Cuaprer 25 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF FORCES ON PILES yy Js Re Morison, J-W. Johnson and M.P. O'Brien Department of Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Calif. rrRopucT1ON In the design of « pile structure exposed to surface waves of & given height and period, some of the factors involved in the problem and studied herein are the size, shape and spacing of the piles and the mo- ment distribution on uniform and non-unifora piles, Theoretical and ex- perimental investigations have shown that the force exerted by surface waves on a pile consists of two components ~~ a drag force and an in- ertia foros. The drag force is proportional to the fluid density, the projected area and the square of tho fluid particle velocity. The in- ortia force, inoluding the virtual mass, 12 proportional to the fluid density, the volume of the object and the fluid particle acceleration. The virtual mass ie the apparent increase of the displaced mass of fluid necessary to scoount for the increase in force resulting from the ao~ coloration of the fluid relative to the object. This factor is included in the coefficient of mss term in the foros calculations. The oxporimentel and analytical approaches to the pile problen presented in thie paper have been basecon the totel moment about the Dottom of the pile and the monent distribution over the length of the piles In order to oaloulate a theoretical moment it 1s necessary to obtain fran the experimental results two empirios] coefficients =~ « drag oosffiotent and a mss ooeffiotent (Morison, 0' Brien, Johnson and Soheaf, 1950). The theoretioal equations of total momext corresponding to the orest, trough, and still-water level positions along the surface wave are used to compute these coefficients from the meamired total moneate at the sone positions. Us! © coefficients and the theory, © comparison to oxperinental resulte te made by oomparing the maximum moments, tho phase relationships of mxiaum nomonta 0 the surface wave creat, and conpering the osloulated and measured total monent tine histories.” A comparison of the ooeffioients obtained by these experi- mente to other published ooefficients obtained in different manners, sone Doing steady-flow values, shows that the results herein arg of the right order of magnitude but have considerable variability.” Further investigation of the problens would olerify the reasons for ‘the soatter of the soeffiotents, Using the experimentally determined coefficients, the moment Aistriputions on uniform diameter and variable dianster round pile: were computed and compared to the measured distributions. The oon- puted results are shown to predict the moment distribution with rea- sonable accuracy for design purpos Errore occurred in Chapter 28, “Design of Piling" in the Proceedings, First Conference on Coastal Engineering and are corrected in the Ap= pendix of this Chapter. 340EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF FORCES ON PILES The effects of size, shape and spacing of piles were obtained ox- perimentally. Sheltering and mutual interference effects were found for piles arranged in rows or columns. Reculte are presented in comparative form as monent ratios with respect to a single cylindrical pile. Center piles in rows of piles aligned parallel to the wave crests showed maximum monents that were higher than those for a single isolated pile. The no~ ment depended upon the relative clearances, Monents on piles arranged in columns parallel to the direotion of the wave travel showed a sheltering effect on the enter piles in the columns with moments less than those for @ single isolated pil Moments on piles suoh as an H - section and a flat plate section were larger then those for cylindrical piles of the sane projected ar. THEORETICAL CONSIDERA TE ONS The dynamic force on an object in fluid moving with a steady- state velocity relative to the object is given by the expression Ped Cppa wt 7 a) coefficient of drag. fluid density. projected area of object perpendicular to the velocity. undisturbed fluid velocity relative to the object. The coefficient of drag must be determined experimentally. It inoludes the dynamic effects of frictional drag and of form drag resulting from the disturbance of the fluid in the vicinity of the body. where Pp 4 In steady state fluid flow the drag coefficient 4s related to the flow ty the Reynolds mumber given by the expression Re ® >» (2) where p= characteristio length of the object: Y = Kinematic viscosity of the fluid. hon the fluid 1s in non-steady motion past an object, the ao- ooleration or deceleration of the fluid in the vicinity of the object produces a foree component, Addine this force due to the fluid inertia to the frictional force, the total force is given by the expression (O'Brien and Morison, 1950), FL oppast + oy pte $2 “6 where Gy = covffictont of mast Yq ® Volume of the displaced fluid, FR 7 Acveleration of the fluid relative to the object. The coefficient of mass mst be determined experimentally. This total foroe does not include any hydrostatic forces, The systen uncer con sideration is essentially ina belanced hydrostatic field. 3a.COASTAL ENGINEERING A pile, extending vertioally tne fluid in motion due to os- oiliatory mer, is in « non-unifora flow field with respect to tine and to ‘the submerged pile length. Consider a pile at any instant of tine, Equa tion (5) must be written in the differential fora and integrated over the pile length in order to obtain the total resultant forse on the pile. In Equation (3) the area A is D dS and the displaced volume Yq is (77 D%/4) ds, Tous, the differential force on the pile 1s given ty the expression 1 me & AP (3 Op pDw + Gy p ZO g)e () where D = pile dtaneter. 8 * stance above the bottom into fluid. Equation (4) my be integrated 4f Gp, dy, and u, and du/dt are know as funotions of time (t), or the phase angle, and of the position 5. Taking 8 = (a +y +7) where d= depth of still mater, y » depth below ‘the mean water surface to the mean particle position (measured negatively domward), and) vertioal partiole displacement about the mean position, and assuming that the horizontal pertiole velooity 1s zero when 7) = 0, ‘thon the horizontal velooity and acceleration of the fluid in wave action are given by the exprossions (Stokes, 1901), ans ee ole oe (s) Stan 278. ars coon 278 gs ants OF cee sin @ « HE wave height. T= wave period. L = wave length G = 27t/t, angular position of partiole in its orbit measured counter-closkwise from the orest position at time t = 0. The cosffiotents Cy and Cy depend upon the state of the fluid notion with respect to the object motion, Little 4s known about either of the coefficients in accelerated systent, As a firet approximation they are considered as constant with respect to tine and position to enable integration of Bquation (4), Thus, Cp and Oy become overall oo- eftioients. This study 1s based on the total moment about the botten of the pile, or the total ment contributed by the wave motion above sny level, Sj, above the bottom. This moment is given by the expre: 8, My f (8-84) aF (7) 4 342EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF FORCES ON PILES In order to simplify the calculations of the first few experinents mde, At was assumed that the wave elevation above or below mean water level contributed Little to the total moment about the bottoay thet is, 7) at the surface was snall compared tod, Hence in Equation (7) the mve surface 8, 1s reduced to d and § = A+ y. By making the necessary substi~ ‘tutions Alto Bquations (4) and (7) and integrating, we have emp oat {40 4 cos? @ + cys, ZB sin 8} (8) 2 2 2 Cp ks Cos*O + 6, TP sin 8 { os wee Ts 27817 5 cost 4X2 7B = 2782 fo, 8 coe? O42 B sind 9) = [3 3 te 8)} The Line of action of the remultant totel thrust, Fj, above the level, 8; 48 given by the expression Pt oe (Qo) za _ ars, 47a - san 478 en ee ee ay 2 (wim EE) Dl Sinn 25S ston 284 (ae) Binh one a@z2f- AEG Ps are ton 08 - £784 ei 454 - comltt ently ee ieee ee mee 2may* oa (sim 222) as) 278 gion 274 2784 gin 2754 — coun 278 4 coun 275, ae BSF ston Sb Cosh ES + Cosh Tot ay ara 2 sim 278 Equation (9) cor the total moment contains sine and cosine terms which are funotions of the anguler position, @. Thus, a phase angle is indicated which depends upon the relative magnitude of the sine and cosine terms. The wave equations (5) and (6) are referenced at a wave crest at time t #0, ‘The phase angle, f, of the mxinum monent in relationship to the wave crest is determined ty differentiating Equation (9) with respect to @ and setting the reaults equal to sero; thus, mt en op ( 4s - Te 5)! (18) 345,COASTAL ENGINEERING The phase angle of Equation (15) shows that the maximm monent usually does not coour whon a wave crest passes a pile. hen the pile is in water which is shallow compared to the wave length (4/L email), the phase angle approaches sero. When the pile diameter is saall compared ‘to the wave height (D/H small) the phase angle also approaches sero. The phase angle approaches 909 for piles in deep water (d/l large) oF for large piles in small waves (D/H large). Measured monent-tine histories on the pile and wave surfaco-tine ‘the pile are used to determine Op and Oy fram Equation (2). ‘aro involved which necessitate selection of two tines with ding two monante. The solution is simplified if the lected times are sero (orest or trough at the pile) and the one-quarter or three-quarter wave length tine (surface profile at the mean water level). Those tines result in Sin 9 = 0, and cos § = 0, re jotively. Thus, the selected points reduse Zquation (9) to two equations, each with’ but one unknown, Cy and Cy , respectively. The monont distribution on a non-uniform pile, that 1s a pile whih oonsiate of various lengths of different diameters (Fig. 1) re~ multe fron a sumaation of the moaents contributed by each section. he solution of Equation (9) for this aysten 1s given by the expression, py? mD. wae Fe Ee {ep nay cost +h oy ig, sind EE y [ott cote +7 oy tt sin 6] } as) where Sq = Sz» Sys B84, ~=~ 53), the elevation at which the total moneat Ae caloulated, Dy * Dy, Da, - == Dgy dtaneter of pile of various sections Kyoto: = ny, ky- = Rigs Kay, kezg ~~ Key the elevation above the votton fe being sumed. The conditions imposed upon Squation (16) in order to perform the sumation resulting effect on Equations Q3) to (14) are sumarized for the conditions illustrated in Figure 1 as follower Le Ifge2 tend = 2,5 {03 ied 355 ise? jae ieee p05 110, 1 2. For ayn 2, ---=, 11, the sumation is carried out for succe five values of J ond’ the oorreepending values of 4 until 4 ¥ 2, See Figs 34EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF FORCES ON PILES 3. The expressions for ki, k2y, KS, 4 eg, aro the same as 1s ko, ks, Eg (Equations 11 to 14) ‘where din the numerator is changed to 81-1. For example, Equation (11) becomes tot 84 4 sten?tBied » sum 7B ir Sin - 84+ sum? E nye 4 2 ama \® 1s ( sion 27) LL The osloulation of moments on piles in shallow water mut include the effect of the variation of the lever arm between the crest tnd trough of the wave. The equation for the total moment about any level $1 in the sane as Equation (9) where the expression of KL, rey Xp, Kg, and ky (Equations 11, 12, 18 and 14) have 8 in the mumerator instead of d. For example Equation (11) becomes ars, 475, {7B gaia 478 | yee . ; t as ( sim 278 ) i ‘where 8, is the elevation to the water surface above the bottom The onloulation of an explicit expression for the phase angle, siniler to Bqustion (26) Thon conridering the change in surtese elevation i¢ inporeible so thet Te beconen necessary to plot & graph of equations or ure approximate nethods to obtein the phase angle of the total movent with respect to ‘the wave orest (See Fig. 10). In order to evaluate the total monent exerted on a pile subjected to © known wave condition, the coefficients dy and Cy must be known. Mes surements of the moment tine history of pil jJeot to known wave oon- @itions enable evaluation of Op and Cy The established coefficients ‘then oan be used to predict moment of piling for any pile and imposed wave conditions subject to the limitations and approximations of the analysis which leads to Equations (8), (9) and (15). Tho drag coefficient, Cp, in Bquations (8), (9),and (15) ts oom - Parable in significance to the steady state drag coefficient of Equation (1). Maus, comparisons my be made between the drag coefficients which Fesult from measurments on piling subject to the periodic notion of ‘wave action and those reported in the literature for the same geometrical aystons ine steady state fluid stream. the stendy state drag coefficients are functions of the Reynolds mmber, Equation (2), in addition to the 345,COASTAL ENGINEERING geonvtrical shape, In periodic motion the Reynolds lo, varies from zero to © maximum, The maximum influence of the motion of a wave past @ pil occurs neer the surface in the regions of the highest velooi! the orest particle velocity is assumed to be most nearly represi of the velocity to be used in the Reynolds number, This results from Equation (5) with $34 and = 0. ‘RXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS ON MODEL PILES Experiments were dest ged to measure the moment history on piles of constant and variable diameter about hinge points in the piles when ‘subjected to wave action. The wave shape was measured simltaecualy to determine the height, velocity, and period of the wave at the pi: ‘The wave length is related to the velocity and pericd as follows: Lecr a7) Fron the measurements of the variables, the ooeffiotents 0) and Oy were obtained from Equation (9). nee having determined the coefficient, ‘then evaluation of the moments was possible for a given pile subjected to known wave actions Experiments were conducted in the wave channel at the University of California (Morison, 1950a, 1950b, 19600, hinged at the bottom at various elevation: (Pigs 2). In one instance a 1 inch diameter pile was hinged only at the bottom and subjected ‘to a large range of wave oon- In ancther ‘were subjected to three different wave condi- ‘tained at hinge points loos ted at various elevations to ob- tain moment distributions. A sumary of test conditions te presented in Table 1, anda sum mary of the test results is given in Table Fig. 2 348EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF FORCES ON PILES TMble 1, Summary of test conditions on oirovar piles fpire] > [a [nave Characteristios Yo. |inohes| tt. | Teeea. E-Fe. I-Fes] Remarks aj aie (variable) | Moments measured only at the botton # |2,96] 0.98 0.184 4.01 | Moments measured at 7 elevations 1,96] 0.98 04179 4.98 | Moments measured at 6 elevations! 1,98] 0.98 0-186 4.98 | Momonts measured at 6 elevation mpie 2+ Sumary of test results on otrouler pile Pile Wo. (See table 1) Variable T [eet 7 Hf, —_ [0,000 to 0.114 | 0.038 | 0.088 af, —_|o.102 to 0.628 | 0.400 | 0.395 4-81. to 18.18 | 10.700 | 10.900 D/t —joraiz to 0.768 | 0.228 | 0.465 D/L —_|o.008 to 0.042 | 0.009 | 0.017 D/A —_|o.042 to 0.088 | o.0 | 0.042 Re 12,000 to 11,100/ 2,300 | 4,500 op ne t 04 | 27 26 oy 6 £ 02 | Le ae Some results wore obtained for a pile placed in brosking wives. The departure of actual conditions from the assumed conditions as stated in the development of Bquation (9) was too great to justify use of this equation in the interpretation of results 4n breakers. The results showed maximum mononts produced by « breaker or incipient breaker greatly in ex- fone ut te Curves vorrespuading Ww Wie oFbi tel motion desorived vy Equation (9) The coefficients as determined for any one wave condition were used with Equation (8) to compute the complete monent history over the oyole from one wave oreat to the next. A typical comparison 1¢ shown in Fig. 3. Moment distribution comparisons were made for piles 2, 3, and 4 (Table 1). Bquation (9), with values of Op and Cy from the measured moment history at the bottoa of the pile, was used to compute the mo- nent ratio as a function of depth for comparison with the experimental ratio. Remlts are shown in Figs 4. 3aTCOASTAL ENGINEERING WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 1 1.68 sec H/L = 0.0199 12.26 Ft a7 = 8.32 Hs O2aaeT a/t = 0.166 4+ 2.03 Ft cp + 1.32 D = 0.083 Fr. cu = 1.20 P 1.94 Mp, Re + 4.85x10" we ett pore —o— MEASURED MOMENT --— COMPUTED MOMENT . MEASURED WAVE PROFILE Fig. 5. Total moment about the bottom of a cingle ofroular pile. 348.EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF FORCES ON PILES In Fig. 4 certain features should be noted, The coefficients Oy and Cy wore evaluated from the moment history at values of 0, 7/2, m , (8/2) 7 of the angular particle position with respect to the wave crest, Thus, the computed mximm moment my be different from ‘the measured maxim monent for these conditions where the phase angle detween the wave crest and maximm monent is different from sero. the computed curves, Fig. 5, show this difference. That is, at y/d ® 1.00 (bottom), the maximum measured moment and the maximum computed moment do mot coincide. Honever, the shape of the moment distribution as & fune- tion of depth, using the average values of Cp and Cy from the measured monent at the botton to compute the moment ab any depth, follows the ‘trond of the measured moment distribution. A further comparison may be made of the effect of pile dianeter on the moment distribution by reducing the monent distribution to « ratio in terms of the maximum monents. Results are shown in Fig. 6 for fone wave condition. The computed moment ratio and the experimental mo~ ment ratio are in agreement within the limits of experimental error, The pile dianeter does not have any influence on the monent distribution. Hence, attention can be concentrated on obtaining moments about one hinge point’ to establish the necessary criteria to enable prediction of the moments on a pile due to wave action. Mthin the accuracy of values of Cy and Cy, the recultent force 4s a function of time or wave position relative to the pile may be ob- ‘tained from Equation (8). The action line of the total resultant force is obtained from see where 5 is the location of the action line above the bottom and Mi is the nonont about a hinge point at the bottom, The reaultant force on @ pile above « hinge point at any position in the pile my be obtained in @ sinilar manner except for the seotion of the pile near the mater surface, In these tests forces wore not computed, since attention was concentrated on obtaining reliable values of Cp’and Cy from mozent histories. Teste ont varieble diameter pile: Te total monente exerted by waves ‘on « pile which had varied steps of ciasetors was determined by & model study. The dimensions of the model are shown in Pig, 6. Yo attempt was nade to determine the coefficients, Cp and Cy fron the results on the stepped pile. Three conditions of the stepped pile wore investigated with respect to the coefficients Cp and Cy as determined in the discussions above for single oylinérical piles. “she moment contributed for each section of the pile was coaputed fran Equation (16) using Cp = 1.68, Cy * 1-61, and the experinentally measured phase angle, Sy, of the f0tal moment about the dottom. Comparison of the monent distribution in the form of the ratio of the monent resulting from the wave action 349s COASTAL ENGINEERING AVERAGE VALUES FOR 3 PILES ‘Be = Page ANGLE Fon YrAL NOMENA OPT & aeons wae va Una aarvae F cao A cod 4 esol _\ 0 et Ns _ Figs de Aowont distetbutton on uniform pile ~ ataratory roseee Bs ae El [ om , # ; i oF ————C—C—CWC—rC—Cts=C. ase Fier 5. Dinenstonloas aogent distribution of unlform pile. 350EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF FORCES ON PILES sory segomeys otqurres v uo norangyi3e7p quowoe posneueu paw pognduos Jo uosqruduog +, “Ita ANGWON “XV / LNaNOW oso eo 40 90 so vo £0 20 SNOLLIQNOD 3AVM 3OVURAY P/A ‘NOILISOd ANIOd ZONIH AALLV TEU 351COASTAL ENGINEERING above any selected point to the maximun monent about the hinge point at ‘the bottom is shown in Pig. 7. ® 0 pe oratory with the equirment shown in Fig. 1. The pile cross-sections wore oiroular, flat plates and H= sections with one-inch projected width in the normal’ dimension as detailed in Fig. 8, Results were interpreted as ratios of the maximum mnent for any given shape to the maximm monext for the oiroular shape (Table 4). The H= section was oriented in three @ifferent directions as shown in the table, All piles were subjected ‘the same wave conditions as indicated in Table 3. mle 5 Wave conditions in tests on oiroular piles, ‘and E = sections. Wave a 0.881 0.542 154 3.87 ur oss 188 1,60 0908 o:0884 0.2068 0.588 mole 4 Bffect of pile shape on maximum monent, [ptte type Meximm nonont for given pile land size Orientation | Ratos BRE Boone For ren eee ee ly anon 1.00 00 1.00 (Bresker)} ‘round -O (Be 8°) (B* 202) | (B= 26°) a anon =H lu-roction | | aoe eto Co 14°) 38°) ae 2,08 a= 90° (Bz 43°) a. anoh ne Ete ln-seotion | 2. So (Bree) | anoh ~| 1ar 137 jist plate (Bs 37°) | (B= 9°) 352EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF FORCES ON PILES Is wave. / RECTION \ EQUIVALENT CYLINDER SHOWN GY OASHED CIRCLE Fig. 8. Cross sections of piles. 25 =o 20}— a l— Ese 0 Re" 43128 2 Res 3020! os ~ NOTE Re besed on minum, Pojected wat of a FORGE AT ANGLE 0 i Fig sPORGE AT ANOLE FOUAL TOO ‘o 16 30 a5 0 75 30 ORIENTATION ANGLE, @, DEGREES Pigs 9. Measured H-soction drag force in steady, uniform flow as a function of orientation. 353COASTAL ENGINEERING The force on the H - section was determined in a wind tunnel under steady-state condition as a funstion of orientation of the seo- ‘tion. The maximm foree resulted at approximately the 45° orientation as is shown in Fig. 9. Thus the pile results for that orientation Wore considered as giving the maximum monent (primarily because this orientation gave the greatest projected area)s consequently, under ‘wave action the orientation of the H-seotion was not varied over angles other than the 45° with respect to the direction of wave travel. One comparison oan be made using the H-seotion results of the steady-state force ratio and the maximm monent ratio in the wave fotion. Ratios of the maximm moment of the E-seotion oriented with values of a other than sero to the maximum moment with « = 0 may be compared to the corresponding steady-state force ratios. (Note that ‘the moment arm is constant in the comparison, hence moments should be in the same ratio as foro juming the force distribution is similer and not « function of orientation.) Thais comparison 4s shown in Table 5. Tole 5 Effect of orientation on forces on H-section in steady flow and in oscillatory flow. Tere Orientation of pile lStocpnese P —H =r Pan az0 a= 90° a= 46° Ratio, Foroe (or Moment) at ortontation shom Forse tor Nonent) at a's 0 0.0908 1.00 0.98. 1.61 0.0884 1.00 0.86 ae 0.0843 1,00 aar 1.08 (Breaker) Steady 1.00 1.00 1.28 Flow Differences between force ratios in steady state and in oscillatory flow are noted in some oases which are greater than any experimental error. ‘Thus, the steady-state drag forces (hence steady-state drag coefficients) are not the complete criteria by which to evaluate moments of sections which differ from the circular section. This comparison would indicate the presence of the inertia force component, a fact which is confirmed by the differences in phase angles listed in Table 4. 364EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF FORCES ON PILES ‘The plots show in Fig. 10 are computed, and measured monent~ tino histories of a olroules, an H-seotion and « flat plate pile in shal= low water where the effect of the variable lever arn has been considered by using Sy instead of d in Bquations 11, 12, 13 and 14. The ooeffi- clonts of drag and mass computed from the measured ourve are given in Table 6 along with the mve characteristi. Table 6 Coefficients of drag and mass for shallow water waves 1 inch 2 inoh Hesection Flat plate —H cl Hy foot 0.618 04800 0-708 Ly foot 116 7.38 8.00 1.25 127 er 2.60 1.46 1645 0.078 0.082 0.088 af 0193 0198 0.181, 5 us ° Re 15,000 18,000 15,000 oy 1.78 Ae 1420 oy oe 1.92 one, one feature of the interpretation of the equations from which the ooofficients of mass and drag ware sults shown in Table 6. When the pha flotext is evaluated from monents which ment. Small experimental errors become significant and reduce the re- Liability of the value of the mass coefficient. The mss coefficients for the ciroular pile and the flat plate pile are snail as ocmpared to ‘thoes reported in Table 2, These low coefficients are not representative, 365COASTAL ENGINEERING ee . Figs 10. Computed and moneured tine history of total monent on ofreular, E-section, and flat plate piling. 366EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF FORCES ON PILES The one-inch ofroular and flat 101 to the wave direction and in Fig.l). Three pile were used in each onse with monent measurenents mado on the center pile (Fig. 12). Spaotngs between the piles were $0, D and 140, where Dis the pile diameter. Regults are shown in Table 7, the ratio of the max- imm monext on the center pile of the ooluma or row to the maximm mo- mont on @ single pile shows the results of interference effects. the wave oonditions used wore the same as listed in fable 5. Table 7 Befect of mutual interference of piling Moment on r tare Ratio: Yogeut oa single Sie [steepness H, |_ (Soe Teole 3) 7 ils ap (ow of olroular pile perpend 0.0908 - 2643 (Breaker) 1.69 av oF FR pI 0.0908 149 010884 1.83 1640 Lar 0.0645 (Breaker) 222 ire Msn Colima of ciroular pile parallel to wave travel 0.0908 0.39 on ont 0.0884 0.60 om 0.74 0.0845 (Brecker) 086 0.76 oer * = 1 dnoh for all piles. ‘The results show that, at spacings of less than 1¢ D in the row arrangment, interference effects are noticeable. Higher moments are ex- perienced ty the center pile as contrasted to single pile. the blook- ing effect of adjacent piles inor: the force and resulting monent on ‘an individual pile. The blooking effect decreas: the spacing between pile: For the limited range of the 4s oonolu: be negligible for spacings of 1 D or gres Results from the piling arranged in columns show « sheltering effect, (Table 7) in that moments were less than those represented by © 387COASTAL ENGINEERING single pile. ‘he maximum spacing at which the sheltering effect is nogligitle was not reached in these teste, Foroes on cross members: The neasurenent of tho horizontsl force on ‘GFose-nenbors Was made on a force balance apparatus. The oross-nenber was mounted on e rod which mus pivoted near ite center and restrained by calibrated springs at one ond (Fig. 15). The sulmerged part of the rod was shielded from the wave action so that a tare tost, without the erose-nenber attached, showed only about one-percent deflection. ‘the force and the wavo characteristics were recorded in the same manner in the case of the single piles. Three lengths (24, 6 ant 10 inches) Of oross-nenhore were used ao that the end effects could be determined. The noasurenent of the vertical force on cross-members wes made directly by a calibrated spring system. The cross-nenber was placed at ‘the end of a vertical rod that was attached to springs (Fig, 14). The sulmerged part of the rod was shielded and held in guides near the oro member. A tare tost showed lose than one-peroont deflection. The wave characteristios were measured 1¢ feet in front and lf feet behind the crost-nenber with a referonce messurenent of the wave orest being made Alreotly above the cross-menber. The foroe and wave characteristios were recorded simltaneously on the stue oscillograph record. The sane wave conditions ware reproduced ae those sed for the moasurenent of the horizontal forces on the cross-menbers. In both the teste of the horiroutal and of the vertical forces, the sano wave conditions were used for the horitontel and inolined members at the 1/3 and 2/3 posi- tions of water depth. ‘The horizontal force per untt length on & crose-nonber (Tables 8 and 9) indioated that the orientation of the oross-neuber ie not oritioal for model studies. The test showed also that the ond effects are not appreciable. The vertioal force per unit length on « orose-neaber (Table 10) indicated some effects dus to orientation, The mugnitudes of the forces were about half those for the horizontal ireotion, FIELD PILE TsS1S The model tests, as desorited above, yielded « considersble anount of information on the moments and foroes on piles subjected to a wide range of mve conditions and depths of imersion. the limited size of the model system introduoes a poseible scale effect in the direct application of the model results to predict prototype behavior. Thus, prototype tests were made in an attempt to correlate model and prototype behavior to substantiate the analysis and results fron the model testa (Snodgrass, Rice, and Hall, 1961). The field tests were condyoted near shore at Monterey, Calif nia, with @ cylindrical pile of Sf inch outside diameter, The pile was hinged at the bottom at approximtely sand level. Restraining bers at the top of the pile were arranged with strain gage elenents connected to recording equipment. The strain records yielded the force-tine history of the pile under the action of the incident waves. Calibrations of the strain reoording equipment wore made toth in the laboratory and in the 358EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF FORCES ON PILES ta varieo FROM "To 1 (Oe I") DIRECTION OF It Wave TRAVEL oH — a 06 Tt 2. ROW OF b. ROW OF © COLUMN OF ROUND PILING FLAT PLATES ROUND PILING (PERPENDICULAR TO (PARALLEL TO WAVE TRAVEL] WAVE TRAVEL) Fige 11, Arrangenent of piling for tests on mutual interCerence. Fig. 12 Pig 13. Fig 10 359COASTAL ENGINEERING iEXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF FORCES ON PILES Table 9 Horizontal foree on cross members. ¢~2 2 8 $ 4 & eEbae|da FLEPELG sERgL ES a wef asaaucracressszasaessas a ae EA EELEELL EL SIE a4 Le i dubububitnita BARRo va HRRRRAR Ba uu 3 seSdSSTansaneaaensssssse : gs a au 361meble 10 Yerticel fores on crocs members COASTAL ENGINEERING amo sae MM oe oy = Sram ome 1.800 1488 0.889 10,060 1.90EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF FORCES ON PILES The wave height history was obtained from a recording pressure actuated diaphrage type wave moter which was located approximately tro feet above the sand botton end adjacent to the pile. Two auxiliary gr duated piles were places seaward of the measuring pile, the measuring pile and bracing structure also were painted with alternate black and white bands, each one foot highs Motion pictures taken from the beach recorded the surface profile of the waves as they passed the pile. A olook was suspended in the field of view of the camera to provide timing Antervals between successive frames of the film, ‘the mve velocity at the pile was obtained from the distance between the seaward auriliery pile and the measuring pile (19.8 feet), and the time interval of the wave crest travel between these points. The motion pictures also re- corded wave heights at the measuring pile. Trough and crest elevations of each wave wore obtained from the intersection of the water profil with the graduated vertical piles. the record from the wave meter also gave wave heights and period: An of datas he analysis as presented previously in this paper es h,r”—C ‘the phase angle relationship, 8, between the two resistance terms. In the analysis of the field pile results, the timing accuracy ms not pre- olse enough to determine the tine comparison betwaen the water surface profile and the moment history. Tho data and results ware obtained for waves in various condi- tions depending on the stage of the tide. Sone date were obtained with the pile ina foam line shoreward of the breaker. Other data were obtain- ed with the pile in the smooth unbroken swell seaward of the bresker. ‘he date have been segregated with respect to the wave oondition at the pile Anto the following groups: (1) foam lines (2) foam line inmedintely Shoreward of the breaker points (8) breakers. (4) sharp peaked swell at Anoipient break: (5) sharp peaked ewoll imediately seaward of the ‘breaker points and (6) ewell some distance seaward of the breaker point. The date are cumarized in Table 11. The wave force, which 1s actually a distributed force extending from the ooean bottom to the water surface, was recorded as an equivalent force at the calibration point. By multiplying the recorded force by the oalibration-point lever-arm (9 feet 8 inches) the total moment of the wave force about the bottom hinge we determined. When the maximum force exists (approximately at the tine the wave crest passes the pile), the centroid of the wave force was assumed to be located near the mean height of the wave. This location of the centroid was estimated ty considering the horizontal component of the partiole motion as observed in model studies. By computing the wave force at the mean wave height, as defined above, the data were found to be reasonably consistant. The values obtained from the computation indicate thet waves of @ given size and bhape will exert the sane force at the centroid independent of water-level changes over the range encountered in the tests, although the monent about the hinge point varied considerably due to variation of the effective lever arm as the water depth changed, A graph of the wave force at moan wave height 1s show in Fig. 18. 363COASTAL ENGINEERING Table 12 Tost data on field pile a ae [ate ee ee wea? | sa | ene zebae isseESEER eae ae | ‘ saepeeessesaneeee FL (Foam line); B (Bre ing to break): FLeB (ir: peek swell); S (Swell). )s SPB (Sharp poak swell start~ for with some foan)s SP (Sharp 364EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF FORCES ON PILES Table 11 contta, Test data on frold pile [Fa [Se | ae wa) ah eae Re fete | nthaed as] rt 365COASTAL ENGINEERING Que feature becomes apparent in reviewing the data that peraiti @ comparison betwoon the model results and the field test results, ihe majority of the field test oonditions were obtained with samll ratios of ‘the pile diameter to the wave height, and with enall ratios of the mater depth at the pile to the wave length. Under these conditions, the phi angle as given ty Equation (15) approaches tero and the maxinim nonent of Equation (9) cooure when the tine angle, @, is zero. Rquation (9) for a pile hinged at the bottoa then recuoes to Mou * p DEE cy xs! as) Xs! 1s introduced as a refinement of ks to dnelude an approzination of velocity distributions in a wave of finite hel ght in shallow waters that ty ars, ret? as) (4780) 4 4752 stan 47 Re z os (sim 278) where d = 5, +1/3 E jumed still-water level) Sy = wave crest elevation above the bottom S¢ = wave trough elevation above the bottom HY a wave height For anali values of d/ly Sian 47Sgl 18 approximated by 4759/L> and Sinh 277 G/t ie approximated by 27ra/te” Tove approvimations resthe i ts gh (20) and 32 ra Dee eis (2) As the wave velocity 1s related to the Length and period by ¢ = 1/1, wre find that 2 oye Meat (22) pda? 5, All variables om the right side of Bqustion (22) were measured and Op then computed. Cp is a drag coefficient which depends upon the state of the disturbance of the wave motion due to the movement of the wave past the pile. For shallow-water waves, the volooity distribution from the orest of the wave to the bottom is a function of the ratio of wave height to water depth, and is essentially independent of the wave Length or period. The resulting moment on the pile, and hence Cp, are functions of this ratio, H/d. ‘The results are shown in Fig. 16 on ‘this basis, with segregation of the results according to wave type. he field pile results were obtained for wave conditions of 4/L less than 0,06, with the majority of the waves characterised by d/L less than 0.05, 366seryd avtnosyo ¥ uo 99903 proTy woay suf Toy easM Jo woT}OMNZ v ov EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF FORCES ON PILES peqnduioo Seap Jo uepoTsJe0) *9T "STE q¥@ Fou cause uveM ay ooo; caw “CT “STE aceon Sees | eke fe : a be [ee * eo 2 bs Ae we = ° fe ae . ae : 7 . ow ee i st 2 rere? > Preor g oa 5 coms . tees on 20) 6008 8 etd I 867COASTAL ENGINEERING The soatter of the results reflects the accuracy of the data and the accuracy of the assumptions of Equation (22), Cp ie oomputed fron Bqustion (22) which contains the squire of the wave velocity and the square of the wave height. Small discrepancies of these variables nay produce appresiable differences in Cp. The maxinum nanant was obtained from the force, which was measured to within one pound. Many of the neasured forces were from one to five pounds, Sone sonttar of results Enough data were taken to permit the following general obser- vations, 1) Foam lines and breakers produce higher values of Cp than unbroken swell: 2) For values of H/d greater than 0,4, an average value of Cy ‘equal to 0.60 best represents the results. 3) For values of H/4 Less than Ost, Cp becomes larger than 0.60. ae sumptions of Equation (22) become invalid in this range of H/a. A direct comparison of the model test remulte with the field test results oannot de mde, ‘The sane range of the governing paransters wae not covered in the two series of tests, particularly the ranges of d/L and H/4, In Fig. 16 drag coefficients of 1.0 to 246 are shown for valu H/A detwoen 0.4 and Osi, Those magaitudes of the drag oosffiotents are im the sane range as those obtained froa the model studies. However, the values of G/i of the field tests were not the sane as the model teste, As nentioned in the model test summary, complete correlations including all defining parameters have not yet been attained. Wo at= tempts have been nade to carry the field results beyond Fig, 6. concLusroms The analysis of foroes and moments on piles as summarized herein contains two coefficients which must be determined experimentally; the coefficient of mass and the coefficient of drag. the results so far ob ‘tained indioate that the theoretical value of 2.0 for the coefficient of mass is adequate for computing the forces on circular piling. For the coefficient of drag, however, additional results are needed with a large Fange of the variables of pile diameter, wave height, wave length, and water depth. The results show that moments measured about a single hinge point will suffice in establishing the magnitudes of the coefficients. monent distribution from coefficients obteined from moments about & ‘bottom hinge point agree with measured moment distributions. Measured monsnts on piles of oross-sectional shape other than ctroular show coefficients which are a function of the shape of the pil Steady-state drag coefficients can not be used as drag coefficients in the antlysis of periodic motion. 368EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF FORCES ON PILES Results of the interference effects of rows of olroular piling, walle Lintted 1n,soope, indlosted that for clearances greater than Ii Pile diameters the interference effects are negligible. lowente on Center piles of a row are increased as ompared. to maaeats on an 190= ated pile for spacings leas than Id pile Gianeters, Moments on ciroular piles arranged in coluans are decreased @: compared to moments on an isolated pile. Mo limits were determined a which the monent became independent of the spacing. ‘RECOMMBNDA TEONS ‘The following experiments on model piles are recommended for ‘comperison purposes with theoretioal work end prototype t 1, Measurement of wave fore distribution on single piles of yarieus diameters aro needed in order to compare with Equations (4) and (8)+ 2, Experiments with a greater number of wave conditions on oir= oalar piles, H-seotions, flat plates and various other objects are needed in order to eatablish the relationship of the oo- efficients of drag and mss to the wave characteristic: 3. Investigation should be mde of the mathenatioal theories per= taining to piles and other objects subject to wave action with Fospect to foree, wave reflection, wave diffraction and flow conditions in the vicinity of the object. 4+ Investigation should be made of breaking waves on model structures including the development of force recording equipment. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ‘The above investigations were sponsored by the Office of aval, arch, Bureau of Yards and Docks, ‘the California Company, and International Marine Platforms, Inc: REFERENCES Morison, J.R, (1960a) Moment distribution on stepped caisson; Series 35, Issue 1, IER,University of Calif., Berkeley, Calif. Morison, J.R, (1950b) Moment distribution exerted by waves on pilings Series 56, Issue 2, IER, University of Calif., Berkeley, Calif. Worison, JsR., (19500) The foroes exerted by wav 36, Tesue 3, TER, University of Cal: on marine structures +» Berkeley, Calif O'Brien, M.P., Johnson, J.W, and Schaaf, S.A. (1960) exerted by surface waves on piles; Petroleum Trans. AL, vol. 189, pp. 149-164, 369COASTAL ENGINEERING O'Brien, MePe» and Morison, JR. (1950) The forces exerted by waves on objects; Series 5, Issue $10, IHR, University of Calif, Berkeley, calif. Snodgrass, F.B., Rico, BsR., and Hall, M. (1961) Weve foroes on piling (Monterey field test); ‘Series 35, Issue 4, TER, University of Calif., Berkeley, Calif. Stokes, Sir G.G, (1901) On the theory of oscillatory mm Physical Papers, vol. V, Cambridge University Press 85 Math. end APPENDIX Corrections to "Design of Piling". Chapter 28, Proceedings of the Piret Conference on Coastel Engineering: Page 267, line 18 Cy * 2.0 (use theoretioal valve of 240) Page 257, line 24 weep TAP { oyu om? + TE nr oy sinat + 2:9) QO)? (4s21® G8) {41.6 (o.0887)(0.9048)2 (ae)? +] FE (0.995) (2.0) (0.2797) } 612,000 {on1004 + oo} = 92,000 ft. 304 Page 268, line 16s ME p fb (p ny @) } 20) OOM wt 1 E § co.) (.0)} 916,000 ft. ibs. 370