H+ ions. This leads to the
production of more bromine and so the mixture becomes brown again.

‘Le chatelier’s Principle’ States that a system in equilibrium subjected to any

change/constraint, will shift the equilibrium position in the direction which causes an
opposite change or cancels the constraint. I.e. increasing the concentration of any reagent in
an equilibrium mixture shifts the equilibrium in the direction which converts some of that
reagent into other products.

Increase in pressure leads to a shift in equilibrium in the direction which produces smaller
number of gas molecules so as to decrease the pressure. Increase in temperature of an
equilibrium system, causes a shift in the direction which absorbs the heat so as to lower the
temperature and a decrease in temperature shifts the equilibrium in the direction
evolving/producing heat, to raise the temperature.
 38

Industrial processes:
In these processes, these factors affecting the rate of reaction must be varied simultaneously
in order to get optimum yields.

1. Haber process
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + Heat

From the equation, 4 moles of gas combine to form 2; therefore by Avogadro’s

principle, for better and higher yields, the pressure must be high. On the other hand,
since the forward reaction is exothermic and the backward is endothermic, high yields
of ammonia occur at low temperatures. However, at low temperatures, the rate of
reaction is very slow, so a moderate temperature (350 -–450oC) is used for a faster rate
and finally a catalyst (finely divided iron) is used to increase the rate of the reaction.

2. Contact process (manufacture of sulphuric acid)

2S02(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) + heat
The forward reaction is exothermic, so low temperatures are used to shift the
equilibrium to the right. However, at low temperatures the rate of reaction is slow, so
moderature temperatures of about 500oC are used to increase the rate. Platinum is used
as catalyst. High pressure is used to shift the equilibrium to the right in the bid to lower
the pressure on the system thereby producing more sulphurtrioxide.

Moderate
Yield of rate 500oC 200oC
Sulphurtrioxiede very slow
in dm3 700oC
very fast rate

Time/s

Equilb mixture

Percentage of
SO2 that reacts With
catalyst

no catalyst

time
 39

3. Manufacture of nitric acid

4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g) + Heat
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
2H2O(l) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g) 4HNO3(aq)

All reactions require high pressure to convert the reactants to products and low
temperatures since the forward reactions are exothermic. Platinum is used as catalyst in
the oxidation of ammonia to nitrogen monoxide.

Exercise 2:
1. A certain mass of zinc powder was reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid at room
temperature.
(a) (i) Write an equation for the reaction that occurs
(ii) Draw a graph to show how the volume of gaseous product varied with time.

(b) What would be the effect of:

(i) adding copper (II) sulphate solution to the reaction mixture at room
temperature.
(ii) using the same mass of zinc granules instead of the powder. Give a reason
for your answer.

2. In the preparation of carbondioxide gas, marble chips were reacted with excess 1M
hydrochloric acid.
(a) State three ways of increasing the rate of this reaction
(b) On the same axes sketch graphs of yield of carbondioxide against time when one
uses 1M acid and another 2M

3. (a) (i) What is rate of reaction?

(ii) How does particle size affect rate of a reaction?

(b) The table shows time taken for sulphur to form when various concentrations of
sodiumthiosulphate are used.

Concentration of S2O32 – 0.2 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time for sulphur to form (S) 60 20 15 10 7.5
1
/time (S – 1 )

Plot a graph of 1/time against concentration

(c) (i) Explain the relationship between rate of reaction and 1/time
(ii) deduce from the graph how the rate of the reaction varies with concentration of
sodium thiosulphate.

(d) State two factors other than concentration, that affect the rate of a reaction.
 40

Chapter 4

SALTS:
A solvent is a substance that dissolves a solute.
A solute is the dissolved substance.
A solution is a uniform mixture of two or more substances.

Note: A solution is made up of two parts, a solvent and the solute (s)
The substance that dissolves quite easily is said to be soluble, one that does not easily
dissolve is sparingly soluble or has a low solubility while the one that does not dissolve at
all is insoluble.
Types of solutions:
1. A saturated solution is the type of solution in which the solvent contains as much solute
as can be dissolved and can not dissolve any more solute at that particular temperature.
2. An unsaturated solution is one in which the solvent can dissolve more solute at that
particular temperature.
3. A super saturated solution is one in which the solvent contains more solute than it can
hold at that particular temperature.

Solubility is the amount of solute dissolved in 100g of water to make a saturated solution at
a particular temperature.
A solubility curve is a graph/curve that shows the variation of solubility of a given
substance with temperature.
Most compounds like KNO3, KClO3, their solubilities increase rapidly with increase in
temperature, and so their curves rise steeply.

The solubility of some compounds like NaCl changes little with temperature, so the curve
rises very gently. Some solids like CaSO4, Ca(OH)2 and all gases are less soluble in hot
water than in cold, therefore, their curves fall gently.

Application of solubility
Since gases are insoluble in hot solvents, dissolved gases in liquids are removed/obtained
by boiling e.g. boiling water to remove oxygen, nitrogen and carbondioxide.
“Henry’s law” states that the mass of gas dissolved by a given volume of solvent is directly
proportional to the pressure.
Aaerated drinks contain carbondioxide under pressure on opening a bottle, the gas bubbles
out of the solution. The study of solubility is used in the manufacture of sparlingly soluble
salts like Ca(OH)2, CaSO4 and in the separation of soluble salts using fractional
crystallisation (salts must have fairly large solubility differences.)

Example 1:
An evaporating dish containing a solution of potassium nitrate weighed 35.70g. When the
solution was evaporated to dryness, the dish and crystals weighed 18.60g. If the empty dish
weighs 14.32g, determine the solubility of the potassium nitrate at that temperature.

Solution:
Mass of water 35.70 – 18.60 = 17.10g
Mass of solute: 18.60 – 14.32 = 4.28g
17.10g of water contain 4.28g of potassium nitrate
100g of water contain 4.28 x 100g of potassium nitrate
17.10
 solubility of potassium nitrate is 25g
 41

Example 2:
Given that the solubility of salt M is 22g at 35oC and 36.2g at 70oC. Determine the mass of
M that crystallises out when 60g of its saturated solution is cooled from 70oC to 35oC.

Solution:
Given that solvent + solute = solution. at 70oC 100g of water + 36.2g of M = 136.2g of
solution
 at 70oC 136.2g of solution contain 100g of water
60g of solution contain 100 x 60 g of water
136.2
= 44.05g of water

Mass of M in 60g of solution at 70oC = 60 – 44.05

= 15.95g
at 35oC 100g of water can dissolve 22g of M
 44.05g of water can dissolve 22 x 44.05g of M
100
= 9.69g of M
At 70oC the 60g of solution contain 15.95g of salt and 44.05g of water. This amount of
water can hold 9.69g of M at 35oC
Mass of M that crystallises out is: 15:95 – 9.69
= 6.26g

Exercise 1:
(a) Given that the solubility of potassium chlorate at 40oC is 22g. How much salt can
dissolve in 25g of water at 40oC?
(b) 65g of solution contain 21g of solute X at 60oC. What is the solubility of this solute X
at 60oC?
(c) Given that the solubility of salt Y at 80oC is 52.8g and 43.4g at 30oC. Determine how
much salt can dissolve in 80g of water at 30oC.
(d) Given that the solubility of sodium chloride is 24.6g at 32oC and 34.2g at 60oC.
Determine how much sodium chloride will crystallise out when 72g of a saturated
solution of the salt is cooled from 60oC to 32oC.
(e) Given that the solubility of salt Z is 16.4g at 25oC and 28.2g at 50oC. Determine how
much of salt Z can be added to 60g of a saturated solution of Z when the temperature is
increased from 25oC to 50oC.
(f) The table below shows the variation of solubility of barium chloride per 100g of water
with temperature.

Temperature/oC 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Solubility/g 8.1 12.0 18.2 26.4 32.8 39.1 47.0 57.2

(i) Plot a graph of solubility against temperature

(ii) Determine the solubility of barium chloride at 45oC
(iii) At what temperature is the solubility of the salt 35g?
(iv) Explain the trend of the graph.
 42

Soluble salts Insoluble salts

1. All K, Na, NH4+ salts

2. All nitrates
3. All sulphates, except - BaSO4, PbSO4 and CaSO4
which is sparlingly soluble

4. All chlorides, except - AgCl, HgCl, PbCl2

5. Na2CO3,K2CO3,(NH4)2CO3 - All carbonates, except those of K, Na,NH4+

6. NaOH,KOH,NH4OH All hydroxides

Note: PbCl2 dissolves on heating and reappears on cooling.

Preparation of salts:

The method of preparation depends on whether the salt is soluble in water or not.
(a) Soluble salts:
The method(s) involve(s) crystallisation, after reacting
(i) dilute acid + metal oxide (best, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe)
(ii) dilute acid + metal oxide (all oxides)
(iii) dilute acid + Metal hydroxide (all hydroxides)
(iv) dilute acid + metal carbonate
Note:
1. Lead does not readily react with dilute acids since its salts are generally
insoluble. Copper, silver mercury and gold do not react with dilute acids at all
2. If the desired salt is a nitrate then dilute nitric acid is used; sulphuric acid for a
sulphate, etc.
The salt formed is in solution; the solution is warmed to evaporate off some
water to make a saturated solution which is cooled slowly. The crystals form;
they are filtered out and dried.

Preparation of copper (II) sulphate crystals

Requirements: Copper (II) oxide, dilute sulphuric acid, beaker, evaporating dish, filter
paper, and stirrer.

Procedure:
Pour some dilute sulphuric acid (100cm3) in a beaker slowly add copper (II) oxide powder
little by little as you stir. Warm the mixture to increase the rate of reaction. Add more
copper (II) oxide power as you continue to stir until no more powder can dissolve. Filter the
mixture and keep the filtrate in a clean beaker. Warm the filtrate on the dish to evaporate
off some water to form a saturated solution. All the saturated solution to cool slowly. When
the crystals are deposited, filter and dry the crystals between two filter papers.

(b) Insoluble salts:

These are prepared by precipitation (double decomposition) This involves reacting
two soluble compounds (their solutions) resulting into an insoluble salt and a
soluble salt.
The insoluble salt is obtained by filtering the mixture, wash the residue by passing
distilled water over it. Dry the sample between filter papers.

Examples:
 43

PbSO4, BaSO4, BaCO3, PbCl2, AgCl, etc

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) PbSO4(S) + 2HNO3(aq)
BaCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) BaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
AgNO3(aq) + HCl(aq) AgCl(s) + HNO3(aq)

(c) Direct combination:

This method can be used to prepare both soluble and insoluble salts
Examples:
1. passing dry chlorine gas over heated iron filings produces iron (III) chloride
(black crystals, the vapour is brown)
2. passing dry hydrogen chloride gas over heated iron filings produces iron (II)
chloride.
3. Heating iron filings with sulphur powder produces iron (II) sulphide , FeS

Types of salts:
A salt is defined as a compound formed when either all or part of the ionisable hydrogen
atoms of an acid is (are) replaced by a metal or ammonium ion.
A normal salt is the type of salt formed when all the ionisable hydrogen atoms of an acid
are replaced by a metal or ammonium ion.
Examples: NaCl, CaCO3, Na2SO4, K3PO4, Mg(NO3)2

An acidic salt is one which is formed when only part of the ionisable hydrogen atoms of an
acid is/are replaced by a metal or ammonium ion.
Examples:
NaHCO3, Ca(HSO3)2, KH2PO4, NaHSO4, etc.

Note:
Only the dibasic acids can form acidic salts while the monobasic acids form only normal
salts.

Nature of salts in water

This briefly explains the nature/type of solution a particular salt forms when dissolved in
water. It derives the explanation from the assumption that a given salt is a product of one
acid and an alkali. The solution that this salt forms will either be alkaline, neutral or acidic
depending on whether it is derived from a strong acid and strong alkali, strong acid and
weak alkali, etc.

1. A salt of: strong acid + strong alkali neutral solution e.g. Na2SO4 (from NaOH and
H2SO4) others include, KNO3, NaCl, K2SO4, NaNO3, etc.

2. Salt of strong acid + Weak alkali acidic solution

e.g. NH4NO3 (from NH4OH and HNO3)
This is because the weak alkali (NH4OH) only partially ionises in water and so produces
few OH – ions whereas the strong acid (HNO3), completely ionises producing many H+
ions hence the acidic effect

4. Salt of weak acid + weak alkali neutral solution e.g CH3COONH4 (from CH3COOH and
NH4OH)
The weak acid CH3COOH partially ionises producing few H+ whereas the strong alkali
NaOH completely ionises producing many OH – ions that cause a net alkaline effect.
 44

A hydrated salt is one that contains water; this water helps in the structuring of the
particular crystals.
An anhydrous salt is one that contains no water (of crystallisation)
A crystal is a solid that consists of particles (i.e. atoms, molecules or ions) arranged in
an orderly and respective manner.
Crystallisation, therefore, is the formation or alignment of particles in a solid in an
orderly manner.
Water of crystallisation is the definite amount (or number) of water molecules in a
given crystalline salt, responsible for its shape.

Hydrated crystals Anhydrous crystals

1. calciumchloride – 6 – water - common salt (sodium chloride) NaCl
CaCl2.6H2O -

2. copper (II) sulphate – 5 – water - All common potassium and ammonium

CuSO4.5H2O salts, e.g. KNO3, KClO3, KMnO4,
3. Iron (II) sulphate – 7 – water
FeSO4.7H2O
4. Sodium carbonate – 10 – water
Na2CO3.10H2O
5. Magnesium sulphate – 7 – water
MgSO4.7H2O

The sodium carbonate decahydrate loses 9 water molecules and the colourless crystals
turn into a white powder.

A hygroscopic substance is one which absorbs water from the atmosphere.

A deliquesent substance is one which absorbs water from the atmosphere and dissolves
in it to form a solution.

Note: All deliquesent substances are hygroscopic, but hygroscopic substances are not
necessarily deliquesent.

Deliquesent Hygroscopic Efflorescent

1. calcium chloride - All deliquesent - sodium carbonate – 10 –
2. potassiumhydroxide substances water
3. sodium hydroxide - Calciumoxide - sodium sulphate 10 –
4. sodium nitrate - Ethanol water .
5. phosphorus (V)oxide - Concentrated sulphuric
6. iron (III) chloride acid
7. zinc chloride - Anhydrous copper (II)
sulphate

Hydroscopic and deliquesent substances are used as drying agents because of their
ability to absorb water from their surrounding.
A descator is an apparatus that is used for drying substances in the laboratory. It
contains a hygroscopic substance that absorbs the water; after sometime the drying
agent is warmed to remove the water and used again.
 45

Drying agents for gases

1. silicon (IV) oxide/ silicagel - All gases
2. phosphorous (V) oxide - All gases except ammonia
3. concentrated sulphuric acid - All gases except ammonia and hydrogen sulphide
4. anhydrous calciumchloride - All gases except ammonia and hydrogen sulphide
5. calciummonide - Ammonia

Effect of heat on salts

(a) Carbonates:
K Carbonats of potassium and sodium do not decompose on heating
Na

Ca
Ma These carbonates decompose to the metal oxide and carbondioxide e.g.
Al CaCO3(s) heat CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Zn
Fe
Pb ZnCO3(s) heat ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

(b) Hydrogen carbonates:

All hydrogen carbonates decompose, first, to produce a carbonate, water and
carbondioxide gas. On further heating, the formed carbonate decomposes to the
metal oxide, and carbondioxide gas, except for the carbonates of potassium and
sodium.

Mg(HCO3)2(s) heat MgCO3(s) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

MgCO3(s) heat MgO(s) + CO2(g)

(c) Nitrates
K decompose to metal nitrite and oxygen gas
Na e.g. 2KNO3(s) heat 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)

Ca
Mg decompose to metal oxide, nitrogendioxide and oxygen
Al e.g. 2Mg(NO3)2(s) heat 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Zn
Fe 2Pb(NO3)2(s) heat 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Pb

Hg decompose to the metal, nitrogendioxide and oxygen

Ag e.g. 2AgNO3(s) heat 2Ag(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
Au
 46

(d) Sulphates
Sulphates are generally thermally stable; the sulphates of group I and II (K,Na, Ca,
Mg) do not decompose on heating.
The sulphates of Aluminium and iron (II) decompose to the metal oxide, sulphur
dioxide and sulphurtrioxide 2FeSO4(s) heat Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)

The sulphates of zinc and copper decompose to the metal oxide and sulphur trioxide
gas. i.g. ZnSO4(s) heat ZnO(s) + SO3(g)
CuSO4(s) heat CuO(s) + SO3(g)

(e) Hydroxides:
Metal hydroxides decompose to the corresponding metal oxide and water (given off
as steam) except for sodium and potassium hydroxides e.g.
Ca(OH)2(s) heat CaO(s) + H2O(g)

Iron (II) hydroxide decomposes to a black mixed oxide of iron (II) oxide and Iron
(III) oxide i.e. Fe3O4 – tri-iron tetra oxide.
Ammonium hydroxide decomposes to ammonia gas and water.
NH4OH (aq/s) heat NH3(g) + H2O(l/g)

(f) Hydrates
When hydrated salts are heated, they first lose the water of crystallisation and then
undergo the respective decompositions whether carbonates, sulphates etc.
e.g. FeSO4’7H2O(s) heat FeSO4(s) + 7H2O(g)
FeSO4(s) heat Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g) + SO2(g)

Colours of the oxides

1. CaO, Al2O3 and MgO are white (powder)
2. ZnO is yellow when hot and white on cooling
3. PbO is orange when hot and yellow on cooling
4. FeO, Fe3O4 and CuO are black
5. Fe2O3 is brown (or reddish-brown)

Exercise 2.

(a) Briefly explain how you would prepare a dry sample of :

(i) lead (II) bromide
(ii) zinc sulphate
(iii) barium carbonate

(b) State what is observed when methylorange indicator is added to a solution of

(i) ammonium sulphate
(ii) sodium ethanoate

(c) Sodium carbonate decahydrate what left in air for two days in an open container.
(i) state what was observed
(ii) what name is given to the process that occurred
(iii) write the equation for the reaction that occurred
 47

(d) All the following nitrates produce brown fumes when strongly heated, except:
(i) AgNO3
(ii) Cu(NO3)2
(iii) Zn(NO3)2
(iv) KNO3
(v) NH4NO3

(e) Copper (II) carbonate powder was added to dilute nitric acid, to the solution was
added sodium hydroxide solution dropwise until in excess. The resultant mixture
was heated.
(i) State what was observed at all the stages
(ii) Write equations for the reactions that occurred.

(f) 1.61g of anhydrous zinc sulphate was strongly heated until there was no further
change
(i) State what was observed
(ii) Determine the volume of the gas produced at s.t.p (1 mole of gas occupies
22400cm3 at s.t.p, Z = 65, S = 32, O = 16)
 48

Chapter 5

APPLIED CHEMISTRY
SOAP

Fats and oils have similar chemical properties. Fats are solids at room temperature while
oils are liquids at room temperature.
Examples of oils: coconut oil, palm oil, olive oil, caster oil, code liver oil, etc.
Example of fats: hard )pig’s fat)

Preparation of soap:
Gently boil a fat or an oil with sodium or potassium hydroxide. Solution for about an hour.
Keep adding some water to the mixture to replace that which evaporates (or reflux) finally
allow to cool.

RCOOR1 + NaOH(aq) RCOO– Na+(aq) + R1OH.

e.g. Soap
C17H35COOC3H7(s) + NaOH(aq) C17H35COO – Na+(aq) + C3H7OH(l)
Sodium strearate

Soap being soluble, it remains in solution, so you add concentrated sodiumchloride solution
(Brine); the soap is precipitated out and can be “skimmed off” as an upper layer.

Soap is a sodium or potassium salt of a long chain carboxylic acid. The processes of
reacting a fat or oil which sodium or potassium hydroxide solution to form soap is known
as “saponification”

The process of addin brine to soap solution to precipitate out the soap is known as “salting
out”. Sodium hydroxide solution is used in making laundry soaps while potassium
hydroxide solution produces “soft soaps” usually used as toilet soaps – potassium soaps are
more soluble, used as gels in shampoos and shaving creams.

On the large scale oils and fats are heated by steam with sodium or potassium hydroxide
solution. Brine is added to separate out soap as an upper layer which is skimmed off.

To improve the soap the following ingredients are added:

1. dyes (colours) to improve the colour
2. perfumes to improve the smell/scent
3. disinfectants to kill the germs
4. bleaching agents to remove unwanted coloured stains
5. emulsifiers to improve the soaps ability to suspend oil droplets in water

Note: Soap is sodium or potassium salts of a few organic acids e.g. stearic, palmitic and
oleic acids. Ordinary soap is a mixture of the sodium salts of these acids e.g. sodium
stearate, NaSt C17H35COO– Na+

How soap cleans:

If the water is hard, soap first reacts with the dissolved calcium and or magnesium ions and
forms a precipitate, which forms a scum on the water.

Ca2+ (aq) + 2NaSt(aq) CaSt2(s) + 2Na+(aq)

 49

Soap has two parts, the fat soluble (lipophilic) part, C17H35 –, which is highly covalent in
nature and the water soluble (hydrophilic) part, –COO–Na+ which is ionic.

The fat soluble part penetrates the grease, breaking it into tiny globules which are volled
into droplets of oil (emulsification). The water soluble part penetrates between the droplets
and the fabric, detaching them from the fabric (cloth) and they are finally washed away
when the water is agitated.

Fat soluble parts.

(a) water soluble parts

Fabric

(b)
fabric

soapless detergents

soapless detergent is a sodium salt of a long chain sulphonated alkene.

Note: Years back detergents were known to be non-biodegradable, therefore, a source of

pollution, but nowadays some types are made when they are biodegradable e.g. sodium
dodecyl benzene sulphonate C18H29SO3– Na+ made by reacting benzene with dodecene, then
reacted with sulphuric acid and the product finally reacted with sodium hydroxide solution.

Preparation in the laboratory

Add 5cm3 of caster oil to a beaker and using teat pipette add about 10cm3 of concentrated
sulphuric acid, boil the mixture for about an hour. Add sodiumhydroxide solution and heat
the mixture as you stir with a glass rod. Add the product to about 10cm3 of sodium
carbonate solution to neutralise the excess acid. Decant the aqueous part.

C15H30 + H2SO4(aq) C15H31OSO3H

C15H31OSO3H(aq) + NaOH(aq) C15H31OSO3Na+(aq) + H2O(l)

Detergent.

Just like in soap, dyes, perfumes, bleaching agents disinfectantants and emulsifiers are
added to the detergent to improve its appearance and action.
 50

How detergents clean:

Detergents are also made up of two parts: the fat soluble part e.gC15H31– (hydrocarbon) and
the water soluble part – OSO3– Na+ (which is ionic)
The covalent hydrocarbon part has a high affinity for fats/oils – lipophilic while the ionic
group has a high affinity for water (hydrophilic)

Just like soap, the fat soluble part penetrates the grease, breaks it into tiny globules which
are rolled into oil droplets.
The water soluble part penetrates between the oil droplets and the fabric detaching them
from the fabric. These droplets are carried away when the water is agitated.

Advantages of detergents over soap:

1. they are more soluble in water, therefore their action is quicker

2. they lather with both soft and hard water.
3. They do not form scum (their Magnesium, calcium salts are soluble)
4. They form stable emulsions with grease/oils.

Disadvantages of detergents

1. They promote the growth algae and fungi

2. Make floor surfaces slippery, a danger to humans.
3. They are acidic, so attack skin and may damage clothes if not properly rinsed
4. They are expensive
5. Many are non-biodegradable, so cause pollution.

N.B: New biodegradable detergents have been invented but they are rather expensive.
 51

Sewage
Sewage is used water from homes or industries, it contains waste products such as human
wastes, water from bathrooms, laundries, sink wash-ups and food debris. This means that
sewage is water that contains both soluble and insoluble wastes that have to be removed
before the water is sent to rivers, lakes or homes/industries for use.

Treatment of sewage:
1. The impure water is first passed through screens to filter out/remove floating debris.
2. The water is further passed through tanks containing coarse and fine sand that traps and
filters out small insoluble particles.
3. The water is then passed into a sedimentation tank containing chemicals known as
floculants like alum/Al2(SO4)3 – they make tiny particles to stick together and sink to
the bottom of the tank. The solid formed here is known as a sludge and may be used to
make fertilisers, producing biogas or in making tar (for making roads). The liquid part
is known as an effluent, it contains soluble substances, and may be discharged into
swamps, rivers or lakes.
4. After the sedimentation, this water passed into aeration tanks; here there is a plentiful
supply of oxygen and temperatures 20 – 30oC. In this tank there are “controlled”
bacteria that kill the disease causing germs in the water.
5. The water is then passed into other tanks from where chlorine is added to kill any more
surviving germs. The chlorine is added in proportions sufficient to kill the germs
(bacteria) but amounts that can not affect the humans.
6. Finally the dissolved ions have to be removed from the water; final treatment may
involve use of
- distillation (but very expensive)
- Reverse osmosis
- Ion exchangers like resins, zeolites or permits. The ion exchangers remove the Na+, k+,
Ca2+, Mg2+ and introduce H+ ions while the SO42 – , Cl – ,NO3 – are exchanged for OH –
ions – the H+ and OH – ions combine to produce more water molecules. The use of
reverse osmosis is common in the treatment of sea/ocean water which is very salty.

Biogas
 52

Biomass is the mass of naturally grown plants and animal material that can provide energy
or material resources i.e. wood, food, plant and animal wastes as well as agricultural
wastes.
Biogas is produced by the action of bacteria on animal and plant wastes. The wastes are
put in a container, mixed with some little water and covered. The container and its contents
are maintained at temperatures 25 – 30oC.

The container (known as the generator/digester) prevents the oxygen from getting into
contact with the wasters and so the bacteria change the rotten material into biogas by
anaerobic decomposition

The biogas produced is a mixture of gases; mainly methane, ammonia, carbondioxide and
hydrogen sulphide.

The residue is used as fertilisers because it is rich in nitrogen.

Note: the quality of the biogas produced depends on the materials fed into the digester.

Production and use of biogas

Lighting

Electrical generator

Cooking methane Biogas fertilisers

and lighting (Biogas) Generator

Advantages of biogas production

1. It is easy and cheap to produce (raw materials and cheap)

2. Reduces on the spread of water hyacinth, since it is harvested for use as a raw material.
3. Saves forests which would be destroyed for the production of firewood and charcoal.
4. The by-products are used as fertilisers
5. Improves sewage management since the seqage wastes (sludge) are used in the biogas
production.
6. Improves the gabbage disposal since the organic wastes are used to produce biogas.

Sugar
 53

Sugar is a form of carbohydrates; the sucrose, which is produced from sugarcane of which
it is about 15% by mass.

Manufacture of sugar:
The sugarcane is crushed into beet and the juice is squeezed out of it. The cane juice is
diluted with water and lime, ( CaO ) is added to it. The lime precipitates the impurities
such as proteins and organic acids. These impurities are filtered off and the resulting
solution is evaporated forming a thick liquid. The thick liquid is distilled to give the sugar
crystals suspended in a brown liquid called mollases. The mixture is centrifuged and
washed to separate the sugar crystals from the mollases.
Any colouring in the sugar crystals is removed by filtering through animal charcoal.

Note: The molaases also contain sugar and so they are used as animal feeds or fertilizers.
Sucrose (sugar) in its pure form is a white crystalline solid. It dissolves well in water, only
slightly soluble in ethanol but insoluble in other organic solvents.

When heated, it slightly decomposes, melts to give a brown (dark) liquid known as
caramel. When the caramel is mixed with a little vinegar, it can make toffees and other
sweet foods.

Uses of sugar:
1. for sweetening food
2. as a source of glucose and fructose
C12H22O11 + H2O sucrose C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sucrose glucose fructose

3. To prepare ethanol by fermentation.

C12H22O11 + H2O sucrose C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
C6H12O6 zymase 2C2H5OH + 2CO2(g)

4. Coating tablets (to give them a sweet taste)

5. Manufacture of oral rehydration salts (ORS)
6. Manufacture of syrups
7. Colouring in cake.

ANSWERS:
 54

Chapter 1
Exercise 1, (i) 17.75g (ii) 16g

Exercise 2 (i) 0.04 (ii) 0.1 (iii) 0.04

Exercise 3 (i) 1 (ii) 0.13M (iii) 50cm3

(iv) (a) carbondioxide (b) 32.4%
(v) n = 10

Exercise 4 (a) 202.8cm3 (b) 1104.4cm3 (c) 30cm3 (d) 40cm3

Chapter 2:

Exercise 1 (a) (i) anode (ii) 0.113g

(b) (i) anode – bubbles of a colourless gas cathode – brown solid deposited
(iii) the blue colour of solution gradually turns colourless as Cu2+ decrease in
concentrated when discharged. The pH of the solution decreases since the
OH – ions are discharged leaving behind a high concentration of H+ ions
(causing acidity)

(c) (i) anode – the impure copper cathode – strip of pure copper electrolyte – copper
(II) sulphate solution.
(ii) Anode: Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e
cathode: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e Cu(s)
(iii) Oxidation is the process by which a chemical species loses electrons.

Exercise 2 (a) (i) This is the coating of an object with a layer of a metal by passing an
electric current through a solution of this metal with the object to be coated
as the cathode.

(ii) improves the appearance of objects – prevents iron objects from rusting

(b) (i) Zinc sulphate solution – lead (II) nitrate solution

(ii) the lead electrode
(iii) Anode Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e
2
Cathode: Pb + (aq) + 2e Pb(s)

(iv) Zn(s) + Pb2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Pb(s)

(c) (i) Zn(s) Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

(ii) The copper (II) sulphate solution gradually turns from blue to colourless.
The zinc electrode dissolves
(iii) Energy given out = – nEF
where n = 2, E= + 1.1 volts, F = 96500C
Energy produce = –2 x 1.1 x 96500
= –2212300 joules
= –212.3 KJ
The negative implies that the cell does work, i.e. energy is given out by the cell.

Chapter 3:
 55

Exercise 1 (a) 1965KJ

(b) 120.6cm3
(c) –29.4Kjmol –1
(d) –220.5 Kjmol –1 (or –223366.5 Jmol –1)

Exercise 2: 1 (a) (i) Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

(ii) Graph of volume against time

Volume of powder
Hydrogen/cm3
Granules

Time/s

(b) (i) The rate of the reaction increases.

(ii) Since the surface area of the granules is smaller than that of powder,
the rate of reaction using granules is slower, hence takes a longer time
to go to completion

1 (a) - Increasing the temperature of the mixture

- using calcium carbonate powder instead of marble chips
- increasing the concentration of the acid

(b) Graph of yield of carbondioxide against time

Yield of 2M acid
Carbondioxide
1M acid

time/s

Chapter 4:
 56

Exercise 1 (a) 5.5g (b) 47.73g per 100g of water

(c) 34.72g (d) 5.15g (e) 6.09g
(f) (ii) 21.5g (range of 21 – 22g)
(iii) 66oC (range of 65oC – 67oC)
(iv) it is an increasing curve . This is because the solubility of the salt,
bariumchloride increases with increasing temperature.

Exercise 2 (b) (i) Solution turns pink/red

(ii) solution turns yellow

(c) (i) the colourless crystals turned into a white powder

(ii) Efflorescence
(iii) Na2CO3.10H2O(s) Na2CO3H2O(s) + 9H2O(l)

(d) KNO3 and NH4NO3

(e) (i) – bubbles of a colourless gas were evolved and a blue solution was
formed
- blue ppt insoluble in excess
- on heating the blue ppt turned black

(ii) - CuCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

- Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Cu(OH)2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
- Cu(OH)2(s) heat CuO(s) + H2O(l)
(f) (i) White fumes, the residue was yellow when hot and turned white on
cooling
(ii) 224cm3

VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
 57

This is an experimental analysis of determining the mass or concentration of a substance

relative to another substance of known concentration.
The solution of known concentration is known as a standard solution and is used to
standardise the other.

One of the solutions (usually the standard) is pipetted and put in the conical flask, 2 – 3
drops of a suitable indicator are added to the solution in the conical flask.

The other solution (usually the unknown) is in the burette and carefully added to the one in
the conical flask with constant swirling/shaking until the mixture just gives the first
permanent colour change.

The readings are recorded in the table of results, the procedure/experiment is repeated until
when consistent readings are obtained.

Note: results are consistent if they are the same or they do not differ by more than  0.2
(best  0.1)

(a) How to take readings:

(i) In any titration, an initial reading is taken before titrating and the final is taken
immediately at the end-point, in case the burette may leak. The correct reading
of the pipette and burette is taken of the bottom of the meniscus of the liquid.

1
2
3

The correct reading is in position 3, corresponding to the bottom of the meniscus

Note:
(i) the eye must be put perpendicular to the point being read
(ii) the pipette reading is given to zero decimal places eg 20 cm3 or 25 cm3 . The
burette readings are given to two decimal places eg 21.50 cm3 or 18.00 cm3

(b) Choice of the indicator in the acid-base titration indictors have pH ranges within which
they perfectly work. Common indicators include phenolphthalein, methylorange
Nature of titration Indicator
Strong acid + strong base Both phenolphthalein and methylorange

Strong acid + weak base methyl orange,

Weak acid + strong base phenolphathalein
Weak acid + weak base …………………….

Indicator Medium and colour change

Acidic Neutral Alkaline
 58

Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink

Methylorange Red Orange Yellow
Litmus Red Blue

Note: When 2 or 3 drops of phenolphthalein indictor are added to acidic solution in the
flask, the solution remains colourless; on titrating with the base/alkali a pink colour
appears and immediately fades when you shake until a point when the solution
permanently turns pale pink stop the titration, this is the end point.

On the other hand if the phenolphthalein indicator was added to the alkali/base, the
solution will initially be pink; the acid from the burette is added with constant swirling
until when the solution mixture just turns colourless.
As the required colour change approaches, it is advisable to start adding the titrant drop
by drop for accuracy (i.e to avoid over shooting)

(c) Choice of titre values to determine the average

In an experiment 3 or 4 values are obtained; a minimum of two reading are considered
in
order to obtain the average, otherwise all the readings may be considered. It should be
noted that only the readings that are consistent are the ones to be considered; these
readings should either be the same or very close to one another (differing by either 
0.2 OR  0.1cm3)

(d) Choice of the initial reading

For the first titre, the burette may be filled up to the 0 mark, therefore an initial reading
of 0.00cm3. The next initial reading is dependant on the first reading (i.e the first final
reading)
If the volume of the solution left in the burette is enough for another titration then the
previous final reading can be used as the new initial reading, however if the solution
left is less than the volume required then more solution should be added to the burette.

Sample results: Volume of pipette used = 25 cm3

(1)
Burette readings 1 2 3 4
Final burette reading/cm3 24.90 49.40 24.40 48.80
Initial burette readings/cm3 0.00 24.90 0.00 24.40
Volume of BA2 used/cm3 24.90 24.50 24.40 24.40

Values of BA2 used to calculate the average:

(i) either 24.40, 24.40 (the best)
(ii) or 24.40, 24.40 and 24.50
Average volume of BA2 used
(i) 24.40 + 24.40 = 48.80
2 2
= 24.40 cm3

(ii) 24.40 + 24.40 + 24.50 = 73.30

 59

3 2
= 24.43 cm3

(2) Volume of pipette used = 25 cm3

Burette readings 1 2 3 4
Final burette reading/cm3 18.60 37.80 23.10 41.30
Initial burette readings/cm3 0.00 18.60 5.00 23.10
Volume of BA2 used/cm3 18.60 19.20 18.10 18.20

Volume of BA1 used to calculate the average 18.10 and 18.20

Average volume of BA1 used

18.10 + 18.20 = 36.30
2 2
= 18.15 cm3

Experiment to determine the basicity of an acid

You are provided with solutions BA1 a 0.2M sodium hydroxide solution and BA2 a 0.1M
solution of acid HnX. You are required to determine the basicity of the acid HnX.

Procedure:
Pipette 20cm3 or 25cm3 of BA1 into a conical flask.
Add 2 – 3 drops of phenolphthalein indictor. (solution turn pink) Titrate the solution with
BA2 from the burette. ( the end point is when the solution mixture just turns colourless)
Repeat the procedure until when you obtain consistent readings. Record your readings in
the table below:
Volume of pipette used 20 cm3

Burette readings 1 2 3 4
Final burette reading/cm3 20.40 40.50 24.80 44.70
Initial burette readings/cm3 0.00 20.40 5.00 24.80
Volume of BA2 used/cm3 20.40 20.10 19.80 19.90

Titre values used to determine the average volume of BA2: 19.80 cm3 19.90 cm3 …..

Average volume of BA2 used:

19.80 + 19.90 = 39.70
2 2
= 19.85 cm3

Questions:
(a) Determine the number of moles of
(i) sodium hydroxide that reacted
1000 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution contain 0.2 moles
1 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution contains 0.2 moles
 60

1000
3
20cm of sodium hydroxide solution contain 0.2 x 20 moles
1000
= 0.004 moles

(ii) acid HnX that reacted

1000 cm3 of HnX(aq) contain 0.1 moles
1 cm3 of HnX(aq) contains 0.1 moles
1000
3
19.85 cm of HnX (aq) contain 0.1 x 19.85 moles
1000

= 0.001985 moles

(b) (i) Determine the mole ratio of NaOH: HnX

NaOH : HnX
0.004 0.001985
0.001985 0.001985
2.015 : 1
2: 1

(ii) What is the basicity of the acid HnX

2 or the acid is dibasic

Note: Basicity may be defined as the number of moles of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
that react with one mole of that particular acid. Therefore to determine the basicity of a
given acid, one needs to obtain the mole ratio of the acid: NaOH

EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE MOLARITIES OF SOLUTIONS

1. You are provided with BA1 a 0.1M hydrochloric acid solution and BA2 a solution of
sodiumhydroxide of unknown concentration. You are required to determine the
molarity of the solution.
Procedure:
Pipette 20 or 25cm3 of BA1 into a conical flask. Add 2 – 3 drops of methylorange
indicator (the solution turns red) titrate the solution with BA2 from the burette (the end
point is when the solution mixture just turns yellow).
Repeat the procedure until when you obtain consistent readings. Record your reading in
the table below.

Sample results:
 61

Volume of pipette used 25 cm3

Burette readings 1 2 3 4
Final burete readings/cm3 13.40 26.20 39.00 22.80
Initial burette reading/cm3 0.00 13.40 26.20 10.00
Volume of BA2 used/cm3 13.40 12.80 12.80 12.80

Titre values used to determine the average volume of BA2:

12.80cm3 12.80cm3 12.80cm3

Determine the average titre value

12.80 + 12.80 + 12.80
3
= 38.40
3
= 12.80cm3

Questions:
(a) Determine the number of moles of
(i) hydrochloric acid that reacted:
1000cm3 of hydrochloric acid contained 0.1 moles
1cm3 of hydrochloric acid contained 0.1 moles
1000 1000
Therefore:
25cm3 of hydrochloric acid contained 0.1 x 25
1000
= 0.0025 moles

(ii) sodiumhydroxide that reacted.

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
From the equation 1 mole of HCl reacts with 1 mole of NaOH
Therefore moles of NaOH that reacted were also 0.0025

(b) Determine the molarity of BA2

12.80 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution contained 0.0025 moles
1 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution contained 0.0025 moles
12.8

 1000cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution contained 0.0025 x 1000 moles

12.8

molarity of BA2 is 0.195M

 62

2. You are provided with a solution BA1 of sulphuric acid of unknown concentration and
BA2 a 0.2M solution of potassium hydroxide. You a required to determine the
concentration of the sulphuric acid solution.

Procedure:
Pipette 20 or 25cm3 of BA2 into a conical flask. Add 2 – 3 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator. Titrate the solution with BA1 from the burette. Repeat the procedure until
you obtain consistent readings. Record the results in the table below.

Sample results:
Volume of pipette used 25 cm3

Titre readings 1 2 3 4
Final burette readings/cm3 25.30 24.90 49.80 34.90
Initial burette reading/cm3 0.00 0.00 24.90 10.00
Volume of BA1 used/cm3 25.30 24.90 24.90 24.90

Values of BA1 used to determine the average titre 24.90 cm3 24.90 cm3 24.90
cm3
Determine the average volume of BA1 used.
24.90 + 24.90 + 24.90
3

= 24.90 cm3

Questions:
(a) Determine the number of moles of
(i) potassium hydroxide that reacted
1000cm3 of BA2 contain 0.2 moles of potassium hydroxide
1 cm3 of BA2 contain 0.2 moles of potassium hydroxide
1000
 25cm of BA2 contain 0.2 x 25 moles of potassium hydroxide
3

1000
0.005 moles of potassium hydroxide

(ii) Sulphuric acid that reacted

2KOH (aq) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

From the reaction equation 2 moles of KOH react with 1 mole of H2SO4
 1 mole of KOH reacts with ½ moles of H2SO4
0.005 moles of KOH react with ½ x 0.005 moles of H2SO4
= 0.0025 moles

(b) Determine the molarity of the sulphuric acid solution (BA1)

24.90cm3 of BA1 contain 0.0025 moles of H2SO4
1 cm3 of Bal contain 0.0025 moles of H2SO4
24.90
 1000 cm of BA1 contain
3
0.0025 x 1000 moles of H2SO4
24.90
Molarity of BA1 is 0.1M
 63

EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE MOLES OF WATER OF

CRYSTALLISATION

1. You are provided with BA1a solution of sodium carbonate made by dissolving 56.6g of
the hydrated carbonate in water to make 1 litre of solution. BA2 is a 0.2M hydrochloric
acid solution. You are required to determine the number of moles of water of
crystallisation, n, in Na2CO3. n H2O.
Procedure
Pipette 20 or 25cm3 of BA2 into a conical flask. Add 2 – 3 drops of methyl orange
indicator. Titrate the solution with BA1 from the burette. Repeat the procedure until
when you obtain consistent readings. Record your results in the table below.

Volume of pipette used 20 cm3

Titre readings 1 2 3 4
Final burete readings/cm3 10.30 20.40 30.30 40.30
Initial burette reading/cm3 0.00 10.30 20.20 30.30
Volume of BA1 used/cm3 10.30 10.10 10.10 10.00

Values of BA1 used to determine the average titre

10.10 cm3 10.10 cm3

Determine the average titre value

10.10 + 10.10 = 20.20
2 2
= 10.10 cm3

Questions:
(a) Determine the molarity of the sodium carbonate solution
1000cm3 of BA2 contain 0.2 moles of hydrochloric acid
1 cm3 of BA2 contain 0.2 moles of hydrochloric acid
1000
 20cm of BA2 contain 0.2 x 20 moles of hydrochloric acid
3

1000
= 0.004 moles

Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

2 moles of HCl react with 1 mole of Na2CO3.
 0.004 moles of HCl react with ½ x 0.004 moles of Na2CO3
= 0.002 moles of Na2CO3
10.00 cm3 of BA1 contain 0.002 moles of Na2CO3
1 cm3 of BA1 contains 0.002 moles of Na2CO3 moles
10.10
 1000cm of BA1 contain 0.002 x 1000 moles of Na2CO3
3

10.10
Molarity of sodium carbonate solution is 0.198M
 64

(b) (i) Calculate the molar mass of the hydrated sodium carbonate:
0.198 moles of Na2CO3.nH2O weigh 56.6 g
1 mole of Na2CO3.nH2O weigh 56.6
0.198
= 285.86g
Approx. molar mass = 286 g

(ii) Determine the value of n

Molar mass of Na2CO3.nH2O
(23x2) + (12 x 1) + (16 x 3) + n [16 x 1] = 286g
106 + 18n = 286
18n = 286 – 106
18n = 180
n = 10

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE PURITY OF SUBSTANCES

You are provided with BAl a 0.1M solution of hydrochloric acid and BA2 a solution made
by dissolving 1.8g of impure potassium carbonate, in 250 cm3 of distilled water. You are
required to determine the percentage purity of the sample
Procedure:
Pipette 20cm3 (or 25 cm3) of BA2 into a conical flask, add 2 – 3 drops of methyl orange
indicator. Titrate the solution with BA1 from the burette. Repeat the procedure until when
you obtain consistent results. Record your readings in the table below.

Sample results
Capacity of the pipette used 20 cm3

Titre readings 1 2 3 4
Final burete readings/cm3 19.70 38.90 24.20 43.40
Initial burette reading/cm3 0.00 19.70 5.00 24.20
Volume of BA1 used/cm3 19.70 19.20 10.20 19.20

Values of BAl used to determine the average 19.20 cm3 19.20cm3 19.20cm3
Determine the average titre
19.20 + 19.20 + 19.20
3
= 19.20 cm3
Questions:
(a) Determine the number of moles of
(i) hydrochloric acid that reacted
1000cm3 of BAl contained 0.1 moles of HCl
19.2cm3 of BAl contained 0.1 x 19.20 moles of HCl
1000
= 0.00192 moles

(ii) Potassium carbonate that reacted

2HCl(aq) + K2CO3(aq) 2KCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2 moles of hydrochloric acid react with 1 mole of K2CO3
0.00192 moles of hydrochloric acid react with ½ x 0.00192 moles of K2CO3
= 0.00096 moles of K2CO3
 65

(b) Determine the molarity of BA2.

0.0096 moles of K2CO3 are contained in 20cm3 that reacted.

20cm3 of BA2 contain 0.00096 moles of K2CO3
1000 cm3 of BA2 contain 0.00096 x 1000 moles of K2CO3
20
Molarity of BA2 = 0.048M

(c) Calculate the mass of the pure sample and hence the percentage purity of the carbonate

1000cm3 of BA2 contain 0.048 moles

250cm3 of BA2 contain 0.048 x 250 moles
1000
= 0.012 moles

K2CO3: (39 x 2) +(12 x 1) + (16 x 3) = 138g

Mass of pure K2CO3 in 250cm3 is 0.012 x 138

= 1.656 g

Percentage purity = pure mass x 100

Total sample

= 1.656 x 100
1.8
= 92%

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE RELATIVE FORMULA MASS OF A

COMPOUND
You are provided with BA1 a solution made by dissolving 6.9 g of a metal carbonate XCO3
in 250cm3 of distilled water, and BA2 a 1M hydrochloric acid solution. You are required to
determine the relative formula mass of compound XCO3 and atomic mass X.
Procedure:
Pipette 20cm3 or 25cm3 of BAl into a conical flask. Add 2 – 3 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator. Titrate this solution with BA2 from the burette. Repeat the titrations until you
obtain consistent results. Record the readings in the table below.
Sample results

Volume of pipette used 25 cm3

Titre readings 1 2 3 4
Final burete readings/cm3 20.20 40.20 24.00 44.00
Initial burette reading/cm3 0.00 20.20 4.00 24.00
Volume of BA1 used/cm3 20.00 20.20 20.00 20.00

Titre values used to determine average

20.00 cm3 20.00 cm3 20.00cm3

Average titre value

20.00 + 20.00 + 20.00
3

= 20.00 cm3
 66

Questions:

(a) Determine the number of moles of:

(i) hydrochloric acid that reacted
1000cm3 of BA2 contain 1 mole of hydrochloric acid
20cm3 of BA2 contain 1 x 20 moles of hydrochloric acid
1000
= 0.02 moles

(ii) Metal carbonate XCO3 that reacted.

2HCl(aq) + XCO3(aq) XCl2 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2 moles of hydrochloric acid react with 1 mole of XCO3
1 mole of hydrochloric acid react with ½ moles of XCO3
0.02 moles of hydrochloric acid react with ½ x 0.02 moles of XCO3
= 0.01 moles of XCO3

(b) (i) Calculate the relative formula mass of the carbonate, XCO3
 250 cm3 of BAl contained 0.01 x 250
25

Therefore 0.1 moles of XCO3 weigh 6.9

1 mole of XCO3 weighs 6.9
0.1
= 69g

(ii) Determine the relative atomic mass of X.

Relative formula mass = X + (12 x 1) + (16 x 3)
69 = X + 12 + 48
69 = X + 60
X = 9g

1. Aim: To determine the molar ratio between sodium hydroxide solution and
unknown acid

You are provided with BAl a 0.1M solution of sodium hydroxide and BA2 a 0.05M
solution of the unknown acid.

Procedure:
Pipette 20.0 or 25.0 cm3 of BA1 (sodium hydroxide solution) into a conical flask. Add 2
– 3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator and titrate the solution with the acid from the
burette.

Repeat the procedure until you obtain consistent readings. Record your results in the
table below.

Results:
 67

Volume of pipette …………………………………….. cm3

Experiment number 1 2 3 4
Final burette reading/cm3
Initial burette reading/cm3
Volume of BA2(acid) used/cm3

Volumes of BA2 used to calculate the average

……………………… ……………………… …………………………

Average volume of BA2 used

………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………… ………………………………………………………
…………………………… ………………………………………………………
…………………………… …………………………………………………
(a) Calculate the number of moles of
(i) sodium hydroxide solution used
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) acid used
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Determine the mole ratio between the acid and sodium hydroxide
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
 68

2. You are provided with solutions BA1 and BA2 . BA1 is a 0.2M sodium hydroxide
solution. BA2 is a solution containing 0.05 moles of an acid per litre.

You are required to determine the molar ratio of the reaction between sodium hydroxide
and the acid.

Procedure:
Pipette 25 cm3 (20cm3) of BA2 into a conical flask. Add 2 – 3 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator. Titrate the solution with BA1 from a burette. Record your results in the table
below.

Results:
Volume of pipette used = ………… cm3
Burette reading:
Titration number 1 2 3 4
Final reading (cm3)
Initial burette reading (cm3
Volume of BA2(acid) used (cm3

Volume of BA1 used for calculating the average volume

Average volume of BA1 used ………. cm3

Questions:
Calculate:
(i) the moles of sodium hydroxide that reacted
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

(ii) the moles of acid that reacted

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

(iii) the molar ratio of alkali to acid for the reaction that took place.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
 69

3. You are provided with solutions BA1 and BA2. BA1 is a solution containing 0.25
moles of an acid HnX. per litre. BA2 is a 0.5M sodium hydroxide solution. You are
required to determine the basicity, n , of the acid.
Procedure:
Pipette 25cm3 of BA2 into a conical flask. Add 2 – 3 drops of methyl orange as indicator.
Titrate the solution with BA1 from as burette. The end point is when the colour of orange
just turns orange. Repeat the titration until you get consistent results.
Results:
Volume of pipette used ……. cm3
Titration number 1 2 3 4
Final reading (cm3)
Initial burette reading (cm3)
Volume of BA1(acid) used (cm3)

Volumes of BA1 used for calculating the average value.

Average volume of BA1 used …………cm3

Questions:
(a) Calculate the value of n
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

(b) Write ionic equation for the reaction between the acid and sodium hydroxide.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
 70

Determination of Basicity of Acid HnA

4. You are provided with BA1 a solution of potassium hydroxide made by 11.2 g in 1 litre
of solution. BA2 is a 0.2M solution of an unknown acid, HnX. You are required to
determine the basicity, n, of the acid
Procedure:
Pipette 20 or 25cm3 of BA2 into a conical flask and add 2 – 3 drops of methyl orange
indicator. Titrate the solution with BA1 from the burette. Repeat the titration until you get
consistent readings. Record the results in the table below.
Results:
Volume of pipette used ……………..cm3
Titration number 1 2 3 4
Final reading (cm3)
Initial burette reading (cm3
Volume of BA1(acid) used (cm3
Titre values to determine the average

Average titre …………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………

Questions:
(a) Determine the molarity of BA1 (K=39, O = 16, H = 1, C = 12)

(b) Determine the number of moles of

(i) BA1 that reacted

(ii) BA2 that reacted

(c) Determine the basicity of the acid.

 71

Determine the basicity of an acid X

5. You are provided with BA1 a 0.1M solution of an unknown acid X and BA2 a 0.05M
solution of sodium hydroxide. You are required to determine the basicity of the acid X.
Procedure:
Pipette 20 or 25cm3 of BA2 into a conical flask and 2 – 3 drops of phenolphthalein indictor.
Titrate the solution with BA1 from the burette. Repeat the procedure until when you obtain
consistent results. Record your readings in the table below.
Results:
Volume of pipette used …………………cm
3

Titration number 1 2 3 4
Final reading (cm3)
Initial burette reading (cm3
Volume of BA1(acid) used (cm3
Titre values used to determine the average
………………………………………………………………………………
Calculate the average titre
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
Questions:
(a) Determine the number of moles of
(i) BA1 that reacted
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) BA2 that reacted
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

Determine the basicity of the acid X

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
 72

6. You are provided with BA1 which is a 0.2M solution of hydrochloric acid. BA2 is a
solution of sodium hydroxide. You are required to determine the concentration of the
sodium hydroxide solution.
Procedure:
Pipette 20cm3 or 25cm3 of BA1 into conical flask. Add 2 – 3 drops of methyl orange
indicator and titrate the solution with BA2. Repeat the procedure until you obtain consistent
reading. Record your reading in the table below.
Results:

Volume of pipette ……………………...cm3

Titration number 1 2 3 4
Final reading (cm3)
Initial burette reading (cm3
Volume of BA2(acid) used (cm3

(a) (i) Values used to calculate the average titre ……………………………….

(ii) Calculate the average titre

……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

(b) Determine the number of moles of:

(i) BA1 that reacted
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

(ii) BA2 that reacted

……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) Determine the concentration of BA2 in gl– 1 and moldm– 3
 73

Standardise a solution of hydrochloric acid using sodium carbonate.

7. You are provided with BA1 a solution of sodium carbonate made by dissolving 10.6g in
1 litre and BA2 a solution of hydrochloric acid of unknown concentration.
Procedure:
Pipette 20 cm3 of BA1 into a conical flask.
Add 2 – 3 drops of methylorange indicator
Titrate the solution with the acid in the burette. The point is when the indicator just turns
pink. Repeat the procedure until you obtain consistent results. Record your reading in the
table below (Na = 23, O = 16, C = 12, H = 1, Cl = 35.5)
Volume of pipette ……………………cm3
Table of results
Titration number 1 2 3 4
3
Final reading (cm )
Initial burette reading (cm3)
Volume of BA2 (acid) used (cm3)
Values used to determine average titre ………………………………………………..
Calculate the average titre ……………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………….
Questions:
(a) Write the ionic equation for the reaction ………………………………………….
(b) Determine the molarity of the sodium carbonate solution.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
(c) (i) Determine the number of moles of base that reacted.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
(ii) Determine the number of moles of acid that reacted
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
(d) Determine the molarity of the acid
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
(e) Calculate the concentration of the acid in g/cm3.
 74

8. You are provided with BA1 which is a 0.2M solution of sulphuric acid. BA2 is a
solution of sodium hydroxide. You are required to determine the concentration of the
sodium hydroxide solution.
Procedure:
Pipette 20cm3 or 25cm3 of BA1 into a conical flask. Add 2 – 3 drops of methylorange
indicator and titrate the solution with BA2. Repeat the procedure until you obtain consistent
readings. Record your reading in the table below
Results:
Volume of pipette …………………….cm3
Titration number 1 2 3 4
Final reading (cm3)
Initial burette reading (cm3
Volume of BA2(acid) used (cm3

(a) (i) Values used to calculate the average titre ……..

………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) Calculate the average titre
………………………………………………………………………………………

(b) Determine the number of moles of

(i) BA1 that reacted
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) BA2 that reacted
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) Determine the concentration of BA2 in gl – 1 and moldm – 3
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….
 75

9. You are provided with BA1 which is a solution of dilute sulphuric acid containing 0.1
moles per litre. BA2 is a solution of a metallic hydroxide WOH containing 8.0g per
litre. You are required to determine the atomic mass of W where W is not the symbol of
the element.

Procedure:
Pipette 25cm3 of BA1 into a conical flask and 2 – 3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator and
titrate the solution with BAZ from the burette. Repeat the experiment until you obtain
consistent results. Record your results in the table below.
Volume of pipette ……………………..cm3
1 2 3 4
3
Final reading (cm )
Initial burette reading (cm3
Volume of BA2 (acid) used (cm3

Volumes used for calculating average

………………………………………………………………………………………
Average volume of BA2 used for calculation
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(a) Calculate:-
(i) moles of BA1 that reacted
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

(ii) moles of BA2 that reacted

………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(iii) molarity of the hydroxide
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
 76

(iv) the atomic mass of W

(H = 1, O = 16)
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

10. You are provided with BA1 which is a solution of hydrochloric acid containing 0.2
moles per litre. BA2 is a solution of a metallic hydroxide ZOH containing 11.2g per
litre. You are required to determine the atomic mass of Z where Z is not the symbol of
the element.
Procedure:
Pipette 20 or 25cm3 of BA1 into a conical flask. Add 2 – 3 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator and titrate the solution with BA2 from the burette. Repeat the procedure until
when you obtain consistent results. Record your results in the table below.
Volume of pipette used ……………cm3
Titration number 1 2 3 4
Final burette reading (cm3)
Initial burette reading (cm3
Volume of BA2 (acid) used (cm3

Values of BA2 used to calculate the average

………………………………………………………………………………………
Determine the average volume of BA2 used
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(a) Calculate the number of moles of
(i) BA1 used
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) BA2 used
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
 77

(b) Determine the molarity of BA2

(c) Determine the atomic mass of Z (H = 1,O = 16)

………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

11. You are provided with BA1 a solution made by dissolving 13.8g of a metal carbonate
(M2CO3) in one litre of distilled water, and BA2 which is a 0.05M solution of sulphuric
acid. You are required to determine the atomic mass of element M (M is not the usual
symbol of the element)
Procedure:
Pipette 20 or 25cm3 of BA2 into a conical flask and add 2 – 3 drops of methylorange
indicator. Titrate the solution with BA1 from the burette. Repeat the procedure until when
you obtain consistent results. Record your readings in the table below.
Results:
Volume of pipette used …………………….cm3
Titration number 1 2 3 4
Final burette reading (cm3)
Initial burette reading (cm3
Volume of BA1 used (cm3
Titre values used to determine the average
………………………………………………………………………………………
Calculate the average titre
………………………………………………………………………………………
 78

Questions:
(a) Determine the number of moles of
(i) BA2 that reacted
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) BA1 that reacted
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Determine the molarity of BA1
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) Calculate the
(i) formula mass of the carbonate, M2CO3
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) relative atomic mass of M
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

12. You are provided with BA1 a solution containing 14.3gl – 1 of a hydrated compound of
formula Y.nH2O. BA2 is a 0.1M solution of an acid. The acid reacts with the hydrated
compound in the molar ratio of 1:2 (YnH2O: acid) Y = 106g. You are required to
determine n, the number of moles of water of crystallisation in the hydrated compound.
Procedure:
Pipette 20 or 25cm3 of BA1 into a conical flask and titrate with BA2 using methylorange
indicator. Repeat the titration until you get consistent results. Record your results in the
table below.
Volume of pipette used …………………….cm3
 79

Titration number 1 2 3 4
Final burette reading (cm3)
Initial burette reading (cm3
Volume of BA2 used (cm3
Volumes of BA2 used to calculate the average
………………………………………………………………………………………
Average volume of BA2 used
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
Questions:
(a) Calculate the number of moles of
(i) BA2 that reacted
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) BA1 that reacted
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Calculate the concentration of BA1 in moles per litre
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) Determine
(i) the formula mass of Y.nH2O.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) the value of n
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
 80

13. Aim: To Determine the number of moles of water of crystallisation in ethanedioic

acid, H2C2O4.nH2O in water to make one litre of solution. BA2 is 0.1M
sodiumhydroxide solution. You are required to determine the formula mass of the
acid and the value of n.

Procedure:
Pipette 20 or 25cm3 of BA1 into a conical flask. Add 2 – 3 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator. Titrate the solution with BA2 from the burette. Repeat the procedure until you
obtain consistent results. Record your readings in the table below.
Volume of pipette used …………………….cm3
Titration number 1 2 3 4
Final burette reading (cm3)
Initial burette reading (cm3
Volume of BA2 used (cm3
Titre values used to find the average volume
………………………………………………………………………………………
Average volume of BA2 used
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
Questions:
(a) Determine the number of moles of BA2 that reacted
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

(b) Determine the molarity of BA1

H2C2O4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2C2O4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

(c) (i) Determine the relative formula mass of H2C2O4nH2O

 81

(ii) Hence determine the value of n.

14. You are provided with BA1 a solution of 0.1M sulphuric acid and BA2 a solution made
by dissolving 23.4g of impure anhydrous sodium carbonate to make1 litre of solution .
You are required to determine the percentage purity of the sodium carbonate sample.
Procedure:
Pipette 20cm3 or 25cm3 of BA1 into a conical flask. Add 2 – 3 drops of methylorange
indicator and titrate with BA2 from the burette. Repeat the procedure until when you obtain
consistent results. Record your readings in the table below.
(Na = 23, O-16, C=12, H=1, Cl=35.5)
Results:
Volume of pipette used …………………………cm3
Titration number 1 2 3 4
Final burette reading (cm3)
Initial burette reading (cm3
Volume of BA2 used (cm3
Values of BA2 used to determine the average titre
………………………………………………………………………………………
calculate the average titre
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
Questions:
(a) Write the ionic equation for the reaction that took place
………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Determine the number of moles of
(i) BA1 that reacted
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
 82

(ii) BA2 that reacted

………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) Determine the molarity of BA2
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(d) Calculate the
(i) concentration of the sodium carbonate in gdm – 3
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) the percentage purity of the sample
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….

Determination of percentage impurity of an acid H2X

15. You are provided with BA1 which is a solution of an impure acid H 2X of concentration
2gdm–3 and BA2 which is a solution of sodiumhydrogen carbonate of concentration
4.2gl– 1
Procedure:
Pipette 20cm3 of BA2 into a conical flask and add 2 – 3 drops of methylorange indictor.
Titrate this solution with BA1 until the colour just turns pink. Repeat the procedure until
when you obtain consistent results. Record your readings in the table below.
Results:
Volume of pipette used …………………….cm3

Titration number 1 2 3 4
3
Final burette reading (cm )
Initial burette reading (cm3
Volume of BA1 used (cm3
Volumes of BA1 used to determine the average titre
………………………………………………………………………………………
Average titre
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
 83

Questions:
(a) Write a balanced equation for the reaction between BA1 and BA2
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Calculate the number of moles of BA2 that reacted
(Na = 23, C = 12, O = 16, H = 1)

(c) Find the molarity of the acid H2X

(d) (i) Calculate the concentration of this acid in gdm – 3 if X = 124

(ii) Hence determine the percentage impurity of BA1

16. You are provided with BAl a 1M hydrochloric acid solution and BA2 a solution of
sodium thiosulphate made by dissolving 40g in a litre of water. You are required to
investigate the effect of concentration on the rate of reaction.

Procedure:
Make a small cross on white paper. Measure 50cm3 of BA2 into a conical flask using a
clean measuring cylinder. Place the conical flask on the cross.
Add 10cm3 of BA1 to the flask and simultaneously start the clock. Shake the mixture to
mix the solutions thoroughly. Look at the cross through the solution from above and stop
 84

the clock when the cross just becomes invisible. Record the time taken in the table below.
Repeat the procedure by measuring 40,30,20 and 10 cm3 of BA2 into the conical flask and
in each case make up the total volume of solution 50cm3 before adding the 10cm3 of BA1.
Tabulate your results.

Volume of BA2/cm3 50 40 30 20 10
Volume of water added/cm3
Concn of solution/g of Na2S2O3.5H2O per 50cm3
Time taken/s
1
/time / S–1

Plot a graph of a graph of

(a) concentration against time
(ii) 1/time against concentration
Deduce the relationship between
(b) concentration and time

(ii)1/time and rate of reaction

(iii) Rate of reaction and concentration

17. You are provided with Bal a 1M hydrochloric acid and BA2 a 0.05M
sodiumthiosulphate
 85

solution. You are required to investigate the effect of temperature on the rate of
reaction.

Procedure:
Make a small cross on white paper. Ripette 25 or 20 cm3 of BA2 into a conical flask. Heat
the solution to 30oC; place the flask on the cross. Add 5cm3 of Bal to the flask and
simultaneously start the clock. Look at the cross through the solution from above and stop
the clock when the cross just becomes invisible. Record the time taken in the table. Repeat
the procedure using temperatures 40,50,60,70 and 80oC.
Table of results:
Temperature/oC 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time taken/s
1
/time / S–1

Plot a graph of 1/time against temperature. Deduce the relationship between

(i) 1/time and rate of reaction

(ii) Rate of reaction and temperature

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
 86

1. Appearance of the sample (mainly colour)

Observation Deduction
(a) White powder/crystalline Al3+, Pb2+, Zn2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, NH4+

(b) Colourless crystals Al2+, Pb2+, Zn2+,Mg2+, Ca2+, NH4+

(c) Blue powder/crystals Fe2+, Cu2+
(d) Green powder/crystals Fe2+, Cu2+
(e) Yellow/brown Fe3+

2. Heating the sample till no further change

Observation Deduction
(c) Colourless liquid which turns anhydrous CuSO4 Water of crystallisation
blue
(d) (i) Reddish brown fumes NO2 from NO3–
(ii) white fumes SO3 from SO42–
(iii) colourless gas turns litmus blue NH3 from NH4+
(iv) colourless gas turns litmus red and lime
water milky CO2 from CO32–
(v) colourless gas turns litmus red and SO2 from SO42–
decolourises acidified KMnO4 H2S
(vi) chocking smell, colourless gas turns litmus SO2 from SO42–
red, turns acidified K2Cr2O7 from Orange to H2S
green

Note: Where NH3,H2S, SO3 and NO2 are detected,

there is always a chocking, irritating, pungent smell.
So it is necessary that you include the smell in your
observations.
(e) White sublimate NH4+ salt
(f) Yellow residue when hot, white on cooling ZnO
(g) Orange residue when hot, yellow on cooling PbO
(h) Yellow residue (or yellowish brown residue) (PbO) Fe2O3
(i) Brown residue Fe2O3
(j) Black residue FeO, CuO

Note:
 87

1. If there are two cations in the sample then it is most likely that the residue will have
two colours each corresponding to one of the cations.
2. If there is only one cation then the residue should have one colour; or consider the
darkest colour of the residue.
3. Dissolving the sample
(a) readily dissolves SO42 – , NO3– or Cl–
(b) adding nitric acid (insoluble in water)
bubbles of colourless gas, turns litmus red, CO2 produced
and lime water milky CO32– confirmed
(c) Partly dissolves filtrate probably contains
Forming a filtrate ……… residue SO42 – , NO3– or Cl–
Residue contains CO32–
4. Ions in solution (cations)
(a) Adding sodium hydroxide solution dropwise until excess
(i) white ppt insoluble in excess Ca2+ Mg2+
(ii) While ppt soluble in excess Al3+, Pb2+, Zn2+
(iii) blue ppt insoluble in excess Cu2+
(iv) dirty green ppt insoluble in excess Fe2+
(v) brown (reddish brown) ppt insoluble in excess Fe3+
(vi) Solution remains colourless on warming NH4+
colourless gas turns litmus blue and has
chocking/irritating smell NH4+ confirmed
(b) Adding ammonia solution dropwise until excess
(i) White ppt insoluble in excess Pb2+, Al3+ (Ca2+, Mg2+)
(ii) White ppt soluble in excess Zn2+ confirmed
(iii) blue ppt dissolves in excess forming a
solution Cu2+ confirmed
(iv) Dirty green ppt insoluble in excess Fe2+ (sometimes Fe2+
confirmed)

(v) Brown (Reddish brown) ppt insoluble Fe3+

in excess. (Fe3+ confirmed if no more
tests)
Note:
(i) Ammonia solution may be used to confirm Fe2+ or Fe3+ ions if potassium
 88

ferricynide/ferrocyanide is not mentioned in the tests that follow.

(iii) Ca2+, Mg2+ ions are only named if the first sample tested with NaOH(aq) gave a
white ppt insoluble in excess otherwise that white insoluble ppt is characteristic
of Al3+ and Pb2+

When two or more ions are still suspected at the same stage/test, then other
confirmatory tests are carried out on another solution sample to confirm the ions
present.

(c) Adding potassium iodide solution

(to a solution which initially had a white ppt insoluble in excess ammonia solution)
(i) Yellow ppt Pb2+ confirmed
(ii) Solution remains colourless Al3+ confirmed
(d) Adding potassium ferricyanide solution (hexacyanoferrated (III) )
(i) dark (deep) blue ppt Fe2+ confirmed
(ii) Dark blue solution Fe3+
(e) Adding potassium ferrocyanide solution (hexacyanoferrated (II) )
(i) Dark (deep) blue ppt Fe3+ confirmed
(ii) Pale blue ppt Fe2+
(f) Adding potassium thiocyanate solution
(i) Bloody (dark) red solution Fe3+ confirmed
(ii) solution remains pale blue Fe2+
Note:
(1) potassium iodide, potassium ferrocyanide, fericyanide and thiocyanate are never
added until excess i.e. only a little is added.
(2) Observations must be correct and complete
(3) Only confirm the ion in the right place.
5. Testing for anions in solutions.
Common reagents: BaCl2(aq) , Ba(NO3)2, AgNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq), Nitric acid, freshly
prepared Iron (II) sulphate solution and concentrated sulphuric acid.
(a) Adding lead (II) nitrate solution.
(i) White ppt SO42 – , Cl –
(ii) If asked to warm
* white ppt persists on warming SO42 –
* white ppt dissolves on warming Cl – confirmed
 89

(if it’s the last test)

(iii) If followed by nitric acid
* white ppt, bubbles of a colourless gas CO32 –
* white ppt persists Cl – , SO42–
(b) Adding barium nitrate (or chloride) solution
(i) white ppt CO32 –, SO42 –
(ii) if followed by nitric (or hydrochloric) acid
* white ppt persists SO42 – confirmed
(if it’s the last test)
* white ppt, bubbles of a colourless gas CO32 –, confirmed.

(c) Adding silver nitrate solution

White ppt Cl – confirmed (if last)
(d) To the sample add freshly prepared iron (II)
sulphate solution, slant the test tube and slowly
add conc sulphuric acid
* brown ring separating two layers NO3 – confirmed
Note:
(1) Each deduction corresponding to a particular observation
(2) All observations must be correct and complete so as to have a right deduction
(3) All ions to be suspected at any stage should have appeared in the preceding step
otherwise they do not qualify to be right.
(4) Ions must be confirmed at the right stages otherwise they are wrong
(5) Ions are recorded using formulae. These formulae must be correctly written
(6) Observations and deductions should be recorded precisely.

Scoring:
- only those observations and deductions which are correct will earn marks
 90

- no deduction shall be marked unless it corresponds to correct and complete

observations
- at the end of all the tests the considered ions will only be right only if they were
confirmed at the right stages.

Focus:
1. The colour of the solid and or solution depicts the presence of certain cations.
Therefore whenever something is stated about colour, the corresponding
deductions involve cations.
2. The solubility is centred on the anions present e.g. if a solid is insoluble, it is
most likely that that sample contains a carbonate and if it is readily soluble then
a nitrate, chloride or sulphate

You are provided with substance X which consists of one cation and one anion. Carry out
the following tests on X to identify the ions. Identify any gases evolved and record your
observations and deductions in the table below
Test Observation Deduction
(a) Heat a spatula endful of W is a colourless crystalline Ca2+, Mg2+, NH4+, Al3+
X strongly until there is solid. Pb2+, Zn2+
no further change A colourless liquid, that turns Water of crystallisation
anhydrous CuSO4 blue.
Reddish brown fumes, turn NO2 from NO3 –
blue litmus red. Residue is ZnO
 91

yellow when hot, white on

cooling.
(b) Dissolve half a spatula of W readily dissolves forming SO42 – , Cl – , NO3 –
X in 2cm3 of distilled a colourless solution Probably present.
water. Divide the
solution into 3 parts
To the first part and sodium A white ppt, soluble in Al3+, Pb2+, Zn2+ probably
hydroxide solution dropwise excess present
until in excess
ii) To the second part add A white ppt soluble in excess Zn2+ confirmed.
aqueous ammonia dropwise
until in excess
(iii) use the third part to carry A brown ring formed NO3 – confirmed
out a test of your choice to
confirm the anion. Add an
equal volume of freshly
prepared iron (II) sulphate
solution followed by a few
drops of concentrated
sulphuric acid

Identify the
(i) cation in X: Zn2+
(ii) Anion in X: NO3 –

Write the ionic equation for the reaction in b (i)

Zn2+ (aq) + 2OH – (aq) Zn (OH)2(S) white ppt
Zn (OH)2(S) + 4NH3(aq) [Zn(NH3)4]2+ (aq) + 2OH – (aq)

You are given substance X which consists of a common cation and common anion..
Carry out the following tests on the solid X. Identify any gases evolved and record your
observations and deductions in the spaces provided.
 92

Test Observations Deductions

(a) Heat a spatula end-full of X is a white powder Mg2+, Ca2+, NH4+, Al 3+, Zn2+,
X strongly in a test tube colourless gas turns blue Pb2+
until there is no further humus red and lime water CO2 from CO32–
change. milky. Orange residue when PbO
hot, yellow on cooling
Dissolve a spatula endful of Bubbles of a colourless gas CO2 from CO32–
X in dilute nitric acid. Divide that turns blue litmus red and CO32 – confirmed
the solution obtained in 3 lime water milky. Colourless
parts solution formed
To the first part add sodium A white ppt, soluble in Al3+, Zn2+, Pb2+ probably
hydroxide solution dropwise excess present
until in excess.
(ii) To the second part add A white ppt, insoluble in Al3+, Pb2+ probably present
aqueous ammonia until in excess
excess.
(iii) Use the third part of A yellow ppt formed Pb2+ confirmed.
solution to carry out a test of
your choice to confirm the
cation in X. Add potassium
iodide solution

Identify:
(i) the cation X Pb2+
(ii) the anion in X CO32 –

(iv) Write ionic equation for the test in b (i)

Pb2+ (aq) + 2OH – (aq) Pb(OH)2(s) white ppt

Pb(OH)2(s) + 2OH– (aq) [Pb(OH)4]2 – (aq) colourless solution

You are provided with a substance W which contains two cations and one anion.
You are required to carry out the following tests on W to identify the ions.
Identify any gases evolved.
Test Observation Deduction
(a) Put a spatula endful of W A pale brown crystalline Fe3+
in a test tube and heat solid. A colourless liquid, water of crystallisation
 93

strongly until no further turns and hydrous CuSO4

change blue. Colourless gas turns SO2 from SO42 –
litmus red and decolourless
KMnO4, white fumes, white NH4+ salt,
sublimate. Brown residue. Fe2O3
(b) Add 5cm3 of distilled W readily dissolves forming NO3 – , Cl –, SO4 2 – probably
water to a spatula endful a brown solution present.
of W. Divide the solution Fe3+
into four (4) parts
(i) To the first part add A reddish brown ppt, Fe3+
sodium hydroxide solution insoluble in excess. NH3 from NH4+
dropwise until in excess, Colourless gas, with a NH4+ confirmed
warm chocking irritating smell and
turns red litmus blue
(ii) to the second part add A reddish brown ppt, Fe3+ confirmed
ammonia solution dropwise insoluble in excess
until in excess
(iii) To the third part add a A white ppt formed Cl – , SO42 –
few drops of nitric acid Probably present
followed by lead (II) nitrate
solution
(iv) to the fourth part add A white ppt formed SO42 – confirmed
barium nitrate solution
Ions present:
Cations: (i) NH4+ (ii) Fe3+
Anion SO42 –
(i)Write the equation for the reaction in b (iv)
Ba2+(aq) + SO42 – (aq) BaSO4(s)

Identification of Anions in solution

Dissolve a spatula endful of each sample in 2 cm3 of distilled water. Divide the resulting solution
into two portions.
Test Observations
X: To the first portion add
barium nitrate solution
To the 2nd portion add lead
(II) nitrate solution
Following by dil nitric acid
Y: To the first portion add
lead (II) nitrate solution and
warm gently.
 94

To the second portion add

dilute hydrochloric acid
followed by barium nitrate
solution
Z: To the first portion add
lead (II) nitrate solution,
warm
To the second add silver
nitrate solution
W: To 2cm3 of W add 2cm3
of freshly prepared iron (II)
sulphate solution followed by
concentrated sulphuric drop
by drop.
Heat the different solid
samples and test the gases
evolved using blue/red
litmus, lime water acidified
KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7

1. Your are provided with solid X which consists of one cation and one anion.
Carry out the following tests on X. Identify any gases evolved and record your observed
and deductions in the spaces provided
Tests Observations Deductions
(a) Heat a spatula endful of
X strongly in a test tube
until there is no further
change

(b) Dissolve a spatula endful

of X in water. Divide the
solution into three parts
(i) To the first part add
sodium hydroxide solution
 95

dropwise until excess

(ii)To the Second part add
ammonium hydroxide
solution drop wise until in
excess
(iii) To the Third part add
potassium iodide solution
(iv) to the fourth add an
equal volume of freshly
prepared iron (II) sulphate
followed by concentrated
sulphuric add.

Identify: (i) the cation in x ………………… (ii) the anion in X ……

Write the ionic equation for the test in b (i)

…………………………………………………………………………………………

2. You are provided with substance K which consists of one cation and one anion. Carry
out the following tests on K to identify the ions. Identify any gases evolved and record
your observations and deductions in the table below
Test Observation Deduction
(a) Heat a spatula endful of
K strongly until there is
no further change

(b) Dissolve half a spatula of

K in 2cm3 of distilled
water. Divide the
solution into 3 parts
(i) To the first part add
sodium hydroxide solution
dropwise until in excess
(ii) To the second part add
aqueous ammonia dropwise
 96

until in excess
(iii) Use the third part to
carry out a test of your
choice to confirm the anion

Identify the (i) cation in K …………………. (ii) Anion in K ………………….

Write the ionic equation for the reaction in b(ii)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. You are provided with solid Y which consists of one cation and one anion. Carry out
the following tests on Y and identify any gases evolved. Record your observations and
deductions in the spaces provided.
Test Observation Deduction
(a) Heat a spatula endfull of
Y in a test tube until
there is no further change

(b) Dissolve a spatula endful

of Y in a test tube (3cm3)
Divide the solution into
four equal parts.
(i) to the first portion add
sodium hydroxide solution
dropwise, until excess

(ii) To the second portion

add aqueous ammonia
 97

dropwise until excess

(iii) To the third portion add
lead (II) nitrate solution and
warm the mixture.
(iv) To fourth portion add a
little hydrochloric add
followed by barium nitrate
solution

Questions:
(a) Identify the
(i) cation in Y ……………………….. (ii) Anion in Y ……………
(b) Write the equation for the reaction in (b) (ii)

4. You are provided with solid M which consists of one cation and one anion. Carry out
the following tests on M and identify any gases evolved. Record your observations and
deductions in the spaces provided.
Test Observation Deduction
(a) Heat a spatula endfull of
M in a test tube until
there is no further change

(b) Dissolve a spatula endfull

of M in (3cm3) of
distilled water . Divide
the solution into 4 parts
(i) to the first portion add
sodium hydroxide solution
dropwise, until excess

(ii) To the second portion

add aqueous ammonia
dropwise until excess
(iii) To the fourth portion add
a little hydrochloric add
followed by barium nitrate
 98

solution
(iv) To the third portion add
lead (II) nitrate solution and
warm the mixture.

Questions:
(c) Identify the
(i) cation in Y ……………………….. (ii) Anion in Y ……………
(d) Write the equation for the reaction in (b) (ii)
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
5. You are provided with a substance P which contains one anion and two cations. Carry
out the following tests to identify the ions in P. Identify any gases evolved.
Test Observation Deduction
(a) Heat a spatula endful of P
in a hard glass test tube
until there is no further
change

(b) Dissolve a spatula endful

of P in 4cm3 of distilled
water. Divide the
solution into 5 parts
(i) To the first part add
sodium hydroxide solution
dropwise until in excess

(ii) to the second part add

aqueous ammonia dropwise
until in excess
(iii) To the third part add
potassium iodide solution
(iv) To the forth part add
lead (II) nitrate solution.
Warm the mixture
(v) To the fifth part add a
 99

few drops of dilute nitric acid

followed by barium nitrate
solution.

Identify the ions: Cations (i) ……………………….. (ii) …………………

Anion ………………………………………………………
Write the ionic equation for the reaction in b (v)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

6. You are provided with a substance N which contains one anion and two cations. Carry
out the following tests to identify the ions in N. Identify any gases evolved.
Test Observation Deduction
(a) Heat a spatula endful of
N in a hard glass test tube
until there is no further
change

(b) Dissolve a spatula endful

of N in 4cm3 of distilled
water. Divide the
solution into 5 parts
(i) To the first part add
sodium hydroxide solution
dropwise until in excess.
Warm the mixture.
(ii) to the second part add
aqueous ammonia dropwise
until in excess
(iii) To the third part add
potassium iodide solution
(iv) To the forth part add
lead (II) nitrate solution.
Warm the mixture
(v) To the fifth part add a
few drops of dilute nitric acid
followed by barium nitrate
 100

solution.
Idenfity the ions: Cations (i) ……………………….. (ii) …………………
Anion ………………………………………………………
Write the ionic equation for the reaction in b (v)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

7. You are provided with a substance which contains two cations and one anions. You are
required to carry out the following tests on W to identify the ions. Identify any gases
evolved
Test Observation Deduction
(a) Put a spatula endful of W
in a test tube and heat
strongly until no further
change

(b) Add 5cm3 of distilled

water to a spatula endful
of W. Divide the solution
into four (4) parts

(i) To the first part add

sodium hydroxide solution
dropwise until in excess,
warm
(ii) To the second part add
ammonia solution dropwise
until in excess
(iii) To the third part add a
few drops of nitric acid
followed by lead (II) nitrate
solution
(iv) to the fourth part add
barium nitrate solution

Ions present: Cations: (i)………………………….. (ii) …………………….

Anion …………………………………………………………………
 101

Write the equation for the reaction in b (iv) ………………………….

8. You are provide with substance M which contains two anions and one common cation.
Carry out the following tests to identify the ions in M. Identify any gases evolved.
Test Observation Deduction
(a) Heat a spatula endful of
M in a hard glass test
tube until there is no
further change

(b) Dissolve two spatula

endfuls in 5cm3 of
distilled water. Divide
the solution into 5 parts

(i) to the first part add

sodium hydroxide solution
dropwise until in excess.
Warm the mixture
(ii) to the second part add
lead (II) nitrate solution
(iii) to the third add a few
drops of barium nitrate
solution followed by nitric
acid (dilute)
(iv) to the forth part add a
few drops of nitric acid
followed by silver nitrate
solution.
(v) To the fifth portion add
2cm3 of dilute nitric acid
followed by lead (II) nitrate
solution. Warm the mixture.
Identify the ions: Cation …………………. Anions (i) ……………. (ii) ………..
Questions:
Write the equations for the reactions that take place in b (i) ………………………………
 102

9. You are provided with a substance T which contains two cations and two anions. Carry
out the following tests to identify the ions in T. Identify any gases evolved.
Test Observation Deduction
(a) Heat a spatula endful of
T in a hard glass test tube
until there is no further
change.

(b) Dissolve a spatula endful

of T in 5cm3 of distilled
water. Divide the
solution into 5 parts
(i) To the first part add
sodium hydroxide solution
dropwise until in excess.
Warm the mixture
(ii) To the second part add
ammonia solution dropwise
until in excess
(iii) To the third part add
silver nitrate solution
(iv) To the forth part add a
few drops of lead (II) nitrate
solution. Warm the mixture,
allow to cool.
(iv) To the fifth part add
freshly prepared iron (II)
sulphate solution follow by a
few drops of concentrated
sulphuric acid.

Identify the cations …………………………………….

Anions ……………………………………..
 103

10. You are provided with a substance Q which contains two cations and two anions. Carry
out the following tests on Q to identify the ions in Q. Identify any gases evolved.
Test Observation Deduction
1. Dissolve two spatula
Endfulls of Q in 4cm3 of distilled
water. Keep both the residue and
filtrate. Divide the filtrate into 4 parts
2. (I) To the first part of the filtrate add
sodium hydroxide solution dropwise
until in excess
(ii) to the second part add aqueous
ammonia dropwise until excess
(iii) to the third part add potassium
iodide solution
(iv) To the forth part add 1 cm3 of freshly
prepared iron (II) sulphate solution
followed by concentrated sulphuric acid.
3. (a) Heat half of the residue in a hard
glass test tube until there is no further
change
(b) Put the remaining part of the residue
in a test tube and dissolve it in minimum
amount of dilute nitric acid
Divide the resulting solution into two
parts
(i) To the first part of the solution add
sodium hydroxide solution dropwise
until in excess
(ii) To the second part add aqueous
ammonia dropwise until in excess

Identify the Cations (i) ………………………… (ii) ………………..

Anions (i) ……………………….. (ii)…………………

Question:
Write the ionic equation for the reaction that occurred in 1 (iii)
11. You are provided with a substance Z which contains two cations and two anions. Carry
out the following tests to identify the ions in Z. Identify any gases evolved.
Test Observation Deduction
1. Dissolve two spatula endfuls of
 104

Z in 5cm3 of distilled water.

Shake vigorously. Filter the
mixture. Keep both the filtrate
and residue

2. (a) Heat half of the residue in a

test tube until there is no further
change

(b) Dissolve the remaining part of

the residue in dilute nitric acid and
divide the solution into 2 parts
(i) To the first part add sodium
hydroxide solution dropwise until in
excess
(ii) To the second part add ammonia
solution dropwise until in excess.
3. Divide the filtrate into 4 parts
(i) To the first part add sodium
hydroxide solution dropwise until in
excess.

(ii) To the second add aqueous

ammonia dropwise until in excess
(iii) To the third add barium chloride
solution (a few drops)
(iv) to the forth part add lead (II)
nitrate solution follow by a few
drops of dilute nitric acid.
Identify the cations (i) …………(ii) …………

Anions (i) …………(ii) …………

12. You are provided with a substance S which contains two cations and two anions. Carry
out the following tests to identify the ions in S. Identify any gases evolved.
Test Observation Deduction
(a) Dissolve two spatula endfulls of S in
4cm3 of distilled water. Filter the
 105

mixture and keep both the filtrate and

residue

(b) Wash the residue and dry it. Put half of

the residue in a dry test tube and heat it
until there is no further change

(c) Dissolve the remaining part of the

residue in a minimum amount of dilute
nitric acid. Divide the resulting
solution into 3 parts
(i) To the first part add sodium hydroxide
solution dropwise until in excess
(ii) To the second part add aqueous
ammonia dropwise until in excess
(iii) Use the third part to carry out a test of
your choice to confirm the cation

(d) Divide the filtrate into four parts.

(i) To the first part add a few drops of
nitric acid followed by lead (II) nitrate
solution. Warm.

(ii) to the second add a few drops of nitric

acid followed by silver nitrate solution
(iii) to the third part, add sodium
hydroxide solution dropwise until in
excess .
(iv) to the forth part add aqueous ammonia
dropwise until in excess

Identify the cations (i) …………(ii) …………

Anions (i) ………… (ii) …………

13. You are provided with a substance W which contains two cations and one anion. Carry
out the following tests to identify the anions in W. Identify any gases evolved.
Test Observation Deduction
 106

(a) Heat a spatula endful of W in a hard glass

test tube until there is no further change

(b) Dissolve a spatula endful of W in 4cm3 of

distilled water. Filter the mixture and keep
both the filtrate and residue.
(c) Wash the residue. Dissolve the residue in
minimum amount of dilute nitric acid.
Divide the solution into 3 parts
(i) to the first part add aqueous sodium
hydroxide dropwise until in excess
(ii) To the second part add ammonia solution
dropwise until in excess
(iii) To the third part add a few drops of
potassium ferricyanide
(d) Divide the filtrate into 5 parts
(i) To the first part add a few drops of nitric
acid follow by lead (II) nitrate solution

(ii) To the second pat add Barium nitrate

solution follow by a few drops in nitric acid.
(iii) To the third part add sodium hydroxide
solution dropwise until in excess

(iv) To the forth part add ammonia solution

dropwise until in excess

(v) Using the fifth part, carry out a test of your

own choice to confirm the other cation.

Identify the cations (i) …………………………. (ii) ……………………..

Anions (i) …………………………. (ii) …………………….
Question
Write the ionic equation(s) that took place in d (iii)

14. You are given substance X which consists of a common cation and a common anion.
Carry out the following tests on the solid X. Identify any gases evolved and record your
observations and deductions in the spaces provided.
Tests Observations Deduction
 107

(a) Heat a spatula endfull of

X strongly in a test tube
until there is no further
change.

(b) Dissolve a spatula endfull

of X in dilute nitric acid.
Divide the solution
obtained in 3 parts
(i) To the first part add
sodium hydroxide solution
dropwise until in excess.
(ii) to the second part add
aqueous ammonia until in
excess
(iii) Use the third part of
solution to carry out a test of
your choice to confirm the
cation in X.

Identify (i) the cation in X ……………………………………………………..

(ii) the anion in X ……………………………………………………..
(iii) write ionic equation for the test in b (i)

15. You are given substance Q which consists of 1 cation and 2 anions. Carry out the
following tests and identify the ions in Q.
Test Observations Deductions
1. Heat a spatula endful of
Q in a dry test tube
 108

2. Add about 5cm3 of water

to a spatulafull of Q and
shake vigorously, then
filter. Keep both the
filtrate and the residue.
Divide the filtrate into 2.
3. (i) Add 2 – 3 drops of
nitric acid to about 2 cm3
filtrate, then follow with
1 cm3 of silver nitrate
solution.

ii) To the 2nd part add freshly

prepared iron (II) sulphate
followed by concentrated
sulphuric acid.
4. Dissolve the residue in
minimum amount of
nitric acid. Divide the
resulting solution into 2
parts
(i) To the first part add
NaOH(aq) until in excess
(ii) To the second part add
NH3 (aq) until in excess.

Cation in Q is ……………………
Anions in Q are ……………………………….
16. You are provided with substance Z that contains two cations and two anions. Cary out
the following tests to identify the ions present in Z. Identify any gases evolved.
Test Observations Deduction
(a) Dissolve 3 spatula endfulls of Z
in 5cm3 of distilled water.
Filter, keep both the filtrate and
residue.
 109

(b) Put a spatula endfull of the

residue in a test tube. Heat until
no further change
(c) Dissolve the remaining residue
in dilute nitric acid. Divide the
solution into 2 parts.
(i) to the first add sodium
hydroxide solution dropwise until
in excess.
(ii) to the second part add aqueous
ammonia dropwise until in excess
(d) Divide the filtrate into 3 parts
(i) To the first part add NaOH
solution dropwise until in excess.
(ii) To the second part add
ammonia solution dropwise until in
excess
(iii) To the forth add 1 cm3 of
freshly prepared iron (II) sulphate
followed by a few drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid

Identify the: cations (i…………(ii) …………

Anions (i) ………… (ii) …………
Write the equation for the reaction in C (ii)

17. You are provided with a substance W that contains one cation and two anions. Carry
out the following tests to identify the ions present in W. Identify any gases evolved.
Test Observations Deduction
(a) Dissolve 3 spatula endfulls of
W in distilled water. Filter
and keep both residue and
filtrate

(b) Divide the filtrate in 4 parts

(i) To the first part, add sodium
hydroxide solution dropwise until
 110

in excess
(ii) To the second part add
aqueous ammonia dropwise until
in excess
(ii) To the third, add lead (II)
nitrate solution followed by a few
drops of dilute nitric acid

(iii) To the third, add lead (ii)

nitrate solution followed by a few
drops of dilute nitric acid.
(iv) To the forth, add barium
nitrate solution
(c) (i) Heat a spatula endful of the
residue in a test tube until no
further change
(ii) Dissolve a spatula endful of
the residue in dilute nitric acid
Identify the: Cation (i)……………………. (ii) ……………………
Anions (i) …………………… (ii) ……………………
Write the equation for the reaction in c (i)
……………………………………………………………………………………………

18. You are provided with a substance Y that contains one cation and one anions. Carry out
the following tests on Y to identify the ions present in Y. Identify any gases evolved.

Test Observations Deduction

(a) Heat two spatula endfuls
of Y in a test tube until
there is no further change
(b) Dissolve a spatula endful
of Y in 3 cm3 of distilled
water. Divide the
solution into 5 portions

(i) To the first portion add

sodium hydroxide solution
dropwise until in excess.
 111

(ii) To the second add

aqueous ammonia dropwise
until in excess.
(iii) To the third add
potassium iodide solution
(iv) To the forth, add a few
drops of dilute nitric acid
followed by lead (II) nitrate
solution
(v) to the fifth, add barium
nitrate solution

Identify the: cation …………………………….

Anion …………………………….
Write the equation(s) for the reaction (s) that occurred in b (i) ……………………………..

19. You are provided with a substance Q that contains one cation and one anion. Carry out
the following tests to identify the ions in Q. Identify any gases evolved.
Test Observations Deductions
(a) Heat two spatula endfuls
of Q in a test tube until
there is no further change

(b) Dissolve the residue from

(a) in minimum amount
of dilute nitric acid.
Divide the solution into 3
parts
(i) to the first part, add
sodium hydroxide dropwise
until in excess
(ii) to the second part, add
ammonium hydroxide
solution dropwise until in
 112

excess
(iii) use the third part to carry
out a test of your choice to
confirm the cation in Q

Identify the ions: cation …………………………

Anion ………………………….

Write the equation(s) in (a) and (b) (ii)

(a)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

(c) (ii) ………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

20. You are provided with a solid sample B that contains one cation and one anion. You are
required to determine the cation and anion present in B by carrying out the following
tests on B.

Test Observations Deductions

Dissolve a spatula endful of
B in 3cm3 of distilled water.
Divide the solution into 3
portions

(i) To the first portion add

sodium hydroxide solution
dropwise until in excess.
Warm the mixture.
(ii) To the third portion add
lead (II) nitrate solution and
warm
(iii) To the forth portion add
two drops of dilute nitric acid
 113

followed by silver nitrate

solution

Identify the ions in B

(i) cation ……………………………………………………………………..
(ii) Anion …………………………………………………………………..
Write the equation for the reaction that occurs in (iv)

21. You are provided with a substance T containing two cations and one anion. Identify the
cations and anion in T
Test Observations Deductions
(a) Dissolve two spatula
endfuls of T in 5cm3 of
distilled water

(b) Add sodium hydroxide

solution to the solution
that results dropwise until
in excess. Filter, keep
both the residue and
filtrate. Divide the filtrate
into three portions
(i) To the first portion of the
filtrate add a few drops of
nitric acid followed by lead
(II) nitrate solution
(ii) To the second portion
 114

add barium nitrate solution

(iii) warm the third portion

(c) Dissolve the residue in

dilute nitric acid. Divide
the solution into two
(i) To the first portion add
ammonia solution dropwise
until in excess.
(ii) To the second portion
add potassium ferricyanide
solution
Identify the: Cations (i) ………………………… (ii) …………………….
Anion …………………………………………………………
22. You are provided with a substance Y which contains three (3) cations and one anion.
Carry out the following tests to identify the ions. Identify any gases evolved.
Test Observation Deduction
1. Heat a spatula endful of Y in a hard
glass test tube until there is no further
change

2. Dissolve two spatula endfuls of Y in

distilled water (5cm3)

(a) To the resulting solution add excess

sodium hydroxide solution. Filter the
mixture and keep both the filtrate and
residue
(b) Divide the filtrate into 4 parts
(i) To the first part add a few drops of dilute
hydrochloric acid followed by barium
chloride solution
(ii) To the second part add lead (II) nitrate
solution
(iii) To the third add a few drops of
potassium iodide solution
(iv) warm the forth part
 115

(c) Dissolve the residue in a minimum

amount of dilute nitric acid. Divide the
solution into two parts
(i) To the first part add sodium hydroxide
solution dropwise until in excess
(ii) To the second part add aqueous
ammonia dropwise until in excess.
Identify the ions: Cations (i) …………….. (ii) ………. (iii) ……
Anion ………………………………………………………..

You are provided with BAl a 1M hydrochloric acid solution and BA2 a solution of sodium
thiosulphate made by dissolving 40g in a litre of water. You are required to investigate the
effect of concentration on the rate of reaction.

Procedure:
Make a small cross on white paper. Measure 50cm3 of BA2 into a conical flask using a
clean measuring cylinder. Place the conical flask on the cross.
Add 10cm3 of BA1 to the flask and simultaneously start the clock. Shake the mixture to
mix the solutions thoroughly. Look at the cross through the solution from above and stop
the clock when the cross just becomes invisible. Record the time taken in the table below.
Repeat the procedure by measuring 40,30,20 and 10 cm3 of BA2 into the conical flask and
in each case make up the total volume of solution 50cm3 before adding the 10cm3 of BA1.
Tabulate your results.

Volume of BA2/cm3 50 40 30 20 10
Volume of water added/cm3
Concn of solution/g of Na2S2O3.5H2O per 50cm3
Time taken/s
1
/time / S–1

Plot a graph of a graph of

(k) concentration against time
(ii) 1/time against concentration
Deduce the relationship between
 116

(l) concentration and time

(ii)1/time and rate of reaction

(iii) Rate of reaction and concentration

You are provided with Bal a 1M hydrochloric acid and BA2 a 0.05M sodiumthiosulphate
solution. You are required to investigate the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction.

Procedure:
Make a small cross on white paper. Pipette 25 or 20 cm3 of BA2 into a conical flask. Heat
the solution to 30oC; place the flask on the cross. Add 5cm3 of Bal to the flask and
simultaneously start the clock. Look at the cross through the solution from above and stop
the clock when the cross just becomes invisible. Record the time taken in the table. Repeat
the procedure using temperatures 40,50,60,70 and 80oC.

Table of results:
Temperature/Oc 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time taken/s
1
/time / S–1

Plot a graph of 1/time against temperature. Deduce the relationship between

(j) 1/time and rate of reaction

(ii) Rate of reaction and temperature