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6 3D Graphics
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1
"• 6. 1. INTRODUCTION:THREE DIMENSIONAL
OBJECT REPRESENTATIONS
❖ Introduction: Three ~imensional
Object Representations rI'hn'e dimensional graphics scenes contain many
❖ Polygo n Surfaces and Mesh chffr.,rt>nt kinds of objects , for exnmple . trees . glass.
representation rock . water. etc . There is not any single method that
❖ Quadric, Superquadric Surfaces can lw used to describe objects t.hnt will include all
and Blobby Objects ehar:1etPristics of these <lifferent materials .
❖ Geometric Modeling • Polygon :rn<l quadric surfaces provide prPcise
❖ Solid Modeling Techniques dc>scriptions for simple Euclidean objects such
❖ Colour Models
as pol~1 lwdrons and Pllipsoids .
• Spline surfaces and construction techniques
an' uspful for designing curved surfaces such
as :ri.rernft wings . gears . etc .
• Procl'dural methods such as fractal
constructions and particle systems allow us
to givl-' ncc urnte reprt>sentations for clouds.
clumps of grass and ot.lwr natural objects .
• Physically bnsed modeling methods using
systems of interacting forces can lw ust>d to
describe tlw non-rigid behavior.
• Octree encodings nre used to rPprPsPnt
internal features of obiPrts : such :1s t hosL'
obtain0d from nwdicnl CT imng1:'s .
• lsosurfm·r displays. vnlunlt' rendl'r1ngs and
other visu:di zat.ion techniques are npplil d 1

to~> dinwnsio1wl ctiSlTL'tL' datn st ts hl obtain

1

visunl rl'pl'l'St'ntations of tlll' data .

109
 • .. t""t Aided Design
\ h\_\ f undamt>ntals ,,1 l,ornpu o ,

fi.l. POLYGON SURFACES AND MESH REPRESENTATION

•\\ ,ly~ni\ surf:w,•s proYi<k pn•ciS<' dt:srriplinnH for sim pl<- Eur! ich•nn nhj,,'
1wh \w,\rons nnd e11i ps,,itk It is nm' n! th l' most common Iy u 8<' d hound u ry r ' , I.N,.111•1 I
h't'i,n\q\ll'S, A thn'l' dinn•nsinnul grnphics objcd cnn lw n•pn•Ht'lll!'d :1 1i; '/.r'' ''.''lln: , I

p,,h'i:,;,
. ~ , ns. Th\s sirnplifo,s nnd spPl'ds
. lup . the
h 1· surfnct' rrnd<'nng
~. 'T"h nnd di APl·,lyti or
ul ~tir/'t1
,l(,,
1
.\ H t\w poly~on surfne~s nn) descnh ec wit. 1nt:'nr l l]lHldOns . p ------- ohj,;,,t ·
polyl!t'lH\l n•pn•s~ntat ion of n po I)' h pdron Pl'l' Cist' 1Y d d'i n e ,-; th,, '
~tufoet" ft' nttn·~s l)f nn objl)C't.
1n r'igurt> H.1. tlw surfm't' of a l'~' lindcr is n~pn'SPnted as a
polygon mt'sh . Bl:'CtHlSt' tlw wirefrnnw mod elling C[ll1 lw d isplnyed
quiekly to giYl' n gc1wr:1l indication of t.hP snrfocc polygons . Th is
simplifies ~1nd sp~ed up the surface rendering and display of objects.
All the polygon surfaces nre described with linear e quation s . The
polygonal representation of a polyhedron precis<:' ly <l cfi n es th<'
surfact' feat ures of an object . · ,
In Fig. 6. L the su~-face of a cylinder is represented us a poly gon
mes.h· . BecRnse th e• \". ireframe modellino-t-- can be displ"y
1
u od
\;, q ll 1· C k Iy f.1
t o giYe a gener al indication of tlw surface . 9 · 6.1. Wire frame
. d8:n~cture: the_refore such r epresentRtions are common in design representation of a
an solid- modehng applications cylin_der with hidden
o · line removed
. p 1g
ne type of polygon mesh is the triangle, strip cas s h own 111 · . 6.2.

(a) A triangle strip with 11 triangles

(b) A quadrilateral mesh
and 13 vertices

Fig . 6.2.
In ge n e ral, for a triangle strip :
' . n - 2= num b er of. conn t · .
1 his r1 ives _ ec ing tnan°les
o n - number f' . b
'f h ' . . o vertices
e ex ampl e of triangle
. mesh t 0 generate an · , . . .
A polygon s urfac e 1s defined b . , image 1s shown 1n Fig. 6 .3.
tables which can he later used for dis;\ set of vertices . All the information is placed in
data table are categorized into geomet~.~~ng a nd manipulation of objects . These polygon
· nc tables a. n d attnbute
. . • table category. T h e d a. ta.
►
. _ _ __ 30 Graphics // I( '.1 ' 1

. 1•1vt vortex coo rd inates a nd parameters of spatial orientation of polygon surfaces

g·ll (]
re ' dt'·r1 (reometnc . d a t a t a bl es.
. J:-lce l ti
.1:; p' r

(a) Image generated by triangle mesh (b) Image generated by quadrilateral mesh
Fig . 6.3.
Attribute information of an object includes
parameters specifying the degree of transparency of
the obj ect and its texture characteristics .
To store geometric data a vertex table , an edge
table and a polygon table are created having the
fo llowing information :
• In the vertex table the coordinate values of each
vertex are stored .
• The edge table contains pointers back to the
vertex table to identify the vertices for each v2 E v 4 Es
polygon edge.
• The polygon table contains pointers back to the
. e~ge table to identify the edges for each polygon. Fig. 6 .4 . A polygon surface
. This 1s expl ained in Fig. 6.4, which shows a polygon
:,ur/ac:e and Fig. 6.5 shows three types of data tables for this polygon.

Verte.x Edge Polygon-Surface

Tab]e Table Table
I - - Sl : El. E2 . E3
Vt : x l , y l , zl El : Vl , V2
V'!, . x'.G , Y~, z. ~ 11: 2 : V2, V:-~ S 2 : E:3 , E4. E5 . E6
v·,., : X,.\ , y: \, z:l I~: ~: v:1 , V l
V1 : x4, y'1 , z'1 l~tJ : V:1 , V11
Vr'' j .. X,~) , yG , Z [) L1;G : V1, V G
EG : Vf> , Vl
11 ~ I/ Fundamentals of Computer ~id~d Design

Figure 6.5 Data tables for the above polygon.

Some consistency checks of the geometric data table:
• Every vertex is listed as an endpoint for at least 2 edges
• Every edge is part of at least one polygon
• Every polygon is closed
The more information included in the data tables , the easier it is to check f
.
Therefore, .
error or consistency . 1s
checlung . easier
. w h en th ree d ata tables that or
. ..err0rs \
· 1 · h
edge , and polygon are used, smce t us sc . eme prov1 es· d th ·
e most information.Ven,ex.
is
error or consistency checks of the geometric data table : 80tn~
• Every vertex is listed as an endpoint for at least 2 edges
• Every edge is part of at least one polygon
• Every polygon is closed
Plane equations: Consider a cube, each of the 6 planes ha s 2 sides: inside f
and outside face. For each plane (in a right-handed coordinate system), the equatio~~~
the plane can be given as :
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
This equation of plane has the property that if w e substitute any arbitrary point
(x , y) into this equation, then :
• Ax+ By + Cz + D < 0 implies that the point (x , y) is ins ide the surface, and
• Ax+ By + Cz + D < l implies that the point (x, y) is outside the surface.
111• 6.3. QUADRIC, SUPERQUADRIC SURFACES AND BLOBBY OBJECTS

6 .3 . 1. Quadric Surfaces
These are frequently used objects. Quadric surfaces are describe d with second-degree
equations. The examples of quadric surfaces are spheres, ellipsoids, tori , paraboloidE
and hyperboloids . Spheres and ellipsoids are common elements of graphic scenes.
1. Sphere
• The equation of the sphere is:
x2 + y2 + 22 = r2

• The equation of sphere in parametric form z

1s:
x = r cos a cos ~

y = r cos a cos ~
z = r sin a
2. Ellipsoid: An ellipsoidal surface is described
as an extension for a spherical surface, where the
r a dii in 3 m ut u a lly perpendicular directions can
have uifforent values a s shown in F i g . 6 .5 .
• The equ at ion of ellipsoi d is: .d
F .19 . 6 .5. An el\i pSOI
 ~I
I

3D Graphics // I\113

• The equation in parametric form is:

x = r x cos a cos ~
y = ry cos a cos ~
z = r 2 sin~
3. Torus: The torus is .a doughnut shaped object which can be generated by rotating
a circle or other conic about a specified axis , as shown in Fig. 6.6.

Fig. 6.6. A torus

• The equation of the torus is:

• The equation in parametric form is :

x = rx (r + cos a) cos ~
y = ry (r + cos a) cos ~
Z = r 2 Sln a
63 2
• • • Superquadric Surfaces
is fo!hese object~ are a generalization of t~e quadric repr~sentat~ons. Super quadr_a~ics
. med by adding additional parameters 1n to the quadric equatrnns. It 1s for prov1d1ng
Increased flexibility for adjusting object shapes .
the 1. Super ellipse: The Cartesian representation for a super ellipse is obta ined from
eq t' .
ua ion of an ellipse by allowing the exponent on the x and y t erm s to be variable.
• The equation of super ellipse is:
, 14 I, F und~1111t>11 tn l~ t1f Conip11\t)1 /\i<hid I ks1qn
\
• 'l'ht' t' qu at it1n i 11 p:n :111ll' t rir l'unn 1s : I
.\' =.· /'
.I'

v =-- ,. si 11"' 0
l '()~" ()
l
. "
. Fig ul'L' (, .7 ~ht)\\'~ dilll'l'L'11t t'o1·rn ~ ol' su}HH' Pllipsns gonerated wi th differ .
\)l -;- '\ ...->. l • O• ·t .:>.
- nnd ~.O n•~pcctiv<'ly). ent Val t1~s

Fig. 6.7 . Super ellipses with s = .5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 respectively

2 . Super ellipsoid
• The equ ation of super ellipsoid is:

• The e quation in parametric form is:

x = rX cos 51 a cos 52 I-'A Fig. 6.8. Super
Y = ry cos 5 1 a sin 52 ~ ellipsoids
z = r z sin 81 a
6.3.3. Blobby Objects
These are the objects which do not maintain a fixed shape, and usually change
their shape and s urface characteristics under motion or when close to some other objects.
For exampl e, molecular structures, water droplets , melting objects, muscle shapes in
h uman body, etc. These objects are referred to as blobby objects due to certain degree
of t h e ir fluidity .
Figure 6 .9 shows blobby muscle shapes in human arm .

(a) (b)
Fig. 6 .9. Blobby huma n muscle . n
. 0 rc •n1 ~1:1
:-,
11
, Ji 1. y p1 : ,,f ,Jl>j,•ct H u 11 1 IH\ n: p n is!i 11 to d b y malhenwtit:d form with }lt']J) ''
d, II . !I l f l1J J( ' I. ./ l)l) l-J tH'l1 ; 1H:

/<x v. .· J 'i l ( i.- )

1 · 'I'
/,
 3~ ~ra~hics // I~ 5

where

or
Tis some threshold parameter , and a and bare used to adjust the blobbiness of the
object.
,. 6.4, GEOMETRIC MODELING
;:mputer co~patible _mathematical description of the geometry of the object is
called as geometric i:nodehng . The C~D software allows the mathematical description
of the object to be d1splaye~ a_s the image on the monitor of the computer. Computer
aided design attem_p ts to ehm1n~te the ~eed of developing a prototype for testing and
optimizing the design . ?eometri~ modelmg studies computer based representation of
geometry an_d rela_ted 1?form~t10n need~d for supporting various computer based
applications m engineering design, analysis , and manufacturing, and other areas with
similar requirements . This involves the study of data structures , algorithms, and file
formats for creating , representing , communicating, and manipulating geometric
information of physical parts and processes appearing in these applications . A geometric
modeling system can be similarly characterized as an application component responsible
~;'. for creating, inspecting, analyzing and distributing geometrical model [4] . Some of the
~
general requirements of geometric modeling are discussed in the following paragraph.

6.4.1. General Requirements of Geometric Modeling

The general requirements of geometric modeling are explained as follows :
• Complete part representation including topological and geometrical data. Complete
r,
I
part representation in this context means geometry, i.e., shape and dimensions
f.'.
and topology, i.e., the connectivity and associativity of the object entities. Topology
determines the relational information between object entities.
• Able to transfer data directly from CAD to CAE and CAM.
• Support various engineering applications, such as mass properties, mechanism
analysis , FEA/FEM and tool path creation for CNC , and so on .
. There are many ways a geometric model can be represented, which h as been discu ssed
in the next section.
6
-4.l . Representation of the Geometric Models
Sorn • · d l' ng which are commonly
u e of the r epresentation schemes for geometric mo e 1 ' " .• b .- fl ,
fll;!d, are w1· f' . d 1 d 11·d models . 'l'hese schemes ,u e u e. y
. l . re r a me models , surface mo e s a n so
\:"~. pl a1n
ec in th e following paragr aphs .
1· W.1r , F .. . . . , f , . r escn • . tl1e ol1_.iL,c•t. ~s 1. n ,reomd
tmg
. .· ,
1tc
\ ni.oul!\8 thc 1 ame Model s: Of th e vano us for ms O rep . _., r, b
h ved by interconnected
line": , . he rnost basic is wire frames . In this form the obJ: c\ 1::; lt·1::;p ()·,.,o □·, e,tr·i c modeling.
L .

I1 these••.'lf.l 8 own in t he Fig. 6.10. There ar e three ty pes _0 t Wl re rame

'1
c . t,
,., -
\ ( re: 2D , 2. l /2D an d 3D . Th ey have been descnbPd below .
 f computer Aided oesign
116
/ 1· // Fundarnentals o d. ensional view and 1s . u seful for flat ob ·
. . ds of two un . . Ject,
• 2D: It s1.c1n . . beyond the 2D v1ew and permits viewing f ·
., 112D: It gives views . o 3D ob·
• • · s no sidewall details. . Jeetth,1
ha- d. ~ion representat10n allows complete three-dim . ·
• 3 :
The three imen:; S 1· d
. h h "ghly cornplex geometry . o 1 modeling is th
ens1on l
a View
D. th model wit 1 d. . e most d tno

~ ~~
o e t _. c modeling in three 1mens10ns. a van •
t
rn ethod of geome iI ''"

~(&~
Fig. 6.10. Wire frame model
1
2. Surface Models: Surface
. .fmodels
. areh created
d using
1· points,
h Jines, and p anes A
surface model is unable to 1denti y porn ts t at o not 1e on t e surface and th , f ·
. . . '
the moment of mertia, volume, or sect10ns of the model cannot be obtained. A suf '
"'""
model can be shaded for better visibility. Surface models are used for modeling sur~ ac'.
· · F" 6 11 h f' acei
o engmeermg components. 1gure . s ows a sur a ce model.
f

a. Solid Mod els·. So1·d

~
I modFig 1 . 6.11 . Surface model ,J ) ·· ,1IllI

rr;prr·sent
, ·
unam_h1guous im e
f' s are th e most preferr ed form of CAD 1110'..le
1,·zr
°
tlw· m<1m en t f' ·rne rtia m· ,age O a co m ponent. A solid model ca n be use d to an'"''
,,xa mpl<, of" solid mo<lei.ass, volu me, sections of t he model, etc. Figure 6.12 sh'"

A
 Fig. 6.12. Solid model
Solid modeling sometimes is also referred as volume modeling. A solid model can
be used to generate cross-sectional views to know internal details of the object. The
solid models can be used to calculate mass, inertia, volume, centre of gravity and other
properties of the object.
Solid models are mathematical models of objects in the real world that satisfy specific
properties, listed below .
, Bounded: The boundary must limit and contain the interior of the solid .
, Homogeneously three-dimensional: No dangling edges or faces should be
present so that the boundary is always in contact with the interior of the solid.
• Finite: The solid mu st be finite in size.

1 • 6.5. SOLID MODELING TECHNIQUES

A solid model can be r epresented by t he followin g schemes:
• Constructive Solid Geomet ry (CSG)
• Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
• Sweeping
• Spatial enumer at ion
• Feature based, par a metric models
A brief description of these schemes follows .

6.5.1. Constructive Solid Geometry Scheme/Set Theory

This scheme is based on the principle that two primitives can be combined to produce
a new solid model. This method is also known as 'Building Block' method. The scheme
uses the· union, inter section, and subtraction techniques to creat e three-dimensional
models, which ar e based on the Boolean operation. The steps involved in gener a ting a
solid model ar e: '
• Select the primitives from a library . j'
• Go through th e scaling, dimension modifica tion, and any other tra nsformations.
• Combine th e primitives to create the desired solid model.
Hince CSG method uses solid primitives, internal details of the object are automatically
~untained in the model. The model can be sectioned to reveal internal detai ls and can
' ,•d ror ca 1cu 1uting mass, vo lume, momen t o t· m
)(: t.lf,< · er t ia
· , e t c.

\ . '.T>~, -
,-~~--· 1'L ~-:. : .: -:.-:-
Set P
f computer Aided Design
8 I // Fundament~ls _o -- :::::=-::::::- -
_::-:::::_:::::::::.--1' d models can be created from the
0 erations: New so l .
h fOllowing operations.
. l lVes or
other
prirn •t'

solid models by t e I'd are J'oined and the common volume of one of th .
. (U)· Two so 1 s h d d · e Pr1 ·
• Union · . h sulting solid. Full s a e area 1n Fig. 6.13 ( tn1tive
is neglected m t e r~. t . a) and (b;
shows union of two o JeC s.

A B

(a) Union of two objects A and 8

A B
AuB
I >
(b) Union of two 30 objects A and 8
Fig. 6.13.
• Subtraction or Difference (-): One solid is subtracted from the other and the
resultant solid retains only the uncut portion of the solid. Shaded area in Fig.
6.14. (a) and (b) shows subtraction of two objects.
,, ... ~-- ...,
\
' '\
I I
A
I B I
I I
I I
I I
,, I
' .... ___ ., ,,
(a) Subtraction of two objects A and 8
A B

A-B
k;;~·.,.; *}~

(b) Subtraction of two 3D objects A and B

Fig. 6.14. ntl
• l ntersf!Ction (D): Whe , . lid represe i)
Lh<' f'<irnmun v f' n two ::;ohds are combined, the resultant so (") ai1d (I
- · 0 Iurnc~ o th e t ]'d · F' 6 15 "'
sh<1ws int<•r'tC'! · . ' . wo so 1 s. Sh aded area m ◄ 1gure ·
°
· , ' · .uin 1 two ohJects.
 (a) Intersection of two objects A and B
A

AnB
-> ITT
(b) Intersection of two 3D objects A and B
Fig. 6.15.
The most common primitive solids found in a CAD program are: block, cylinder,
cone, sphere, wedge, and torus .
CSG Tree: CSG tree stores the history of applying boolean operations on the primitives:
• Stores in a binary tree format.
• The outer leaf nodes of tree represent the primitives.
• The interior nodes represent the boolean operations performed.
Figure 6.16 and 6.17 shows a CSG tree.

----,_--
I Union l
I

R
L__J
Intersection
I
I

C
\
'J
\
Fig. 6.16. CSG set operations on 2D objects: Example of CSG Tree
 t Aided Design
·12~ \ // Fundamentals of Cor~pu er ..:. . -:- :._..:::::=
__:::=_:;_~_::'=_ ::::==:3::::::=::_:=:.. -~·:~:::: ·-:.~

Fig. 6.17. A CSG tree example on 3D objects

Half Spaces:
• These are unbounded geometric entities.
Co:
• Each one of them divides the representation space into infinite portions, oni 0~
filled with material and the other empty.
• Surfaces can be considered half-space boundaries and half spaces can be considerei
directed surfaces.
• An object is defined by the volume space contained within the defined boundar;
of the object.
• By specifying different boundary surface, we can have any half-spaces.
• The most commonly used half-spaces are planar, cylindrical, spherical, conical
and toroidal.
• By combining half-spaces (using Boolean operations) in a building block fashion.
various solids can be constructed.
Cylindrical half space is given as follows and is shown in Fig. 6.18: I l
H = {(x, y , z) : x2 + y2 < R2} Di,,
,,

I '
\

Fiy. 6.18. A cyllnrJrical half space . . half space I I

J\ Sph1•,·ic:d h· If . . . . . Fig. 6.19. A spherical
,1 sp.iu• I H r: ,v(•n ; . 1· . . . ,. , n
_ , · is ollows and is s hown 111 r◄ 1g . h. l ~,.
II ·- I (... ' ) .i, .
' .. · ·'- + y '2. + z'2. < R2 }
i,I\, , ,' .,. ' I

llata&1
 --
__ _ _ - - · - - · - - _ _ ______ 3D Graphics // I 121 I
----=.:..::.-::·:::-~--:::.::::::..-:.:-_;:-:::::.~--·::.-::: ·- .. ·___ ; -: \.
.: :.. -:.:.:::::.--:-::::::-.::...--:::::=.=.. -:::..:- .-

A conical half space is given as follows and is shown in Fig. 6 .20.

H = {(x, Y, z) : x 2 + y 2 (tan (a/2) 2)2}

I
I
I

fig. 6.20. A conical half space Fig. 6.21 . A toroidal half space \

A toroidal Half space is shown in Fig. 6 .21 and is given as:

I
I
H = {(x, y, z) : (x2 + y2 + 2 2 - aj - Rf< 4aj (Rf - 2 2)}

Constructing solids with half spaces: Figure 6.22 shows solid construction with
Pont
half spaces:

:neol

pam.
1rical.
0
Fig. 6.22. Solid construction with half spaces
Advantages of half spaces:
blocl~ • The main advantage is its conciseness of representation compared to other modeling
schemes.
l: • It is the lowest level representation available for modeling a solid object.
Disadvantages of Half spaces:
• The representation can lead to unbounded solid models as it depend on user
manipulation of half spaces.
• The modeling scheme is cumbersome for ordinary users/designers .
65 2
· · · Boundary Representation (B-Rep) Scheme
.-,/. f 'rhis scheme is based on the concept that a physical object is bounded by a set of
vate~. A solid model is created by combining primitives such as faces and cont ains
· , e cl ges, loops , and bodies. These prim
ert1ct11:, · ·ttlves
· are d'1scusse d a s f o11 ows:
• Vertex: A point i n space.
' 1'~tlge: /\. finite, no-inter sectin g space curve hounded by two Vl't'ticet, tha t are
not ni)t()ssn r ily diHtinct.
'\,2;l,\ II--
F~ ~entals of Computer Aided Design _:.===;===== :------
- - - - - -- .. - -
.... - -
• Face: A finite connected, non-self-intersecting. r egion of a ct 08 , d . 1
e or11J
bounded by one or more loops. . lH.t!d lll!tf
• Loop: An ordered alternating sequence of v~rticos and edges. A
00
:ir. l
non-self~intersecting closed space curve, wh~ch muy h<i a boundu~ P_ d\Jfin\',. \
• Body: Entity that has faces, edges and vertices . A minimum bod Y.(JI Q fuc~ 1
113
·
This scheme can model a variety of so l1'd s d epcn d"ing on t h o primitive
·
8
yf up0int ·
.d . d I .
cu1~ved, or sculptured)_. There_ are two _types O f ~o l i ~10 · e s :in ur aces (
thiH scheme: Po\ Plan11
solids. and curved solids, which are discussed 1n the following paragraphs. YheQr~I
(i) Polyhedral Solids: Polyhedral solids consis t of Atraight e dges
. · ft
cylinchical surface: box, wedge, com b inat10n o wo or more non-cylindrical bod· nfir.
' e.g a
Polvhedral
~ · · solids can have blind or through holes, . an d two or three-dimen s1onal . les,e~
f
with no dangling edges. A valid polyhedral abides by the Euler's equation h_attg_
' w tch
given as follows : ~
F - E + V - L = 2 (B - G)
where, F= Face
E = Edge
V= Vertices
L = Inner Loop
B = Bodies
G = Genus (Through holes) F =6 \
A simple polyhedral has no holes ; each face is bounde d E=12 \
V::8 i
by a single set of connected edges (bounded by one loop of
edges) . Euler's equation for a simple polyhe dral can b e
reduced to: F-E + V= 2. The example of simple polyhedral
is shown in Fig. 6.23, number of faces, edges and vertices Fig. 6.23. Box (Simple
polyhedral)
are also shown along with this Fig. 6.23 .
(ii) Curved solid: A curved solid is similar to a polyhedral object but it has curve
faces and edges. Spheres and cylinders are examples of curved solids. The applicati~
of Euler's equation to spheres and cylinders is shown explained with the help of Fit
6 .24 and Fig. 6.25.

Fig. 6.24. Sphere Fig. 6.25. Cylinder

6.5.3. Sweeping Representation or Scheme .

. . . 2 v dirnens1
S weeping can create a sohd model. The method is useful for creating 12 - d
. . (. extrt1
m odels. The generated models are ax1symmetric and have uniform thickness i.e.. cloSl
models) . There are two types of sweeps: linear and rotational. In linear sweep, a 3,
. d geneous
2 -D sketc h 1s extru ed through the desired l e ngth, creating a homo
axisy m1netric model, which is explained with the help of Fig . 6 .26 .
 ~ .
3D Graphics // J~ ·
'~

--- tational sweep, a closed sketch 1s rotated around an axis. The generated model
In ro . R . 1 .
. lways axisymmetr1c. otat1ona sweep 1s shown in Fig. 6. 27 .
i. 1s a
' I

.,., ,;.,o.,
I;

~ Sweep direction

a .,., ., .,

Fig. 6.26. Linear sweep - Creating a box Fig. 6.27. Rotational sweep
by sweeping a rectangle
a, In addition to the two sweeps described above, a model can also be created by a
non-linear sweep. In this type of sweep, a closed sketch is sweeped along a non-linear
path.

6.s.4. Spatial Enumeration

The space is portioned into regions called cells, and those cells are filled with material
and therefore constitute the object being represented. Decompositions into regular,
fixed-size cells are called spatial enumerations. There are two types of representations
under this category, i.e., voxel and octree representation. Voxel (an abbreviation for
"volume elements") based representation is explained with the help an example shown
;. in Fig. 6.28. (a), in which the solid is represented as the arrangement of cubical cells.
j", In octree representation, the solid is subdivided into a set of eight cells or octants,
which is shown with the help of an example shown in Fig. 6.28. (b).
y

6
4
X
4 5

z
(a) Voxel representation (b) Octree representation
Fig. 6.28.

' 6•5,S F t
· ea ure Based, Parametric
· ModeIs
, Feature-hased parametric solid modeling system represents the recent advance of
computer geometric
' modeling. It is used as t h e 1,oun
. da t·10n of' mo dern C1\ D svstems,
."
e.g Pr0/EN • f' t · d lir1g are d1scu::;sed
' b ·, GlNEER etc. Some important propertrns o parame r1c mo e ·
,
1
elow: '
 C mputer Aided Design
1? 4; Fundamentals of O' • .- --- --;:_- ___
-· -· - -- ---
.':✓, j· -- • ~ · --
I I - - -- __ _ _ .__.

--_d • r:m,;,,j;s:ii~modeling eliminated the d~~

, Fearur-e-base . P8
. . . ... ·es ,uch as cone, cy1m . d h . t • ° COll]lh
er, sp eie, e c., smce these . ~ion
ae0memc pnm1m• • .. I d . . Prllllit'
_.. • t 1 -level geometric entities. n es1gnmg and man,,t- lVes
l1nlr repre::- en · ow h · uiactu ·
· . . - one would always refer to mec . amcal features. ring
m€charuca1parts. . .
. pproach uses sweeping to form the mam shape of the
, The mo delmg a . . d Part
.. ;. banical features to specify the deta1 1e geometry of the mod 1 Th'and
bu11a-m mec . d . k) d e, e
. . . ~Jude holes (through, blm ' sm , roun s, chamfers sl t se
!Parnre::- IDL d h 11 ( h . ' o s, et
• . ro solid model such as cut an s e c ange a solid mod 1 . c.
0peranon::- ' e into
hollow shell) are also supported. a
• To create the 2Dcross-section for sweeping, a 2D sketch needs to be generated
L1l rhe 2D Sketcher. ~ user can.sketch _the ro.ugh shape of the closed shape, Tbe
3y~rern will automatically assign a d1mens10n value of the sketched feature
The dimensions _of the sketched feature c~n be chang~d at any time by sirnpJ;
entering the desrred value, or kept as a variable, allowrng even more convenient 11
change of its value. The user has to provide all necessary dimensions to pass )~
tne section of cross-section generation. Problems of under-or over- dimensiorung J~
can be identified.
Fe2.rure based parametric modeling is being extensively used because of the advantages
iike user friendly: features can be edited, incorporating intent of the design, design
programming, etc.

• 6.6. COLOUR MODELS

Cofou!' model is an orderly system for creating a whole range of colours from a small
~er c,f primary colours. There are two types of colour models:
• Subtractive: subtractive models use printing inks, colors perceived in subtractive
~ode],3 are the result of reflected light.
• -~dditive: Additive colour models use light to Red
disphiy colour while. Colours perceived in
~dditive models are the result of transmitted
li~ht.
RG~ Colour :\1ode1 (Red-Green-Blue)
AdrJmvE: C(Jlrmr model
F''Jr C:•Jrnpute:r displays
r; ."(:s l1~ht tr; display colour
Green
CrJ/r,ur, r<:6ult fnJm transmitted light
Rr:d - (; r,:u1 + Biut = White
z. C.\ 1YK (',,/r,ur ,\fork/ re , ~1·
_ Hl,H:Y.) · · y,in - ;v a~cnta - Yellow
Fig. 6.29. RGB colour model
Subt rncti Vr'. r:1,l,,u r m,,d,d
(Additive type)
Fr,r 1mnt1·d m:it,:ri:i l
lJ,c . k tr, r.1
., ·.~ :n 1·
:--r,lay cril~iur
C<,Jr)urs n :1rn It frr,m rc/Jr.n,,d 1· h
( •yan + ,\fagPnt-i + y · ,: 1g t
. , r: 11ow ::: Hl:t<:k
 :1J_
30 Graphics e

oo·tf.i
ieQ,l
,tro~
l~e~
Fig. 6.30. CMYK colour model: A subtractive model
ire(i
11•. In the RGB model, the convergence of the three primary additive colours produces
~JD: white. In the CMYK model, the conv~rgence of the three primary subtractive colours
produces black. Figure 6.31 shows unit cube representation for both colour schemes.
Blue = (0,0,1)
- - - - - - - - Cyan=(0,1,1)

Magenta= (1 ,0,1) r - - - - - - '' - - - - - - r

1
---+-- White= (1 ,1,1)
I
I
I
'O!JI I
Black = (0,0,0) - - - -L-
/
- - - - - Green = (0,1,0)
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/

Red = (1 ,0,0) Yellow = (1 ,1,0)

Fig. 6.31 . Unit cube representation for RGB and CMYK models

Three dimensional graphics scenes contain many different kinds of objects, for example,
trees, glass, rock, water, etc . There is not any single method that can be used to describe objects
~hat will include all characteristics of these different materials. Polygon surfaces provide precise
escriptions for simple Euclidean objects such as polyhedrons and ellipsoids. It is one of the
most commonly used boundary representation techniques . A three dimensional graphics object
Y :an he.represented by a set of surface polygons. This simplifies and speeds up the surface rendering
~hd dir.; pla y of objects. All the polygon surfaces are described with linear equations . Quadric
••Urface d . . •
<·II' .8 arc . ef:lcnhed with second-degree equat10ns. The examples of quadric surfaces are spheres,
1
; ,_1PH <~JdA, tori, paraboloids and hyperboloids. Spheres and ellipsoids are common ele ments of
~·: tt!Jhic Ht<:n<~H. These ure the objects which do not maintain n fixed s hape. and usually change
l(: Jr Hba
r•r.• Pl! an<1 surface c:harncteri 8tics und er motwn· or w l1en c lose to some ot11er o1)Jects.
· l"'•or
· ,,unpl<•· rnc1I <!cu I ar Hlructuros, wutPr drople t~ , mo I tin~
· '- ·
ouJects · h umun l)O d y
, muse 1e :,; I1apes m
 f computer Aided Design
~II Fund•_'."!~~~ ----= __ _
- --.- --- -- f ed to as blobby objects due to certain degree of th .
etr. Tl1ese .
obJerts are
h
re err • · b d d
cept that a physical obJect is oun e by a set off
e1r f1llidit~,, ,,
· . based on t e con . aces A. y~ 1
d1rme l t:i b' ·ncr primitives such as faces and con tams vertices, edges 1· solid ~ ·rep \
, ated by com uu " . f 1f . , ool\ ••1od I .
n e, . 1.d model The method 1s use u or creating 2 ½2 d' t-S, and b e is
--. , ing can create a so 1 · , . - llll . od·
;;::e: ener~ted models are axisymmetric and have umform thickness _(i.e., ext::1on lllod~;s. i
.
The space 1s por 1one
t· d 1·11to 1·ecions
o
called cells, and those cells are filled . h ed lllod s_
. . . W1t els)
·t te the ob3'ect being represented. Decompos1t10ns mto regula r·tnateriaj .
t herefore const : u . r, lXed-si anu
are called spatial enumerations. zeceJJs
f
Review Questions ._ ·_- -, ·==='='='~-"::--=::,-?---~~, ]
l. \Nbat do you mean by polygon surfaces. Draw one polygon surface. -----~ I
2.. Distinguish between quadric and superquadric surfaces.
3. Explain blobby objects with help of diagrams.
4.. Describe constructive solid geometry with suitable examples.
;:,. Explain boundary representation technique with examples.
6. 'i\nat do you mean by colour models. Explain different types of colour models.
.,
; . Explain help spaces. How this technique is different from constructive solid geometry. \

8. £>..---plain various set operations being used in constructive solid geometry.

9. Write a not on CSG tree with examples.
10. Distinguish between solid and surface modeling.
11. Describe constructive solid geometry with suitable examples. How three dimensional objects
M\.'1Ilg translational, rotational or other symmetry are modelled? Explain with suitable examples.
(UPTU 2005-06)
12. Write short note on constructive solid geometry (CSG). (GBTU 2010-11)
13. Write a short notes on quadric and duper-quadric surfaces. (GBTU 2011-12)
14. Explain constructive solid geometry. What is the role of Primitives and Boolean operationsin
CSG? Explain with suitable examples. (GBTU 2011-12)
15. \Vrite a note on:
(i) CSG
(ii) Boolean operations.