CHAPTER 11:

AC Power Analysis
Outlines
 Introduction
 Instantaneous & Average Power
 Maximum Average Power Transfer
 Effective / RMS Value
 Apparent Power & Power Factor
 Complex Power
 Conservation of AC Power
 Power Factor Correction
 Applications:
 Power Measurement
 Electricity Consumption Cost
Introduction
 Power analysis is of paramount importance.
 Power is the most important quantity in electric
utilities, electronics, and communication systems.
 Those systems involve transmission of power from
one point to another
 Every industrial and household electrical device –
fan, motor, lamp, iron, TV, PC- has a power rating:
indicates how much power the equipment requires.
Introduction
 Exceeding the power rating can do permanent
damage to an appliance.
 The most common form of electric power is 50 or 60
Hz ac power.
 The choice of ac over dc allowed high-voltage
power transmission from power generating plant to
the customer.
Instantaneous Power
 Consider in the time  Now recall that the equation for
power:
domain a voltage source
supplying current to an p  vi
impedance load  Then at any instant for time-
varying sinusoidal signals

pt   vt   it 

 VM I M cos t  v  cos t  i 
 Now Use Trig ID
 In the general case

v(t )  VM cos t  v  cos( x  y)  cos( x  y)

1
cos x cos y 
2
i(t )  I M cos t   i 
Instantaneous Power
 Rewriting the power relation for sinusoids

p(t ) 
VM I M
cos( v  i )  cos(2 t   v  i )
2
VM I M VM I M
p(t )  cos( v   i )  cos(2 t   v   i )
2 2
• The first term is a • The second term is a
CONSTANT, or DC sinusoid of TWICE the
value; i.E. There is no frequency of the driving
time dependence source
 Examine the TWO terms of the power equation
Example
 For the single loop ckt  Use phasors to find I

V 4V60
I   2 A30
Z 230
 To obtain the time domain
current take the real part of the
phasor current

 Assume

v(t )  4V cos  t  60

i(t )  Re230  Re2e30e jt 
or V  4V60 it   2 Amp  cos t  30
and Z  230
 Example
 Thus for this case  In the power equation

p(t )  vt it 

 4W cos60  30  cos2 t  60  30
 Or

4V cos t  60 1.732  j

p(t )  3.46W  4W cos2 t  90
 The amplitudes and phase  See Next Slide for Plots of
angles
• v(t)
• i(t)
VM  4V I M 2A • p(t) = v(t)•i(t)
 v  60  i  30
 Sinusoidal Power Example 9.1
8

p(t) Calculated by p(t)=v(t)•i(t) Max-p = 7.46W

4
Avg-p = 3.46W
v(t) or i(t) or p(t)

NEGATIVE POWER – Inductive Load can

-2 Release stored Energy to the Circuit

v(t) (V) i(t) (V) P(t) (V)

-4
0.000 0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012 0.015 0.018 0.021 0.024 0.027 0.030
file =Sinusoid_Lead-Lag_Plot_0311.xls Time (S)
p = 0 if either i or v are zero
Average Power
 For ANY periodic function, it’s average value can be calculated
by integrating over at least ONE COMPLETE PERIOD, T, and
then dividing the integrated value by the period
t T
1 0
X
T t0 x(t )dt t0  an arbitary BaseLine time

 Then the Average POWER for Electrical Circuits With Sinusoidal

Excitation

1 T t0 1 T t0
P  pt dt   vt   it dt
T 0
t T t0
1 T t0
  VM I M cos  t  v  cos  t   i dt
T t0
 And Recall
T  2 
 Average Power
 Also for ANY periodic function, the average may be
calculated over any INTEGER number of periods. This is, in
fact, how most electrical power values are MEASURED.
Mathematically:
nT  t0
VM I M cos t  v  cos t  i dt
1
P
nT t0

 Now sub into the average power integral the simplified expression of
instantaneous power (n =1)

1 T t0 VM I M
P  cos( v  i )  cos(2 t   v  i )dt
T 0t 2
1 VM I M T t0 1 VM I M T t0
P
T 2 t 0
cos( v   i )dt 
T 2 t 0
cos(2 t   v   i )dt
Average Power
 Examine the two terms from the average power eqn
1 VM I M T t0 1 VM I M T t0
P1 
T 2 t 0
cos( v   i )dt 
T 2
cos( v   i )  1dt
t0

cos  v   i t t0  P1 

1 VM I M T t0 VM I M
 P1  cos( v   i )
T 2 2

 Thus the first term is a CONSTANT that depends on the relative

phase angle.
 Also by trig: cos(-) = cos()
 Thus for the first term it does NOT matter if the
current LEADS or lags the voltage
Average Power
 The second term from the average power eqn
1 VM I M T t0
P2 
T 2 
t0
cos(2 t   v  i )dt  0

• As the the integral of a sin or cos over an INTEGER number

of periods is ZERO
 Thus the average power is described by the FIRST TERM ONLY

VM I M VM I M
P cos( v   i )  P  cos( i   v )
2 2
cos   
VM I M
P
2
Resistive & Reactive Power
 For a purely RESISTIVE  For A purely REACTIVE circuit
circuit there is no i&v are ±90° out of phase
imaginary component of • So then avg power eqn
the impedance and thus no
phase shift between i & v.
So for sinusoids VM I M
Preact  cos 90  0!
2
 Thus purely reactive
impedances absorb NO power
VM I M
Pres  on average

2 • They STORE energy

 Thus the resistors absorb, or over one half-cycle, and
dissipate, power (as heat) then RELEASE it over
the NEXT
 Example – Average Power
 For this circuit  The power parameters

VM  10V I M  3.54 A
 v  60 i  15
 The power calculation

VM I M
P cos( v   i )
 Find the dissipated power
2
10V  3.54 A
 Use phasor algebra to find the
current
P cos 60  15
2
P  17.7W cos 45  12.5W
10V60 1060
I   3.5415( A)
2  j 2 2.828445
 Example – Average Power
 Since only the resistor dissipates  For a resistor the current &
power, check the previous calc by
using pres=vres•i voltage WITHIN the resistor are
IN-PHASE; thus

VRM I M
 P cos( v  i )
VR
2
7.07V  3.54 A

P cos15  15
2
P  25.00W 2  12.5W
 Use phasors for VR

VR 
2
2  j2
10V60  7.07V15(V )

Example – Capacitor Circuit
 For this circuit  Find the total impedance across
the v-source
I

4( j 4) 8  j8  j16

ZT  2  
4  j4 4  j4
I2
25.3  71.6
  4.4721  26.565
4 2  45
 Find the dissipated power in
each resistor  Then the total current I
 Start by finding the current in
the ckt branches that contain V 12V60
I 
the resistors ZT 4.47  26.6
 2.68 A86.6
• i(t) LEADS vS(t)
Example – Capacitor Circuit
I 1 2 1
P2  RI M   2  2.682  7.20W
2 2
 Now find I2 by current divider

I2
 j4 4  90
I2  I  2.6886.6
 So the 2 resistor power 4  j4 4 2  45
dissipation  1.9041.6

P2  
VR1M I M cos     Then the power absorbed by
v i
2 the 4 R
P2  
1
RI M I M cos0 1
2 P4   4 1.90 2 (W )
1 2
P2   RI M2
2  P4  7.20W
Maximum Average Power Transfer
 Recall from the study of  Consider this general Thevenin
resistive circuits. The criteria equivalent circuit.
for max power transfer to a
load resistor:

RL,max pwr  RTH

 Where RTH is the Thevenin
equivalent resistance for the
driving ckt
 Now try to develop a similar  For this ckt the avg pwr delivered
relationship for impedances to the load

1
PL  VL I L cos( vL   iL )
2
Maximum Average Power Transfer
 Now by phasors
VOC
IL 
ZTH  Z L
ZL
VL  VOC  Now by Euler relation recall
ZTH  Z L
V  Z  VM Z M V   z 
 Where

Z L  RL  jX L  VZ  VM Z M
ZTH  RTH  jX TH
Maximum Average Power Transfer
 Then the load voltage &
current magnitudes

ZL
| VL | | VOC |
Z L  ZTH
ZL
or V L VOC
Z L  ZTH  Also by Euler
 Similarly
VL Z L  RL  jX L  tan Z L X L RL
IL 
ZL  Now a Useful Trig ID
 And
I L  VL Z L  I L   I L  VL  Z L cos   1 1  tan2 
But VL  VL   I L  VL  Z L   V   I  tan   tanV   I 
tanVL   I L   tan Z L  X L RL
L L L L

 VL   I L  Z L But
Maximum Average Power Transfer
 Rearrange Trig ID to find
1
cos(VL   I L ) 
1   X L RL 
2

RL
 cos(VL   I L ) 
RL2  X L2
 Again the power eqn  Or 1 Z L VOC 2
RL
PL 
1 2 Z L  ZTH 2 RL2  X L2
PL  VL I L cos( vL   iL )
2  And
 Substitute to find
Z L  ZTH  ( RL  RTH )  j ( X L  X TH )
 ZL 
Z L  ZTH 2  ( RL  RTH ) 2  ( X L  X TH ) 2
V
1  ZL   Z L  ZTH OC  RL
PL   VOC   
2  Z L  ZTH  ZL  RL2  X L2
 
Maximum Average Power Transfer
 Finally the power eqn
restated
2
1 VOC RL
PL 
2 ( RL  RTH ) 2  ( X L  X TH ) 2
 Now to maximize the power
transfer, set partial derivatives  At LAST the optimized load

Z
to 0 opt *
Z L TH
PL  • The complex conjugate
 0 
  X L   X TH
And the power transferred at
X L
  optimum
PL  R  R
0  L TH
1  VOC2

RL  P
L
max
  
2  4 RTH 
Maximum Average Power Transfer
 Check PL 
 0
2 X L   X L   X TH
PL 
1 VOC RL  
PL
2 ( RL  RTH ) 2  ( X L  X TH ) 2  0   RL  RTH
RL 
 At the Max Condition
2
1 VOC RTH
PLmax 
2 ( RTH  RTH ) 2  ( X RH  X TH ) 2
2 2 2
1 VOC RTH 1 VOC RTH VOC
PLmax   
2 (2 RTH )  0
2 2
2 4 RTH 2
8RTH


2
VOC
PLmax 
8RTH
Example – Max. Power Transfer
 Find ZL for the maximum  And the max pwr xfer
power xfer
PLmax  VOC
2
8RTH
 Need to find
• VOC = VTH
• RTH

 Recall the max power criteria

Z opt
L Z *
TH
Example – Max. Power Transfer
 Remove load and find VOC  And by ohm’s law in the
frequency domain
by loop current
VOC  120  j 2I
 12  j 2  9(1  j )
  6  j18  18.974V71.56
 Find ZTH by source deactivation
VOC

I 

 Using KVL on the Loop

360  (2  j 2)I ZTH
36(2  j 2)
I  9(1  j )  12.73  45
8
Example – Max. Power Transfer
 Then ZTH
4j
ZTH   j 2  (2 || j 2)   j 2  
2  j2
 or 4 8  j8
ZTH    1  j1()
2  j2 8 ZTH
 Taking The Conjugate

Z opt
 1  j1() P L
max
V2
OC 8RTH
L

 Then the power transferred to 

18.974V 
2

360
W
this load 8 1 8
 45W
 Effective or RMS Values
 Consider instantaneous  Since A resistive load dissipates
this power as HEAT, the
power for a resistive load effective value is also called the
HEATING value for the time-
i (t ) variable source
• For example
R p(t )  i 2 (t ) R – A car coffee maker runs
off 12 vdc, and heats the
water in 179s.
 Now define the EFFECTIVE – Connect a sawtooth
value for a time-varying signal source to the coffee
as the EQUIVALENT DC value maker and adjust the
that supplies the SAME amplitude for the same
AVERAGE POWER time → effective
voltage of 12v
 Effective or RMS Values
 For the resistive case,  If the current is DC, i(t) = idc, so
define ieff for the avg
power condition  1 t 0 T 2 
i (t ) Pav  R  I dcdt 
T t 
 
p(t )  i (t ) R
2 0

R 2 
 1
t 0 T

  RI 2
 T t
Pav  I R 2  RI dc 1(t ) dt
 dc
eff
 0 
 Recall the pav calc for a periodic  Now for the time-variable
signal current i(t) → ieff, and, by
definition
1
t 0 T
 1 t 0 T 2 
Pav 
T t p(t )dt  R T t i (t )dt  RI eff2  RI dc
2
0  0 
 Effective or RMS Values
 In the power equation  Examine the eqn for ieff and
notice it is determined by
 1 t 0 T 2 
Pav  R  i (t )dt   RI dc
2
 RI eff2 • Taking the square ROOT
T t  of the time-averaged, or
 0  MEAN, SQUARE of the
current
 Equating the 1st & 3rd
Expression for Pav find  In engineering this operation is
given the short-hand notation of
“rms”
t 0 T  So
1
  (t )dt
2
I eff i
T t0

 This expression holds for ANY

periodic signal
I eff  I rms
Sinusoidal RMS Values
2
1 VM2 Vdc2 Veff Vrms
2
 For a sinusoid driving a Pav    
complex load 2 R R R R
2
 Vrms  VM 2  0.707VM
V
1 M ,res 1 2
Pav   RI M ,res
2 R 2  Similarly for the rms current
 If the load is purely resistive

1 2
1 VM2 1 2 Pav  I M R  I dc
2
R  I eff2 R  I rms
2
R
Pav   RI M 2
2 R 2  I rms  I M 2  0.707 I M
 Now, by the “effective” definition
Sinusoidal RMS Values

 By the rms definition

 In general for a sinusoidal
quantity Pav  Vrms I rms cos(v  i )
x(t )  X M cos( t   )
 Thus the power to a reactive
and the effective value is load can be calculated using
XM these quantities as measured at
X eff  X rms  the SOURCE
2 • Using A true-rms DMM
 For the general, complex-load
case – The rms voltage
– The rms current
1
Pav  VM I M cos( v   i ) • Using an oscilloscope
2 and “current shunt”
– The phase angle
difference
Example – RMS Voltage
 Given voltage waveform  During the 2s rise calc the slope
find the rms value • M = [4V/2s] = 2 V/s

 Thus the math model for the

T first complete period

 2t 0  t  2
vt   
0 2  t  4
 Find the period
 Use the rms Integral
• T=4s
 Derive a math model for the t 0 T
1
  (t )dt
voltage waveform 2
X rms x
T t0
 Example – RMS Voltage
 Calc the rms Voltage

0
4 2 4
v t dt 
1 2 1 1
   (2t ) dt   0dt
2
Vrms
40 40 42
 Numerically

2
1 3  8
Vrms   t   (V )  1.633V
3 0 3
Example – Average Power
 Given current waveform 1
t 0 T
Pav  I rms
 (t )dt
2
thru a 10 resistor, then X rms  x 2 R
T t0
find the average power
 The “squared” version

1  2 
2s 6s
   4 dt    4 dt   8 A2
2 2
I rms
8s  0 4s 
 Then the power


Pav  I rms R  8 A2 10  80W
Find the period 2
• T=8s
 Apply the rms eqns
 Power Factor
V
z
 Consider A complex I
current thru a complex v
i
impedance load
 By Euler

I M  i V  ZI  V  Z  I
Z L V 
v   z  i
M v

or  z   v   i
 The current and load-voltage
phasors (vectors) can be plotted  In the electrical power industry
on the complex plane Z is the power factor angle, or
simply the phase angle
 Power Factor
 The phase angle can be  Typical industrial case is the
INDUCTIVE load
positive or negative
• Large electric motors are
depending on the nature
essentially inductors
of the load  Now recall the general power
eqn
 90   z  0
current leads
1 1
(capacitiv e) P  VM I M cos( v   i )  VM I M cos  Z
2 2
V  VM 0 P  Vrms I rms cos( v   i )  Vrms I rms cos  Z
0   z  90 V is the
 Measuring the load with an AC
current lags BaseLine
DMM yields
(inductive )
I  V Z • Vrms
 0 Z  Z • Irms
 Power Factor
 The product of the DMM  Now define the power factor for
measurements is the the load
APPARENT power Pactual
pf   cos( v   i )  cos  z
Papparent  Vrms I rms Papparent
and Pactual  V rmsI rms pf
 The apparent power is NOT the  Some Load Types
actual power, and is thus NOT pf z
stated in watts.
0  90 pure capacitive
• Apparent power units = 0  pf  1  90   z  0 leading or capacitive
va or kva 1 0 resistive
0  pf  1 0   z  90 lagging or inductive
0 90 pure inductive
Power Factor – Why do We Care?
 Consider this case
 Vrms = 460 V  However, despite the
 Irms = 200A low power levels, the
 Pf = 1.5%
WIRES and CIRCUIT
BREAKERS that feed
 Then this small load must be
 Papparent= 92kVA sized for 200A!
 Pactual =1.4 kW
 Thewires would be
  This load requires nearly an inch in
the same power as a diameter
hair dryer
 Example - Power Factor
 The local power company  Then the I2R loses in the 100 m
line
services this large
industrial load P 2
Rline 1
0.1
Plosses  I rms Rline 
2
2
 2
Vrms pf
480V0 1010  0.1 1
 100 kW Plosses ( pf  0.707)  2
 2
(W )
480 0.707
 4.34kW  2
 Improving the pf to 94%
Power company I lags V
1010  0.1 1
 Find Irms by Pwr Factor
Plosses ( pf  0.94)   (W )
480 2 0.94 2
 4.34kW 1.13
P  Vrms  I rms  pf
I rms  P  pf  Vrms 
Psaved  0.87  4.34kW  3.77kW
Example - Power Factor
 For this ckt the effect
of the power factor on
line losses

0.1

480V0
 100 kW
 Complex Power
 Consider A general ckt  Mathematically
with an impedance load S  Vrms  v   I rms  i 
*

S  Vrms  v   I rms    i 
S  Vrms I rms  v   i 
recall :  v   i    Z
 Converting to rectangular
notation
 For this situation
define the complex power for S  Vrms I rms cos( v   i )  j Vrms I rms sin( v   i )
the load:
P Q
Active Power
Reactive Power
SV I *
rms rms
 Complex Power
 Thus S in shorthand  Alternatively, reconsider the
general sinusoidal circuit
S  P  jQ
 S & Q are NOT actual power,
and thus all terms are given
non-watt units
• S→ volt-amps (VA)
• Q → volt-amps, reactive
(VAR)
 P is actual power and hence  First: X vs. Xrms
has units of W
X  X M 
and X rms  X M 2
 X rms  X rms 
 Complex Power
 Now in the general ckt by
ohm’s law
Z  Vrms I rms
Vrms  v Vrms
Z   v   i  ReZ
I rms  i I rms cos  v   i  
Z
and Vrms I rms  Z  Z
ImZ
so
ReZ j ImZ  sin  v   i  
Z
Z cos  v   i   jZ sin  v   i   And Again by Ohm

 In the last expression equate I rms  Vrms Z

the REAL and imaginary parts Vrms  v V
I rms   rms  i
Z v   i  Z
So I rms  Vrms Z
 Complex Power
 And by complex power
definition
S  P  jQ then
P  ReS  Vrms I rms cos  v   i 
Q  ImS  Vrms I rms sin  v   i   Similarly for Q

ImZ
 Using the previous results for P
QI 2
rms
ReZ
P  ReS  Vrms I rms  So finally the alternative
Z expression for S

I rms ReZ
Vrms

Z
P  I rms
2
ReZ SI 2
rms Z
 Complex Power Triangle
 The Expressions for S
S  P  jQ
SI 2
rms Z
 Plotting S in the Complex Plane  From the complex power
“triangle” observe

tan v   i  
Q
P
 Note also that complex power is
CONSERVED

Stot   S k   I rms
2
,k Z k
 Conservation of AC Power
 The principle of conservation of power applies to
ac circuits as well as dc circuits.
 The complex, real and reactive powers of the
source equal the respective sums of the complex,
real and reactive powers of the individual loads:
 SS= S1+S2+ … + SN (Complex power)
 Means:
 PS= P1+ P2+… +PN (Real power)
 QS = Q1+ Q+… +QN (Reactive power)
Example - Complex Power
 For the circuit at right
 Zline =0.09 + j0.3
 Pload = 20 kW
 Vload = 2200°
 pf = 80%, lagging  From the Actual Power
f = 60 Hz →  = 377s-1
P  ReS | S | cos(v  i )  S  pf

 Lagging pf → Inductive
inductive  Thus
P 20kW
 SL    25kVA
pf 0.8
 And Q from S relation

Q 2  S L  P 2  Q  15 kVAR
2

capacitive
Example - Complex Power
 Then SL
S L  20  j15(kVA)  2536.87
 Recall the S mathematical
definition
*
 S   25kVA36.87 
*

S L  VL I*L  IL   L    
 VL   220V0 
 Note also that [X*]* = X
I L  113.64  36.86( A)
 In the S definition, isolating the  Alternatively
load current and then
 20,000  j15,000 
*
conjugating both sides
IL   
 220
I L  90.91  j 68.18( A)
 Example - Complex Power
 Now determine VS VS
VS  Vline  VL 4.86
VS  (0.09  j 0.3)I L  2200
VS  (0.09  j 0.3)(90.91  j 68.18)  220(V ) I L  36.86

 Then VS  Then the phase angle

VS  248.63  j 21.14  v   i  4.86   36.86  41.72

 V Leads I  Inductive Load
VS  249.53Vrms 4.86
and also
 To find the src power factor, pf  cos  v   i   cos 41.72
draw the I & V phasor diagram  pf  0.7464
Example - Complex Power kVAR
0.1 j 0.25
 For the circuit at
right, determine:
40kW
 Real and reactive power
pf  0.84 lagging
losses in the line.
 Real and reactive power at
the source.  From the actual power
 Lagging pf → Inductive P  ReS | S | cos(v  i )  S  pf
inductive  Thus
P 40kW
 SL    47.62kVA
pf 0.84
 And by S definition
SL
S  VI *  I L   216.45( A) rms
capacitive VL
Example - Complex Power kVAR
0.1 j 0.25
 Also from the S
relation 40kW
| Q L | | S L |2  P 2  25,839(VAR ) pf  0.84 lagging
 Now the Power
Factor Angle
 Then for Line Loses

Sline  VlineI*line  ( ZlineI L )I*L

I Lagging
 ZlineI L2
V
 Quantitatively

 pf = cos(v - i); hence S line  (0.1  j 0.25)(216.45) 2

 S line  4685  j11713 VA
v  i  acos 0.84  32.86
Example - Complex Power kVAR
0.1 j 0.25
 Find power supplied by
conservation of complex 40kW
power pf  0.84 lagging
S Supplied  S line  S Load
 4.685  j11.713  40  j 25.839
 44.685  j 37.552 kVA
 58.3740.04 kVA
 Then to Summarize the Answer
• Pline = 4.685 kW
• Qline = 11.713 kVAR
• PS = 44.685 kW
• QS = 37.552 kVAR
 Power Factor Correction
 As noted earlier, most  To arrive at the power
industrial electrical power factor correction
loads are inductive strategy consider A
 The inductive component is schematic of A typical
typically associated with industrial load
motors
 The motor-related lagging
power factor can result in
large line losses
 The line-losses can be
reduced by power factor
correction
 Power Factor Correction
 Prior to the addition of the
capacitor
S old  Pold  jQold | Sold |  old
pf old  cos( old )
 For The Capacitive Load

V
S new  S old  S C
I C  L  jCVL  VL  L  C90
ZC  Pold  jQold  jQC
 I C  CVL
 2 | S new |  new
QC  I C2 ImZ C  
CVL
 CV 2

 C
pf new  cos( new )
L

 After addition of the capacitor

 Power Factor Correction
 Find new
 Cap is a Purely REACTIVE
Load

Qold  QC
tan  new 
Pold
 The vector plot below shows
power factor correction strategy  Use Trig ID to find QC to give
desired new

1
cos   
QL
1  tan 2

Qnew
L-QC Qold  QC 1
 1
QC Pold cos  new
2

P
Trig ID Digression
Start with the ID Qold  QC 1
  1
1 Pold cos  new
2

cos    Or
1  tan 2 
Qold  QC 1 cos 2  new
 
 Solve for tan Pold cos  new cos 2  new
2

1 1  cos 2  new 1  cos 2  new

tan  
2
1  
cos 
2
cos  new
2
cos  new
 Recall tanθnew  But: cosθnew = pfnew
Qold  QC
tan  new  1  pf 2
Pold tan  new  new

 Substituting pf new
 Example – pf Correction
 Kayak centrifugal injection
molding power analysis:
 Improve power factor to
95% Roto-molding 50kW ,VL  2200rms
process
pf  0.8 lagging
 Find Sold
 Adding a capacitor does NOT
change P
P  ReS  S cos(v  i )  S  pf • Use trig ID to find
P 50kW tan(new)
 Sold    62.5kVA
pf 0.80 1  pf new
2
cos  new  0.95  tan  new   0.329
pf new
 Now Qold  And by S relation
Qnew
  Qnew  0.329  P  16.43kVAR
| Qold | | Sold |2  P 2  37.5(kVAR) P
Example – pf Correction
 Then the needed QC
 QC  Qold  Qnew  37.5  16.43
QC  21.07kVA Roto-molding 50kW ,VL  2200rms
process
 Recall The Expression for QC pf  0.8 lagging

QC | VL || I C | VL2C
 Then C from QC

QC 21.07 103
C 
VL (2  60)  (220) 2
2

C  0.001155( F )  1155 F
Applications: Power Measurement
 Wattmeter: measuring the average power
absorbed by a load.

When the 2 coils are

energized, the mechanical
inertia of the moving
system produce a
deflection angle that
proportional to the average
value of the product v(t).i(t)
Applications: Power Measurement
 Electromagnetic type of wattmeter:
Current coil has very small impedance
Voltage coil has very high impedance
A s a result wattmeter does not
disturb the circuit or have an effect on
the power measurement.

If v(t)=Vm cos(ωt+θV) and i(t)=Im cos(ωt+θi),

then their rms phasors :
Vm I
Vrms   v and Irms  m i
2 2
Wattmeter measuresthe average power given by
1
P | Vrms || Irms | cos( v   i )  Vm I m cos( v   i )
2
Applications:
Electricity Consumption Cost
 Loads with low pf are costly to serve because they
require large currents.
 Ideal situation is to draw minimum current from a
supply so that S=P, Q=0, and pf = 1.
 A load with Q≠0 means that energy flows forth &
back between the load and the source, giving rise
to additional power losses.
 Customers are divided into categories: residential,
commercial, and industrial with different rate
structure for each category.
Applications:
Electricity Consumption Cost
 There are 2 part of electricity tariff: fixed &
variable
 Fixed cost corresponds to the cost of generation,
transmission & distribution of electricity to meet the
load requirements of the consumers: calculated
based on electricity power installed (kVA).
 Variable cost is proportional to the energy
consumed in kWh. It is graded form: unit cost (per
kWh) more expensive for higher consumption.
 Summary

 Instantaneous Power Concept

 For The Special Case Of Steady State Sinusoidal
Signals
 Average Power Concept
 PowerAbsorbed Or Supplied During an Integer
Number of Complete Cycles
 Maximum Average Power Transfer
 When The Circuit is in Sinusoidal Steady State
 Summary

 Effective or RMS Values

 “Heating Value” for Sinusoidal Signals
 Power Factor
A Measure Of The Angle Between the Current And
Voltage Phasors within a load.
 Power Factor Correction
 Improve Power Transfer To a Load By “Aligning” the
I & V Phasors
 Single Phase Three-Wire Circuits
 Typical House-Hold Power Distribution
UTS RE 2015-2016
Suatu beban A dengan impedansi Z = (100 + j80) Ω
dipasang paralel dengan beban B yang memiliki rating
1kW. Pada sistem tersebut dipasangkan kapasitor paralel
untuk memperbaiki faktor daya totalnya menjadi 0,95
lagging saat dipasang pada jala-jala 220 V (rms) 50Hz.
Arus yang mengalir saat kapasitor terpasang ternyata
berkurang 25% dibandingkan tanpa kapasitor.
1. Hitunglah nilai daya reaktif total dengan kapasitor,
daya reaktif total tanpa kapasitor
2. Hitunglah faktor daya beban B!
3. Hitunglah nilai kapasitor tersebut!