PHY 112 L

Lab 10: Polarization

The objective of this lab is to investigate Malus’s law for the linear polarization of light
[27.44]. Your report will consist of the typical 10 parts starting with a Testable Question.
Your Evaluation must be your own work (do not consult with your lab partners).

Please review Section 27.8 of your textbook prior to class. The lab will follow the usual
format.

1. Testable Question:

How is the intensity of light vary with the angel of the polarizers?

2. Hypothesis:

If the angle of polarizers is increased then the intensity of light will decrease
because there are two polarizers and as the angle between them increases from the
value of zero (parallel) then the amount of light rays that are allowed through
decreases.

3. Variables:

Control(s): light source P1, P2, Neutralizing Filter

Independent: Angle θ
Dependent: Intensity I

4. Design Table:

Controls: P1, P2, Neutralizing Filter

I θ d1 d2 I
1–8
1–8

5. Materials:

 Photometer
 Polarizer
 Indicator
 Neutral Density Filter
 Eyepiece
 Point Source(s)
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6. Procedure:

1. Follow the set up as instructed below.

2. After set-up is complete make sure to set your polarizer to the maximum
amount of light source
a. When calibrating the indicator on the polarizing filter holder, set
the scale to 90 degrees and then turn the other polarizing filter until
all that can be seen when looking through is dark blue light. Then,
turn the indicator to 0 degrees to begin the experiment.
3. Set the Neutral Density Filter to any value of transmittance at either 0%,
25%, 50%, 75%.
4. After setup is complete begin to measure the change in angle and distance
for 8 trails.
5. Complete steps 3-4 for a second set of data at a different Neutral Density
Filter vale of the transmittance.
a. Measure the change in angle and distance for 8 trails

Setup:

In this lab, two light sources will be used to answer the Testable Question,
because the light intensity from a single light source cannot easily be measured
directly because the power of the light sources is not known. Consequently, the
value for the light intensity cannot be determined. Instead, we will compare the
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intensities of two light sources with powers, P1 and P2, to find the distances from
each source at which the intensities are equal, I1 = I2. The photometer will reveal
when the intensities are equal. By changing the relative angles of the polarizers
(using the indicator on the polarizing filters mount), the light from Point Source,
P1 will change, relative to the constant light coming from Point Source, P2. The
constant light source power, P2, can be changed by using a neutral density filter,
which allows a certain fraction of the light hitting it to pass through to the
photometer. This will allow for two sets of data to be collected.

Since light intensity decreases as the inverse of the distance squared, we get:

I1 =I 2
P1 P2
=
4π d 21 4π d 22
d 21
P1=
()
d 22
⋅P2

To get the greatest intensity from Light Source, P1, the indicator is set to an angle
of zero. This means the two polarizing filters are aligned, so the maximum
amount of light can pass through. Under this condition, the power of Light Source
1 is a maximum and will be called Po. Under this condition, the distances for
equal light intensity entering the photometer will be called d1o and d2o. This gives:

d 2 
Po =  1o 2   P2
(A)  d 2o 

Now, repeating this with the indicator positioned at any other angle (the angle of
the cross as one polarizing filter is turned relative to the other), the effective
power of the power of Bulb 1, call it P, as it relates to the power of Bulb 2 at the
corresponding distances d1 and d2, we find

d 21

(B)
P=
( )
d 22
⋅P2

Substituting (A) and (B) into Malus’ law allows us to cancel out P2 (the unknown
value for the power of Light Bulb 2):

I = Io ∙ cos2θ
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d 21 d 21o
( ) ( )
d 22
⋅P 2

2
=
d 22o
⋅P2

2
2
⋅cos θ
4π d 4π d

d12 d 21o
( )( )
2
d2
= 2
d 2o
⋅cos2 θ

Notice everything cancels out except the distance ratios. These ratios are,
therefore, equivalent to measuring the intensity of the light passing through a pair
of crossed polarizers, when the angle is zero ( Io ) and at any other angle ( I ). This
indirect method of comparing one light source with another makes it possible to
investigate the law of Malus, as though the true intensity were known. Pretty
amazing! Therefore, (d12/ d22) is then a measure of the intensity, I, from the
crossed polarizer (in arbitrary units, since everything else canceled out) and
d1o2/d2o2 is the reference intensity when the angle is zero degrees. This final
equation allows us to measure the intensity as a function of angle. This is our
Testable Question. This derivation should not be included in your procedures. It’s
here for your reference.

Helpful Tips:

 When calibrating the indicator on the polarizing filter holder, set the scale
to 90 degrees and then turn the other polarizing filter until all that can be
seen when looking through is dark blue light. Then, turn the indicator to 0
degrees to begin the experiment.
 Set the neutral density filter to any value of transmittance (given in a
percentage of light that passes through). Run the experiment using two
different transmittance values (possible settings: 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%).
 The light sources remain at opposite ends of the track and the distance
measure is from the light source (it’s inside the plastic case), which is
marked on the outside of the case, near the optical bench to the
photometer.

 When the angle is changed, the entire assembly of neutral density filter,
photometer, and polarizing filter holder is moved until the light intensities
are equal, again. Keep the assembly together, so not stray light can enter
the experiment. The equal intensity is achieved, the photometer will
appear as shown below:
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Take very careful measurements, like Lab 9: Lenses! Be sure to move the
assembly back and forth to find the best position for equal intensities, to
avoid a large systematic error.
 Be sure to include the equation that is being investigated as the last step in
the procedures. If the equation has a proper name (like Coulomb’s law) be
sure to include it with the description.

7. Data Table:

Controls: P1, P2, Neutralizing Filter 50%

I Θ d1 d2 d12 d22 I
1 0o 60.7 53.0 3684 2809 1.31
2 10o 62.5 51.2 3906 2621 1.49
3 20o 63.5 50.2 4032 2520 1.60
4 250 62.0 51.7 3844 2672 1.43
5 30o 64.0 49.7 4096 2470 1.66
6 40o 61.0 52.2 3721 2724 1.37
7 50o 58.0 55.7 3364 3102 1.08
8 60o 54.0 59.7 2916 3564 0.818
9 70o 47.5 66.2 2256 4382 0.514
10 80o 41.0 72.7 1681 5285 0.318

Controls: P1, P2, Neutralizing Filter 75%

i Θ d1 d2 d12 d22 I
1 0o 55.0 58.7 3025 3445 0.877
2 10o 55.5 58.2 3080 3387 0.909
3 20o 54.0 58.7 2916 3445 0.846
4 30o 53.5 60.2 2862 3624 0.789
5 40o 51.0 62.7 2601 3931 0.661
6 50o 50.0 63.7 2500 4057 0.616
7 60o 47.0 66.7 2209 4448 0.496
8 70o 43.0 70.7 1849 4998 0.369
9 80o 38.5 75.2 1482 5655 0.262

8. Analysis:

Graph 1:
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I50 vs Cos2 θ
1.8
1.6 f(x) = 1.34 x + 0.43
R² = 0.91
1.4
1.2
1
0.8

I
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Cos2 θ

Graph 2:

I75 vs Cos2 θ

1
0.9
f(x) = 0.62 x + 0.3
0.8 R² = 0.97
0.7
0.6
0.5
I

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Cos2 θ

T.S. Calculations:
I = Io (cos2 θ)

d 21 o
T.S. = Io =
d 22 o

T=50%:

3680
T . S .= = 1.31
2810
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T=75%:

3025
T . S .= =¿ 0.878
3450

Percent Error:

T=50%:

Percent Error=¿ 1.34−1.31∨ ¿ x 100 ¿ = 2.24%

1.34

T=75%:

Percent Error=¿ 0.878−0.618∨ ¿ x 100=¿ ¿

0.878 29.6%

9. Conclusion:

Make sure to write the Conclusion in the form of the Testable Question but now,
supplying the answer to the question. Use the specific language of math in
describing the relationship and cite your two equations from the graph with proper
symbols, significant figures, and units for the slope. Be sure to label which is
which by placing a label, like the label used for the calculations, on the left-hand
margin. Refer to the Graphical Analysis reference sheet for help.

Since there are two trials for this experiment, a second sentence must proceed the
presentation of the two equations that explains why one slope is steeper than the
other, using physical reasoning. Please see the Lab Report Format resource for
details.

10. Evaluation:

Be sure to include each of the following. Do not use bullet points – three block
paragraphs separated by a line is best (see the Lab Report Format and the
Sample Lab documents for guidance).

Only one experiment was conducted but the control was changed twice.
Therefore, only one hypothesis statement must be made, since the mathematical
relationship is the same for both. For the accuracy and precision, the errors are
based on the same experimental setup, so if the errors are consistent, they can
be averaged or presented together. If averaged, state that they have been
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averaged. Then provide one systematic and one random error to explain the
errors.

 First, address if your hypothesis was supported or not. Do not state that the
hypothesis was proven true – that is an error. Hypotheses cannot be proven
true, only supported or refuted. Next, present a detailed mathematical
description of how the dependent variable (use proper names) was affected as
the independent variable was increased in the format of the hypothesis
statement. See the LRF and Sample Lab for help. Do not put your explanation
in this statement; just the specific mathematical relationship.
 Evaluate the level of accuracy (% error less than 2.5% is outstanding to
excellent; 2.5% to 7.5% is excellent to good, 7.5% to 15% is fair, 15% to 25%
poor, and above, a failure), and then cite your % error when making the
statement. Next, state which was greater, the TS or the MS (no numbers).
Lastly, provide a reasonable source of systematic error to explain an
inaccuracy in the experiment, and how it supports the results of either the MS
being less than the TS or vice versa.
 Evaluate the level of precision (R2 value between 1.000 to 0.995 is
outstanding to excellent, 0.995 to 0.985 is excellent to good, 0.970 to 0.985 is
fair to good, 0.955 to 0.970 is poor to fair, and below 0.955 is terrible but not
a failure, since taking more and more data can always improve the precision
of an experiment), followed by your R2 value error. Then, provide a
reasonable source of random error that can explain this imprecision. Be sure
to indicate how it is a fluctuating type error.

Take Note:

 If values for the % error is 0% and/or the R2 is 1.000, this does not mean there
is not any error just that it is below the three significant figure threshold.
Examples of each type of error must still be presented.
 Outliers are not experimental errors. They are mistakes that should be
corrected as they arise. If you plot the points as you collect them, you can
easily spot outliers and fix them, right away.
 It is very good to have more than one person making a measurement and
agreeing on the values. It is not acceptable, however, to have one person take
a few measurements, followed by another lab partner independently taking the
remainder of the data.

The report should be submitted in the “Lab 10: Polarization” drop box in LoudCloud as
directed by your instructor.

When Submitting the Report:

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 The report must be a single-spaced, Word document with editable the graphs
and tables imported from Excel. Use Times New Roman, 12 point, and black
(no color in tables or on graph except when there are two lines).
 Use the following to name the lab document: Lab#Eval or
Lead#FirstNameLastInitial. No spaces or dots. For example, suppose you are
the Lead for this lab and your name is Doc. McCarthy and you are in Lab
Group 3. Then, your document title would be:

Lab10Lead3DocM.docx

Lab10Eval3DocM.docx

 If you are just writing the Evaluation for the experiment, use this lab sheet to
produce your document, by deleting everything but the title and Section 10.
This will persevere the lab format and you will have the necessary title and
Section label and number.