Physiology of Liver PDF
Physiology of Liver PDF
Physiology of Liver PDF
BY
Abdelaziz Hussein
Assistant Lecturer of Physiology
1
Gross Anatomy
q The Liver is the largest gland in the
body ( weighing about 1.5 Kg in
adults; representing 2% of the TBW)
q It is essential to life.
q It is situated in the right upper quadrant
of the abdomen.
q It is is covered by Glisson's capsule, a
visceral continuation of the peritoneum. 2
Hepatic lobes
q The two major lobes,
right and left, and 2
accessory lobes,
quadrate and caudate
q The right lobe is six
times larger than left
lobe
3
Hepatic lobes (cont.)
4
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE
Functionally the liver consists of 3 systems;
q Liver Cell (Hepatocyte) Systems →
arranged in hexagonal and pentagonal units
called hepatic lobules.
q Biliary System.
q Blood Circulatory System.
5
Hepatic Lobule
q The hepatic lobule is the structural unit of the liver
which is hexagonal or pentagonal in shape (1 st
described by Malpighian 1666).
q Each lobule consists of radiating columns( 2 or more
rows of cells) of hepatocytes around a central vein and
surrounded by 4 to 6 portal tracts (bile duct, branches
of the hepatic artery and portal vein, along with nerves
and lymphatics).
q The human liver contains about 50000100000 lobules.6
Liver acinus
q The acinus is a diamond – shaped mass of liver
parenchyma from 2 adjacent hepatic lobules.
q It is subdivided into 3 zones;
v Zone 1 cells form the most active core of the acinus
and are the last to die and the first to regenerate.
v Zone 3 cells are the most prone to toxic, viral, or
anoxic injury. 7
Ultrastructure of Hepatocytes
n Hepatocytes represent 94 % of liver parenchyma
n Hepatocytes are covered by specific membranes
which have 3 surfaces :
1) Sinusoidal (70 % of surface area) for exchange of
material between the Disse space and intracellular
compartment (endo and exocytosis).
2) Canalicular membrane (15 %) for exchange with the
biliary canaliculi or hemicanals.
3) Lateral membrane (15 %) separated from
neighboring hepatocytes by tight junctions and
involved in intercellular transport between
hepatocytes.
8
Ultrastructure of Hepatocytes
q Mitochondria account for 17% of the cell volume with
about 2200 per hepatocyte (highly metabolic cells).
q The hepatocytes in zone 1 have more mitochondria,
whereas the zone 3 hepatocytes have fewer
mitochondria.
q Peroxisomes are 1 to 2% of the hepatocyte volume and
are vital in hydrogen peroxide metabolism.
q Peroxisomes are more numerous in zone 3 and play an
important role in oxidation of fatty acids and
detoxification.
9
Ultrastructure of Hepatocytes
Also hepatocytes contains;
n Lysosomes are electrondense cytoplasmic organelles
responsible for degrading biological material using acid
hydrolases.
n The endoplasmic reticulum constitutes 19% of the cell
volume and is the site of protein synthesis.
n The Golgi apparatus is responsible for processing of
macromolecules.
10
Biliary System
n Bile secreted through the
canalicular membrane of the
hepatocyte collects in biliary
canaliculi.
n These small biliary canaliculi
form channels continuous with
the short duct of Hering that
join the cholangioles at the
limiting plate of the portal
areas.
n These cholangioles then merge
into larger bile ducts
11
Hepatic vascular system
n The liver receives about 1.5 L blood / minute
(about 25 % of the COP) from 2 sources;
n The portal vein which is formed by the confluence
of the superior mesenteric vein and the splenic
veins → 75% of HBF
n The hepatic artery arises from the coeliac trunk →
25% of HBF
n These vessels pour their blood into the sinusoids
which drain into central veins and these coalesce
forming hepatic veins which drain into the inferior
vena cava. 12
Blood Sinusoids
n Sinusoids are specialized
capillaries without a basement
membrane and lined with
endothelial lining cells through
which proteins of low molecular
weight may percolate into the
space of Disse.
n The sinusoidal endothelial cells
lack a basement membrane and
are perforated by abundant small
fenestrae (average diameter 100
nm) in clusters called sieve plates.
13
Hepatic sinusoid lining cells
q There are 4 types of hepatic
sinusoid lining cells
q They make up 6 % of all liver
parenchyma
q They include endothelial cells,
Kupffer cells, hepatic stellate
cells (Ito cells, fatstoring cells),
and pit cells (intrahepatic
lymphocytes)
14
Kupffer cells
q These cells represent part of the mononuclear
phagocyte system and are adherent to the sinusoidal
surface of endothelial lining cells, predominantly in a
periportal distribution.
q 2 % of the total liver parenchyma cells.
q Their main function is to phagocytose a range of
particulate material including cellular debris,
senescent red blood cells, parasites, bacteria,
endotoxin, and tumour cells. Phagocytosis is via a
range of mechanisms including coated pits,
macropinocytotic vesicles, and phagosomes aided by
opsonization of particles by fibronectin or opsonin.
q Also they secrete 10 % of erythropoietin hormone. 15
Hepatic stellate cells
n Stellate cells (Ito cells, fatstoring cells) have a similar
morphology to fibroblasts with the addition of fat
droplets, and are located within the Disse space.
n Stellate cells contain most of the body's stores of
vitamin A.
n These cells are central to the process of hepatic
fibrogenesis, responding to mediators released by
parenchymal and Kupffer cells, causing
transformation into myofibroblasts.
n Activation of stellate cells is also an important
mechanism for control of sinusoidal perfusion,
through cytoskeletal actin within branching cellular
processes beneath the endothelium.
16
Pit cells
n Pit cells are large granular lymphocytes which
have natural killer cell properties with
spontaneous activity against tumour cells in
the absence of prior activation.
n They may also play a role in hepatic
regeneration
17
Lymphatics
q The liver has a high blood flow and a highly permeable
microcirculation. The consequent production of interstitial
fluid, intrahepatic lymph, is formed in the perisinusoidal space
of Disse between the hepatocytes and sinusoidal lining
endothelium.
q Lymphatic vessels drain via the portal tracts, closely applied
to the hepatic arterial branches, to the hilum and thence to
the thoracic duct.
q some interstitial fluid drains through Glisson's capsule into the
peritoneum.
q The lymph flow rate in mammalian liver is approximately 0.5
ml/kg of liver perminute making up 25 to 50 per cent of
thoracic duct lymph flow. 18
Hepatic blood flow
Hepatic blood flow is about 1500 ml blood / minute
v It increases after feeding and with expiration.
v It decreases with standing, inspiration, and sleep.
Regulation of HBF:
A) Autoregulation:
v The portal venous system is passive, without pressure
dependent autoregulation, and the major physiological
factors controlling flow are those modulating supply to the
intestines and spleen
v Vascular autoregulation of hepatic arterial blood flow
mediated by adenosine is present, but may not be of great
physiological importance. 19
Hepatic blood flow
A) Autoregulation:
v Changes in hepatic oxygen consumption do not seem to
control hepatic blood flow.
v There is an important reciprocity between portal venous and
hepatic arterial flow with a reduction in portal venous input
being associated with significant compensatory decrease in
hepatic arterial resistance and rise in arterial flow.
v The mechanism for this relationship is unproven but may be
due to adenosinemediated arterial vasodilatation.
B) Nervous regulation :
v Sympathetic nerve stimulation may reduce hepatic blood
volume by up to 50 per cent. 20
Sinusoidal perfusion
n Blood pressure in sinusoids ranges from 4.8 to 1.7 mmHg,
with flows of 270 to 410 ml/s.
n The unidirectional sinusoidal flow can be controlled for by
either passive (haemodynamic) or active mechanisms;
Passive control mechanisms include:
(i) the arterial input pressure and flow at the level of the
arteriosinous twig at the origin of the sinusoid; and
(ii) changes in right atrial pressure, central venous pressure, and
hepatic venous pressure that are transmitted to the sinusoid
from the centrilobular veins.
21
Sinusoidal perfusion
Active control mechanisms include:
(i) the presence of ‘functional’ sphincters at the inlet and outlet
of the sinusoid due to indentations by the cell bodies of
sinusoidal lining cells, which under different physiological
stimuli may change dimension and alter sinusoidal perfusion.
(ii) plugging by leucocytes, which are less compressible than
erythrocytes and may under physiological stimuli adhere to
endothelial lining cells.
(iii) activation of Kupffer cells within sinusoids and release of
other vasoactive mediators including nitric oxide, cytokines,
and prostanoids.
(iv) transformation of hepatic stellate cells into activated
contractile myofibroblasts that constrict the sinusoidal
lumen.
22
Overview of Liver Functions
23
1) Metabolic Functions:
q Hepatic metabolic processes have a central
role in protein, carbohydrate, and lipid
metabolism and fuel economy, orchestrating
a diverse interplay between central
splanchnic and peripheral organs.
q Interruption to these processes results in
the major metabolic consequences of acute
and chronic liver disease.
24
1) Metabolic Functions (Cont.):
A) Carbohydrate metabolism
n The liver has a central role in
maintaining blood glucose within a
narrow margin→ Glucostat.
n During fasting, hepatic glucose
release is contributed to by both
glycogenolysis (by glucagon and
catecholamines) and
gluconeogenesis (by
glucocorticoids) from lactate,
pyruvate, glycerol, and the
glucogenic amino acids alanine and
glutamine.
n After meals the excess blood
glucose is converted into glycogen
by insulin.
25
1) Metabolic Functions (Cont.):
B) Protein metabolism
The liver manufactures and exports;
1) Most of plasma proteins except gamma globulins
(approximately 15 50 gm/day)→ if ½ plasma proteins lost
it can be replaced within 12 weeks.
2) Enzymes e.g. transaminases and alkaline phosphatase.
3) With the exception of factor VIII, the blood clotting factors
are made exclusively in hepatocytes.
Biosynthesis of factors II, VII, IX, and X depends on vitamin K
4) A variety of carrier proteins e.g.
transcortin,transferrin,cruloplasmin,haptoglobin and
haemopexin.
26
1) Metabolic Functions (Cont.):
C) Amino acid and ammonia metabolism:
q The liver is the most important organ in controlling the plasma
concentration of amino acids.
q During prolonged starvation, hepatic proteolysis stimulated by
glucagon increases splanchnic export of amino acids, whereas
during the postprandial absorptive state, amino acid uptake is
significantly increased.
q Formation of essential amino acids by transamination.
q Conversion of amino acids to CHO or fats by deamination.
q The liver has a critical role in clearing portal venous ammonia
generated within the gut lumen, by both formation of
carbamoyl phosphate and entry into the urea cycle in periportal
hepatocytes, and glutamine synthetasedriven glutamine
synthesis in perivenous hepatocytes. 27
1) Metabolic Functions (Cont.):
D) Lipid metabolism
i) Oxidation of fatty acids to supply energy.
ii) Synthesis of cholesterol , lipoproteins and
phospholipids.
iii) Lipogenesis→ synthesis of fats from
carbohydrates and proteins.
28
1) Metabolic Functions (Cont.):
E) Bilirubin metabolism
29
1) Metabolic Functions (Cont.):
F) Bile salt metabolism
The two major bile acids,
cholic acid (60 per cent
of bile acid pool) and
chenodeoxycholic acid
are secreted into bile
as taurine and glycine
conjugates.
30
2)Detoxication Functions:
a) Metabolism of many drugs:
Hepatic drug metabolism, or biotransformation, is divided into two broad
aspects: activation (phase I) and detoxification (phase II).
q The hemoprotein cytochromes of the P450 system are associated with
most phase I reactions
q Phase II detoxifying reactions are performed by different enzymes
including glutathione Stransferases, glucuronosyl transferases, epoxide
hydrolase, sulfotransferases, and Nacetyltransferases. These catalyze
reactions to complete the transformation of hydrophobic compounds to
hydrophilic ones that can be excreted into the urine or bile.
b) Metabolism of alcohol by oxidation to acetaldehydes and acetic acid.
c) Metabolism of Hormones:
Liver inactivates many hormones e.g. insulin,cortisol
,aldosterone,testosterone,estrogens and thyroid hormones.
31
3) Storage Functions:
a) Vitamins:
q B12 for 13 years
q A for 10 months
q D for 34 months
b) Iron as ferritin→ blood iron buffer function.
c) Glycogen (about 100gm) and fats.
d) Blood → blood reservoir function
q Blood is retained in liver sinusoids when the hepatic vein
pressure increased.
q 4 mmHg rise in hepatic vein pressure cause 200 ml blood to
be stored in the liver.
q Blood is returned to circulation again when hepatic vein 32
pressure drop to normal again.
4) Excretory and Secretory Function:
A) Liver secretes bile which is important in;
a) Excretion of waste products and toxic substances.
q Bilirubin.
q drug metabolites.
q heavy metals such as zinc and copper.
q Cholesterol and phsopholipids.
b) Excretion of bile salts which is important in digestion
and absorption of fat and fat soluble vitamins.
B) Liver secretes erythropoietin.
q 10% of erythropoietin in adults from Kupffer cells.
q During foetal life it is mainly secreted from liver.
q It is essential for erythropoiesis 33
5) Blood Filtration Functions:
q The Von Kupffer cells ( hepatic macrophages) phagocytose
and digest 99% of the bacteria that enter the portal blood
from intestine.
q Also they remove foreign and unrequired substances e.g.
small blood clots and Hb released from disintegrated RBCs
34
EVALUATION OF LIVER FUNCTION
“liver function tests”
Several biochemical tests are useful in the evaluation and
management of patients with hepatic dysfunction.
These tests can be used to;
(1) detect the presence of liver disease,
(2) distinguish among different types of liver
disorders,
(3) gauge the extent of known liver damage.
(4) follow the response to treatment.
35
A) Tests based on detoxication and
Excretory Functions:
1) Serum Bilirubin:
The normal total serum bilirubin concentration is <17 µmol/L (1
mg/dL).
Up to 30%, or 5.1 µmol/L (0.3 mg/dL), of the total is direct
reacting (or conjugated) bilirubin.
q An isolated elevation of unconjugated bilirubin is seen primarily
in hemolytic disorders and in a number of genetic conditions
such as CriglerNajjar and Gilbert's syndromes
q In contrast, conjugated hyperbilirubinemia almost always
implies liver or biliary tract disease.
36
A) Tests based on detoxication and
Excretory Functions:
2) Urine Bilirubin:
The presence of bilirubinuria (direct bilirubin) implies the
presence of liver disease (obstructive jaundice).
3) Blood Ammonia:
q Ammonia is produced primarily by the action of colonic
bacterial urease on dietary proteins
q It is cleared through hepatic transformation into urea via the
urea cycle. Normal hepatic function allows for the removal of
80% of portal venous ammonia in a single pass.
q The ammonia can be elevated in patients with severe portal
hypertension and portal blood shunting around the liver even
in the presence of normal or near normal hepatic function. 37
A) Tests based on detoxication and
Excretory Functions:
4) Serum Enzymes:
The liver contains thousands of enzymes, some of which are also
present in the serum in very low concentrations.
Serum enzyme tests can be grouped into 2 categories:
(1) enzymes whose elevation in serum reflects damage to
hepatocytes.
(2) enzymes whose elevation in serum reflects cholestasis.
38
A) Tests based on detoxication and
Excretory Functions:
a) Enzymes that reflect damage to hepatocytes:
q The aminotransferases (transaminases) are sensitive indicators
of liver cell injury and are most helpful in recognizing acute
hepatocellular diseases such as hepatitis.
q They include the aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and the
alanine aminotransferase (ALT).
39
A) Tests based on detoxication and
Excretory Functions:
b) Enzymes that reflect Cholestasis :
q They includes three enzymes;
v alkaline phosphatase,
v 5′nucleotidase, and
v gamma glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT)
q Their activities are usually elevated in cholestasis.
40
A) Tests based on detoxication and
Excretory Functions:
5) Radionuclide hepatobiliary excretion scans:
q intravenously injection of 99mTcHIDA or its derivatives
q It assesses the liver's ability to extract a material from the
blood and then excrete it via the biliary tract.
q This test can be used to evaluate the patency of the
extrahepatic biliary tree or the functional contraction and
excretion capacity of the gallbladder.
q Thus, it is useful in the evaluation of cholestasis, bile duct
obstruction, and cholecystitis.
41
B) Tests that measure biosynthetic
functions :
1) Serum Albumin:
q Serum albumin is synthesized exclusively by hepatocytes.
q Serum albumin has a long halflife: 15 to 20 days, with
approximately 4% degraded per day.
q Because of this slow turnover, the serum albumin is not a
good indicator of acute or mild hepatic dysfunction; only
minimal changes in the serum albumin are seen in acute
liver conditions such as viral hepatitis, drugrelated
hepatoxicity, and obstructive jaundice.
q In hepatitis, albumin levels <3 g/dL should raise the
possibility of chronic liver disease.
q Hypoalbuminemia is more common in chronic liver
disorders such as cirrhosis and usually reflects severe
liver damage and decreased albumin synthesis. 42
B) Tests that measure biosynthetic
functions :
2) Serum Globulins:
q Serum globulins are a group of proteins made up of γ
globulins (immunoglobulins) produced by B lymphocytes and
alpha and beta globulins produced primarily in hepatocytes.
q Gamma globulins are increased in chronic liver disease, such
as chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis.
q In cirrhosis, the increased serum gamma globulin
concentration is due to the increased synthesis of antibodies,
some of which are directed against intestinal bacteria.
q This occurs because the cirrhotic liver fails to clear bacterial
antigens that normally reach the liver through the hepatic
circulation.
43
B) Tests that measure biosynthetic
functions :
3) Prothrombin time:
q It collectively measures clotting factors II, V, VII, and X.
q The prothrombin time may be elevated in hepatitis and
cirrhosis as well as in disorders that lead to vitamin K deficiency
such as obstructive jaundice or fat malabsorption of any kind.
44
C) Radiological investigations:
q Ultrasonography
q Computed tomography (CT)
q Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
q Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography
(ERCP)
q Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography (PTC)
45
Liver Test Patterns in Hepatobiliary Disorders
Type of Disorder Bilirubin Aminotransferase Alkaline Albumin Prothrombin
Phosphatase Time
47