Bought & SoIJ:

* BRIDLES * BELTS
* B CKlES * BOLOS
* CLOTHI * CHAPS
G
* B.ITS ** SPURS EDITORIAL STAFF
* BOOKS SADDlES
PUBUSHER &EDITOR·IN-CHIEF

HIGH N'OON Michae~ Goldstein

ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER. &:
Western Collectibles MANAGING EDITOR
Peg Short
(213) 202-9010 by appointment (111)'
SENIOR EDITOR
(213) 202·1340 (fax) Nancy Bartels
ART DlRECI'OR
CIRClE .A-5 ON IREADER REPLVCARD Jean Sykes
ADVERTISING SAlES .MANAGER
Patricia FLam
SALES COORDINATOR
Mary Michelson
(lRCUlATION
Pamela Nolan
Debbie Donigian

RANDALL PUBLISHING STAFF

PRESIDENT
Michael Goldstein
VICE PRESIDENT
Richard GoldsWn
VICE PRESIDENT/GEN. MGR.
Peg Short
ACCOUNTING
Laura Kinnan.e
ART CONSULTANT
Marsha Goldstein.

RAND.ALL PUBLlSHlNC CO., INC.

1401 Lunt Avenue
P.O .. Hox 1426
Elk Grove, [L 60007
(708) 437-6604

OUR COVER
'Sun and Planet" mechanism develop.ed
by James Watt to modify his steam
engine to achieve rotary motion. In this
system a cog wheel is attached' to the
connecting rod ,and then married to
another, usually smaller, cogwheel
joined to a flywheel. The machine
shown was manufactured around 1787
by Boulton & Watt. Itis at the Science
Museum in Edinburgh:. Scotland'. Our
CIRCLE A.o ON READER REPLYCARD thanks to Mr. Richard' E Beale of
Brisbane, Australia, for use of the
photos and information Or! this early
steam engine.
2 'Geonec'hnolog:y
The Journal 01 Gear Manufacturing

CONTENTS

FEATURES

.A .REVIEW OF A:CNA, ISO, AND BS GEAR STANDAR~S •

.P'ART 1 - PITTINC 10
Doug Wall:on, YUloIIen Shl, Stan Taylor,
University of Binningnam, Birmingham. England

THE INVOLUTE HEUOOm AND THE UNIVERSAL GEAR 18

Leonard J. Smith. Invincible 'Gear Co., Livonia, M]

UMITATION OF WORM AND' WORM CEAR SURFA:CES

TO AVOID UNDERCUITING ••• 30
Vadim Kill, Purdue University, Hammond, IN

ED.lTORIAL 7

VIEWPOINT 9

BACK, TO BAJiICS • " '.

,F1JNDAMENTALS OF BEVEL 'GEAR HARD CUTnNG 36
Yogi, Sharma. Philadelphia Gear Co., King of Prussia. PA

CLASS[FJEDS 46

NovemberJDecember, 1990_' V_o_I._7_, _N_o_. _6

IN'ovemoer/Decem'ber 199Qi 3
 Knowing
it's Ground
on a ••

BHS-HOFLER ...
Unsurpassed in quality and speed
- with capability to grind tooth
modifications required for today's
and tomorrow's needs.
In a world of ever growing compe-
tition and demand for Quality, only
the best will survive. Therefore
modernize your gear production
now where you need it most of all
- in the gear grinding room.
BHS-HOFLER offers gear grinding
machines in 14 sizes for gears
from 1" to 160" in diameter -
manual- or CNC-technology.
- For the first time ever:
precision pallet loading system.
- Newly developed NC-dressable
grinding wheels.
Call or write for more information:

j}fj!J
147
.. II
BHS-HOFLER CORP.
P. O.Box 127
Sky Manor Road
Pittstown, NJ 08867
Telephone: 908-996-6922
Teletax; 908-996-6977
Telex: 380576
* ..•A reference list with more than 500 satis-
fied customers world-wide is available for the
asking who's who in the gear industry.

CIRClE A-7 ON READER REPLYCARD

 ~BS;lhiliujil

The IKashifuji KN 1150CNC

Gear Hobber. High aocuracy
assured through Irigid construction.
Full 5 axis eNe controls plus
hob rotation. Exce'ls over a wide
range ,of high speedl hobbing
applications. Small foot Iprint.

Easy and fast changeover

accommodates varyingllproduction lots.
Handl'es gear sizesfrom 3f4" to40~
High production capacity
with fast auto loaders ..

Kashifuji KN·150 eNe Gear Hobbers.

Contad. Kashifuil Product Manager,
Midwest Branch,
Cosa Corporation
1,680 S. Uvernois,
IRochester" M148063
Tel. 313--652·7404
Fax. 313·652-1450:.

COSACORPORATION" MACHINETOOLDIVISION
17 P,hilips Pal'lkway, Montvale" NJ 07645 Tel. 2011-3911-0700 Fax. 2011-391-4261
C'IRCLE A~e ON IREADER IREPlY CARD
 actUring
ala, nU IFro ,- 'Start
. . _, f'

"e.t.\-t
- p~\&\QI\.
S'Plen-
•
'10'
G- e'3' r
, '
.
'IVI
- - rn.

TOtal QUallY .
Part blank and
gear cutting tools,
play .cl'hical lroles ill
'q,lJality contnll.
,oller optional solt-
ware packages fur in-
specting gear blanks for
circular geometry and g,eer
cutting tools, such as hobs,
shaperlshaver cutters,
and broaches.

Gear Testing using Gener:aUve Metrology tech-

niques, is enhanced by computerized aute-
mallon andanalys[s. Ti'ue index, lead,
and involute testing are performed

Index
Process control' 'can be
implemented by anal-
yzing data collected
lin gear testing., We
offer SPC software,
'to evaluate x-bar, R.
histogram, and
tooth surface
topological
studles,

31n2-4ac 'Gear A,nalyzer Is,

one of a family of our gear
and 'gearClfttlng tool! analyzers.
For a free'full·color brochure
describing our Gear analyzers,
write or call MI& M IPrecision
Systems, 300 Progress Rd.,
Wesl Carrollton, OH 45449\
513f859cS273,fAX 5131859-4452.

M&M PAsc,s"aN
_SYSTEMS
AN ACME-CLEVELAND COMPANY
CIRCI.!E A.!9 ON REAOE.R REPLY CAiRO
 - PART IIII

B -
eginning with our ne.xt issue', som.e of.the pr.omised changes in fo.rmat f.or Gear
Technology will begin showing up in these pages. As part of our commitment to pro-
vide you with important information about the gear and gear products industry,
weare expanding our coverage. In addition to continuing to publish some afthe best results
IT'S YOUR MOVE
GIEAR TECHNOLOGY always
,ofgear research and development throughout the world, we will be adding special columns
covering vital aspects of the gearing business. wants 10 be responsive to its
In our Shop Floorcolumn, several well-known gearing professionals will discuss prac-
tical design and manufacturing problems that appear in the work place. We invite you to readers. Please send us your
submit your questions to this panel of experts.
Management Maners will cover some of the challenges of running a gear design or reactions to th changes in our
manufacturi ng busl n ssin t he 90s. We willi cover such matters asdoing business overseas,
training, employee problems, product liability, marketing for your company, and other magazine. If you have ideas for
items of concern to gear shops, both large and small.
Along with these additions to our additional or different columns,
editorial line-up, wewilll conlinueto pro-
vide several art ides on gear design,
cover art, quesuons for our col-
manufacturing, and research in every
issue. Thls is one part ofthe magazine that
will not change. While we are undergoing umnists, or just would like the
a facelift, we have not lost sight of the fact
that providing the latest information about opportunity to respond to
gear rnanufacturtng, research, and devel-
opment is our primary goal something you've r ad in our
Along with these editorial im-
provem nts, we shan be making some pages, pleas let us know. A
cosmetic changes to ,Gear 7:echnology.
Look for some new 'type faces, headline phone call or I tter to our
styles, and design elements to appear
beginning with next issue. Our goal with ed itorial offices is always
these changes is to make the magazine
more contemporary, more readable, and
welcome.
more useful to our readers.
Perhaps the most readily apparent
We also continue to remain on
change 1.0 Gear Technology will be on
our cover. W:ith some regret, we have
reached the end ofour series of gear draw- the lookout (or articles on all
ings by Leonardod'a Vinci. In the course or
nearly seven years of publishing, we have aspens or gear manufacture and
used most of the artist's gear-related
drawings, and commissioning new ones is. beyond the power of our editorial and art staff. design. These articles remain rhe
Instead, we will be featunngfour-color art on our covers. If you or youlr company have
photos of gea rs, gears in motion, or gear cutti ng that you! hink would rnakea good cover heart of our magazine. PI ase
for Gear Technology, please send them to our art department for consideration. We will
credit you or vour company as the source, and the artwork wil!1be returned to you after consider sharing any article you
the magazine is printed.
Our goal inexecuting these changes to Gear r:echnologyis to keep up with the chang- have writ! n with us. Call or
ing needs and interests of you, om readers. As you strive to remain competitive and keep
up with the changing business climate, we ~- write for a copy or our editorial
want to keep in step with you and con- ~ , . ..

~~~r::of~~ :el~~~~~~r::i~s:~r' ;~f:~~:~e .• -~. -- . -~ - guidelin s.

Michael Goldstein, IEditor/Publish

NovemberjDecem'berl,990 7
Great American Geannakers
deserve World Class finishing
equipment too!
That's why we feature
CIMA KANZAKI 'Gear Shavers.

Built tough to withstand rigorous gearmaking

conditions, C~MA KANZAKI combines heavy
duty construction with ground and hardened
slides for maximum system rigidity. The
result. .. accuracy levels to ± .00004" on
workpieces up to 18" O.D. Additional
standard features like Vickers hydraulics, a
Trahan central lubrication system and a 20
gpm coolant system complete the ClMA
KANZAKI gear shaver ... designed and built.
to deliver years of trouble-free operation.
Combined with the 4, 5 or 6 axis CNC
control of your choice, the CIMA KANZAKlI
Gear finishing system provides unparalleled
operating flexibility, faster set-ups for greater
productivity and an easy DNC interface for
improved managementinfonnation.
And .... CIMA KANZAKlI models can be equipped with
semi- or tully-automatic tool changers and automated load/
unload systems for in line (cell) applications.
CIMA KANZAK~ is proud to serve Great American
Gearmakers with equipment that REDUCES CYCLE
TIMES, IMPROVES or MONITORS QUALITY and
INCREASES SHOP PROFIT ABILITY. And, we support
equipment with unparalleled spare parts & service
capability ... if it's ever required.
MODEL 'GSF 400 Ask our sales representative forfurther details or contact
eNe,6 CIMA-USA,lDivision of' GDPM Inc., 50] Southlake Blvd.,
Richmond, VA 23236. Phone (804) 794-9764,
FAX (804) 794-6187. Telex 6844252.

Global Technology with a U.S..Base

CIRCLE A-lOON READER REPLYCARD
 VIEWPOINT GEAR
THE LEADER IN

DEBURRING

Dear Editor:

Yourartide on the ]TCs Report to the President on

the condition of the U.S. gear industry (Sept.lOcL
issue) was most interesting, I am wondering if the
total report neglected to mention that some of our
Lnability to export gears is due to our reluctance to
provide metric countries with the metric module-based
gears that overseas customers demand,
"ZERO-SETUP'
I also hope your readers are apprised of the fact
that those involved in furnishing gears to the U. S. • Radin Modell 24-Universal' gear chamfer-
government as contractors will have to provide ing/deburring machine - 2 models.
metric-dimensioned gears after 1992. '. Ehminates costly manual machine setup.
Sincerely, • C.N.C. controlled - 8 or 10 axis.
Valerie Antoine • Part program storage -1000 pip.
Executive Director • Program loadingl - M.D.I. or Disc.
• Single or doubl'ehead machines.
U.S. Metric Association, Inc.
1817 - 18th Ave.
Rockford. IlL 611104
8115~39S~1010 IFAX.S15-398-11047
EDITOR'S NOTE: The relevent portion of the Omni-
DEALERS WELOOME!
bus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988 reads as
follows: CIRCLE A-lION READER REPLYCARD
"... It is therefore the declared policy of the United
States {l)to designate the metric system of measure-
ment as the preferred system of weights and measures
for U.S. trade and commerce: (2) to require that each
Federal. agency, by a date certain and to the extent
ecnomically feasible by the end, of the fiscal year 1992, 0,
use the metric system of measurement in its procure-
ments" grants, and other business-related ,a.ctivilties,
except to the extent that such use is impractical or is
likely to cause significant inefficiences or loss of G~ GRINO FACLIlY·
LONO RVN PAO!)UCTION
COMPlETE GEI<.RBOxeS
• SIIIIGlE GEARS
markets to U.S. firms ... " S
I' S
, I'
Readers should also note that in a july 30 letter to AMERICAN STANDARD R E
A C
Secretary of Commerce Robert A. Mosbacher, NASA L ,
II
informed the secretary that "Effective with the start of _
WORWS· _
- SPIAAL8- 1IEVElS· HEILWI
GEARS· SEGMENTS B
L
,
the new fiscal year, October 1, 1990', aU Requests for SI'IJIoIES· CWS1'ERS ' _"11 E
V
S
T

Proposals for new NASA flight programs will require INTERNAL & EXTERNAL E S
L
use of the metric system of measurement." A memo .
dated July 20, 1990, which sets NASA policy on
STATE OF THE ART HEAT TREAT FACILITY ON PREMISES
metric conversion states: "Ongoing programs may
continue use of the conventional inch-pound system
baseline for hardware design, but must plan to accom-
modate the metric hardware that will result from this
I!M©
transition. " EXECUT1VE OFFICES MANUFACTURING
er.o_ I_nol Palk
FA'CILIIlY
'81'Gr~A"""'"
_ POll<. N'twJ • ...,. 074-32 Wourttaln Top, Pannll'Mmia 11707
201""",$-2413 717-47.-5440
Letters for this column should be addressed to Letters
to the Editor, GEAR TECHNOLOGY, P.Q. Box 1426,
Elk Grove Vill'age, IL 60009. Letters sent to this col-
umn become .the property of GEAR TECHNOLOGY.
Names wi1l be withheld upon request, however, no CIRCLIE .A-112ON IREADER'IREPlYCARD
anonymous letters will' be published.
November /Decernbet 1990 9
 AGMA, ISO, and B,S Gear Stan'dard's
P,artI Pitting Resistance Rati,ngs
Doug Walton, Yuwen Shi, Stan Taylor,
Mechanical Engineering Department
University of Birmingham, Birmingham, U.K.

Summary: ting resistance and bending strength ratings, we have main-

A study of AGMA 218, the draft ISO standard 6336, and ly excluded any reference to AGMA 2001.
5S 436: 1986 methods for rating gear tooth strength and sur- Although, theoretically, any standard will produce a gear
face durability for metallic spur and helical gears is pair which is satisfactory, it is no longer enough to accept any
presented. A comparison of the standards mainly focuses on standard when other procedures might produce more com-
fundamental formulae and influence factors, such as the petitive designs. On the other hand, if the design calls for
load distribution factor, geometry factor, and others. No at- special operating conditions, such as shock loads or flexible
tempt is made to qualify or judge the standards other than drives, it may be advantageous for the designer to address a
to comment on the facilities or lack of them in each standard standard which deals more closely with these conditions, In
reviewed. In Part I a comparison of pitting resistance ratings addition, the customer may specify the code to be used. A
is made, and in the subsequent issue, Part IIwill deal with working knowledge of more than one standard is desirable,
bending stress ratings and comparisons of designs. particularly if the product is aimed atinternational markets.
An understanding of the differences between gear standards
is, therefore, important. It should be pointed out, however,
that in a review of gear standards it is impossible to cover
Introduction
every aspect of each code. ISO 6336 Parts 1 to 4, for exam-
Standard spur and helical gears are usually designed to
ple, contain over 90 figures and over 20 tables.
specific standards to meet the requirements of proportions,
manufacturing accuracy, and load rating. The load rating is
the most important issue discussed in AGMA (American Standards for Spur and Helical Gears
Gear Manufacturers Association), ISO (International Stan- The old British Standard, BS 436:1940, (I} in use for nearly
dards Organization), DIN Deutsche lndustrie Norrnen) and fifty years, was a revision of the original Specification for
BSI (British Standards Institution) gear standards. The stan- Machine Cut Gears first issued in 1932. During its long ex-
dards written by these organizations are widely used for gear istence, the rating method remained the same with only minor
design throughout the worJd and also fonn the basis of revisions. Though obsolescent, it is still used extensively
"minority" gear standards. China, for example, issues a gear throughout Britain and elsewhere, mainly because it is easy
design standard based on ISO. European gear standards are to use. The standard rates gears on the basis of bending
now becoming very similar. The new BS and the draft ISO strength and contact stresses, which are referred to as wear
standard share much in common with DIN. This paper con- (meaning non-abrasive wear). The tooth root bending
siders BS 436:1986, the draft ISO standard 6336, and AGMA strength is based on the Lewis equation, (2) considering both
218.01. Since this review was written, AGMA introduced tangential and radial loads. The effect of stress concentrations
AGMA.2001-B88, although this new standard is not con- at the root is not taken into account directly, but allowances
sidered here. However, the trend toward a universal standard are made in the use of the allowable bending strength of the
continues, with AGMA 2001 publishing rating factors, some gear material, values for which are supplied in the standard.
of which are similar to the draft ISO standard. The bending strength is also factored for running speed and
This article is intended for designers who will appreciate a life. Contact stresses are based on a modified Hertz equation
review of this complex subject ..Many designers in the USA with allowances for speed, running time, and geometry. The
will still use AGMA 218 because they are familiar with it, and latter item is taken into consideration by a zone factor, which
will, we suspect, continue to do so for some time ..(This situa- accounts for the influence on the Hertzian stress of tooth flank
tion also exists in the UK with respect to the old and new curvature at the pitch point, and converts the tangential load
British Standards on gear ratings.) It will take the authors to a normal force. No serious attempt was made to keep this
some time before they have enough experience in the use of standard up to date on newer gear materials and processes to
AGMA 2001 and have been able to validate it against real predict the higher performances being achieved in practice.
designs and other rating standards. While there are marked Another serious deficiency is that no account was made for
similarities between the old and new AGMA formulas for pit- surface finish or uneven load distribution.
t 0 Gear Technology
 NOMENCLATURE
BS 436:1940 Cv, Helical overlap factor
d Pitch diameters of pinion and wheel d Operating pitch diameter of pinion
Ee Equivalent Young's modulus F Net facewidth of the narrowest number
F Face width I Geometry factor for pitting resistance
k Constant in Hertz contact stress formula mN Load sharing ratio
K Pitch Eactor np Pinion running speed
n, N Pinion and wheel running speed P 1I Diarnetral pitch
P DiametraJ pitch Sac Allowable contact stress number
R Gear ratio
85436: 1986 and ISO/DIS 6336
Rr Relative radius of curvature
b Face width
s Maximum contact stress set in the surface layers of
d1 Reference diameter of pinion
the gear cylinders
Sc Surface stress factor KA Application factor
T Number of teeth on wheel KHa Transverse load factor for contact stress
Xc Speed factor for contact. stress KH,9 Face load factor for contact stress
Z Zone factor Kv Dynamic factor
n1 Pinion running speed
at Transverse pressure angle at reference cylinder
SHmm Minimum demanded safety factor on contact stress
atw Transverse pressure angle at pitch cylinder
I3b Base helical angle ZM (BS only material quality factor for contact stress)
ZN life factor for contact stress
AGMA218.01 Zx Size factor for contact stress
C.. Application faetar for pitting resistance ZE Elasticity factor for contact stress
Cc Curvature factor at pitch line ZH Zone factor for contact stress
CI Surface condition factor ZL,ZR,ZV Lubricant influence. roughness, and speed factor for
CH Hardness ratio factor pitting
CL life factor for pitting resistance Zw Work-hardening factor for contact stress
em Load distribution factor for pitting resistance Z, Contact ratio factor for contact stress
c;, Elastic coefficient Zfj Helix angle factor
CR Reliability factor for pitting resistance at Transverse pressure angle at reference cylinder
C, Size factor for pitting resistance atw Transverse pressure angle at pitch cylinder
CT Temperature factor for pitting resistance (3b Base helix angle
c,.. Dynamic factor for pitting resistance 'O'Hlim Basic endurance limit for contact stress
Cx Contact height factor uHP Permissible contact stress
---
Smith(3) described B5 436 as "an. average experience radial. component of the gear load, load distribution due to
method, wherebygear manufacturers and users collaborate misalignment between meshing teeth, andload sharing. The
to provide extremely empirical rules of thumb based on 'Critical bending stress is assumed to occur at the tooth fillet
operating experience. Permissible loads are specified for but, as in the old British Standard, the effect of blank
'typical' manufacturir1g accuracies of a given class with geometry (e.g., rimand web size and how the relative size of
'typical.' loading cycles and corrections for speed, etc." these effects stresses at thetooth root) is not considered.
Although the standard did not take into account factors The 150 standard, ISO 6336,<5) was issued in. 1980,
known to influence bending and contact stresses, such as ap- though it is sHUa draft. The standard covers a wide range of
plication conditions (i.e., the load fluctuations caused by ex- designs and applications, and is the most detailed document
ternal sources), system dynamics and gear accuracy and the among the gear rating standards considered here. It contains
benefits of surface hardening, the standard served its users a vast amount of collected knowledge and the options to
well. calculate factors at various levels afcomplexi ty. It gives pro-
The original AGMA standard was issued in 1926, and the cedures for determining gear capacity as limited by pitting
first draft of AGMA 218.01,(4) used. in this review, was and tooth breakage, as in other standards, and also considers
drafted in 1973 and approved for publication in 1982. AGMA
218 also rates gearson the basis of bending strength and sur- AUTHORS:
face contact stresses, (referred to as surface durability or pit-
OR. DOUG WAlTON is a Senior Lecturer in the Mechanical
ting) but also introduces a. number of other factors in the Engineering DepartmMt of the University of Binningham. He ho.lds
rating equations. For example, influence factors are used to Breck and PhD degrees in Aeomautical Engineering and is ChAir-
take into account load distribution across the face width, rnan of the department's Design Group. He is a Mernber of the In-
quality ofthebcansmission drive, and transmission accuracy stitution of Mechanical El1,gineersand the British Gear.Association.
relating to manufacture, Considerable knowledge and judg-
YUWEN SHI is a visting~esearch student from the Harbin Institute
ment is required to determine values for these factors. of Technology, People's RepubUc of China. He has a BS degree in
Compared to the old British Standard, AGMA 218 is con- Mechanical Engineering and is curren tly working in the Area of the
siderably mare comprehensive. Ratings for pitting resistance CAD of geared drives at the U.niversi~y of Binningh.am.
are based on 'the Hertzian equation for contact pressure be-
tw'een curved surfaces, which is modified for the ,effectof load DR. STAN TAYlOR is a Lecturer in the Mechanical Engineering
Department of the University of Binningnam. He holds a PhD in
sharing between adjacent teeth. The Lewis equation has been MechAnical' Engineering and is III Member of the Institution of
madified to account far ,effects, such as stress concentrations, Mechanical Engineers. He luts been ,It pioneer in the use of computers
at the tooth root, compressive stresses resulting from the in soioing engineering problems.
NovemberjDec,ember 1990 11
 scuffing ..The basic equations are modified by applying. in- and geometry factors and allowable stress. In the comparison
fluence factors as in A:GMA. These procedures demand a of geometry factors, aD the factors which are linked withgear
realistic appraisal of all influence factors, particularly those tooth geometry were combined to form a "total geometry fac-
for the allowable stress, the probability of failure, and the ap- tor". Comparisons showed that ISO usually gives a higher
propriate safety factor. ISO also offers three different factor of safety and higher calculated bending and contact
methods for determining bending and contact stresses and stresses for case-hardened gears compared to AGMA, but
their influence factors, depending on the application and ac- lower values for-through-hardened examples. It may be noted
curacy required. Since the latest German standard, DIN 3990: that ISO provides data on the latest and most advanced gear
1987, (6) is substantially similar to ISO 6336,. a detailed discus- materials and treatments .. In another paper{U) by the same
sionof DIN is excluded. authors the concept of at basic stress was used, defined as the
The new British standard, BS 436:1986,(7) is similar to stress which is calculated if all the modifying factorsare set
ISO / DIS 6336 and is a complete revision of the old standard. at unity. The results showed that ISO usually gives a higher
It is, however, much more user friendly than [SO. Like the basic bending stress, but a lower basic contact stress com-
other standards, the new British standard uses modified Lewis pared to AGMA. Again, comparisons were made of
and Hertz equations, using correction factors, such as the geometry, dynamic load distribution factors, life fact,ors, and
dynamic factor to account for load fluctuations arising from allowable stresses.
manufacturing errors, and a load distribution factor to take Mathematical means were provided by Castellani. and
into account the increase in local load due to non-uniform Castel1i(1Jf to compute the parameters for calculating the
loading arising from conditions such as shaft stiffness and, in tooth form factor and the stress correction factor (allowing
the case of helical gears, helix error. The correction factors are for stress concentrations at the tooth fillet) which are used in
the same or are similar to those used. by ISO. Geometry fac- AGMA and ISO. Comparisons made between these two fac-
tors in the new BS 436 are similar to those in ISO (method B) tors in the gear strength ratings gave the following two
willIe other methods in ISO use different approaches for differences:
geometry factors ..The new British standard, however, draws 1) A different choice of reference points on the tooth root
on a considerable amount of previously published research profile for the tooth fonn and stress correction factors is
and uses additional parameters, like materia] quality factors, made. ISO chooses the same critical point for both tooth form
not allowed for by ISO or AGMA. This standard does not and stress correction factors relating to the point of the fillet
work on "typical" figures for each rating factor as in the old whose tangent forms a 30'0 angle with the tooth axis. The
standard, but uses researched data to predict load increases critical point for the tooth form factor depends on the gear
caused by deflections, alignment tolerances, and helix type (spur or helical) and its accuracy. AGMAconJ>idersthe
modifications. Throughout this review, the term.BS refers to minimum curvature radius for the stress correction factor
the new standard, except where stated. relaJing to the point where the .fil1etconnects to the root rude.
In the stress analysis procedures of BS and ]50, bending 2) Both standardsassume that the load application side of
and contact stresses are classified into three groups: 1) th • th na.
.. 12'.00. a nk IS iti _1 WIith . respec
. ·cn.ccu !Jcn . _. f a ilure,
. . t t 0 bending
Nominal or basic stresses, which <we calculated for AG!V1Atakes this assumption into consider-ation by subtract-
geometrically perfect gears meshing with perfect load ing the radial, compressive stress component from the bend-
distribution, 2) Actual stresses, calculated from the nominal ing stress, while ISO only considers the tangential bending
stresses, but allowing for manufacturing and mounting er- stress. ISO compensates for this by making allowances on the
rors, and 3) Permissible stresses, calculated for the gear values-of the stress correction factor.
materia] taking into account the required life, gear finish,
lubrication, and the minimum specified.factors of safety. The Comparison of Pitting Resistance Ratings
BS differs significantly from ISO and DIN in the determina- Comparing gear standards can present difficulties for the
tion of permissible stresses. fonowing reasons:
1) There are a number of influence factors included in each
Literature Survey standard, but the number and the numerical values of these
Comparisons have been made between AGMA and ISO factors differ ..Taking the power rating formula for pitting
covering basic theories and results for applications. Those resistance as an example, BS 436:1940 has four influence fac-
comparisons that were published were mainly based on old tors, while there are twelve in AG!V1A 218, compared with
versions of AGMA (A:GMA 215.0'1 and AGMA 225 .01) (8.9) sixteen in both ISO and the BS. These are discussed later.
and the older, approved version of ISO/DP 6336. No de- 2) The determination of influence factors usually requires
tailed comparisons have been made between BS 436 and other a knowledge of additional parameters, some of which are not
standards. More recently some cornpasisons have been made always readily available. For example, in order to use the
between the latest British and German standards by Hof- analytical method to calculate the AGMA geometry factor
mann, (10) who described the theoretical basis of the latest BS for pitting resistance, four additional data items (a curvature
and DIN and the differences in determining permissible factor at the pitch line to determinethe radius ofcurvatare
stresses. between the two contact surfaces; a.contact height factor to
Imwalle and Labath(ll) made a design survey of different adjust the location of the height of the tooth profile where the
gear sets for the purpose of comparing AGMA (AGMA 215 stress is caIcuIated;a. helical factor to account for the effect or
and AGMA 225) and [SalOP 6336. The results were helix angle on contact stresses; and a load sharing ratio) have
summarized for a comparison of dynamic load distribution to be employed .]:0 determine these four factors more infor-
I 2 Gear Jechnol'ogy
 COMPLE,TEWITIH ,A,LLlE,NBRADLlE,V PLe
C'ONTRO!l ,A,ND CRT O'PERATOR IINTEIRFACE

Ea'Syto use canned cycles inolude: Variable Hob Speeds"

Variable axial a'nd radial feed rates~ Hob, shift inct:ements
and ft:equency. Dwell times, 'Single, dou.ble and r:adiaJ'cut
cycles, Axial cycle working' limits, - and muoh' more!
Specific p,arameters are fin,e tuned throug,h simple' M.D.!. input.
Call or write today..

FAX. 203 :27110487

1

BOX 400' W. JOHNSON AVE. CHESHIRE, CT. 06410

CIRCLE A-13 ONI READER REPLY CARD

mation is required and some, like generating the tooth layout fects on the rating results, although specific values cannot
to give the necessary geometry data, may be difficult to be compared.
obtain. Table 1classifies all the contact stress influence factors into
3) Each standard has its own definitions for the influence either common or non-common groups where it can be seen
factors, but factors bearing the same names do not necessarily that the old British Standard had few parameters for com-
have the same effects. This makes direct comparisons of in- parison with other standards. The similarity between BSand
fluence factors difficult. For example, although AGMA and ISO isalso apparent. A comparison between the infl'uence
ISO both introduce a service factor, the values cannot be factors given ineach standard is made in the following
compared directly. paragraphs.
The terms used in each standwdare listed in the 1) Application factors. An application factor is used in
nomenclature . AGMA, ISO,. and BS to evaluate external influences tending
The power rating for contact stressesgiven by BS436: 1940 to apply a greater load to the gear teeth than that based on
steady running conditions. Typical external influences are
the drive characteristics (e..g., smoothness and load fluctua-
XcScZFNT tions) of the prime mover and of the driven machine ..Values
(1)
126000KP suggested in ISO correspond to those for the overload fac-
tor in AGMA 215. While no data appears in. AGMA 218,
Equation 1can be rewritten as these factors may be found in related AGMA application
standards. BS gives more detailed conditions than ISO,
n Fd2
____ Rr_Xe
0.8 s2
(2) although values are similar.
126000 d k Ee 2) Dynamic factors. As discussed above, the application
For AGMA 218.01 the transmissible power based on pitting is factor is used to handle dynamic loads unrelated to tooth ac-
curacy. The effect of dynamic load related gear tooth ac-
n Fd2
e .. (3) curacy is then evaluated by the Inclusion of a dynamic fac-
126000 tor which accounts for effects ·of gear set mass elastic effects
and transmission errors. AGMA modified the experimental
The as 436:1986 power rating is work of Wellauer(14l to obtain dynamic factors as a function
b d12n1 u 1 1 of transmission error. These accuracy levels can under cer-
2
tain manufacturing conditions be the same as the gear quality
126000 u+1 ZH Z~ numbers given in AGMA 390. (15)
ISO dynamic factors are based on Buckingham's incremen-
talload methodU6J and work by Weber and Banaschek.(l7J
and for ISO lOIS 6336 the power is ISO (analytical) method B presents a calculation procedure
for the main resonance speed and divides the running speed
bdlnl U 1 1 into three sectors. The dynamic factor corresponds to each
of these speed sectors and may help designers to adjust the
126000 u+I zi Z; z3 operating speed or alter the design to avoid critical speeds ..
where ISO method C is only applicable to gears with accuracy
numbers of 3 to 10 and cannot be used for gears operating at
or near the main. resonance speed. The dynamic factor in the
UHP = (O"H1irn ZN). z, ZR Zv Zw z, (7)
BS is very dose to [SO method C. In the old BS, dynamic ef-
SHmin
£ects were not considered. The speed factor used in the old BS
From Equations 2-7 it may be seen that for a given gear is not to be confused with dynamic loads, but was intended
ratio the transmissible power is proportional to the square to allow f·or load reversals and their eHed on fatigue during
of the pinion pitch circle diameter and permissible contact the life of the gear.
stresses. Therefore, to increase gear power capacity in terms It has been customary fer AGMA to put the dynamic fac-
of surface durabilty, it is more effective to increase the pinion tor in the denominator of the rating formula, whereas ISO
peD or permissible surface stresses than to increase the gear and BS apply it to the numerator. Nevertheless, the dynamic
pair facewidth. factor is defined as a multiplier of the transmitted load in all
The pitting resistance related factors above may be the standards, although some believe that the effect should
grouped into common and non-common factors. Common be additive. (18)
factors are those which have the same meanings in all the 3) Load distribution factors. A load distribution factor is
standards, (not all these factors appear in the standards) and used in the rating equations to reflect the non-uniform load
thei:r values can becompared directly. For example, the distribution along the contact lines caused by deflections,
dynamic factor whichallows for internally generated gear alignment, and helix modifications (including crowning and
tooth loads induced by non-conjugate meshing action of the end relief), and profile and pitch deviations ..The evaluation
gear teeth, appears in all the standardsexcept the old BS, and procedure for this factor is rather complex, siace many
values can be compared directly. Non-common factors, variables are involved, and some of them, such as the com-
such as the geometry factor,are those which are only ponent of the gear system alignment and manufacturing
equivalent to each other in the sense of having the same eE- errors, are difficult to determine.
l' 4 Gear feehnology
 TABLE 1 COMPARISON OF PITTING RESISTANCE INFLUENCE FACTORS
BS436:1940 AGMA21B BS 436:1986 150/0[56336
Geometry R~·8 u 1 u 1
- I -- --- --
Factors- Z].Z2 Z2Ii
d u + 1 Z"; Z2• u+1 H ,

Elasticity (k~}O.5
Factors"
Cp ZE ZE
Size 1 1
Factors"
- Cs - -
Z2~ Z;
Lubrication 1 ]
Film - C~·5CT
Factors"
ZLZVZR ZtZVZR
Application
Factors]
- Ca KA KA

Dynamic 1 1
Factors]
- Cv - -
Kv Ky
Load 1 1
Distribution - Cm
KHaKHIl' KH ..KHIl
Factorst
Work
Hardening - CH Zw Zw
Eactors]

Life
Factorst
- CL ZN ZN
Reliability
Factors]
- CR SHlim SHmin

Material
Quality - - ZM -
Factor]

Speed
Factor] Xc - - -

t denotes common and .. non-common factors

'""--

In AGMA the load distributi.on factor is the product of the The ISO load distribution factor is also the product of the
face and 'transverse load distnbution ~fa.ctors.The face or transverseand longitudina] load factors. Three differentap-
IongituilinaJ (as described in the ISO and BS) load distribu- preaches have been made by ISO to detennine the
tion factor accounts for the non-uniform load across the face longitudinal load factor ..Method B is a final proof rating
of the gear. while the transverse load factor reflects the effect calculation method based on known manufacturingerrors.
of non-uniform distribution of load down the tooth flank due Method C is a preliminary rating method and uses assumed
to profile, pitch deviations. and tooth modifications. values of manufacturing errors within limits of prescribed
Although AGlv1Auses this factor to allow for the effect of the tolerances. Method 0 is even more simplified than method
non-unilorm distribution of load among the teeth.which share C. The transverse load factor is a function of longitudinal load
the t.otalload, no specific wonnanon is given in the standard. factor, contact ratio, pitch tolerance, and mean load inten-
The AGMA standard assumes that if the gears are accurately sity. Procedures for calculating the load distribution factors
manufactured, the value of the transverse load distribution in ISO are the most complex and are still under revision . Load
factor can be 'taken as unity. AGMA provides both empirical distribution factors in the BSemploy virtually the same pro-
and analytical methods to. determine the face load distribu- cedure as method C in 150,. except for a diffef'ence in deter-
tion factor ..The empirical method is recommended for nor- mining total misalignment. ISO gives .five approximation
ma1,relatively stiff gear .a.ssemblies,and only a minimum methods for this. while the BS only gives one.
amount of information is required. The second method is 4) Life factors. Life factors take into. account the effects ot
based. on elastic and non-elastic lead mismatch and needs in- increments in permissible stresses if a limited number of load
formation about design. manufacture. and mounting and is. cycles is demanded, Among AGMA, ISO,. and BS,.the most
theoretically, suitable tor any ge.ar design .. distinct diHel'ence lies in the definition. of endurance limits.
November/December 1990 1.5
 AGMA 218 sets 107 load cycles as the endurance limit for and can be chosen according to the reliability required. BS
hoth bending and pitting, while ISO and BS define limits of and ISO leave the user to specify a value for this factor.
2x10P, 5x107, and l09cyc1es for contact stresses ..Although Minimum demanded safety factors for bending strength and
there is no life factor in the old BS, a procedure to calculate contact stress are recommended by both ISO and BS to reflect
variable duty cycles by determming an equivalent running the confidence in the actual operating conditions and material
time was provided. BS 436:1986 also has a procedure to deal properties, but the values for these factors are different. The
with variable duty cycles, while this aspect of gear running safety factor for bending strength in the old BS is defined as
is not considered by ISO. the ratio of ultimate tensile strength to the product of the
5) Material quality factor. Among the four standards, only speed factor and bending stress factor.
the BS introduces material facto.rs in its bending and contact 10) Non-common geometry factors. Geometry factors ac-
stress ratings in an attempt to allow for the higher permissi- count for the influence of the helix angle, contact ratio, and
ble stresses to be obtained from using higher quality materials. tooth flank curvature at the pitch point on gear load capacity.
6) Size factors ..Size factors are used in all. except 'the old Ignoring the experimental exponent of 0.8, the geometry fac-
BS, to take into account the influence of tooth size on surface tor for the old BS can be written
fatigue strength . Values are usually taken as unity because no
further information is provided in any of the standards. R cosat cosatw
(·8)
7) Work-hardening factors. When the pinion material is R+l 2coS~b
substantially harder than the wheel, the effects of cold work
hardening and internal stress changes in the softer wheel For the BS and ISO the geometry factor is
material may occur, in which case the surface contact stresses
will be reduced. These effects have been considered by 1 casal smatw
AGMA, ISO., and BS by introducing a hardness ratio or --= (9)
work-hardening factor, In AGMA, the hardness ratio factor 2 cost3b cosatw
is a function of the gear ratio and pinion and wheel hardness,
The similarity between Equations 8 and 9 is not apparent
but AGMA only applies this factor to the wheel rating. A
when expressed in the way given in the standards. (See
guidance diagram is given by BS for determining the work-
Geometry Factors, Table 1.)
hardening factor, based on surf ace roughness and haJdness,
The AGMA geometry Iactor.T, for contact stress is
The ISO work-hardening factor is only related to wheel
hardness ..
.8) Permissible stresses. Permissible bending and contact ccCxq (10)
stresses are given in the old BS for a limited number of mN
materials listed in. the standard. It is usually agreed that the
values are generally too pessimistic for snrface-hardened where C, is the curvature factor at the pitch line and is a
gears. Allowable bending and contact stresses, based on function of the gear ratio and pressure angle, <=x is a contact
laboratory and field experience for each material and heat height factor adjusting the location of the tooth profile whe.re
treatment condition, are provided in AGMA. For most of the the stress is calculated. The helical factor C", accounts for
steels the allowable bending and contact stress numbers are the helical effect in low contact ratio helical gears, and mN
functions only of material hardness .. is the load sharing ratio which depends on the transverse and
In both BS and ISO the pennissible bending / contact stress' face contact ratios. Similarly, ISO uses a helix angle factor
is based. on the bending/surface fatigue endurance limit for to account for the helix effect on contact stresses. Both ISO
the material, taking into account the required life and running and BS include a contact ratio factor to allow for the in-
conditions. According to the BS, for most gear materials the fluenee of transverse contact ratio and overlap ratio on con-
bending/contact endurance limit depends only on hardness tact stress based ratings ..
without differentiating between materials and heat 11) Non-common elasticity factors ..Elasticity factors ae-
treatments. In ISO,. bending/ contactendurance limit is deter- count for the influence of material mechanical properties on
mined either based on experimental data for test gears of the the Hertzian stress. Those used in AGMA,. ISO, and BS are
same material or on prepared, polished specimens. Values are identical. The only difference between the old BS and the
provided in the ISO standard for a wide range of steels and others is that the equation for calculating this factor has been
heat treatments. simplified by assuming that Poisson's ratios for the pinion
For surface-hardened gears, the BS bending endurance and wheel are the same ..
limit is based on residual stresses and the ultimate tensile 12) Non-common lubrication HIm factors. BS and [SO ac-
strength of the gear material. Detennining the residual stresses count for minimal. film thickness between contacting teeth
and tensile strength of surface-hardened gears is, however, on surface load capacity. In their rating procedures, oil
difficult casting some doubt as to the ease with which this viscosity, surface hardness, and pitch line velOCity are con-
method can be used. sidered to be the main factors influencing film thickness.
9) Factors of safety and reliability. So far there is no ac- There are some differences between the calculation methods
cepted method of relating gear reliability to safety factors con- used by BSand ISO, BS gives two diagrams: one for
sidering the effect of material quality and gear accuracy. The roughness and the other for the product of a lubricant and
AGMA reliability factor accounts for the effect of the normal speed factor ..ISO provides three equations and correspond-
statistical distribution of failures from the allowable stresses I ing diagrams to determine these factors. Although AGMA
16 GearTechnology
 218 does not consider lubrication, it does take tooth surface 8. M1ERICAN GEAR J\.IfANUFAcruRERS ASSOCIATION.
roughness and temperature effects into account by introduc- "1nfonnation Sheet for Surface Durability (Pitting) of Spur,
ing a surface condition and a temperature factor. In the old Helical, Heningbone, and Bevel Gear Teeth." AGMA215.m,
BS, lubrication was ignored aJtogether. Tooth scuffing. 1966.
which is covered by ISOand DIN in separa.te parts, attempts 9. AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTIJRERS ASSOCilA110N.
"Information Sheet .forStrength of Spur, Helica], Herringbone,
to predict the t'emperatuN at which scuffing will occur, This
and Bevel Gear Teeth." AGMA22S.01. 1967.
is not dealt with by any of the other standards and,
10, HOFMANN, D.A. 'The Imporlance .of1111 New Standards BS
therefore, no comparisons can be made, although scuffing 436 (1986) and DIN 3990 (1986) f,orGear Design in the UK."
does appear in the new AGMA standard. Marine Gearing and Revision of Bririsfl Standards. The ~
ReferentleS: stitute of Marine ElIgineers. Marine Management (Holdings)
Ltd,1987.
1. BR111SH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. "Spedlication for '
MaChine Cut Gears. A. Helical and Straight Spur." BS 11. RvlWALLE,D'.E.,O.A. LABATHandN. HUr'otINSON. ~A
436;1:940. London, 1973. Review of Riec~nt Cear Ratiqg Dev lopmenl ,]501 AGMA
Comparison Study." ASME Paper ao.C2/DET~25. 1980.
2. LEWIS. W. EngineeisOubofPhiladeJ.phla. Proceedin8$ Vol.
X,1893. iz. tMWAlLE, D.E., O.A. LABATH. "Differences Between
AGMA.and[s()RatingSystem. M

AG1vfAP per219.lS,l981.
3. SMfJ11, ~.D. Gears and Their Vibrations. The Maanillan
Press Ltd, London, 1983. 13. CASTELLANI, G. and V.P. CAS:rELU. "Rating Gear
Strength." ASME Paper8(}Q/DET-88, 1981.
4. MLERICAN GEAR MANUFACTIJRERS ASSOClATION.
-A:GMA Standard For Rating the Pitting Resistance and Bend- 14. WiELLAUER.,E.J. "Ana1ys:isof FactorsUsecHorRaIing Helical
ing Strength of Spur and Helical Involute Gear Teeth."AG1vfA Gears." ASME PaperS9-A-Ul, 1959.
218.01, 1982. 15. GEA.R HANDBOOK. Vol 1. Gear Classification, Material,
5. ORGANIZATION FOR INTERNATIONAL STAND'AR- and Measuring Methods for Unassernb.led Gears. AGMA.390',
DIZAnON. "Calculation of Load Capacity of Spur and Washington D.C.
Helical Gears .."ISO/DlS 6336:1983, Part H, Belgium, 1983. 16. BUCKINGHAM,E. "Dyn~ic Load on Gear 'Jeeth." ASME
6. DEUTSCHE lNDUSTRlE NOR1Vl:EN. "Grundlagen fur die Research Publications. New York, 1931, also in Analytical
Tragfahigkeitsberechnung von Gerad - uad Sdtragslim- Mechanics of Gears, PI' 426-452, Dover, 1963.
radem," DIN 3990': Part 1-5,1986. 17. WEBER C. and K.. BANASOfiEK."F.ormanderung und Pl'o~
7. BRITISH STANDARDS rNSTITUTION. "Spur and H.elical fiIrucknahme bel Gerad-undScheagveeaahnten." Radem,
Gears. Pt. 3. Method for Calculation .of Contact and Root Schriftenreihe Anl:riebstechnik, No. 11, 1955.
Bending Stress limitations for Metallic Invelute Gear." B5 436: lB. DUDLEY, D.W.. Handbook of Practical Gear Des.ign.
1986. London, 1986. McGraw-HiIlBook Company, New York, 1984,

UII5,-- ecify GI 'I/FH:USA

C.JlJide, Ski¥i'ng hobs.
Meeting pr,ecise AGMlAto'lerances quickly and
,eonsistenUy lis probably what determines your
bonorn Iline" tool GMI-FHUSA ,carbide skivingl ho'bs
take ~hehassle out of minishing operat,ions with:
• Predictab'le pelitormance AGMA 12
• Long servioe Ilife'
• Off-the -Shelf delivery of standard sizes
• Competitive, pricing +
As'K your GMI·FHUSA re,presentative for a Q,uotation
andl copies ot our ,quality documentation.

'0011,(708) '986~'1858 Fax ,(1,08)~986~0756

CIRCLE A.-14 ON READER REPlY CAIRO

 The Involute Helicoid
and
The Universal Gear
Leonard J. Smith
tnvincible Gear Co., Livonia, MI.

lntroduction
A universal gear is one generated. by eliminate backlash by axial adjustment. Applying a taper to cylindrical spur
a common ra.ck on a cylindrical, con- In marine engine prop drives a tapered involute gears provides an additional
ical, or planar surface, and whose teeth gear is meshed witha. cylindrical spur or degree of freedom and results in a com-
can be oriented parallel or skewed. helical pinion to provide an angular plex, involute helicoid surface on the
centered. or offset with r1!Speet to its takeoff and/or to enable an optimum tooth flanks. Opposite flanks will have
axes. Mating gear axes can he parallel or placement for the engine . The taper gear equal, but opposite hands of helix. and
crossed. non-intersecting or i.ntersect- also allows several unusual gear meshes a common lead. (See Fig. 6.) The 'cylinw
in.g, skewed or parallel. and can have inthe mechanism of a well-known air- drical spur gear thus may be oonsidered
any angular orientation .. (See fig. 1.) craft gun and provides a lightweight a. special case of the involute helicoid
The tape!!'gear is a universal gear. It pro- reliable design in a minimum envelope. with zero taper. just as the cylindrical
vides unique geometric properties and Taper gears have found. a niche in spur gear may be considered a special
a range of applications unmatched by many commercial, and military applic.a- case of the involute helicoid with zero
any other motion transmission element. tions, but have not been widely em- helix; i.e., infinite Iead,
(See Fig. 2.) The tapergearcan be pro- braced by the general gear industry, Applying a taper to a cylindrical hel-
duced by any rack-type too] generator because of a requirement for special ical gear also provides an additional
or hobbing machine which has a means machines, and because of lack of infor- degree of freedom to a gear which is In-
of tilting the cutter or work axis and I or mation inthe literature. itiaUya simple involute helicoid with
c~rdinating simultaneous traverse and The taper gear concept providesa equal and parallel helices of the same
infeed motions. powerful tool to the geometer. and it is hand and common lead, and results in
Traditionally this has entailed the U~ hoped this article will encourage the ex- a. complex involute helicoid of com-
of proprietary or special machines - pansion of fundamental gear theory to, pound structure.
however, with the advent of numerical include this versatile machineelement in. The helix resultant of the taper is add-
control for axis synchronization, con- the basic gearing literature for wide- itive to the original helix. on one flank
ventional machines can be employed, spreadevaluaticn, and is reductive to the helix on the op-
These are the same machines used tor posite flank. There are: thus two, ,entirely
spur and helical gear generation. The lnvolute Heliooid different helix angles and differing leads
The taper gear provides features not The involute helicoid which is con- on opposite flanks. Relative magnitudes
attainable with any other type of gear. jugate to a straight-sided rack, when of helix andtaper determine whether
It raeritseensideration for what it can converted Ito a complex involute heli-
do, and it may well be the answer to a coid by the addition of a.taper, provides AUTHOR:
problem which heretofore has eluded the basis of a universal gear system.
satisfactory resolution. . The spur gear is the simplest form lEONARD J. SMITH is 'Vic~president of
embodying involute tooth surfaces. the lrJ'oindble Gear Co. With over a half-
century 0/ experience in precision
Application (See Fig. 4.) The helical gear adds ill hel- metrology and metalworking, he has
The tapa-gear has many familiar ap- ical twist to the surface which results in pioneered developments il1 mach ine design,
plications; for example, the gear shaper a simple involute helicoid ..(See Fig. 5.) numerical control, adaptive control, ser-
cutter. where the taper is employed to The involute helicoid has three major vomechanisms, electricaI discharge
machining, abrasive machining, engineer.
provide a relieved cutting edge. (See Fig characteristics: the involute in any
ing reprographics and archiving, and com·
3.) Another familiar application is the transverse section,a helix in any cylin- puter integratio1'!. He .Ms been active in
rack-and-pinion automotive steering drical section, and anaxvolute in any AGMA, ASME, SME, ASME-GRI, and
mechanism where a taper is used to axial section. other t.echnica.lassociations.
1B Gear Technology
 PARALLEL
Spur-
Hel ileal
Taper

INITERSECT ING
Bevel
T,apeol'

NON-~NTE:RSECTING
HVpoid
Worm
Taper

Fig. 1-Axes Orientation Fig. 4 - Spur Gear Toath - Zero Hel ieoid

'" I
,..,
..
,
/ I ,
I I \
I \
I

F"1I.2- Taper Gear Tooth fig. 5 - Helical Gear Tooth - Simple Helicoid

AXVOLUTE

INVOLUTE

Fig . .}- Shaper Cutter :Fig.6-SpurTaperGearTOOlh - Com pi x Helicold

Novem'berjDecem'berl,990 19
 the flank hands are the same or oppo-
sUe.
Myriad possibilities are available for
unlike profiles and leads for each flank,
including providing a spur flank on one
side and a helix on the other. Buttress
profiles and one way ratcheting as well
as back stopping are possible.
The axvolute is the key to the univer~
sality of the taper gear, since it provides
a three-dimensional cam or crowned
surface allowing complete freedom of
mesh conditions.
Comparison rig. 7 - Base Cone
The superficial resemblanceof the
taper gear toa bevel gear is misleading.
They are two distinct entities.
BEVEL GEAR. The bevel gear isgen-
erated from a conical surface. Its tooth
surfaces converge to a common .apex.
Each transverse section represents a
geometric reduction in a. progression
from back to front. Each section repre-
sents a diHe.rent diametral pitCh, and by
custom is referenced at the back cone.
(See Fig. 7 ..)The face 'Width is restricted
by the parameters of number of teeth
and cone angie •.since the width ,of the
rutting tool tip at IthefrQnt face becomes Fig. 8-Complementary Cones
a limit factor .. Conjugate bevel gears
must have the same diametral pitch at
their back cones, must be flush
matched, have complementarycone
angles equal to the sum of the :shaft
angle, and have a common apex. Tooth
elements in all sections have a common
angclardimension. (See .Fig..8.)
TAPER GEAR. The taper gear is
generated from a.cylindrical surface, the
base cylinder. All straight line gener~
atrices converge to a oommon origin on
a base plane tangent to this cylinder.
(See Fig. 9.)1 Angular symmetry of the
tooth does not exist, as each cross see- fig. 9-Base Cylinder
Han is a different angular value. since
each tooth section is smallerthaa its
predecessor, and its tooth space is cor-
respondingly larger. The taper ge.ar is
controlled by a tool traveling a constant
path parallel. tothe cone and produces
a. pitch. point at the center of equal
velocity which corresponds to the pitch
of the cutting teol, This is generally
referenced at the center of the face
width. (See Fig. 101.)
like all involute gears, the pitch and
pressure angle vary according to the di-
ameter ratio to the base circle. Each
cr'QSS section may be considered as a fig. 10 - Independent Cones
prome shift or addendu~ correction,
201 Gear Technology
Anoltlhe'r TOICCIO advantage":

Gra ien rofile Har _-ning

,(,alnadvanllceld IPlroce'ss for ge,ar h,ardening)
Substantial depth and ,extra IHigh hardness and residual
Cool Tips
hardeninga.t pi!tchline compressive stress

Cold Core

Pliog~almmedlPreheat (AF) Gradlen,t Plioflle Halidening IPaUelin

At last, .. there's a 'gear hardenlngprccess that The proprtstary TOCCO GPHI process employs reasonably
provides extra hardness/strengtih at the pitchline. and sized 200-300 IKW power supplies (AF & RF), 1m'this
,optimum strength gradient at the root linet - without advanced process. So'. you don't need to install an ,expen-
excessive hardening and brittleness at the tooth tip. sive substat,ion. as r,equired by older ,d'esign contour
'Gradient Profile Hardening, a new, hig!hly automated and hardening systems.
field proven process devel'o,ped by TOCCO. merges 3 GIPH also, Iprovides:
distinctive technologies: Programmed Preheat (AF -low
frequency), High Iintensity (RF - high frequency] and • Consistent reduced distortion
• Improved Metallurgy
Iincremental Hardening. This combination also results in
high residual compressive stress at the root fillet for • Higher Quali,ty
imprevad tooth bendingl fatigue strength. Finally. an • Lower instaJl'alion costs
• R.educed operatingl costs per part
induction temperingl operation assures proper level's of
hardness and toughness. All can be comprised lin a single, Tables shown indicate tooth" root and pitch line shear
compact, totalliy integrated manufacturing cell. str,engths with the 'GPHllprocess ..Wouldn't you'd likie'to see

_ -
these mechanicals for your gears?
Contact your TOCCO representative for detailed informa-
..........
nau:I U!iN.OJIi UI---'AII,."" ~
IftMI!IlJOO"TW '",",'T
,1I.IIiD,...,..yo
.~nI
1ITI'IR'Qi, IJItADlDn'
tion on 'GPH ... the most advanced, select!ive or surface
gear hardening/temperingl system availa'b'le ... anywhere ..
TOCCO, lne., Sales, Service and T,ec'hnology Center,
30100 Stephenson Highway, Madison Hts. IMI48071.
Phone 1-800-488-4932. In IMjchig~an313-399-8601. IFAX
31i3-399-.8603

....... - -~~~ .. -." . ,

CIRCLE A-21 ON READER REPLYCARD

 since each section employs a different
portion of the same involute.

r-tl
.As in all involute gears, this provides
the relationship of a. whole family of
racks capable of generating the profile
or of operational mesh at any diameter.

Machining Methods
--~~-f-~~hF*~ ~
CONVENTIONAL HOBBING. In
the conventional hobbing process, the I
basic rack, represented by the hob, tra-
verses the gear blank in a plane parallel
to the gear axis and at a fixed center
I.

Fig. 11- Spur Gear Hobblng

distance from the gear axis, and gener-
ates a spur gear in the simplest embodi-
ment. (See Fi~. 11.)
A helical gear can be generated by
skewing 'the ~o.rlto. the helix angle and
traversing along the axis of the rack
tooth. This is frequently 'termed oblique
hobbing and has the unique character-
istic of shifting the contact across the
rack. (See Fig. 12.)
The more common approach skews
the rack to the helix angle and requires
an additive rotational timing to produce
the helix, while traversing along the gear
axis. This method employs at fixed por-
tion of the rack for full generation. (See Fig. U - Helical Oblique Hobbing
fig. 13.)
These methods provide a constant
tooth thickness in any transverse plane,
Tooth thickness increase or decrease is
obtained through radial. infeed of the
rack or hob; i.e., a change in. their center
distance. Additional compensatory de-
vices could be employed to impart non-
uniform helix control ..
TAPER HOBBING. In tapered gear-
ing an. additional degree of freedom is
required: an angular relationship be-
tween the axis of the rack and work,
which provides a uniform rate of
change of center distance in relation to. Fig. 13 - Helical Skew Hobbing
the 'traverse of the face width. The radial
distance of the raek from the center line
of the work .is not constant, out dlmin-
ishes from the back face to the front
face. As aeonsequence, the tooth thick-
ness gradually decreases, (See Figs.
14-15.)
A tapered gear which is generated in
this manner has the superficialappear-
ance of a bevel gear, which it is not.
Each 'transverse section represents a
spur gearo] differing tooth thickness. In
digitally controlled machines it is possi-
ble to synchronize the traverse and in-
feeds as a step function to produce the Fig. 14 - Taper Hobbing - Till Work Axis
angular effect without requiring the
22 GearTeennolOQV
 added degree of freedom in the macmn ~
tool. The helix may be obtained byobli-
que orientation or by supplemental
timing.
TAPER SHAPING. By employing a
circular gear type cutter in place of the
rack for generation, the sam require-
ments and relations as in habbing ap-
ply. However, the resultant taper gear
>>>>> - wiU be substantially, but nctexactlv,
the same as its hobbed equjvalent.

Pig. 15 - Taper Hobbing - Taper Gear Geometry

Till Cutter Axis
BASK (SPUR) GEOMETRY. The
basic geometry of the spur taper gear
results ina complex involut,e helic~i.d.
The tilt of the cutting tool path. produces
a reduced transverse pressu~ angle
symmetrical on both sides of the tooth
and a symmetrical base circle for both
flanks. The tool traverse provides
reduced tooth thickness in each cross
section.
This uniform reduction is along a
constant helix and resullts in a constant
lead of the helicoid surface. It is evi-
dent that equal and opposite hand helix
angles are produced. (See fig. 16.)
Hg. 16-Spur Taper Gear BASIC (HELICAL) GEOMETRY.
The basic geometry of the helical taper
gear results ina. compound involute hel-
icoid. The tilt of the cutting tool path in
addition to the helix generation pro-
duces non-symmetricali Hanks 'on the
teeth and results in different base circles
for each side.
The opposing geometric influenoes.,
the conventional helix generation with
symmelricaJ parallel flanks and parallel
leads, and the action resu,lting from the
taper produces non~symmetry, the re-
sult of which is the compound helicoid,
On one flank the action of th taper
Fig. 17 - Helical Taper Gear produces an increased he1Jxangle and
reduced lead, and on the other fI~_k it
decreases the hel:ix..angle and increases
lne lead. (See Fig. 17.)'
UMIT ,GEOMETRY. The limit of a
taper gear is identical to ,that of any in-
volute of a circle constrained by an op-
posing involute ofopposi~e directionaJ
orientation. The involute becomes
pointed where the profile paths cross ..
(See Fig. IS,)'
for the spur taper gear this crossover
is ,equiangular from. the center line of the
tooth, In. the case 'ofa helical taper gear,.
there is no tooth symmetry, and the
Fia. 18 - Umil Geometry center of the tooth apex is the intersec-
tion of two opposing involutes struck
November/December 1990 2'.3
 from. two different base circles. The in- It would not take a great deal of im- the contact lines are indined to each
volute angles are obviously different foraginationto' envision automatic means other .. These linesare straight line
each flank. of takeup from thermaJ variations or elements representing contact with the
The other limit occurs at the base cir- even adjustment based en the load rack, but provide theoretical limited
de of the gear where generatien origi- envil'onment. contact at their intersection ..In eHect the
nates. If the generating too] operates in The minimum secondary benefit of tooth profile is crowned in both the pro--
at zone not defined by the involute, it the taper gear is that it provides for file and lead directions.
produces a degeneration of the desired manufacturing variation without com- Judicious use of mismatch in crown-
profile. This is the familiar undercut of promising the mesh or, conversely, ing can provide all the desirable
involute gears with low tooth number allows greater latitude in tolerancing characteristics of controlled crowning
and standard tooth proportions, both gears and housings. for dellection, mismatch, or load com-
TAPER ANGLE. For intersecting CONTACT. Each spur section of the pensation, enabling smooth transition
drives, the taper angle mayor may not taper gear is conjugate to the generating from no-load to load and avoiding 'the
be related to the ratio of the mesh .. rack. and contacts the rack continuously harmful effects of heavy end bearing.
They operateas lapelled cylindrical during its rotation. Henoe, the taper
gears and are independent of cone tooth is conjugate to the generating Taper Gear features
angles. (See Fig. 19.) rack. Contact between the taper gear COrvtMONAUTY. All gears gener-
For example, a 2:1 ratio set could tooth and the basic rack occurs along a ated hom the same basic rack have a
consist of both gears with 45" cone straight line common to the rack and common normal base pitch and are,
angles, or one could be 30 and its mate the taper tooth, and this contact line is
Q
therefore, conjugate to each other no
,60,0, or any other combination deemed inclined. against the pitch plane of the matter what the 'taper inclinalion or
suitable. There are, of course, some rack. (See Figs. 21-22.) helix angle of an. individual gear.
preferred approaches, but anything is If two taper gears are meshed at a. UNIVERSAUTY. With unlimited
possible. There is no requirement that shaft angle equal to. the sum of the angIe selection for prOViding motion
cone angles intersect at a common apex. generating angles, a hypothetical rack control between any two places in space
This allows multiple takeoffs from a surface .of zero thickness may be as- at any ratio, these gears have the most
common gear at various angles. (See sumedas existing between the meshing universal application of any motion
Fig. 20.)' gears. This hypothetieal rack surface 'transmission device extant. In. parallel
Taper gears operate on pitch meshes with both component parts applications optimized involute length
cylinders not pitch cones ..It is obvious which are contacted along two strnight, and helical overlap provide E·oI' max-
that as cone angles.increase, the relative non-parellel lirtes on opposite sides of imized power in a given face width.
face width usable must decrease for a the rack surface. At the point of inter- lNTERCHANGEABIUTY. Taper
given number of teeth, since the limit section of the two contact lines, simul- gears are interchangeablewithout re-
conditions of apex and undercut are met taneous contact exists between each quirement for matching or provision for
ata faster rateof change. taper gear and the rack. and, therefor~, pairs or sets. Because of variation insen-
HELIX ANGLE. Infinite selection of also' between the two taper gears. sitivity, the only moults of mismatch are
helix. angles is also permissible in cross If the rack surfaceis ignored, it may slight bacldash differences whi.ch can. be
axes ,orientation so long as the sum is be concluded that mating gears of this compensated for by axial shift ..Off-the-
correct. For parallel axis operation the character which mesh at non-parallel shelf gear replacement is possible even
taper provides a third variable for max- axes are conjugate to each other, but in the most demanding application.
imizing contact ratio and allows reduc- contact only at a point which travels, as Taper gears are subject to the same in-
tion in face width for equivalent loading the gears rotate, on the tooth surfaces spection procedures used for spur and
toa conventional helical gear. and through space. If thecone angle is helical gears. They can be inspected for
The combinafion of high cone angle small, the tapered gears approach spur all elements, such as involute, lead,
and high helix angle provides a unique gears,a~dthe contact approaches line spacing, runout, and pitch, as weD as
design opportunity, since the high helix contact. (See Fig..23.) for composite operation with single or
increases the virtual number of teeth Contact may range from line contact double flank inspection ..
and allows increased cone angle with- with a rack or parallel axis mounting to, NOISE REDUCIBIliTY. In parallel
out exceeding limits of apex and point contact on cross axes similar to so- gears all the parameters for successful
undercut. called spiral gears ..Separation of pitch reduction of dynamic variations are
CENTER DISTANCE MATCH. The planes is possible, providing all the lee- available for optimizing. High profile
ta.per gear has the conventional advan- way for matching centers and ratios in- contact ratio, helical overlap, and
tage of ,employing slight changes in helix herent in those gears, with theaddi- variable addendum with progression
angles to provide a given.center distance tional feature of backlash takeup, from all-recess to all-approach action,
while employing standard tools and CROWNING. lneommen with ell pmvide the tools from pursuing mini-
tooth proportions. involute heliceids, the line of contact is mum noise design. Cross-axis .applica-
Taper gears provide even greater ad- inclined across the face of the rack. Full tion tends to be naturally quieter as a
vantage by allowing ax,ial change of face contact is obtained by parallel consequence of less dynamic variation
position to accomodate variations in mounting in an anti-backlash mode. due to the natura] crowning effect.
center' distance or for adiustmeru of Angular mesh provides a meshing angle MESH lNSENSlTIVITY. The three-
backlash in over- or undersize centers. equal to the sum of the taper angles, and dimensional curvature of the taper gear
24 Gear Technology
Hg.l'9-Cone/Taper Independence

Fig. 22 - Line of Contact - Taper Gear

fig. 2O-Angle Independence

Fig. 21-line of Contact - Spur/Helical Fig. 23 - Line of Contact - Non-parallel Axes

November/December 1990 25
 Al<vgjute

Fig. 24- Angular Insensitivity - Axvolute Mesh Fig. 28 - Parallel

Fig. 25 - Position Insensitivity Fig. 29- Spur

•• U u;a'
'," .020'
r .,. n u2 i1

.,. 25,·
'/
.\t r'\.
ec
...... ,
t-,;]-.,. t....
'I': 1"'-
~
Q
r
.000 001 002 QCli .CIOIi DQI. OCIIII dOf 001 .DOI 010
I ""~ ~III, It"l r '.i I'''' t '. 1.1Jt.i llUt !:tII1 I ;r'"

Fig. 26 - Backlash Insensitivity Fig. 3D-Helical

Hg.17-Rack Fig. 31- Multiple

26 Gear Techno,logy
 tooth results in a remarkable ability Ito
resolve angular misalignment, axis
skew, deflection, twist, and positional
mismatch without affecting conjugate
action. The only requirement for mesh
is a common base pitch. (See Fig. 24.)
Positional mismatch is limited only
by the tight mesh condition, which can
be relieved bya simple axial shift of
either member. (See Fig. 25).
BACKLASH CONTROL. An out-
standing feature of taper gears is their
ability to be set for minimum. backlash
Fig. 32-Skew many mode by axial adjustment of one
member to take up play, without affect-
ingcenter distance or mesh integrity.
For parellel-axis mode, the taper angle
can be selected to provide any d~ of
sensitivity ..(See Fig. 26.)
Precision differentials have been con-
strueted to pr,ovide zero backlash and
essentially zero lost motion transfer be-
tween input and output shafts. (See Fig.
34.)
UNUMJTED ORlENTAHON. Ta~
per gears can be employed on intersect-
ing or non-intersecting axes, parallel or
non-parallel, and any ,angle of orienta-
Fig. 33- Taper Wonn
tion. (See figs ..27-35.)

Conclusi.on
Given 'the remarkable geometric pro-
perties accruing from this simple con-
ceptual change in basic gearing fun-
damentals/combined with the
availability of axis-synchronized
machine tools, the taper gear provides
a new tool to the general gearing
industry.
Note: Taper gears are generally referred to as
"Beveloids" in the literature, however. ,this a
r gistered trademark of Invincible Gear.

Re1erences:
1. BEAM, A.S."Beveloid Gearing."
Fig. 34-Worm Machine Design, Dec. 1954.
2. MAY, l.I, Gear Des.ign for Tapered
Inuolute and RaCKand Pinion Steer~
ing Gears, Ford Motor Co., 1982.
3. MERRITT, H.E. Gears, 3rd edit.,
Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd., 1954.
4. VOGEL W.F. - IntJolutometry Qnd
Trigonometry, Michigan Tool Co.,
1945 ..
Acknowledgements: Printed with permissiO'l of
the copyright holder. the American Gear
Mal1ufactuiw5 Association. The opinions,
statements Il1'Idconclusion presented intire paper
are those of the Au thor aJld In 11.0way rep.resent
,the position or opinion .of the AMERlCAN
GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOC1ATION.

Fig. JS - Differential Zero Backlash Our thanks to MR. WlLUAM L. JANNlNC1( for
wilh' the technical editing .of this article.
'l55istll1'l£:e

NovemberIDecember 199027
Put:s ilt all toget:her
wi'tlh excitingl" new
products to keep
yOlu competitive,!
Gearrnakers worldwide face customer demands for highest quality and on-
time delivery at fiercely competitive prices. Meeting these demands requires
greater flexibility, productivity and the ability to integrate new technology.
Recognizing your ultimate goals - customer satisfaction and pmfitabHity -
IKHngelnberg' global! technology is ready with the most advanced CNC Spilrall
Bevell Gear Generators and Grinders, and the most complete line of CNC
Gear Checkers avahable ... anywhere.

We've ,put it all together:

Spiral Bevel Gear Appliicat,ions Parall'el A.xisGear Applications
• KNC 40/60 fully GNG controlled Generators • GNG controlled gear Inspection Systems
• AMK Large Gear Generators • SNC Series of CNG Hob Sharpeners
• W800CNC (Wiener System) Grinder • Gear Gutting Tool Inspection Systems
• CNC Inspection Equipment • Hurth Product Line: GNG Shavers, Hard
• Quench Presses &. Fine Finishers, Shavinq Gutter G,rinders
Worm and Rotor 'Grinding AppHcaUons and Deburring/Chamferilngl Equipment.
• HNC Series of GNG controlled Grinders
• GNG lnspection Systems
The KNC-4D/60 Gear Generators
These new, fully CNIC, B axis gear generators produce
Spilral Bevell Gears up to 24" 0.0. Pertect for small
batch or lintermediate I'evel production runs, the KINC
Series 'generates Spiral Beve,I'Gear:s of any geometry
by continuous or single ilndexing operaucn. Its program
storage capaci~y for 250 different workpieces and
unlimited storage ,capacity with a ONC intertace, makes
it the most flexible, gear g:ener,ator you esn buy.

The WaDDCNC Gea.r Grinder (Wiener System)

With leading edge technology, the WBOOCINC becomes
a-ear
the uni,versall Spiral !Beve:1 'grinder #or any 'gear
geometry. Perlect for ,ground: g:ear quality applications
up to 315" 0.0 .•the 'grinder offers gr,eat versatility,
short set-ups and superior accuracy.

The PNC Seilies Gear Check.els

cempaet new CNC ,ccOntroliedgear checkers provide
fully automatic measuring ,of gears up to BO" O.ID... East
operation, high accuracy, e'xceillent documentancn and
a wide' vari:ety 'of software modules, term the perlect.
,gear checking package.

For the latest information on Klingelnberg systems that

satisfy customer demands, fm tncreased productivity
and profitability. contact our representative. Or. wrHe to
Klingelnbergl Gear Technology tne.,
15200 IFoltz Industrial Parkway. StrongsvBle, OH 44136.
Phone: 2116/572-2100: FAX: .2116/572-09B5.

@ -
KLI~GELN~ERG
rouPuts It ,all tog,ethe.r~

CU~CLE A-116 ON IREADER'IREPlY CARD

 in Order to Avoid Undercutting

Dr. Vadim Kin

Purdue University
Hammond, IN

Abstract:
V (12)
The dimensions of the worm and worm gear tooth surfaces OXl OXI Xl
aXl
__ aXl v(2)
"1
and some of the worm gear drive parameters must be limited au ao' au ae
in order to avoid gear undel'cutting and the appearance of the
envelope of lines of contact on the worm surface, The author
proposes a method for the solution of this problem. The rela-
arl oy!
V (12)
Yl =
aZI ihl V!~2)

tionsbetween the developed concept and Wildhabers con- au ae au ao

cept of the limit contact normal are investigated, The results
of computations are illustrated with computer graphics .. af of ilf of Dfaf
-w --w
au ao o'¢ au aoa¢
Basic Kinematic Equations
Investigat.ion of Undercutting of Spatial Gears. The in-
vestigation is based on the .following equations and theorems
that have been. proposed by Litvin.(1.2) ,(jYl (}Y'l v(U)
__ Yl

v (I)
_r + __
vfU) = n
~ (1) au 00'

aZI aZl vg 2)
=0' (3)
. (ull -_ - d [f( U,U, .i.)] -- f u- + f FdO +..~-
f d¢
au 8()
- d (.1): , Jl .n 'i' du -- 0. (2)
~ ili ~ ~ ~
a.f af of
--w
where: 2:r(l) is the velocity of motion of the contact point
au ao a¢
over the worm surface, ,Y(U) is the sliding velocity, n is the
worm surface unit normal, u and (JaJle the worm-surface Here:
curvilinear coordinates, and ¢ is the generalized para- ..[1 (u,O) = Xl (u, ()) il + Yl (u, fJ) jl + ZI (u,O) lsI (4)
meter of motion. Equations 1 and .2 yield the following
equations are the equations of the too] surface El and (u.lI) are the
30 'Gear Teehnoloa,r
 Contact Lines

Fig. I

eurvilineae surface I:}coordinates. Surface E1 is a regular Envelope of Contact Lines on the Worm Surface. The
surface, and envelope of lines of contacton surface E], if it exists, is
determined by the following equations:
n. ;y(12) = £(u,O,I/» = 0 (5)
.£1= -
f1 (u (J)
I '.-..;:
n: V(12)
_
= f(u '
8.'I!'
.J". ) =0
is the equation of meshing with </)as the generalized
,af
parameter of motion. (One may chose that</) == </)1and d</) q (u, (J, </) = .- (u, 8, </) = 0 (8)
dt fJ4>
== w(l) where 4>1 is the angle of rotation of the tool.) The
sliding velocity ill)
is represented by Fig. 1 shows an envelope of contact lines on the surface
of an. involute worm. The existence of an envelope on I;l is
not desirable because a part of 'the worm surface without
contact lines is without meshing, and the conditions of heat
where se(12) - !:d(1) - !:d(2); Lis the position vector of the transfer and lubrication in the area dose to the envelope atI'e
instantaneous contact point M that is drawn from the line not favorable. For these reasons, the existence of the
of action of the' sliding vector !t!(1) to M; ,B is the position envelope of contact lines must beavolded. This can be done
vector that is drawn from the origin of L to any point of the by choosing the appropriate design parameters for the gear
sliding vector !t!. (2) drive.
Instead of the envelope E on surface El, an enveJopeof
Equations 3 yield the relation contact lines on the plane P of surface curvilinear coor-
dinates (u, tJ) might be considered (Fig..2). Both envelopes,
F(u,(J, </) = 0 (7)
AUTHOR:
Equations S, 6, 4, and 7 determine a line L on surface E1
DR. VADIM iaN completed his graduate studies in mechll11ical
that generates singular points on surfaceE2• We call L the engineering at the Urliuersity of lI/inois at Chicago in the summer
limiting line because if El is limited with L, singular points of this year. He is presently a lecturer a! the Purdue University -
onE2 do not appear. Hammond, IN, campus.
November/December 1,990 31
A PATH TO WMW:NILES
GENERATING
GEAR

WMW:NILES
ZSTZ O8IEG-ONC

WMW:NILES G.ear Generating Grinders are PA:RTIAL. USAGE. SURVEY (as of 1988)
in demand ,everywhere! TM world's most
technologically advanced nations look to
COUNTRY *' OF MACHINES

Federa'i Republic of Germany 350

WMW:NIUES for thls equipment-and for good
reason. Japan .287
Italy 175
-Tile NILES GeaJ"Generating Process is the
fastest. and most cost effective method for France
grinding smalland medium production funs. Great IBritain 1'01
• NILES meets your requlrements with a full North Americ-a 411
line of automatic grinders with gear diameter
capacities from 1/2:' to 158" . Switze~I'and 15
• AL.L NIWES gear grinders l1aveaccuracies to
AGMA 12/14. - Comp'ete Infonnatl'on lis, available on IreqUest
Customiz.ed mac~hinescan be ordered with even 'WMW Mach'inery; Inc.
higher guaranteed accuracies. 570 Bradley Hm Road
Blauvell, New York 10913
~u won't find a better Gear Generating Grinder Phgne (914) 358·3330
anywhere. Thars why companies like yours have Fax (914) 358·2378
.bought over 4600 of them, making WMW:NlLES Telex 4756017
Grinders most p19ferredthroughOut the world.

QIRCLtEA-lI7 ON IREAOER' IRE:PLY CARO

 •

J'i

BDnlope
8

fig. 2 Fig.J

if they exist, appear simultaneously en 1::1 and on P. It is !h = I =N-11-1'

~1
f
= iJa"'",u I, X a,a:]
easy to verify that at the point of the envelope, the direction _ I)'

of the velocity of contact point in its relative motion over

surface 1::1, ~r(]) cannot differ from the tangent to the that yield
envelope. This means that ~r(1) is equal to. zero in any direc-
tion that differs from the common tangent to.the contact line III = sinAbsinO Jl - sinAbcosO jl +COSAb lsI (10)
and the envelope"
Equation of Meshing for Worm Gear Surfaces. A hob that
Applica'lionsto tlle Involute Worm G'ea:rDrive is identical to the worm generates the worm gear tooth sur-
The proposed approach is applied to the case of an involute face. The meshing by cutting of the hob with the to-be
worm gear drive. The goal is to. determine the design, generated worm gear simulates the meshing w:ith the worm
parameters with wtdch the appearance of the envelope of gear in the drive. Coordinate systems 51< 52' and S, are
contact lines on the worm surfaceE]. and the appearance of rigidly connected to the worm, the worm gear, and the
singular points on 1::2 can be avoided. Worm tooth surface frame, respectively. (Fig. 3) The equation of meshing is
El is a screw involute surface represented in coordinate represented as fol1ows:
system 51 rigidly connected to the worm by the following
,equationsPJ

f"COsO + uco~in8
rt,SinO - ucos)q,cos8 (9)
_ (p 1 - m21cosA _ E) COSAb (11)
m.21smy sin (8+cpl)
p8 - us~
where cp is the angle of rotation of the worm, l' is the twist
where u and ()ar-ethe surface curvilinear coordinates, tb and
w(ZI
}.q, are the base cylinder radius and, the lead angle on this angle of the worm gear axes (Fig..3), and mt2 = - is the
cylinder. The screw parameter (p>O for a right-hand thread) wm
is p = rbtaMb. Equation 9 works for both side surfaces if u is gear ratio. The worm gear tooth surface is represented by
consideredas an algebraic value. The surface El unit normal
is represented by the equations - [r2] = [M211 [rl], f(u,O,¢1)=0 (12)
November/December 1990 .33
where the 4x4 matrix [Mzll describes the coordinate
transformation in transition from 51 to S2'
Envelope of Contact Lines on E1. The envelope of contact
lines onEl is determined by the equations

.1'1 (u, 0), f(u,O,¢l) = 0, -

af
a¢l
= ° (13)

The envelope of contact lines on the plane of parameters

(u,O) is represented by the equations

f(u,8'¢1) = 0, ---
af
a¢l
= °
that yield

cos· «() +-A.)

'1'1
_
-
rb + E cot')' taMb
-------'---- (14) Fig. 4

1- m2lcos/,
p . - - E
m21sin/,

It is easy to verify that the envelope exists if I cos «() + cP1) I

~ 1. The appearance of an envelope of contact lines may be
avoided by appropriately chosen design parameters. For a
one-thread worm the parameter is the twist angle 'Y, and for
an orthogonal ('Y = 90°) worm gear drive it is the number of
threads, i.e., the lead angle Ab' Fig. 4. shows that the contact
lines on El do not have an envelope in the working space in
the case of a two-thread worm. with the lead angle
Ab=21.68°, "(=90°. We emphasize that the pattern of con-
tact lines favors the conditions of lubrication and efficiency
of the worm gear drive.
Singular Points on Ez. The investigation of the singularity
of E2 is based on application of Equations 3. Fig ..5 shows
the limiting line L on the plane of parameters (u,8). The
working space of the worm must be limited with L(u,8) to
avoid the appearance of singular points on E2•
In the case of the worm gear drive, the envelope of con-
Fig. 5
tact lines and the limiting line usually do not appear
simultaneously. However, in some particular cases these
two lines may have a common point as shown in Fig, 6, The
computationsand drawings correspond to the case of a
! U
three-threaded worm gear drive with the following
parameters:

m21 = ~, "{ = ~,E = 150, rb = 40.29, hb = 16.59°

25 2

The common point of both lines appears in the non-working

space of the discussed example.
Relations Between Concepts of Line Contact Envelope,
Singularity of I:11 and
Wildhaber's Concept of Limit Pressure Angle
Wildhaber's concept of the limit pressure angle has been
developed on the basis of scientific conditions of force L
transmission by gear tooth surfaces. (4.5,6) However,
Envelope
Wildhaber's equations may be and should be interpreted e
geometrically ,and this can be done on the basis of the con- Fig. 6
cept of the envelope of contact lines and the concept of
34 Gear Technology
singularity of generated surface E2• Consider the equation Referenoes:
of meshing that is represented by 1. LITVIN, F.L. Theory of Gearing. 2nd Edition, Nauka,
Moscow. 1968. (in Russian). The English version is publish-
. B' yll2l= B' (J,t}(12) X r. - .8 X ~(21) - 0 (15)
ed by NASA, References Publica.tio.1I 1212, A VSCOM
Technical Reporl88-C-035.
2. LITVIN. r.t.. RAHMAN.. P .. GOLDRICK R.N.
The equation of meshcr.g is observed in the neighborhood "Mathematical Models for ItheSynthesis and Optimization of
of the contact point, and, therefore, we have Spiral Bevel Gear Tooth Surfaces", NASA Contractor Report
3553,1982 ..
3,. LITVIN, F.L "An Analysis of Undercut Conditions and of A~
pearance of Contact Lines. Envelope Conditions o'f Cears",
ASME Transactions, Journal of Mechanical Design. July,
(16)
1978, pp, 423-432.
4. WILDHABER, ERNEST, NBasic rtela.tio.llship of Hypoid
Let us differentiate Equat ion IS,assuming first that 1:r (2) =0 Gears", America'n Macllinist. Vol. 90. No.4. February 14,
1946.
and singular points onE], appear, and then 1:.(1) = 0, and an.
5. VVlLDHABER, ERNEST. "Bask Relationship of Hypoid Gears
envelope of contact lines exists. We assume by differentia-
-jr. American Machinist. Vol. 90, NO'.5, F-ebruary.28, 1946.
tion that vectors .8, ~(l), JIP1, and !eml = 5!}(Il- 5!}11,1
are
6. VVlLDHA.BER, ERNEST. "Basic Relationship of Hypoid Gears
constant. Generally, the differentiation of Equation 15 yields - IV", American Machinist, VoL 90, No.6, March14,1946.
the following equation:

n (i)
( _r + n
_ tr (i»), •. _v(12) + EO). ( ,.,(12'
;c X ( _f
V (i) + v
_Ir (;»)1 = 0 T,HE
Here: 'GEAR D'EB,UR'R',IN"G
n
_tr
(j) = (.,(0
"iC'
X
-
EO) , v(2) = -..b"
_
v C1I- V. (21
tr'
.......
and S,Y,ST,EM
----~--
is the common contact normal. Considering the particular
cases where :t.P·)=O and singular points on 1:2 appear;
J!.r (II = 0,. and an envelope of contact lines exists, we receive
from Equation 17 that

In addition,we have to, c~nsider that the contact point

satisfies the equation 'of meshing (15). Equations 18 and 15,
H 5au:.u _, p_r 0 vid
",,·_ced·1 .";- eonditi
__e lilt: _ ." hen 'r'
.ons w. ~'!4:> singul
""'2. 'if.-- _ _ arities
.. __

or the envelope of contact lines on 1:1 exists, or both

singularities on E2 and the envelope on E] exist
simultaneously ..The disadvantage of application of Equation
18 is that it is impossible to recognizewtuch of the three above
mentioned eases tis observed. The direction of the contact nor-
The James Engineering Systems approach.
mal .n depends on two design parameters - 'the helix angle through modular components, can build upon
on the worm. and the pressure angle. The application of Equa- the standard unit Ipicturedl' to create a custom
tions 18 and 15 may provide information about the limit t3ilored paCkageto meet each customer's needs
pressure angle if the helix angle is considered as given. with speed. flexibility and predston never before
Conclusion available. Optional packages inolude:
Methods for detennination of an.envelope of contact lines
on the generating surtfaceand si.nguI...ar points on Ithe generated • CNC Controls '. Up to
surface have been developed and appli.ed to the case ofin- • Auto Load/Unload 4 Operations
volute worm ..gear drives. A bridge between the developed • Dust Collector per Cycle
theory and Wil:dhaber's concept of the limit ,contact nonnal
has been. established. JAMES ENGIIN,EERING
Admowled,geme..nt: Reprinted' wiln permissfol1of the Americlin Gear 11707 McBean !Dllve. EI Monte. Califomia
Mlmuf4idureT5 Association. The opinions. statements. and condusions
pres.eflted in this pllper are those of the Aulhor and in no way represent
8~ 8 44.2-,2898 .' FAX 818 442.03:74
rite position or opinion of the AMERICAN GEAR MAMUFA CTURERS
A.S50ClA.TION. CIRCLE A-UJ ON IREADER' IREPlY CARD
NovemberIOecemberl990 35,
 cs

Yogi Sharma,
Philadelphia Gear Corporation
King of Prussia, PA

Introduction cutting in bevel gears. Initially, the pro- gear grinding, with almost all the opera-
Some years back, most spiral bevel cess was limited to special requirements tions remaining the same, with the ex-
gear sets were produced as cut, case because oflowcarbide tool life, the need ception of tooth grinding, which is re-
hardened, and lapped. The case harden- for frequent sharpening, and limited ex- placed by hard cutting.
ing process most frequently used was perience. But the picture changed dra- A simplified manufacturing process
and is case carburizing, Many large matically after some time. The ex- sheet for a hard cut bevel gear will con-
gears were flame hardened, nitrided, or perience gained and the development of tain the following:
through hardened (hardness around 300 the CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride) tool • Complete machining of gear blanks
BHN) using medium carbon alloy made bevel gear hard cutting very efiec- for teeth cutting - including various
steels, such as 4140, to avoid higher tive from cost and quality viewpoints. operations, such as turning, milling,
distortions related to the carhurizing As with any PIlOCe5S, hard cutting has drilling and tapping, etc.
and hardening process. its limitations and problems. A properly • Bevel teeth cutting - consisting of
The use of a quench press can con- controlled process, starting from the teeth cutting, testing, and any tooth
trol, but not eliminate distortions .. A design concept, good bevel generators, contact development with master or
lapping operation cannot remove run- hard cutting tools, including sharpening mate, teeth deburring, etc.
out, pitch error, profile error, and other fixtures, special machines, and trained • Heat treatment- mostly case car-
errors caused by heat treatment dis- work force, are a must for successful burizing and hardening (nitriding,
tortions. It can only improve active bevel hard cutting. flame hardening, and induction
tooth profile finish and tooth contact This article describes the process and hardening are rarely used for hard cut
location, provided that gears did not steps required for spiral bevel hard cut- bevel gears).
have excessive errors during soft cutting ting on small batches or in a jobbing • Finish machining - all machining
or high distortions in heat treatment. atmosphere. operations required before teeth hard
As a matter of fact, overlapping some- cutting, such as turning O.D.ll.o..
times does more harm than good on a grinding, special machining, etc.
bevel set, Process Description • Hard cutting - bevel gear arrives at
Bevel tooth grinding was very limited Bevel hard cutting can be defined as hard cutting with most or all opera-
due to cost and size. an operation in which gear teeth flanks tions done. It is important that the
Advancement in bevel generators, are finished by removing the stock mating part or master is available for
carbide technology, and many other allowance left during the soft or rough testing purposes. Normally, the gear
factors allowed introduction of hard teeth cutting. The process is similar to (member with higher number of
36 Gear Tecnnology
 teeth) is finished first and pinion teeth practically unknown problems in hard delivery times and cost very effectively
are modified to get correct tooth con- cutting . in spiral bevel gear boxes,
tact along profile and length of tooth. •' Hard cutting is performed on the
The modification for length of contact same 'type of machines as soft-cutting,
is nonnally made by change of radius making the process much more Preparation
of curvature of the cutting blades. The economical ..Of course, special tooling Following are some items which
location of tooth contact along the is required. should be considered in detail for suc-
length is usually controlled by • The same person or group ofper- cessful and economical bevel hard
machine settings. The profile correc- sons are involved in soft and hard cut- cutting.
tion or modification can be made by t:ing. It has been found that control in Practical Tooth Design. A balanced
different means depending on the roughing operation (soft cutting in bevel tooth geometry is a must fora good
type ·ofmachine or system used to cut gears) is quite important fora successful hard cut set. All new tooth geometry
bevel gears, size of gears, and pitch. finishing operation. Proper stock allow- must be reviewed carefully from a
On fine pitch gears, high pitch line ance, tooth depth, tooth contactretc. manufacturing point of view. In a job-
hearing can be obtained by using cut- are necessary for bevel hard cutting. bing or low batch environment, the new
ter blades wi th modified profiles ..On Too much stock. allowance can cause tooth geometry should try to use ex-
coarse pitch gears, profile modifiea- loss of case depth and longer cutting isting tools, as new tool requirements
tion 'can be made using taper shims. times, while too Iittle stock allowance can cause cost and delivery problems.
Once the tooth contact requirements also can cause a variety of problems. Even in high batch production where
are met, the gear teeth are finally Hard cutting time cycles can be reduced tools can be designed around gears,
checked for spacing and mounted on by making some adiustrnents at soft poor tooth geometry can cause multiple
a gear checker. cutting for heat treatment distortions, problems, such as low too] life, smaller
• Final inspection - includes dimen- and it can be done very simply, as both fillet radius, etc.
sional checks, magnaflux, and a-"y operations are performed by the same Gear Blank Design. Fig. 1 to Fig. 4
other specialrequirements. person or group of persons. show a bored pinion, a stem spiral bevel
• Consistency in bevel hard cutting pinion, iii solid gear, and a ring type
Ad.v.antages ,of Hard. Cutting can eliminate the need for matched gear. As shown in F.ig. 2, the bevel pin-
• Higher power transmission by bevel sets by careful. planning. Some of ion can be indicated in both planes by
spiral bevel gears, as both members are the requirements for elimination of means of an extra extension in front of
case carburized and hardened and matched sets are as follows: the teeth. Both gears show prool bands
finished by hard cutting. - Manufacturing and storing of case for indicating the gear blank at hard cut-
• Higher and predictable quality hardened and hard cut master gearand ting. Special attention must be paid in
levels in gear teeth. pinion for checking the gears and pi- blank design so that revalidated proof
• A surface finish of 16 Rl\1S or nions in all future setups. surfaces at final machining can be used
better. - Optimization of design and cutting for indication purposes at hard cutting.
'. Lower noise level lower internal data so that it does not have to change In high batch production, blanks, tru-
dynamic forces due to higher geometric for the period unmatched sets are ing, and use of proof surfaces are not re-
accuracy, and better load distribution. required. quiredbecause of special customized
A hard cut bevel set signifkantly - Tighter control of critical dimen- fixtures. Still, it is good practice to create
reduces the gear box vibration problem sions on gear I pinion blanks. Hard cut proof bands at final machi,ning for in-
caused by higher intemal dynamic unmatched sets are not only useful. in spection or assembly purposes. In the
forces due to poor quality gear teeth, assemblies, but they can eliminate
which can cause premature gear box many production problems, as each
AUfHOR:
failure, member can be processed independent
On the other hand the gear grinding of others. The unmatched set approach YOCI SHARMA is employed in gear
operation is always very sensitive to must be used very selectively, as it needs manufacturing .and design at Philadelphia
many factors, such as rate of material. careful planning, customized fixtures, Getlr Corp. He holds an M.S. degr:ee ,in
removal, grinding wheel, coolant, 'etc. optimized design, cutting summaries, mechanical engineering from ViIlanova
University and one in jndustrial.engineering
Any compromise or loose control can and long term commitment. The un- from Perm State. Mr. 5hatmais a .licensed
cause surface t.emperingor cracks or matched set approach combined with mechanical engineer .in tne state .of Penn-
both ..Surface temperingor cracks are standardized bevel sets can cut down syivaniJ:! and' a-senior member of SME.
November/December 1990 37
 -

Fig. 2

38 'GeoT Technology
 , r CC 1. H

~ i
M

~~ E;:
z

R~
=; :ai
:~ ~

311 511

UA'I( 015 ... 1.DUA..:f 1)0 _00:

.1:1 I[ lDIJi'O t&l""J[Ji! ~IB!ING
"'liD IiJ"DI( HAQ!!tJiHII«.

Fig. J
------ - - --- -

- ---- -

.. '

:F!g.4

November/December 1,990 39'

 case of a bored pinion/gear, the Soft and Hard Cutting Summaries. A mounting distance problems. Ring
subassembly with shaft should be done tooth cutting summary for a beveJ gears must be die quenched' utilizing
wherever possible to avoid concentric- generator provides machine set up data, proper quenching dies. Fig. 7 shows a.
ity and squareness problems (Fig. 5). cutter data, tooth measurements, and quench press. A pre-quench and temper
Fig. 6 shows the subassembly of a ring other tooth geometry information operation of rough-turned blanks for
gear and spider. In pinions, the one- related to a specific spiral bevel set. large gears and pinions can assist in
piece design does offer some manufac- Bevel hard cutting blades are very sen- stabilizing the pieces during heat treat-
turing advantages over the two-piece sitive to proper feed and speed. Selec- ment. In the jobbing atmosphere, gears
design. Also, small to medium size gears tion of correct amount of crowning and pinions should be checked. for
should be investigated for one-piece stock allowance affects the overall distortion belore releasing for final
design, as there are some manufacturing qual.ity and cutting times. Normally, in machining.
advantages in the one-piece high batch production, a sample set or Finish Machining Operation. The
configuration. dummy set is always useful to fine tune finish machining of gears and pinions
Previously, gears were mostly de- the summary ..In a jobbing or low batch for hard cut bevel. gears is very im.por-
signed as bored rings so that they could atmosphere, a dummy set or experi- tant. The runout and squal'eness and ali
be die quenched, but hard cutting has mental set mayor may not be possible other geometric tolerances of beari:ng
changed the picture somewhat. Distor- for various reasons; therefore, a jobbing diameters, proof diameters, etc. must be
tions in free quenching of small to atmosphere requires initial selection of kept to less than 40 % of the values
medium size solid gears can. be kept low all variables affecting tooth contact. allowed on the gear teeth. Any loose
with proper control. Hard cutting will The length and location of tooth contact control in finish machining operations
remove the distortion from teeth. Cau- should be based on factors, such as can add to distortion, leading 'to longer
tion must be used for any switch ove.r assembly conditions (overhung or cutting cycles and various problems. It
from two-piece design to one-piece. straddle mounted members), tooth stif- is vita] that proof surfaces in both p1anes
There are many factors which affect feners, and loading, application,and are indicated within specified values
distortions in heat treatment, such as past experience. Wherever possible, fine before proceedingwi.th final machining.
material blank configuration, rixturing tuning of tooth contact can be achieved The big difference in the fina1 machin-
in heat treatment, etc. Vl/herever possi- through load testing of bevel gears. ing of a lapped and a hard cut gear is
ble, some experimental pieces should be Heat Treatment Process ControL Ex- that, in the event of a lapped set, the
manufactured to evaluate the situation cessive heattreatment distortions are back face or mounting face is usually
before making the final decision, as ex- highly undesirable for hard cutting of left as it is, while in hard cutting, it is
cessive distortion is highly undesirable bevel gears for a variety of reasons, such ground or turned square to bore. In ad-
and can cause various problems at hard as loss of case thickness, longer cutting dition, it is critical 'that som extra
cutting. times, tooth thickness problems, and material is left in the back of a hard cut
40 Gear lechnoloov
.fbI' Y01ur tougllestg ~.._~rcutt.--ng Jobs,

,tile lIardest ,ste,el JS

,the easl ~'.-t clJQ -'ce '
• I•• CPMREX 76
For hobs, shaper cutters and other gear cutting CPM REX 76 is just one of 10 high speer! steels
tools. that are more than a cut above the rest, specify produced by the Crucible Particle Metallurgy pro-
Grucible CPM REX~ 76. With 33% total alloy con- cess. With the industry's widest material selection,
tent and an attainable hardness ot HiRC 68-70, this Crucible can meet your specific needs at any pro-
hliglh speed steel provides. the highest available ductivity level. You can selectively upgrad:e to the
co-mbination of red hardiness, wear resistance and best CPM material for the right eppllcaton.
toughness, either coated or uncoated, On your next order, specify a high speed steel
A 9ig- Three US. auto maker mcenUy realized a that's hard to beat ... CPM REX. 76 or another rnem-
300% -improvement in gear cutting tooll life by ber of the CPM REX family. To learn mare, contact
switchingl from 1M3 HSS to CPM REX 716. With your nearest Grucible service center or call to'll free:
gr,ealer too~lllifeand excellent grindability, CPM REX
76 means less downtime because resharpening is 11..800~PAR;"XC;EL
easier and less frequent - (1~800-7.27-9235)

Ill/iii?!
_____ 11

A Division of Crucible Matenals Corporation

CiReLli A-19 ON REAIDERIREPlY CARD

 gear at blank turning, which will then
'[xPAIIDIr«; DIE be removed at final machining .. This
Z tLAHP ING :DI[
will reduce the variations in mounting
L_ CONE distances .. In multiple pieces, consis-
tency of the crown to back dimension is
important for hard cutting cycles,
Variation will cause adjustments for
every piece on 'the machine, resulting in
longer cutting cycles. Proper proof
bands and surfaces must be created at
final machining, with concern given to
their location as well, so that they can be
easitly used for indication purposes at
hard cutting ..
Soft Cutting Blades. Fig. 8 depicts a
blade with protuberance.Where ever
fig. 7 possible, protuberance blades should be
used ..They will cut down hard cutting
__ -- StTTCUT time, extend too] life, and reduce the
IlARDCUT possibility of steps in fillet. The use of
BASIC
I'IiESSUR£ ,ANGLE customized protuberance blades is no
problem in high batch production, but
TOOTH TIP in jobbing or low batch production the
picture is quite opposite. Amount and
,..__ ~C!i_ height of protuberance selection be-
I DIAMETER comes difficult as blades are stretched to
, I

J
I
cover maximum range. Blades can still
I

be obtained with protuberance selected

,
J
I

I very carefully, which 'Will help hard cut-

J,
ting. Setting middle blades slightly
deeper than side blades also helps in
hard cutting and is a common practice
R[]lJT rlLLH in bevel cutting. Fig. 9 shows a fillet
created witha deeper middle blade. Fig.
Bg.B
10 shows a blade for soft cutting.
Hard Cutting Blades. Bevel hard cut-
ting began with the use of carbide
inserts. Carbide inserts are damped to
steel bodies for coarse pitches and
brazed for medium to fine pitch gears.
In the beginning, low tool life with car-
bide inserts, frequent tool sharpening,
insufficient experience, high cost. and
many other Factorskept hard cutting's
use quite low. As hard cut bevel gears
reached into the field, their performance
in all aspects was the single most reason
to increase the use ofbevell hard cutting.
,",
In the meantime, CBN inserts were
rl NI SHED PROf ILE introduced for hard cutting, The BZN
BY HAROCUTT I NGBLAOC
(BZN is a trade mark of General Electric
DEEPER RDOT PRODUCE D .BY
HIOlli.t BL~DE Company) compact blank isa combin-
Fig. 9 ation of a layer of Borozon CBN (Cubic
42 Gearlechnology
 'Gear Tooll S;peela:lIsls
3601 WEST T'OUHY AVENUE
UNC'OLNWOOD" 11'lILlNOIS 60645
1'08-6,75-2100
1-·800k628-2220 In IlL '·8'00'-628·2221

GEAR TRAINING PROGRAM

1. BASIC FUNDAMENTALS d) Schematic - Principles B. Rolling
a) Speeds - Feeds 2. a..r F1rHehlngaft ... HMt: TfNl
1. a..r HImIry II Machine Cutting Conditions
A. Cyefotdal Teeth A. Honing
B. Hobbing B. Lapping
B. Involute Teeth a! The Mobbing Machina
C. Gear Cutting Machines C. Grinding
b Types and Manufacturers a) Methods - Formed Wheel·
D. Gear Cutting Tools c Schematic - Differential and Generating - Threaded Wheel
2. a..rTypee Non-Differential b) Machine Typas
A. Par811e1 Axis
B. Intersecting Axis
dl Sl*KIs - Feeds
a Climb CuI - Conventional CUi 5. GEAR INSPECTION
C. Skew Axis II Shifting - Types 1. Functional
3. OHr Aattoa 3. The Hob ... Cutting Tool A. Gear Rollers
4. Involut. Gear o.om.try A. How It Cuts B. Gear Charters
A. Nomenclatura B. Tolerances and Classes a) Reading the Chart
B. Involutomelry - Contract Ratio, etc, C. Multiple Threads b) Tooth-to-Tooth Composite Error
C. Helical Gearw - Lead - Helical Overlap D. Hob Sharpening and Control c) Total Composite Error
E. The Effect of Hob and Mounting Errors C. Master Gears

~!=~~i"
5. Gear Tooth Bysteme on lhe Gear
A. Full Depth
B. Full Allet 4. The Shaper CUtt..... a Cutting Tool
C. Stub Depth A. Know Your Shape! Cutters c Special Types
I. a.n.r.I Formu_ B. Design Llmltallons 2.~1
C. Sharpening A. Size - Tooth Thlcknen
7. M8them8tIca - (I.T.W. Trig Book) D. The Effect of Cutter Mounting and B. Runoul
Errors on the Gear C. SpacIng
2. HI SPEED STEELS E. Manufacturing Methods D. Lead
A. Common Types 5. Tool Tolet'ance Va. GHr Toter.nc:e E. Involute
B. Special Types A. Machining Tolerances 3. Automatic: and SamI-AutCMMtk:
C. Heat Treatment - M8IaIlurgy B. Gear Blank Accuracy and Design A. How They Work
D. Controls Umitations B. What Can Be Checked
E. Sur1lK:e Treatments C. How Fast
F. Special C_ ... FINISHING THE GEAR 4. ChIIr1I~ - An8IytIcIII and Functional
1, Gear F1nl8tMng - BatON Hardening A. Reading the Charta
3. CUTTING THE GEAR A. ShaVIng B. Which Errors Affect Other Elements
1. FonnIng a) The Shaving Cutter C. How to COI'rectthe Error the Chart Shows
A. Milling b) Types of Shaving - Conventional.
B. Broaching Underpass. Diagonal 6. INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION
C. Shear Cutting
2. o....,.ung
c! Crown ShaVing
d Shaving Cutler Modifications
AND SPECIFIC PROBLEMS
A.She e Co-ordinatlng Tool Design- OR PLANT TOUR
~l Circu'!'~ype
c) Machine Types and Manufacturers
The Shaver and Pre-Shave Tool
II Re-Sharpening
g) Machines
This Program is IleKlble and chenged 10 meet !he
needs of each group.

ITW ILLINOIS TOOLS

The 4-day program consIIts of a coordinated aeries of lectures given by the Engineering, A Division of IIIInoI8 Toot8 Wofka Inc.
Production and lnapection ata1'l8 of Illinois Tool Works Inc. They represent ovar sixty years of 1991 GEAR TRAINING PROGRAM
experience In gear and tOOl specialization. Four Day Seminara
The .... ion. are conducted with a technique and approach that leads to Interning
discussion and participation. Staning with the basic fundamentale, the program I. directed
January
Februaly ''''7
"."
May
June
13-1e
10-13
,e-li
'417
into those areas of g.... test interest and value to the people attending the particular session. March . 11·" July 15-18 "·:4
Aprj "" 15-1e Augua1 12·15 2·5
The groups are kept .maIllO that this object is readily accomplished.
All mentioned, the planned program IU18 tour days. One-half of the fourth day I. for In- TUITION FEE: II1II8.00
dividual dlscunion of apeclflc problems In a detailed manner with members of the illinois NOTEI Additional siudenla, aame CCIInPMy, __ ct.. teeo.OO
TOOlWorks' ataff.
More than 4,000 Individual. from hundreds of companies repreeenting manufacturing, Includes ,he ,r8l18pO!1abon from !he hotei to ITW and bKk. one group dIM«.
hoepI!aI1\y meeting. conllnantai br~. and aIIl~
engineering, Inspection and management, have come to Chicago for these programs. They
haw been conducted on a monthly basis .Inea 1958. CI.... have also been conducted In Ths 5ocI8Iy 01 Manufaclurlflg Englneera ISM E.) has IIPP"\MId m,. School lor
Europe. We are c.rtaln that this well rounded program has helped all of them to a better Job Pr01888iona1 Cred<18 10Ward !he S.M E. Recer\IIIca1oo Program Creda are ......m.d
and a110 given them a better underltandlng of engineering, manufacturing and Inspection. on !he baN 01 ont creel' per c:ontenl hOur
For addII#oMI ~ aonIICt;
All thole attending are aaaIgned to the same hotel. This promote. friendly contact and ROBERT H. MOOiAOW
diacuaalon of mutual problems and Interesta. Tuition for the course Includes transportation TI'1Ii'*'II
from the hot.' to ITW and back, one group dlnn.r, ali continental breakfasts and all lunche •.
We hope we may Include your company in one of our Training Program •.
Manager.
708-675-2100
l.aoo.e21-2Z!O
CIRCLE A-20 ON READER REPlY CARD In IL CIlI: l.aoo.e21-2221
 blades are manufactnred with a certain
fillet radius, which should closely match
with the roughing blade radius. During
hard cuttiflg, the fillet comers can be
slighHy skimmed with hard cutting
blades, but any excessive fillet material
removal compromises the tool life.

Summary
The hard cut bevel gears have per-
formed very well in all applications.
Hard cutting has improved load carry-
ing capacity and has made quality bevel.
gears available Ito the industry at
justifiable costs.
The improvement in large gears is
even more noticeable as tooth grinding
Fig. 10 - Courtesy of Klingelnberg Corp.
was not possible because of size. The in-
troduction of CBN tooling has brought
Boron Nitride) and a cemented tungsten ter machine for hard cutting all the time. the toolingcest and cutting times to
carbide substrate produced as anin- • Single Indexing Versus Continuous reasonable and economical values. Fur-
tegral blank using an advanced high Indexing System ..Bevel generators with thermore, consistency of hard cutting
pressure, high temperature process. The single indexing directly affect tooth has made unmatched sets a reality
use of CBN inserts increased the tool life spacing; whereas, continuous indexing under a controlled atmosphere and for
many times. Cutting times decrease aJF offers significant accuracy:in tooth spac- certain applications. Hard cutting also
preciably as less sharpening isrequ.ired. ingdue to the natural hunting action provides. gear teeth with the quality and
From a performance standpoint, 'the between gear teeth and cutter blades. surface finish of grinding without any
CBN mserts excelled considerably over • Multi-Start Cutter System. In rut- possibility of any metallurgical damage .
theecarbide inserts in every asped , even ting systems which utilize multi-start FinaJ]y, the utilization of CBN tools for
though the price of the CBN insert is cutter heads, attention must be paid, so hard cutting is being applied more fre-
. k;~k
mUUI rugner hh<ill that . 0 f thie car. bid
. t...
':1;.. .
1 te1Il~ that the number of teeth is not divisible quently to parallel axis gears using
sert, tool price per gear did not rise by the number of starts in the cutter shaper type machines.
because of improved tool life. head . Otherwise, the cutter head blade
The CBNtools need. much more spacing can aHect tooth spacing in hard
careful sharpening, including the use of cutting. In high batch production, this Acknowledge:me:nl: Reprinted with permission
speciaJ machines, special fixtures, and is never aconstrainr, as special cutter of the American Gear Milnufllc!u rers AssociR-
diamond grinding wheels. The blades heads can. be obtained for a set, but it tion. The opinions, statementsand conclusions
are sharpened on the cutting face. Extra can become a limiting factor in. jobbing, presentedin this pt:lper t:lre those of the A uthar
and in no wily represent the position or opinion
care should be taken in storing, hand- where the exact ratio is a necessity. A
of the AMERICAN GEAR MANUFAC-
ling, and the use of CBN inserts. The multi-start cutter head can also be used TURERS ASSOClA TrON,
correct feed, speed, and depth of cut is as a single start cutter head, which will
also very critical in the usage of CBN eliminate this problem; however, cut-
inserts. ting times will increase. References:
• Fillet Finishing. in bevel grinding, 1. TRAPP. 'Quality Achievements 111
LimJtation of Bevel Hard. Cutting the tooth fillets are completely ground, Spiral Bevel Gears By The HPG-
• Machine Accuracy. Bevel hard cut- and the desired fiUet radius is obtained Method", AGMA Semi-Annual
Hog and soft or rough teeth ,cutting are by dressingthe grinding wheel. In. the Meeting, OctO~I, 1981.
perfonned on the same or similar types bevel hard cutting process, the filletsare 2, lOFFELMANN, E. "Hard Finishing
of machines. The accuracy of the bevel normally finished at soft cutting. Some- Of Spiral Blroel and' Hypoid Gears
Using BZN Cutting Toots", AGMA
generator .reflects directly on rhe qual- times step problems may appear at hard Meeting Fall, 1985.
ity of gear teeth. Where more than one cutting due to low or no protuberance,
3. WIEGAND. R. "Finish Machining
similar machine is available, it may be higher distortions, etc ..The hard cutting C~e-Hardened Spiral Bevel Gears To
beneficial in the long run to use the bet- blades are manufactured with a certain The Klingelflberg HPG-S Method,"
44 Gear Technology
 SERVICE GEAR TOO1.5
GEAR HOeS, CUTIERS
GEAR TESTINGI ANID GEAR MACHINES
DESIGNI FACilLITllES
Hobs and Gear Shaper Cutters in st.ock!
FELLOWS MOOEL GEAR. GEAB MACHINES
• 'GEAR DESIGN (NOISE - STiRENGTH). MEASURING INST,RUMENTS at LOWEST PRICES EVERI
• ROTATING GEAR (TORQUE - SPEED • Facto~y Rebuilding
CONTROL) TEST MACHINES.
• Retrofits/Design Updates 2 ··5 MO;DU!LE, 3 -116 DP
• SINGLE TOOTH iBENDING FATIGUE
TESTING. .. Engineering/Technical Support
GEAR Sr<AI'ECH u. TTElh
• STATISTICAL P,LANNING- ANALYSIS.
Also Servicing Gear Shapers
4 - 24 DP I
• WROUu,HT STEELS, SINTERED Quality Performance Team
METALS, NON-METALLIC MArLS.
I IExperienood and Accommodating ! ! ! SPECIAL! ! !
'. CAD FACILITIES FOR. LOW COST
SET-UP. NEW GEAR HOBBER
20·' DIAMETER x 9,5" FACE
• CUSTOM rssr
M_ACHINEIDESIGN. '0 F I
• EXPERIENCED PERSONNEL, $18,995.00
~~EEAI""t;'(.
Cl. ~(o' ~ tc" CALL NOW FOR MORE DETAILS
'"' (>
PHONE (213),933-7191 f:AX (213) 933-7487
PACKER ENGIINEERING 100 RIVER STREET
708/505-5722, ext. 214 SPRINGFIELD, VERMONT 05156 fo-_rINLN7"~' fNlHln",L_
'- _
iBOX.353, NAPERVilLE, IL 60566 .' P.o. BOX Je276, LOS M!crELES, c ...._
802-88&-9176
CIRCLE A-23 ON READER IREPLYCARD, CIRCl:E A-30 ON READER REPLYCARD

I HEAT TREATING
GEAR TOOTHI
IGRINDINGISERVI:CES, P;Fi'ECI!SIONCLASS,
.' Production and Prototype !Quantities
MASTE,RGEAiRS Contour Ind'uclio,n .
• Specialists in Gear Tooth Grinding Ha,rde~ningSpeciia lists
.. Able to matdh delivery W your needs For your master Spur, lIelicaJand be'tel gears
• Gear Tooth Grtnding Capacity to 27.S gear needs.
inch pitch diameters Ourgear hardening equipment
• All services to AGMA standards Includes 4 NATCO submerged
Send us your process machines and 3AJAX
GERT1FIEO GEAR INSPECTION requirements. CNC-controlled gear scanning
machines. We· can also tool to
meet any production need_ Write
PRO-GEAR COMPANY, IINC. for a free brochure.
23 Dick Road IBeliaire Tooll Company
Depew, NY 14043 727 E. Cayuga
IPhone (716,)684-3811! American MelalTreaUng Company
IFax (716),1684-7717 Beiliaire, MI496115 1043 East 62nd Street
6,16/533-606,1 Cleveland, OB 441 03
Sales 'Reps, Wanted (21:6)431-4492
Fax: (2.16)431-1508
~ ~ L ~
i I

CIRCLE A-25 ON READ.ERREPLYCARD CH~CLE A-.26 ON REAIDER REPLYCARD CIRCLE A-27 ON READER REPLYCAJ~c)
IRates: Line Classified - per lnoh • $190 Payment: 'Full payment must accompany Materials IDeadllne: Ads must be received
Classified Display - per inch ( 3" min.) classified ads. Send check or Visa/Master· by the 25th of the month" two months
1X-$150, 3X·$140, 6X-$130. Type will be card number and expirlitlon date to: ... prior to publication .. ACc8iltance:
!!el to advertiser's layout or Gear Gear Technology, P.O'. Box 1426, Publisher reserves the right to accept or
Technology will set type at no extra Elk Grove Viillage, II. 60009', reject classified advertisements at his
charge. Agency Oomml .. lon: No agency comml- disc~etion,
sian ,on classlfleds. .
46 'Gear Teclhnology
 COMPUTER AIDS HELP WANTED
.$47.000, "H'ands-on" ,

GEAR ESfIMATING
DESIGN ENGINEER:
Enclosed Helical. Spur Transmission Custom
Gears, Some' Planetary,
· ·f~,a.ct
M.,aqu '.
_ unng
QUALITV CONTROL MANAGER: $45,000.
Gearing, Heal. Treating, PI81Ing ..Supervise 12.
Engineer
PROCFSS PlANNING MANUFACTURING
Precision Machining,
ENGINEERS: $55,000.

OPERATION smmrs PRODUCT IENGlN~R:

Dasign. Hydraulic/Mechanical
540,000, Planetary
Drives, Concept 'through production, Gear
Application,
Our client ls a progressive,
medium-to-high volume man-
Free Injormatron on the ~A"tAGER OF IMANUFACTURING ENGI- ufacturer, currently seeking a.
NEERING: $50,000 'range,. Low volume Job seasoned professional at our
Wmfd~s _ _ ""'c:nUin
/Jest L _~.J}'S
,0 tem. I ... · shop. CNe Turning,
experience.
Metal Cutting, Gear
Midwest facility.
GENERAL IMAN'A.GER:S80,OOO. Full P & L
Shafts, TransmiSSion Gears. 'S8MM operation.
Contact: Ann HunSucker. Excel Associales. Qualified candidates will have
p,O, Box 520, Cordova, TN 38018 or ,call (901) a Bachelor's degree, in
757·9600 or FAX (901) 754,,2896.
Mechanical Engineering or
the eqUivalent with Spur and
MANUFACTURERS TlECHNOlOGIES, INC. Helical Gear Manufacturing
59 INiliERSTATE DRIVE H,ELP WANITIE'DI ,experience. Extensive lexperi-
WEST SPRJNGFIEU)I. M'A 01009 EXPERIENCED GEAR CUTIiER TO H~NDLE
ence in blank/ttansmlsslon
(413)733-'1972 A;LL FACETS OF SMALL JOB, SHOP, OLDER shaft preparation through
FAX (413) J:B.92!il MODEL EaUIP., QUALITY EXP. ONLY. APPLY gear generating and heat
FL ORNE & GEAR. RESUME WITH IREf. REO. tteattnent requked. You will
4717 N.W. SHORE BLVD" TPA, FL33614, be machined on CNC and
CH~CIJEA-2B ON READERREPtY CARD
conventional! equipment.
Interested and qualified candi-
dates, send your resume and
salary history, in oonfidence
to:
BoxKT.
Gear TeChnology,
P.o...Box 1426
Elk Grove,lL ,60009
, An Eq~ OpportunIty Elnf>t. _ I

I I

To advertise in
II's true, our Consumer lnlormaticn Catalog is tilled with booklets that
can answer the questions American consumers ask most. GEAR
To satisfy ,every appetite, the Consumer Information center puts together
this helpful Catalog quarterly containing more than 200 federal
publications you can order. II's free, and so are almost half of 'the
- TECHNOLOGY
booklets il Lists.Subjects like nutrition, money management, healthand
federal benefus help you make the r.ight choices and decisions,
call
So get a slice of American opportunity. Write 'today for your free Catalog: (708) 437-6604
Consumer Information Center
1\ rubllC. vr ... lIlor OIlhls pubJK~uan
COnSl.!:mC'llnl\'lf~'lnn Cf"nler (111M
and 1M Departm.ent AP'
u 5 G(-nr,,,1 Stfvl~n Admrnl~r.rton Pueblo, Colorado 81009

Novem'ber/Dee-ember 1990 47
 DIAMONDI DIIIINGi moLS
For IGear G"nlUng Mamies CALENDAR

NOVEMBER 14-15.. SME Automat,ed.

Debarring Systems Clinic. Holiday fun
Crowne Plaza, Lisle, (Chicago) .WL.De-
signed for those considering -automating
their present debarring process or those
with questions about these systems. Papers,
panel discussions, information exchange
• Reishauer/Fellows Dressing Tools
sessions. Contact Mike Traicoff, SME,
• All Natural Diamond
• Diamond lengths 2.5mm - 8.0mm One SME Drive, P.O. Box 930, Dearborn,
• Diamond Shape: Flat - Radius - Convex M] 48121. PH: (313) 271-1500. FAX: (313)
• Stock Common Tools, Build to print specials 271-2861. TELEX: 2977412 SME UR.
.5-48D.P.
• Complete Resetting & Relspping services NOVEMBER 28-30., 1990.. Fundamentals ·of
Gear Design. University of Wisconsin at
lOWESTWICIIIN TDOLS~, IINC,. Milwaukee ..Mini-course covering basic gear
systems for designers, users, purchasing
[016 S. DUNTON - ARLINGTON HEIGHTS, lL 60005 agents, maintenance and process engineers.
708-506-1958 For more information, contact Richard C.
FAX 708-506-U25
Albers, Center for Continuing Engineering
crRC~ A-33 ON READER REPLYCA'RD Education, University of Wisconsin-Mil~
waukee, 929 N. Sixth St., Milwaukee, WI
53202. (414) 227-3125.

OCTOBER 21-23,1991. AGMAs Gear Ex-

po '91. The Wodd of Gearing. Biennial
trade show devoted exclusively to gear and
gearing products. Cobo Conference and Ex-
hibition- Center, Detroit, ML
AGMA F.aUTechnical Meeting .. Held in
conjunction with Gear Expo '91, the con-
ference will feature gear experts from
around the world presenting technical
papers ona wide range of gear-related sub-
jects. For more information on the show
and conference, contact: AGMA, 1500 King
St., Suite 201,. Alexandria, VA 22314 ...PH:
(703) 684-0211.

NOVEMBER 24-26, 1991. International

Confereneeon Motion and. Power Trans-
missions ..HWoshima, Japan. The conference
covers all aspects of the theory and applica-
tion of motion and power transmission
systems. For more information, contact:
Prof. Aizoh Kubo, Dept. of Precision Me-
chanics, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606
Japan. FAX: (Japan) 75-771-7286. TELEX:
5423115 ENG KU J.

CIRCLE A-22 ON READER REPLYCARD

48 Gear Technology
DURABLE Straightforward two axis
Totally sealed and air programming can be
purged, the FOR MASTER learned quickly by
is well suited to production production personnel. P.C.
environments. software is also available
for generating involute
gear profile programs.
Made in U.S.A. Patent No. 4.s~9.919

Nonnac.1ncorporatcd ~ Nonnac. Incorporated

P.O. Boll. 69· Arden. NC 28704 ~ P.O. Box 2f17. Northville. M148167
Phone (704) 684-1002· Fu (704) 684-1384 NORMAe. INC. Phone (313) 349-2644· Fax (313) 349-1440

CII~C'I.EA-2 ON READlR RlPLV CARD

M ,et b e he,
__ I =su liS -1 r •

Shapes the World of Gears ...

What can Mjtsubishi do for you?' Mitsubishi can support single source hardware supply, engineering support
you in all fields of gear manufacturing technology. and responsibility. Look for
Mitsubishi builds gear hobbers, gear shapers and gear Mitsubishi, the world leader of gear
shavers. AIl CNC conteolled, Mitsubishi not only builds manufacturing technology.
gear machinery but. also manufactures various kinds of For more information, call.
cutting tools. TiN coated gear hobs, shaping cutters and (312) 86()4220, NOW!
shaving cutters, etc. Wilh Mitsubishi, you can .get a

Hnvy Duty Fr.lS

I eNC L"El"Hts Cylin;J!i'Ic.aj Specl"i-Pui'poH Gi-M Millung PrIIcIa.gn
Machine Toor:!l G!!!'!!deirI MiCh ..... '10011 IMilCti!!1!I: 10015 CuUlng ~:I

J.. !!!JI!DYS~.!.tI!
5-1, Marunouchl 2-chome, Chlyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Gable Address: HJSHIJU TOKYO
MitsubishJ Hea,vy Iindusat- - America, line.
1500 Michael Drive, Wood IDale, IL 50'191 Phone: (708)·860-4220'

Mitsubishi Ilnternational COrporation

1500 Michael Drive, Wood Dale, IL 60191 Pllane: (70B)860-4222

CIRCLE A-11 ON READER REPLY CARD