EXHAUST SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
In both a reciprocating and turbine engine, the purpose of the exhaust system is to remove the spent gases of com-
bustion and safely route them overboard. For an engine to operate at its maximum efficiency, these systems must
function properly. In addition, because a failure of this system could have disastrous results, such as fires or intro-
ducing toxic gases into the cabin, it is imperative that the system be inspected and maintained according to the
manufacturer's recommendations.
 RECIPROCATING ENGINE

The short stack system is relatively simple, and its

removal and installation consists essentially of
removing and installing the hold-down nuts and
clamps.
A reciprocating engine produces high temperature
and noxious gases as combustion takes place within
the engine. Since these exhaust gases are corrosive COLLECTOR SYSTEMS
and the exhaust system is subjected to a wide range The collector systems you might encounter on an
of temperatures, many modern exhaust systems are airplane include the opposed type engine exhaust
made up of components using nickel-chromium manifold and the radial engine collector rings.
steel or other corrosive and heat resistant alloys.
These metals not only resist corrosion and heat but
possess low expansion coefficients and low weight,
and provide long, trouble-free operation with a min-
imum of maintenance.

OPPOSED ENGINE EXHAUST MANIFOLD

TYPES OF EXHAUST SYSTEMS
There are many types of collector systems used on
There are two general types of exhaust systems in
horizontally opposed engines. A typical system
use on reciprocating aircraft engines: the short stack
consists of risers from each cylinder and an exhaust
or open system and the collector system. The short
collector on each side of the engine. The risers are
stack system is generally used on nonsupercharged
attached to each cylinder with brass or special
engines and low powered engines where noise level
lock-nuts which are heat resistant. [Figure 6-1]
is not a factor. The collector system is used on most
large nonsupercharged engines and on installations
where it would improve nacelle streamlining or On some systems, a crossover tube connects the
provide easier maintenance in the nacelle area. It is exhaust stacks on the left side of the engine with
also found on all turbosupercharged engines where the stacks on the right side. Sections of the
the exhaust gases must be collected and routed to exhaust system are usually joined together with
the turbine. The disadvantage of the collector sys- spring-loaded ball joints. When properly installed,
tem is that it increases the back pressure of the the ball joints are loose enough to allow movement
exhaust system, which in turn reduces horsepower. but tight enough to prevent leakage. Ball joints
However, the increased horsepower achieved by also compensate for slight misalignment of the
turbosupercharging more than offsets the loss cre- parts. The exhaust collector tube may be routed to
ated by the back pressure. a turbocharger, a muffler, an exhaust augmentor,
or simply overboard, depending upon the installa-
tion. [Figure 6-2]
SHORT STACKS
Early in-line and V-engines often used straight
RADIAL ENGINE EXHAUST COLLECTOR RINGS
stacks which were simply short sections of steel
tubing welded to a flange and bolted to the cylinder Radial engines use an exhaust manifold made up of
exhaust port. These short stacks were effective at pieces of tubing that are fitted together with loose
getting the exhaust out of the engine compartment, slip joints. In addition to aiding in aligning exhaust
but they had no silencing capability, and when the components, slip joints compensate for expansion
aircraft was side-slipped, cold air could flow into when an engine is running, expanding or contract-
these stacks and warp the exhaust valves. ing to fit together tightly and eliminate leakage.
Exhaust Systems 6-3

Figure 6-1. Risers and collectors can be constructed as one unit, or the risers can be connected to the collector with ring clamps, or
each riser can be a separate part of the collector system.

Each section of the collector is bolted to a bracket on ring ports and the short stack on the engine exhaust
the blower section of the engine, and is partly sup- ports. The exhaust tailpipe is joined to the collector
ported by a sleeve connection between the collector ring by a telescoping expansion joint, which allows

BALL
JOINT

WASTE
GATE
VALVE

BELLOWS

CROSSOVER
TUBE
TURBOCHARGER BALL JOINT

Figure 6-2. Shown is an exhaust system of a turbocharged six-cylinder horizontally opposed engine. At each location where expan-
sion and contraction occurs, bellows are installed to allow for the change in physical dimensions without any leakage. The wa ste
gate valve is hydraulically opened to allow exhaust gases to pass directly out the tail pipe, or closed to force these gases out
through the turbocharger turbine section. The turbocharger in this installation is wrapped in a heat blanket to improve efficiency
and decrease air temperatures inside the cowling.
6-4 Exhaust Systems

Figure 6-4. The discharged exhaust leaving the tapered

opening, called a bayonet, created a slightly low pressure.
This helped reduce exhaust back pressure and noise.

In addition, a stainless steel shroud or shell can be

placed around the muffler. This type of setup is
referred to as a heat exchanger. This shroud brings
in unheated outside air into a space between the
muffler and the shroud. Since the muffler is being
heated by the exhaust gases, the air in this space is
heated. Then through heater hoses and ducting, the
Figure 6-3. The collector ring is graduated in size. The small
section carries the exhaust from only two cylinders. The ring heated air can be used as cabin heat, or for de-ice or
increases in size as it nears the point where the tailpipe con- anti-ice purposes. This shroud is easily removed so
nects to the collector. This increase in size is necessary to the muffler can be inspected. [Figure 6-5]
accommodate the additional gases from the other cylinders.

enough slack for the removal of segments of the col-

EXHAUST AUGMENTORS
lector ring without removing the tailpipe. [Figure 6-3] On some engines, exhaust augmentors are installed
to aid in cooling. Exhaust augmentors use the
velocity of the exiting exhaust gases to produce a
MUFFLERS AND HEAT venturi effect to draw more airflow over the engine.
EXCHANGERS [Figure 6-6]
Noise is a problem in aviation engines, and studies
have been made to find practical ways of increasing Some exhaust augmentors are equipped with an
the frequency and reducing the intensity of the augmentor vane which is located in the exit end of
noise. Propellers produce a large portion of the total each augmentor. When the vane is fully closed, the
noise, but the energy in the exhaust also accounts cross-sectional area of the augmentor tube is
for an appreciable amount. reduced by approximately 45 percent. If the engine
is running too cool, the pilot can raise the engine
Exhaust collectors carried the gases safely away temperature, by moving the vanes toward the
from the engine, but did little to nothing about "closed" position. This decreases the velocity of
reducing noise levels. It was discovered that if the flow through the augmentor.
ends of the collectors were cut at a taper and the
exhaust discharged through a relatively narrow slot Since the exhaust augmentor heats up similar to a
rather than through the straight open pipe, the noise muffler, a heat exchanger could be placed around
was reduced. [Figure 6-4] the augmentor. This heated air could then be used
for cabin heat or for de-ice or anti-ice purposes.
In the last forty years, mufflers similar to those used
on automobiles have been used to reduce engine EXHAUST SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
noise to a tolerable level. The muffler receives the PRACTICES
exhaust from the cylinders and passes it through a
series of baffles to break up the sound energy. The The corrosion resistant steel of which exhaust sys-
exhaust is then passed out through a tailpipe. tems are made is thin, and the systems operate at
Exhaust Systems 6-5

Figure 6-5. On the left is the muffler with the shroud in place. The shroud is typically held on the muffler with stainless steel
screws. On the right the shroud has been removed for clarity. The knobs on the muffler help transfer heat from the muffler to the
air space inside the shroud.

high temperatures. These difficult conditions, cou- in the human body, producing incapacitation and
pled with the fact that an exhaust system failure can death at higher levels of exposure.
result in carbon monoxide poisoning of crew and
passengers, partial or complete loss of engine power, Before discussing inspection and maintenance pro-
and/or an aircraft fire, make inspection of the cedures for exhaust system components, a precau-
exhaust system extremely important. Carbon monox- tion to he observed must be mentioned. Galvanized
ide is a colorless, odorless gas that is a by-product of or zinc plated tools should never be used on the
internal combustion processes. It displaces oxygen exhaust system, and exhaust system parts should

Figure 6-6. The exhaust from the cylinders on each side flow through a collector and discharge into the inlet of a stainless steel
augmentor tube. This flow of high velocity gas creates a low pressure and draws air from above the engine through the cylinder
fins.
6-6 Exhaust Systems

never be marked with a lead pencil. The lead, zinc,

or galvanized mark is absorbed by the metal of the
exhaust system when heated, creating a distinct
change in its molecular structure. This change soft-
ens the metal in the area of the mark, causing cracks
and eventual failure. Use felt-tip markers, India ink,
or Prussian blue to mark exhaust components.

Some exhaust system components receive a corro-

sion-resistant coating of ceramic material. These
units should be cleaned using a degreasing solution.
Under no circumstances should sand blasting or
alkaline cleaners be used, since this removes the
ceramic coating. Materials such as corrosion-resis-
tance steel can be blast cleaned using sand that has
not been previously used to clean iron or steel mate-
rials. Used sand contains metal particles that can
become embedded in the metal and allow corrosion
to form.

EXHAUST SYSTEM INSPECTION

During an inspection of the exhaust system, be espe-
cially alert for any cracks, dents, or missing parts.
An ice pick or similar pointed instrument is useful
in probing suspected areas. Cracks are probably the
most common problem with an exhaust system. A
crack usually allows exhaust gas to escape.
Escaping gas often shows up as a flat gray or a sooty
black streak on the outside of the stack or muffler.
[Figure 6-7]

If a component of the exhaust system is inaccessible

for a thorough visual inspection, such as internal
baffles or diffusers, or a part is hidden by nonre- Figure 6-7. The arrows point out the primary inspection
movable parts, you should disassemble it and check points for various types of exhaust systems. The top dia-
for contamination and possible leaks. One way you gram represents a separate system, the middle diagram is
a crossover-type system, and the bottom diagram shows
can check for leaks, is to close the openings of the an exhaust/augmentor system.
component, then pressurize the component using
compressed air (approximately 2 p.s.i). With the
addition, you should periodically check the cabin
component pressurized, apply a soap and water
for the presence of carbon monoxide while the
solution over all of the joints and welds. If cracks
engine is operating.
are present, the escaping air causes bubbles to form.

Weld areas are especially subject to cracks due to MUFFLER AND HEAT EXCHANGER
the stress produced by the expansion and contrac- FAILURES
tion of the thin material of which the system is
made. In addition, poor quality weld beads protrude Approximately half of all muffler and heat
internally and concentrate heat, resulting in hot exchanger failures can be traced to cracks or rup-
spots. A good quality weld tapers smoothly into the tures in the heat exchanger surfaces used for cabin
base metal and thus dissipates heat evenly. and carburetor heat sources. Failures in the heat
exchanger surface, usually in the outer wall, allow
exhaust gases to escape directly into the cabin heat
When inspecting the exhaust system, it is very system. If exhausted gases are drawn into the engine
important to carefully examine the areas used to
induction system, engine overheating and loss of
heat air for carburetor deicing and cabin heat. In power can occur. Failures in the exhaust system, in
Exhaust Systems 6-7

most cases, are caused by the high temperatures at exhaust system pressure is maintained at or near sea
which an exhaust system operates. This in turn level values. Due to the pressure differential, any
leads to thermal and vibration fatigue cracking in leaks in the system will allow the exhaust gases to
areas of stress concentration. On aircraft using an escape with torch-like intensity that can severely
exhaust heat exchanger as a source of cabin heat, the damage adjacent structures.
heater air shroud should be removed to facilitate
inspection of the system. A common cause of malfunction is coke deposits, or
carbon buildup, in the waste gate unit causing
erratic system operation. Excessive deposit buildup
EXHAUST MANIFOLD AND STACK
may cause the waste gate to stick in the "closed"
FAILURES position, causing an over-boost condition. Coke
Exhaust manifold and stack failures are usually deposit buildup in the turbo itself will cause a grad-
fatigue failures at clamped points or at welds. ual loss of power in flight and a low manifold pres-
Although these failures are primarily fire hazards, sure reading prior to takeoff. Clean, repair, overhaul,
they also present carbon monoxide problems. and adjust the system components and controls in
Exhaust gases can enter the cabin via defective or accordance with the applicable manufacturer's
inadequate seals at firewall openings, wing strut fit- instructions.
tings, doors, and wing root openings.
AUGMENTOR EXHAUST SYSTEM
INTERNAL MUFFLER FAILURES
On exhaust systems equipped with augmentor tubes,
Internal failures, such as baffles and diffusers, can the augmentor tubes should be inspected at regular
cause partial or complete engine power loss by intervals for proper alignment, security of attach-
restricting the flow of the exhaust gases and increas- ment, and general overall condition. Even when aug-
ing the back pressure. As opposed to other failures, mentor tubes do not contain heat exchanger sur-
erosion and carburization caused by extreme ther- faces, they should be inspected for cracks along with
mal conditions are the primary causes of internal the remainder of the exhaust system.
failures. Many systems employ exhaust outlet
guards to keep dislodged muffler baffles from
obstructing the muffler outlet. EXHAUST SYSTEM REPAIRS
It is generally recommended that exhaust stacks,
Engine backfiring and combustion of unburned fuel mufflers, tailpipes, etc. be replaced with new or
within the exhaust system are probable contributing reconditioned components rather than repaired in
factors. In addition, local hot spot areas caused by the field. Welded repairs to exhaust systems are
uneven exhaust gas flow can result in burning, complicated by the difficulty of accurately identify-
bulging, or rupture of the outer muffler wall. ing the base metal so that the proper repair materi-
als can be selected.
TURBOCHARGER EXHAUST SYSTEMS
Steel or low temperature, self-locking nuts should
When a turbocharger is included, the engine not be substituted for brass or high temperature
exhaust system operates under greatly increased locknuts used by the manufacturer. Old gaskets
pressure and temperature conditions. Extra precau- should never be reused. When disassembly is nec-
tions should be taken in exhaust system care and essary, gaskets should be replaced with new ones of
maintenance. During high altitude operation, the the same type provided by the manufacturer.
 TURBINE ENGINE

TAILPIPE OR EXHAUST DUCT

The term "exhaust duct" is applied to the engine
exhaust pipe, or tail pipe, which connects the turbine
outlet to the jet nozzle of a nonafterburning engine. If
the engine exhaust gases could be discharged directly
into the outside air in an exact axial direction at the
The turbine engine exhaust system must be capable turbine exit, an exhaust duct might not be necessary.
of withstanding very high temperatures and is usually However, this is not practical. A larger thrust can be
manufactured from nickel or titanium. In addition, obtained from the engine if the gases are discharged
the heat produced must not be allowed to transfer to from the aircraft at a higher velocity than is
nearby airframe components or structures. This can permissible at the turbine outlet. An exhaust duct is
be accomplished by routing ventilating air around the therefore added, both to collect and straighten the gas
exhaust pipe, and by covering the exhaust pipe with flow as it comes from the turbine, and to increase
an insulating blanket. These insulating blankets use the velocity of the gases before they are discharged
an inner layer of insulating material and an outer skin from the exhaust nozzle. Increasing the velocity of
of stainless steel, which is dimpled to increase its the gases, increases their momentum and increases
strength. the thrust produced.

TURBOJET EXHAUST SYSTEM The exhaust duct is essentially a simple, stainless

The exhaust section of the turbojet engine is located steel, conical or cylindrical pipe. The assembly also
directly behind the turbine section. The exhaust includes an engine tailcone and the struts inside
section is composed of several items, whose main the duct. The tailcone and the struts add strength to
purpose is to direct the flow of gases rearward in the duct, impart an axial direction, and smooths the
such a manner as to prevent turbulence and at the gas flow.
same time impart a high final or exit velocity to the
gases. [Figure 6-8] Immediately aft of the turbine outlet, and usually
just forward of the flange to which the exhaust duct
is attached, one or more sensors are usually
CONE ASSEMBLY
attached to monitor the turbine discharge pressure.
The exhaust cone collects the gases discharged from In addition, since it may be impractical to measure
the turbine and gradually converts them into a the inlet turbine temperature on large engines,
single jet. The collected gases are delivered either exhaust gas temperature thermocouple probes may
directly, or via the tailpipe, to the jet nozzle. be attached at the turbine outlet.

EXHAUST NOZZLES
The rear opening of a turbine engine exhaust duct
is called the exhaust nozzle. The nozzle acts as an
orifice, the size of which determines the density and
velocity of the gases as they emerge from the engine.
Basically the nozzles come in two shapes, the con-
vergent exhaust nozzle and the convergent-diver-
gent exhaust nozzle

Figure 6-8. The components of the exhaust section include

the exhaust cone assembly, the exhaust duct or tailpipe, if
required, and the exhaust or jet nozzle.
Exhaust Systems 6-9

CONVERGENT EXHAUST NOZZLE

On most aircraft where the velocity of the exhaust
gas remains subsonic, a convergent exhaust nozzle
is used. A convergent type nozzle increases the
velocity and decreases the pressure of the gas.

Adjusting the area of the exhaust nozzle changes

both the engine performance and the exhaust gas
temperature. Some engines are "trimmed" to their
correct exhaust gas temperature by altering the
exhaust nozzle area. To do this, you can bend small
tabs to change the area, or you can fasten small
adjustable pieces, called "mice" around the
perimeter of the nozzle. This too changes the area.
CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT EXHAUST NOZZLE
Whenever the engine pressure ratio is high enough
Figure 6-9. In a convergent-divergent nozzle, the conver-
to produce exhaust gas velocities which might gent section is designed to handle the gases while they
exceed Mach 1 at the engine exhaust nozzle, more remain subsonic, and to deliver the gases to the throat of
thrust can be gained by using a convergent-diver- the nozzle just as they attain sonic velocity. The divergent
gent type of nozzle. The advantage of a section reduces the pressure of the Mach 1 gas and further
convergent-divergent nozzle is greatest at high increases its velocity to supersonic.
Mach numbers because of the resulting higher
pressure ratio across the engine exhaust nozzle.
the maximum amount of thrust from the velocity of
[Figure 6-9]
the hot gases. Engines using a reverse flow
combus-tor may exhaust the hot gases near the front
To ensure that a constant weight or volume of a of the engine. This design collects the exhaust
gas flows past any given point after sonic velocity gases and vents them overboard through exhaust
is reached, the rear part of a supersonic exhaust stacks. There is very little additional thrust
duct is enlarged to accommodate the additional provided by this type of exhaust.
weight or volume of a gas that flows at supersonic
rates. If this is not done, the nozzle does not
operate efficiently. THRUST REVERSERS
Airliners powered by turbojets and turbofans, most
TURBOFAN EXHAUST commuter aircraft, and an increasing number of
business jets are equipped with thrust reversers to:
The bypass engine has two gas streams to eject to
the atmosphere, the cool fan air, and the hot gases 1. aid in braking and directional control during
being discharged from the turbine. In a low bypass normal landing, and reduce brake maintenance.
engine these two flows may be combined in a mixer 2. provide braking and directional control during
unit, and discharged through the same nozzle. In a emergency landings and balked takeoffs.
high bypass engine the fan air is usually discharged 3. back an aircraft out of a parking spot in a "power
separately from the hot gases. back" operation.

TURBOPROP EXHAUST While some thrust reversers are electrically pow-

ered, most large transport-category aircraft use
In a typical turboprop exhaust system, the exhaust hydraulically actuated reversers powered by main
gases are directed through a tail pipe assembly from system hydraulic power, or by pneumatic actuators
the turbine section of the engine to the atmosphere. powered by engine bleed air. Thrust reversers are
The exhaust arrangement used depends on the type controlled by a cockpit lever at the command of the
of engine. Turboprop engines utilizing a pilot. In a typical system, the power levers are
through-flow burner typically expel the gases retarded to ground idle, then reverse thrust is
straight out the back of the engine and out the selected. The pilot then advances the power levers
nacelle. This extracts to takeoff power as required to slow the aircraft. The
6-10 Exhaust Systems

fans often have both cold stream and hot stream

reversers. Some high bypass turbofans will have
only cold stream reversing because most of the
thrust is present in the fan discharge and a hot
stream reverser would be of minimum value and
become a weight penalty. [Figure 6-11]

NOISE SUPPRESSORS
Figure 6-10. Thrust reversers change the direction of flow of
the exhaust gases from a rearward direction to more of a Noise is best defined as unwanted sound that is
forward direction. This diagram shows a mechanical block- both irritating and harmful. Since most major air-
age thrust reverser.
ports are located near large cities, the need to mini-
mize turbine exhaust noise is apparent. The aircraft
power levers are then retarded to ground idle and industry has reacted to the need for less offensive
thrust reverse is deselected. [Figure 6-10] operations by continually improving noise reduc-
tion techniques on every new generation of engine
Thrust reversers provide approximately 20 percent and aircraft.
of the breaking force under normal conditions.
Reversers must be capable of producing 50 percent
of rated thrust in the reverse direction. However,
exhaust gas exits a typical reverser at an angle to the
engine's thrust axis. Because of this, maximum
reverse thrust capability is always less than forward
thrust capability. Operating in reverse at low ground
speeds can cause re-ingestion of hot gases and com-
pressor stalls. It can also cause ingestion of fine
sand and other runway debris. The most frequently
encountered thrust reversers can be divided into
two categories, the mechanical-blockage type and
the aerodynamic-blockage type.

MECHANICAL-BLOCKAGE TYPE
Mechanical blockage is accomplished by placing a
movable obstruction in the exhaust gas stream
either before or after the exhaust exits the duct. The
engine exhaust gases are mechanically blocked and
diverted to a forward direction by an inverted cone,
half-sphere, or other device. The mechanical block-
age system is also known as the "clamshell" thrust
reverser because of its shape.

AERODYNAMIC-BLOCKAGE TYPE
The aerodynamic-blockage type of thrust reverser
uses thin airfoils or obstructions placed in the gas
stream. These vanes are often referred to as
"cascades" and turn the escaping exhaust gases to a
forward direction, which in turn causes a rearward Figure 6-11. On this aerodynamic-blockage reverser dia-
thrust. Some aircraft may use a combination of the gram for a DC-10, the reverser doors are stowed when the
aerodynamic-blockage and the mechanical-blockage engine is producing forward thrust. When deployed, the
reverser doors divert both cold and hot stream air. To
type reversers.
deploy the thrust reversers, the power lever is retarded to
the idle stop, the reverser lever is raised from its stowed
Mixed exhaust turbofans are configured with one position, and the power lever is advanced to decelerate the
reverser, while unmixed or bypass exhaust turbo- aircraft as necessary.
Exhaust Systems 6-11

Figure 6-12. Older turbojet engines used

corrugated-perimeter noise suppressors attached to the
exhaust duct. The corrugations divide the exhaust stream
and reduce noise levels.

Noise suppressors used on the ground include

portable devices which can be positioned near the
rear of an engine whenever prolonged ground oper-
ation is anticipated. Furthermore, blast fences and
designated run-up areas are provided on most large
airports and aircraft operations are restricted to
certain times of the day.

Older turbojet engines produce a combination of

noise frequencies at very high levels. Although a
turbojet compressor produces a great deal of high
frequency sound, this noise decreases rapidly as the
distance from the source increases. On the other
hand, turbojet exhaust produces noise at a wide
range of frequencies and at very high energy levels.
This noise is audible over great distances and is
more damaging to human hearing. One solution to
turbojet exhaust noise is the use of a corrugated
perimeter noise suppressor that helps break up the
exhaust flow and raise its noise frequency.
Furthermore, some older engines can be fitted with
"hush kits" that reduce their noise emissions.
[Figure 6-12]

Newer engines employ a variety of techniques to

reduce harmful noise. For example, some turbofan
engines blend fan discharge air with the exhaust
gases to reduce sound emission. On these engines,
the sound from the inlet is likely to be louder than
from the tail pipe. In addition, the inlet and exhaust
ducts on turbofan engines are lined with sound Figure 6-13. High bypass turbofan engines employ sound
attenuating materials that greatly reduce noise lev- absorbing materials at specific locations to minimize noise
emissions. Various materials and patterns are used depend-
els. [Figure 6-13] ing on the temperature ranges at these locations.
6-72 ________________________________________________________________________ Exhaust Systems

Because of the characteristic of low frequency noise

to linger at a relative high volume, noise reduction
is often accomplished by increasing the frequency
of the sound. Frequency change is accomplished by
increasing the perimeter of the exhaust stream. This
provides more cold and hot air mixing space. This
reduces the tendency of hot and cold air molecules
to shear against each other and also to break up the
large turbulence in the jet wake.