Introduction to conic sections

Author:
Eduard Ortega
1 Introduction
A conic is a two-dimensional figure created by the intersection of a plane and a right
circular cone. All conics can be written in terms of the following equation:

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 .

The four conics we’ll explore in this text are parabolas, ellipses, circles, and hyperbolas.
The equations for each of these conics can be written in a standard form, from which
a lot about the given conic can be told without having to graph it. We’ll study the
standard forms and graphs of these four conics,

1.1 General definition

A conic is the intersection of a plane and a right circular cone. The four basic types
of conics are parabolas, ellipses, circles, and hyperbolas. Study the figures below to see
how a conic is geometrically defined.

In a non-degenerate conic the plane does not pass through the vertex of the cone.
When the plane does intersect the vertex of the cone, the resulting conic is called a
degenerate conic. Degenerate conics include a point, a line, and two intersecting lines.
The equation of every conic can be written in the following form:

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 .

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This is the algebraic definition of a conic. Conics can be classified according to the
coefficients of this equation.
The discriminant of the equation is B 2 − 4AC. Assuming a conic is not degenerate,
the following conditions hold true:
1. If B 2 − 4AC < 0 , the conic is a circle (if B = 0 and A = B), or an ellipse.

2. If B 2 − 4AC = 0, the conic is a parabola.

3. If B 2 − 4AC > 0, the conic is a hyperbola.

Although there are many equations that describe a conic section, the following table
gives the standard form equations for non-degenerate conics sections.

Standard equation for non-degenerate conic section

circle x 2 + y 2 = a2
2
x2
ellipse a2
+ yb2 = 1
parabola y 2 − 4ax = 0
2 2
hyperbola xa2 − yb2 = 1

1.2 problems
1. Is the following conic a parabola, an ellipse, a circle, or a hyperbola: −3x2 +y +2 =
0 ? It is a parabola.

2. Is the following conic a parabola, an ellipse, a circle, or a hyperbola: 2x2 + 3xy −

4y 2 + 2x − 3y + 1 = 0 ? It is a hyperbola.

3. Is the following conic a parabola, an ellipse, a circle, or a hyperbola: 2x2 − 3y 2 = 0

? It is a hyperbola.

4. Is the following conic a parabola, an ellipse, a circle, or a hyperbola: −3x2 + xy −

2y 2 + 4 = 0 ? It is an ellipse.

5. Is the following conic a parabola, an ellipse, a circle, or a hyperbola: x2 = 0 ? It

is a degenerate conic. x = 0 is a line.

6. Is the following conic a parabola, an ellipse, a circle, or a hyperbola: x2 − y 2 = 0 ?

It is a degenerate conic. x2 − y 2 = (x − y)(x + y) = 0 are two lines that intersects.

7. Is the following conic a parabola, an ellipse, a circle, or a hyperbola: x2 + y 2 = 0

? It is a degenerate conic. The only point that satisfies the equations x2 + y 2 = 0
is (0, 0).

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1.3 Geometric definition
Let ε be a positive number, eccentricity, ` a line, directice and a point B, focus. The
triple (ε, `, B) defines a conic section in the following way:

A point P is in the conic section defined by (ε, `, B) if

|PB| = ε · |P`|

|PB| stands for the distance from the point P to the point B and |P`| for the minimal
distance of the point P to the line `.
If the focus B does not belong to the directrice line `, the following conditions hold
true:

1. If 0 < ε < 1 then conic is an ellipse.

2. If ε = 1 then conic is an parabola.

3. If ε > 1 then conic is an hyperbola,

If the focus B does belong to the directrice line `, the following conditions hold true:

1. If 0 < ε < 1 then conic is a point.

2. If ε = 1 then conic is a line.

3. If ε > 1 then conic are two lines that cross.

2 Non-degenerate conic sections

Given an eccentricity ε, a directrice line ` and a focus point B not contain in `, we can
define a non-degenerate conic section. For simplicity we will assume that ` is of the form
x = L and B = (B, 0), with L < B. We will see later that through translations and
rotations we always can reduce to this situation.

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In this case given a point P = (x, y) we have that
p p
|PB| = (x − B)2 + y 2 and |P`| = (x − L)2 .

Then the relation |PB| = ε · |P`| can we written in the following way:
p p
(x − B)2 + y 2 = ε (x − L)2 .

Then we have
p p
( (x − B)2 + y 2 )2 = (ε (x − L)2 )2
that is equivalent to

(x − B)2 + y 2 = ε2 (x − L)2 .

So this is the general equation of a conic section. Now we will study which type of conic
section is depending of the possible values of the eccentricity ε.

2.1 Ellipse
We suppose that 0 < ε < 1. First we compute the intersection of the conic section with
the x-axis. To do that we have to replace y = 0 in the general equation of the conic
section, so it follows the equation

(x − B)2 = ε2 (x − L)2 .

This is equivalent to the equation

p p
(x − B)2 = ± ε2 (x − L)2 ,

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so we have
(x − B) = ±ε(x − L) ,
Here we encounter to possibilities: First suppose the equation

(x − B) = −ε(x − L) ,

that is equivalent to
(1 + ε)x = B + εL ,
so the first point that intersects the x-axis is
B+εL
x1 = x = 1+ε
.

Finally suppose the equation

(x − B) = +ε(x − L) ,

that is equivalent to
(1 − ε)x = B − εL ,
so the second point that intersects the x-axis is
B−εL
x2 = x = 1−ε
.

A simple calculation yields that x1 < x2 .

definitions
center x̄ = x1 +x
2
2

major axis a = x2 −x 1
√2
minor axis b = a 1 − ε2

With this definitions on hand we can rewrite the general equation in the following
way
(x−x̄)2 y2
a2
+ b2
= 1,

that we call the standard equation of the ellipse.

Conversely,
(x−x̄)2 y2
a2
+ =1
b2
q
b2
eccentricity ε= 1− a2
directrice L = x̄ − aε
focus B = x̄ − ε · a

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From the standard equation of the ellipse one can observe that the ellipse is symmetric
with respect to the vertical line x = x̄. Therefore if we define
a a
B2 = x̄ + and L2 = x̄ +
ε ε
we have that the triple given by eccentricity ε, focus point B2 = (B2 , 0) and the directrice
line `2 given by x = L2 , determines the same conic section as (ε, B, `). Thus, B1 = B
and B2 are called the two focus points of the ellipse.

Now given the two focus of the ellipse B1 and B2 we can give an alternative geometric
description, in the following way: An ellipse is the set of points such that the sum of the
distances from any point on the ellipse to B1 and B2 is constant and equal to 2a, that is

|PB1 | + |PB2 | = 2a

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2.1.1 Examples

1. Find the equation of the ellipse with eccentricity ε = 1/3, directrice line x = −1
and focus B = (1, 0). Then according the formulas we have
1 + 1/3(−1) 2/3 1 − 1/3(−1) 4/3
x1 = = = 1/2 x2 = = =2
1 + 1/3 4/3 1 − 1/3 2/3
and hence the center of the ellipse is
1/2 + 2
x̄ = = 5/4 ,
2
and
√
2 − 1/2 p p 2
a= = 3/4 b = 3/4 · 1 − (1/3)2 = 3/4 · 8/9 = .
2 2
Therefore the equation is
(x − 5/4)2 y2
+ √ = 1,
(3/4)2 ( 22 )2
so
16(x−5/4)2
9
+ 2y 2 = 1

2. Let B1 = (−1, 0) and B2 = (3, 0) be two points in the plane. We want to give the
equation of the ellipse such points P satisfy

|PB1 | + |PB2 | = 6 .

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 First observe that the formulas say that 2a = 6, and hence a = 3. The center of
the ellipse is the mid-point between B1 and B2 that is x̄ = 2. We need now to
calculate the eccentricity, that from the above formulas comes from the relation

|B1 B2 | = 2aε ,

so we have that 4 = 2 · 3 · ε, and follows that ε = 2/3. Finally, we have that

√ p √
b = a 1 − ε2 , so b = 3 5/9 = 5. Therefore the equation of the ellipse is

(x−2)2 y2
9
+ 5
=1

2.2 Parabel
We suppose that ε = 1, that translates as the condition

|PB| = ε · |P`| ,

that are the points P in the plane that are at the same distance from the focus B as
from the directrice `.
Then the general equation of the conic section reduces to

(x − B)2 + y 2 = (x − L)2 ,

and we can write it as

y 2 = (x − L)2 − (x − B)2 = x2 − 2xL + L2 − x2 + 2xB − B 2 = 2(B − L)x + (L2 − B 2 ) ,

that is

y 2 = 2(B − L)x + (L2 − B 2 )

If we want to find the intersection of the conic section with the x-axis, we have to
replace y = 0 in the above equation. So we have

0 = 2(B − L)x + (L2 − B 2 )

that is
2(L − B)x = (L2 − B 2 ) = (L − B)(L + B)
so after cancel out some the (L − B) term we have that
L+B
x1 = x = 2

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that we can the vertex of the parabola.

2.3 Hyperbola
We suppose that ε > 1. First we compute the intersection of the conic section with the
x-axis. To do that we have to replace y = 0 in the general equation of the conic section,
so it follows the equation
(x − B)2 = ε2 (x − L)2 .
This is equivalent to the equation
p p
(x − B)2 = ± ε2 (x − L)2 ,

so we have
(x − B) = ±ε(x − L) ,
Here we encounter to possibilities: First suppose the equation

(x − B) = −ε(x − L) ,

that is equivalent to
(1 + ε)x = B + εL ,
so the first point that intersects the x-axis is
B+εL
x1 = x = 1+ε
.

Finally suppose the equation

(x − B) = +ε(x − L) ,

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that is equivalent to
(1 − ε)x = B − εL ,
so the second point that intersects the x-axis is
B−εL
x2 = x = 1−ε
.

A simple calculation yields that x1 > x2 . Observe that this is the opposite that
happens in the ellipse situation.

definitions
center x̄ = x1 +x
2
2

major axis a = x1 −x 2
√2
minor axis b = a ε2 − 1

With this definitions on hand we can rewrite the general equation in the following
way
(x−x̄)2 y2
a2
− b2
= 1,

that we call the standard equation of the hyperbola.

Conversely,
(x−x̄)2 y2
a2
− =1
b2
q
b2
eccentricity ε= 1+ a2
directrice L = x̄ + aε
focus B = x̄ + ε · a

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From the standard equation of the hyperbola one can observe that the hyperbola is
symmetric with respect to the vertical line x = x̄. Therefore if we define
a
B2 = x̄ − ε · a and L2 = x̄ −
ε
we have that the triple given by eccentricity ε, focus point B2 = (B2 , 0) and the directrice
line `2 given by x = L2 , determines the same conic section as (ε, B, `). Thus, B1 = B
and B2 are called the two focus points of the hyperbola.
Now given the two focus of the hyperbola B1 and B2 we can give an alternative
geometric description, in the following way: An hyperbola is the set of points such that
the difference of the distances from any point on the ellipse to B1 and B2 is constant
and equal to 2a, that is

|PB1 | − |PB2 | = 2a or |PB2 | − |PB1 | = 2a .

2.3.1 Examples

1. Find the equation of the hyperbola with eccentricity ε = 2, directrice line x = −1

and focus B = (1, 0). Then according the formulas we have
1 + 2(−1) 1 1 − 2(−1) 3
x1 = =− x2 = = = −3
1+2 3 1−2 −1
and hence the center of the hyperbola is
−1/3 − 3
x̄ = = −5/3 ,
2
and
−1/3 − (−3) √ √ 4
a= = 4/3 b = 4/3 · 22 − 1 = 4/3 · 3 = √ .
2 3

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 Therefore the equation is

(x + 5/3)2 y2
− = 1,
(4/3)2 ( √43 )2
so

9(x+5/3)2 3y 2
16
− 16
=1

2. Let B1 = (−1, 0) and B2 = (3, 0) be two points in the plane. We want to give the
equation of the hyperbola such points P satisfy

|PB1 | − |PB2 | = 6 or |PB2 | − |PB1 | = 6 .

First observe that the formulas say that 2a = 6, and hence a = 3. The center of
the ellipse is the mid-point between B1 and B2 that is x̄ = 2. We need now to
calculate the eccentricity, that from the above formulas comes from the relation
2a
|B1 B2 | = ,
ε
so we have that 4 = 2·3 , and follows that ε = 3/2. Finally, we have that b =
√ p ε √
a ε2 − 1, so b = 3 5/4 = 3 2 5 . Therefore the equation of the hyperbola is

(x−2)2 4y 2
9
− 45
=1

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3 Change of coordinates
In the above section we have supposed that the directrice line is parallel to the y-axis,
i.e., x = L and the focus is over the x−axis, i.e. B = (B, 0), but what happens with the
general situation where we have any given line and point? Change of coordinates!

3.1 translation
A translation to a point (a, b) is a change of coordinates (x, y) to a new coordinates (x̄, ȳ)
in such a way
x̄ = x − a and ȳ = y − b .
Roughly speaking, a translation moves the origin to the point (a, b).

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We can reverse the change of coordinates from the new coordinates (x̄, ȳ) to the old
ones:
x = x̄ + a and y = ȳ + b .

3.1.1 Examples

1. We consider the translation to the point (1, 2). Then:

(x, y)-coordinates (x̄, ȳ)-coordinates

(0, 0) (−1, −2)
(1, 2) (0, 0)
y=x ȳ + 2 = x̄ + 1
ȳ = x̄ − 1
x2 + y 2 = 1 (x̄ + 1)2 + (ȳ + 2)2 = 1

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2. We want to find the equation of the ellipse that has eccentricity ε = 1/2, directrice
line x = 1 and focus (3, 2).

Observe that if we make a translation to the point (2, 2) we have the following

(x, y)-coordinates (x̄, ȳ)-coordinates

(3, 2) (1, 0)
x=1 x̄ + 2 = 1
x̄ = −1

So now we can construct the ellipse with eccentricity ε = 1/2, directrice line
x̄ = −1 = L and focus (1, 0), so B = 1. According the formulas we have that
1 + 1/2 · (−1) 1/2
x1 = = = 1/3
1 + 1/2 3/2
and
1 − 1/2 · (−1) 3/2
x2 = = = 3.
1 − 1/2 1/2
thus
1/3 + 3 10/3
x̄ = = = 5/3
2 2
3 − 1/3 8/3
a= = = 4/3
2 2
and
p p 2
b = 4/3 · 1 − (1/2)2 = 4/3 · 3/4 = √ .
3
Therefore the equation of the ellipse in the (x̄, ȳ) coordinates is
(x̄ − 5/3)2 ȳ 2
+ =1
(4/3)2 ( √23 )2

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that we can rewrite as
(x̄ − 5/3)2 ȳ 2
+ = 1.
16/9 4/3

Finally we return to the old coordinates (x, y), using that

x̄ = x − 2 and ȳ = y − 2 .

So replacing this to the equation we have

((x − 2) − 5/3)2 (y − 2)2
+ = 1.
16/9 4/3
that is
(x−11/3)2 (y−2)2
16/9
+ 4/3
= 1.

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3.2 rotation
A rotation with angle θ is a change of coordinates (x, y) to a new coordinates (x̄, ȳ) in
such a way
x̄ = x cos θ + y sin θ and ȳ = −x sin θ + y cos θ .

We can reverse the change of coordinates from the new coordinates (x̄, ȳ) to the old
ones:
x = x̄ cos θ − ȳ sin θ and y = x̄ sin θ + ȳ cos θ .

3.2.1 Examples

1. We consider the a rotation of 45◦ . Then:

(x, y)-coordinates (x̄, ȳ)-coordinates

(0, 0) (0, 0)
√
(1, 1) ( 2, 0)
√ √ √ √
y = −x − 1 ( 22 x̄ + 22 ȳ) = −( 22 x̄ − 2
2
ȳ) −1
x̄ = − √12

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2. We want to find the equation of the parabola with directrice line y = −x − 1 and
focus (1, 1).

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 Observe that if we make a translation of 45◦ in the new coordinates (x̄, ȳ) the
√
directrice line has equation x̄ = − √12 and the focus ( 2, 0). Then we can write
the equation of the parabola
√ 1 1 √ 3 3
ȳ 2 = 2( 2 − (− √ ))x̄ + ((− √ )2 ) − ( 2)2 = √ x̄ −
2 2 2 2

Finally, making the change of coordinate to the old coordinates (x, y), we have that
√ √ √ √
2 2 2 3 2 2 3
(− x+ y) = √ ( x+ y) −
2 2 2 2 2 2
so it follows that
1 2 1 2 3 3 3
x + y − xy = x + y −
2 2 2 2 2
and hence the final equation is

x2 + y 2 − 2xy − 3x − 3y + 3 = 0

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