The Environment and

Change Over Time

Theory of Evolution by
Natural Selection
Key Concepts
• Who was Charles Darwin?
What do you think? Read the two statements below and decide • How does Darwin’s theory
whether you agree or disagree with them. Place an A in the Before column
of evolution by natural
if you agree with the statement or a D if you disagree. After you’ve read
selection explain how
this lesson, reread the statements to see if you have changed your mind.
species change over time?
Before Statement After
• How are adaptations
3. Environmental change causes variations in evidence of natural
populations. selection?
4. Variations can lead to adaptations.

3TUDY#OACH

Make Flash Cards Think of

Charles Darwin a quiz question for each
How many species of birds can you name? Robins, penguins, paragraph. Write the question
and chickens are a few. There are about 10,000 species of on one side of a flash card.
birds on Earth today. Each species has wings, feathers, and Write the answer on the other
beaks. Scientists hypothesize that all birds evolved from an side. Work with a partner to
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

earlier, or ancestral, group of birdlike organisms. As this quiz each other using your
group evolved into different species, birds developed flash cards.
different sizes, colors, songs, and ways of eating. Yet, they
kept their key bird traits.
How do species evolve? Charles Darwin, a scientist,
worked to answer this question. Darwin was an English
naturalist who, in the mid-1800s, developed a theory of how
evolution works. A naturalist is a person who studies plants and
animals by observing them. Darwin spent years studying plants
and animals in nature before developing his theory. Recall
that a theory is an explanation of the natural world that is Key Concept Check
well supported by evidence. Darwin’s theory of evolution was 1. Describe Who was
not the first, but his theory is the one best supported by Charles Darwin?
evidence today.

Voyage of the Beagle

Darwin worked as a naturalist on the HMS Beagle, a ship
of the British navy. During his trip around the world, Darwin
observed and collected many plants and animals.

Reading Essentials The Environment and Change Over Time 91

 The Galápagos Islands
Darwin was interested in the organisms he saw on the
Make a small four-door Galápagos (guh LAH puh gus) Islands. These islands are
shutterfold book. Use it to
1,000 km off the South American coast in the Pacific Ocean.
investigate the who, what,
when, and where of Charles Darwin saw that each island had a slightly different
Darwin, the Galápagos environment. Some were dry. Some were more humid. Others
Islands, and the theory of had mixed environments.
evolution by natural selection.
Tortoises Darwin saw that the giant tortoises on each island
Who? What? looked different. On one island, tortoises had shells that
came close to their necks. They could eat only short plants.
On other islands, tortoises had more space between the shell
and neck. They could eat taller plants.
Mockingbirds and Finches Darwin was also curious about
When?
Where? the different mockingbirds and finches he saw. Like the
tortoises, different types of mockingbirds and finches lived in
different island environments. Later, he was surprised to find
Reading Check that many were different enough to be separate species.
2. Explain What made Darwin’s Theory
Darwin become curious about
the organisms that lived on Darwin discovered a relationship between each species
the Galápagos Islands? and the food found on the island where it lived. Tortoises
with long necks lived on islands that had tall cacti. Their long
necks made it possible for them to reach high to eat the cacti.
The tortoises with short necks lived on islands that had
plenty of short grass.

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Common Ancestors
Darwin became convinced that all the tortoise species
were related. He thought they all shared a common ancestor.
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY He suggested that millions of years before, a storm had
convince carried a group of tortoises to one of the islands from South
(verb) to overcome by
America. In time, the tortoises spread to the other islands.
argument
Their neck lengths and shell shapes changed to match their
islands’ food sources. How did this happen?

Variations
Darwin knew that individual members of a species have
slight differences, or variations. A variation is a slight difference
in the appearance of individual members of a species. Variations
arise naturally in populations. They occur in the offspring as
a result of sexual reproduction. You might recall that
variations are caused by random mutations, or changes, in
genes. Mutations can lead to changes in phenotype. Recall
that an organism’s phenotype is all of the observable traits
and characteristics of the organism. Genetic changes to
phenotype can be passed on to future generations.

92 The Environment and Change Over Time Reading Essentials

 Natural Selection Key Concept Check
Darwin did not know about genes. But he saw that 3. Analyze What role do
variations were the key to how evolution worked. He knew variations have in the theory
that there was not enough food on each island to feed of evolution by natural
every tortoise that was born. Tortoises had to compete for selection?
food. As the tortoises spread to the different islands, some
were born with random variations in neck length. If a
variation helped a tortoise compete for food, the tortoise
lived longer than other tortoises without the variation.
Because it lived longer, it reproduced more. It passed on the
helpful variation to its offspring.
Visual Check
This is Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection.
4. Illustrate Mark all the
Natural selection is the process by which populations of organisms tortoises in the figure that
with variations that help them survive in their environments live have short necks with the
longer, compete better, and reproduce more than those that do not letter S. Mark those that have
have the variations. Natural selection explains how Galápagos long necks with the letter L.
tortoises became matched to their food sources, as shown What trend do you see over
time?
below. It also explains why there were so many different
kinds of Galápagos finches and mockingbirds. Birds with
beak variations that helped them compete for food lived
longer and reproduced more.

Natural Selection
1 Reproduction 2 Variation
A population of A tortoise is born
tortoises produces with a variation
many offspring that that makes its neck
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inherit its slightly longer.

characteristics.

3 Competition 4 Selection
Due to limited Over time, the
resources, not all variation is
offspring will inherited by
survive. An offspring more and more
with a longer neck offspring.
can eat more cacti Eventually, all
than other tortoises. tortoises have
It lives longer and longer necks.
produces more
offspring.

Reading Essentials The Environment and Change Over Time 93

 Adaptations
Natural selection explains how all species change over
time as their environments change. Through natural selection,
a helpful variation in one individual can eventually pass to
future members of a population.
As time passes, more variations come about. The buildup
of many similar variations can lead to an adaptation
(a dap TAY shun). An adaptation is a characteristic of a species
that enables the species to survive in its environment. The long neck
of certain species of tortoises is an adaptation to an
Key Concept Check environment with tall cacti.
5. Explain How do
variations lead to adaptations?
Types of Adaptations
Every species has many adaptations. Scientists classify
adaptations into three categories: structural, behavioral, and
functional.
Structural Adaptations These adaptations involve color,
shape, and other physical characteristics. The shape of a
tortoise’s neck is a structural adaptation.
Behavioral Adaptations The way an organism behaves or
acts is a behavioral adaptation. Hunting at night and
moving in herds are behavioral adaptations.
6. Apply An opossum will Functional Adaptations The last category is functional
play dead when a predator
frightens it. That way the adaptations. These adaptations involve chemical changes in
predator might think it is not body systems. A drop in body temperature during hibernation

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

good food and will leave it is a functional adaptation.
alone. What kind of adaptation
is this? (Circle the correct Environmental Interactions
answer.) Many species have evolved adaptations that make them
a. structural nearly invisible. For example, a seahorse may be the same
b. behavioral color as and similar in texture to the coral it rests on. This is
c. functional a structural adaptation called camouflage (KAM uh flahj).
Camouflage is an adaptation that enables species to blend in with
their environments.
Some species have adaptations that draw attention to them
Reading Check or make them more visible. A caterpillar may resemble a
7. Contrast How do snake. Predators see it and are scared away. The resemblance of
camouflage and mimicry one species to another species is mimicry (MIH mih kree). Camouflage
differ? and mimicry are adaptations that help species avoid being
eaten. Many other adaptations help species eat. For example,
the pelican has a beak and mouth uniquely adapted to its food
source—fish.

94 The Environment and Change Over Time Reading Essentials

 Role of Environment Environments are complex. Species
must adapt to an environment’s living parts as well as to its
nonliving parts. Some nonliving things are temperature, 8. Synthesize How do you
water, nutrients in soil, and climate. Deciduous trees shed think some fur-bearing
their leaves due to changes in climate. Camouflage, mimicry, species might adapt to a
and mouth shape are adaptations mostly to an environment’s gradual change in climate in
living parts. which global temperature
increased?
Extinct Species Living and nonliving factors are always
changing. Even slight environmental changes affect how
species adapt. If a species is unable to adapt, it becomes
extinct. The fossil record contains many fossils of species
unable to adapt to change.

Artificial Selection
Adaptations show how closely Earth’s species match their
environments. This is exactly what Darwin’s theory of
evolution by natural selection predicted. Darwin gave many
examples of adaptation in On the Origin of Species, the book
he wrote to explain his theory. Darwin wrote his book
20 years after he developed his theory. He spent those years
collecting more evidence for his theory.
Darwin also had a hobby of breeding pigeons. He bred
pigeons of different colors and shapes. In this way, he
produced new, fancy varieties. The breeding of organisms for
desired characteristics is called selective breeding. Like many
plants and animals produced from selective breeding,
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

pigeons look different from their ancestors.

Darwin saw that changes caused by selective breeding
were much like changes caused by natural selection. Instead
of nature selecting variations, humans selected them. Darwin
called this process artificial selection. Reading Check
Artificial selection explains and supports Darwin’s theory. 9. Compare How are
In Lesson 3, you will read about other evidence that supports artificial selection and
natural selection alike?
the idea that species evolve from other species.

Reading Essentials The Environment and Change Over Time 95

Mini Glossary
adaptation (a dap TAY shun): a characteristic of a species natural selection: the process by which populations of
that enables the species to survive in its environment organisms with variations that help them survive in their
environments live longer, compete better, and reproduce
camouflage (KAM uh flahj): an adaptation that enables more than those that do not have the variations
species to blend in with their environments
selective breeding: the breeding of organisms for desired
mimicry (MIH mih kree): the resemblance of one species to characteristics
another species
variation: a slight difference in the appearance of individual
naturalist: a person who studies plants and animals by members of a species
observing them

1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Describe a living organism
that depends on camouflage or mimicry to survive.

2. Write a letter in each box to show the correct sequence that demonstrates the process of
natural selection.
a. Birds eat more light green beetles. Dark green beetles live longer and reproduce more.
b. A beetle is born with a variation in its color: It is dark green.

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

c. Over time, all beetles in the environment are dark green.
d. A population of beetles is light green. They stand out against dark green leaves.

3. Compare selective breeding and evolution.

What do you think

Reread the statements at the beginning of the Connect ED
lesson. Fill in the After column with an A if you Log on to ConnectED.mcgraw-hill.com
agree with the statement or a D if you disagree. and access your textbook to find this END OF
Did you change your mind? lesson’s resources. LESSON

96 The Environment and Change Over Time Reading Essentials

 CHAPTER 6
LESSON 3
The Environment and
Change Over Time
Biological Evidence of Evolution
Key Concepts
• What evidence from living
What do you think? Read the two statements below and decide species supports the
whether you agree or disagree with them. Place an A in the Before column theory that species
if you agree with the statement or a D if you disagree. After you’ve read descended from other
this lesson, reread the statements to see if you have changed your mind. species over time?
Before Statement After • How are Earth’s organisms
5. Living species contain no evidence that they related?
are related to each other.
6. Plants and animals share similar genes.

Identify Main Ideas

Evidence for Evolution Highlight the main idea of
The pictures of horse fossils in Lesson 1 seem to show each paragraph. Highlight
that horses evolved in a straight line. That is, one species two details that support
replaced another in a series of orderly steps. Evolution does each main idea with a
not occur this way. Different horse species were sometimes different color. Use your
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

alive at the same time. They are related to one another highlighted copy to review
because each descended from a common ancestor. what you studied in this
lesson.
Living species that are closely related share a close
common ancestor. How closely they are related depends on
how closely in time they diverged, or split, from that
Make a table with five rows
ancestor. Evidence of common ancestors can be found in the
and three columns. Label the
fossil record and in living organisms. rows and columns of the table
as shown below. Give your
Comparative Anatomy
table a title.
It is easy to see that some species evolved from a common
ancestor. For example, robins, finches, and hawks have Explanation Example
similar body parts. They all have feathers, wings, and beaks. Comparative
Anatomy
The same is true for tigers, leopards, and house cats. But how Vestigial
Structures
are hawks related to cats? Developmental
Biology
Studying the structural and functional similarities and Molecular
Biology
differences in species that do not look alike can show the
relationships. The study of similarities and differences among
structures of living species is called comparative anatomy.

Reading Essentials The Environment and Change Over Time 97

 Homologous Structures
Human Cat Frog Bat Bird

Humerus

Ulna
Radius

Homologous Structures Humans, cats, frogs, bats, and birds

Visual Check
look different and move in different ways. Humans use their
1. Infer What is the arms for balance and their hands to grasp objects. Cats use
function of the bones in bats
that are homologous to finger their forelimbs to walk, run, and jump. Frogs use their
bones in humans? forelimbs to jump. The forelimbs of bats and birds are wings
and are used for flying. However, the forelimb bones of all
these species show similar patterns, as shown in the figure
above. The forelimbs of the species in the figure are different
sizes, but their placement and structure suggest common
ancestry.
Homologous (huh MAH luh gus) structures are body parts of
organisms that are similar in structure and position but different in

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

function. Homologous structures, such as the forelimbs of
humans, cats, frogs, bats, and birds, suggest that these
species are related. The more alike two structures are, the
more likely it is that the species have evolved from a recent
Key Concept Check common ancestor.
2. Explain How do Analogous Structures Can you think of a body part in two
homologous structures
species that does the same job but differs in structure? How
provide evidence for
evolution? about the wings of birds and flies? The wings in both species
are used for flight. But bird wings are covered with feathers.
Fly wings are covered with tiny hairs. Though used for the
same function—flight—the wings of birds and insects are
too different in structure to suggest close common ancestry.
Bird wings and fly wings are analogous (uh NAH luh gus)
structures. Analogous structures are body parts that perform a
similar function but differ in structure. The differences in wing
structure show that birds and flies are not closely related.

98 The Environment and Change Over Time Reading Essentials

 Vestigial Structures
Between 50–40 million years ago, this mammal breathed air and walked clumsily on
land. It spent a lot of time in water, but swimming was difficult because of its rear
legs. Individuals born with variations that made their rear legs smaller lived longer
and reproduced more. This mammal is an ancestor of modern whales.

Pelvis

Ambulocetus natans

Vestigial pelvis

Modern toothed whale

After 10–15 million more years of evolution, the
ancestors of modern whales could not walk on
land. They were adapted to an aquatic environment.
Modern whales have two small vestigial pelvic
bones that no longer support legs.

Vestigial Structures Visual Check

Ostriches have wings. Yet they cannot fly. An ostrich’s
3. Infer Why does a
wings are an example of vestigial structures. Vestigial
vestigial pelvis show that the
(veh STIH jee ul) structures are body parts that have lost their original ancestors of the modern
function through evolution. The best explanation for vestigial
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

whale once had legs?

structures is that the species with a vestigial structure is
related to an ancestral species that used the structure for a
specific purpose.
The whale shown in the figure above has tiny pelvic bones
inside its body. Pelvic bones are hip bones, which in many
species attach the leg bones to the body. Modern whales do
not have legs. The pelvic bones in whales suggest that whales
came from ancestors that used legs for walking on land. The
fossil evidence supports this conclusion. Many fossils of whale
ancestors show a slow loss of legs over millions of years. They
also show, at the same time, that whale ancestors became
Key Concept Check
better adapted to their watery environments. 4. Explain How are
vestigial structures evidence
Developmental Biology of descent from ancestral
Studying the internal structures of living organisms is not species?
the only way that scientists learn about common ancestors.
Studying how embryos develop can also show how species
are related. The science of the development of embryos from
fertilization to birth is called embryology (em bree AH luh jee).

Reading Essentials The Environment and Change Over Time 99

 Pharyngeal Pouches Embryos of different species often look
like each other at different stages of their growth. For example,
all vertebrate embryos have pharyngeal (fuh rihn JEE ul)
pouches at one stage. These pouches become different body
parts in each vertebrate. Yet, in all vertebrates, each part is in
the face or neck.
In reptiles, birds, and humans, part of the pharyngeal
pouch develops into a gland in the neck. This gland regulates,
or balances, the body’s calcium levels.
In fish, the same part becomes the gills. One function of
gills is to regulate calcium. The similar function and location
of gills and glands suggest a close evolutionary relationship
Key Concept Check between fish and other vertebrates.
5. Analyze How do
pharyngeal pouches provide Molecular Biology
evidence of relationships Studies of fossils, comparative anatomy, and embryology
among species? provide support for Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural
selection. Molecular biology is the study of gene structure
and function.
Discoveries in molecular biology have confirmed and
extended much of the data already collected about the theory
of evolution. Darwin did not know about genes, but scientists
today know that mutations in genes are the source of
variations upon which natural selection acts. Genes provide
Reading Check powerful support for evolution.
6. Describe What is

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Comparing Sequences All living organisms have genes. All
molecular biology? genes are made of DNA, and all genes work in similar ways.
This supports the idea that all living organisms are related.
Scientists can study how living organisms are related by
comparing their genes. For example, nearly all organisms
have a gene for cytochrome c, a protein required for cellular
respiration. Some species, such as humans and rhesus
monkeys, have nearly identical cytochrome c. The more
closely related two species are, the more similar their genes
Key Concept Check and proteins are.
7. Explain How is Divergence Scientists have found that some stretches of
molecular biology used to
shared DNA mutate at regular, predictable rates. Scientists use
determine relationships
among species? this “molecular clock” to estimate when in the past living
species split from common ancestors. This is how scientists
have shown that whales and porpoises are more closely related
to hippopotamuses than they are to other living things.
Whales and hippopotamuses share an ancestor that lived
50–60 million years ago.

100 The Environment and Change Over Time Reading Essentials

 The Study of Evolution Today
The theory of evolution by natural selection is the
cornerstone of modern biology. Since Darwin published his
theory, scientists have confirmed, refined, and extended his
work. They have observed natural selection in hundreds of
living species. Their studies of fossils, anatomy, embryology,
and molecular biology have shown relationships among
Reading Check
living and extinct species.
8. Connect What is the
How New Species Form connection between modern
New evidence supporting the theory of evolution by biology and the theory of
natural selection is discovered nearly every day. But scientists evolution by natural
selection?
debate some of the details. The figure below shows how
scientists have different ideas about the rate at which natural
selection produces new species. Some say it works slowly and
gradually. Others say it works quickly, in bursts. How different
species first came about is difficult to study on human time
scales. It is also difficult to study with the incomplete fossil
record. Yet, new fossils that fill in the holes are discovered all
the time. Further fossil discoveries will help scientists study
more details about the origin of new species. Reading Check
Diversity 9. Describe a difference
of opinion in regard to how
Evolution has produced Earth’s wide diversity of living
scientists interpret the theory
things using the same basic building blocks called genes. This of evolution by natural
is an active area of study in evolutionary biology. Scientists are selection.
finding that genes can be reorganized in simple ways and give
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

rise to dramatic changes in organisms. Scientists now study

evolution by looking at molecules. Yet, they still use the same
basic ideas that Darwin came up with over 150 years ago.

Rates of Evolution

No No No Visual Check
variation variation variation
10. Analyze What does a
flat (horizontal) line mean in
Rapid change
Time

the figure? (Circle the correct

Rapid change answer.)
Changes occur Change occurs a. gradual change
slowly as small quickly. Long b. no variation
variations are periods of time
gradually selected pass with no c. rapid change
in a population. variations.
Gradual change Bursts of change

Reading Essentials The Environment and Change Over Time 101

Mini Glossary
analogous (uh NAH luh gus) structure: a body part that homologous (huh MAH luh gus) structure: a body part
performs a similar function to the body part of another that is similar in structure and position to the body part of
organism, though it differs in structure another organism, though it has a different function

comparative anatomy: the study of similarities and vestigial (veh STIH jee ul) structure: a body part that has
differences among structures of living species lost its original function through evolution

embryology (em bree AH luh jee): the science of the

development of embryos from fertilization to birth

1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Use one of the terms to
write your own sentence.

2. Use what you have learned about analogous, homologous, and vestigial structures to
complete the table. The last row has been completed for you.

Similar Structure or Function

Structures Example Pair of Structures
(circle one)

similar
Analogous
structure or function

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

similar
Homologous
structure or function

pelvic bone in modern whales similar

Vestigial
pelvic bone in whale ancestors structure or function

3. How did highlighting the main idea in each paragraph help you study this lesson?

What do you think

Reread the statements at the beginning of the Connect ED
lesson. Fill in the After column with an A if you Log on to ConnectED.mcgraw-hill.com
agree with the statement or a D if you disagree. and access your textbook to find this END OF
Did you change your mind? lesson’s resources. LESSON

102 The Environment and Change Over Time Reading Essentials