Applied Mathematics - I PDF
Applied Mathematics - I PDF
1
MATRICES
UNIT STRUCTURE
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definitions
1.3 Illustrative examples
1.4 Rank of matrix
1.5 Canonical form or Normal form
1.6 Normal form PAQ
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Unit End Exercise
1.0 OBJECTIVES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 DEFINITIONS
a a a a a
11 12 13 1j 1n
a a a a a
21 22 23 2j 2n
....... ..... ....... ..... .....
a a a a a
i1 i2 i3 ij in
a a a a a
mn
m1 m2 m3 mj n n
Note:
Types of Matrices:
1) Rectangular matrix :-
For e.g
2 3 4
1 2 3
23
2) Column Matrix :
1
x2
31
3) Row Matrix :
4) Square Matrix :
e.g.
2 3
A
46
22
5) Diagonal Matrix:
e.g.
2 0 0
A0 1 0
0 0 0
33
6) Scalar Matrix:
e.g.
5 0 0
A0 5 0
33
7) Unit Matrix:
e.g.
1 0 0
A0 1 0
1
33
It is a square matrix in which all the elements below the principle diagonal
are zero.
4
e.g.
1 3 0
A0 0 1
0 0 5
33
It is a square matrix in which all the elements above the principle diagonal
are zero.
e.g.
0 0 0
A 3 4 0
1 3 2
33
10) Transpose of Matrix:
A
1 3 5
3 7 9 23
1 3
T
A Transpose ofA3 7
9
32
1 3 5
A3 4 1
0 5 7
A 5 0 3
7 3 0
Note : For a skew Symmetric matrix, diagonal elements are zero.
Determinant of a Matrix:
a) Minor of an element :
Let
A= a
ij
n n
The matrix is also can be written as
a a
a 11 12 13 a1n
a a a a
21 22 23 2n
A =
a a a
n1 n 2 n 3 a
nn
Minor of an element aij is a determinant of order (nd) by deleting the
elements of the matrix A, which are in 6th row and 5th column of A.
E.g. Consider,
a a
a 11 12 13
a
a a
A= 21 22 23
a a a
31 32 33
M 11 = Minor of an element a 11
6
a 22 a23
A=
a a
32 33
II y
a
M a 21 22
12 =
a a
31 33
E.g.
(ii) Let,
2 5 8
1
A= 3 2
0 4 6
3 2 1 2 1 3
M11 = , M12 = , M13 =
4 6 0 6 0 4
M = 5 8 ,M 2 8 , M 2 5
21 12 = 23 =
4 6 0 6 0 4
(b) Cofactor of an element :-
element aij .
M
Where ij is minor of aij .
1 1 1
a b c
2 2 2
If A = a b c
a
3
b3 3
c
A = The cofactor of A 11 b2 c2
=(-1)
1 1
b c
a 3 c3
2 2
B = The cofactor of b 12
=(-1)
1 1
a3 c3
E.g. Consider,
1 3 4
0
A= 2 1
3 7 6
=5 = 3
5 3 6
3 6 9
A
1
B 1 C1
2
C = A2 B2 C
A3
B 3 C3
1 2 4 3
Similarly for a matrix, A = the cofactor matrix is c=
3
9 2 1
(d) Adjoint of Matrix :-
Adjoint of A CT
A1 B 1 C1
2 2 2
Adj A = A B C
A B3 C 3
3
Adjoint of a matrix A is denoted as Adj.A
Thus if,
1 3 4 5 10 3
A= 0 2 1 than Adj. A = 3 6 1
3 7 6 69 2
Note :
a b d -b
If A= than Adj . A =
c d
2×2 -c a
(d) Inverse of a square Matrix:-
-1
Inverse of A is denoted as A and read as A inverse.
Thus
-1 -1
AA =A A=I
Inverse of a matrix can also be calculated by the Formula.
-1 1
A = A Adj.A where A denotes determinant of A.
-1
Note:- From this relation it is clear that A exist if and only if A 0 i.e A
is non singular matrix.
2 1 3
A 3 1 2
1 2 3
Solution: We have,
A
2 7
15 A 6
A0
A1 exists
1
Transpose of matrix A=A
2 3 1
A1 1 1 2
3 2 3
1
We find co-factors of the elements of A (Row-wise)
C F C F C F
C F C F C F
C F C F C F
1 1 3
-1
-1 adj (A) 1
A 7 3 -5
A 6
5 -3 -1
Example 2: Find the inverse of matrix A by Adjoint method, if
0 1 2
A = 1 2 3
10
Solution: Consider
0 1 2
A =1 2 3
3 1 1
= 0 8 10
= 2
Thus,
1 8 5
Cofactor of matrix C = 1 6 3
1 2 1
1
And Adjoint of A= C
11
Definition:-Orthogonal matrix.:-
T
If a square matrix it satisfies the relation AA I then the matrix A
is called an orthogonal matrix. &
T 1
A A
Example 3:
Cosθ Cosθ
show that A= is orthogonal matrix.
Sinθ Cosθ
Solution:
T
To show that A is orthogonal i.e To show that AA I
Cos Sin
A=
Sin Cos
T Cos Sin
A =
Sin Cos
T Cos Sin Cos Sin
AA =
Sin2 Cos Sin
2
Cos
Cos Sin Cos Sin Sin Cos
2 2
1 0
= I
0
1
A is an orthogonal matrix.
1 2 2 3 cos sin
i) 2 2 , ii) 4 1 , iii) sin cos ,
1 3 2 cos sin 0 1 2 3
iv) 3 0 5 , v) sin cos 0, vi) 2 3 1
2 5 0 0 0 1 3 1 2
1 1 1
vii) 1 2 3
2 1 3
Q.3) If A = cos sin , B = 1 tan 2 , C= 1 tan 2 , ,
sin cos tan 1 tan 1
2 2
-1
prove that A= B.C
4 3 3
Q. 4) If A = 1 0 1 , prove that Adj. A= A
4 4 3
1 2 1
1 1
Q. 5) If A = 0 1 1 , verify if (Adj.A) = (Adj.A )
1 1 2
1 2 1
Q.6) Find the inverse of A = 0 1 1 , hence find inverse of
2 2 3
3 6 3
A = 0 3 3
6 6 9
13
a) Minor of a matrix
e.g. Let
1
3 1 4
4
A = 0 1 7
8 5 4 3
The determinants
1 3 1 3 1 4 1 1 4
4 0 1 , 0 1 7 , 4 17 ,
8 5 4 5 4 3 8 4 3
1 3 , 0 1, 3 4 , 1 , 0 , 3 ,
4 0 5 4 0 7
e.g.(i) Let
1 0 2
A=2 4 1
14
A = 1 0 4, A = 0 2 8 etc.
2
1
2 4 4 1
Rank of A= 3
1 1 2
1
(ii) A = 2 3
0 1 1
Here,
A 2
= 1 1 1 0
1 2
Thus minor of order 3 is zero and atleast one minor of order 2 is non-zero
Rank of A = 2.
Some results:
(i) Rank of null matrix is always zero.
(ii) Rank of any non-zero matrix is always greater than or equal to 1.
(iii) If A is any mxn non-zero matrix then Rank of A is always equal to
rank of A.
(iv) Rank of transpose of matrix A is always equal to rank of A.
(v) Rank of product of two matrices cannot exceed the rank of both of
the matrices.
(vi) Rank of a matrix remains unleasted by elementary
transformations.
Elementary Transformations:
(iii) Adding non-zero scalar multitudes of all the elements of any row
(or columns) into the corresponding elements of any another row (or
column).
1 2 3
A = 1 4 2
2 6 5
Solution:
1 2 3
Given A = 1 4 2
2 6 5
R R - R & R R - 2R
2 2 1 3 3 1
1 2 3
0 2 1
rd
Here two column are Identical . hence 3 order minor of A vanished
nd 1 3
Hence 2 order minor 1 0
0
1
e(A) 2
I r o
If a matrix A of order mxn is reduced to the form
o using a
o
sequence of elementary transformations then it called canonical or normal
form. Ir denotes identity matrix of order „r‟ .
Note:-
2 1 3 6
A = 3 3 1 2
1 1 1 2
Solution:
2 1 3 6
A = 3 3 1 2
1 1 1 2
RR
1 3
1 1 1 2
3 3 1 2
2 1 3 6
R 3R , R 2R
2 1 3 1
1 1 1 2
3 6 2 4
0 1 5 10
R2 7R3
1 1 1 2
0
1 33 66
0 1 5 10
17
R R , R R
1 2 3 2
1 0 32 64
0
1 33 66
0 0 28 56
R3 1
28
1 0 32 64
0 1 33 66
0 0 1 2
R 32 R , R 33 R
1 3 2 3
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
Rank of A=3
1 2 7
A= 2 4 7
3 6 10
Solution:
1 2 3
A= 2 4 7
3 6 10
R2 2R1 , R3 3R1
1 2 3
2
3
4
6
7
10
R3 R2
1 2 3
0 0 1
R1 3R2
18
1 2 0
0
00 0
1
0
C 2 2C1
1 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0
C1 C3
1 0 0
0 1 0
Rank of A= 2
1 1 2 4
2 3 1 1
A=
3 1 3 2
6 3 0 7
Solution:
1 1 2 4
2 3 1 1
A=
3 1 3 2
3 0 7
6
R2 2R1 , R3 3R1 , R4 6R1,
1 1 2 4
0
5 3 7
0 4 9 10
0 9 12 17
R2 R3
19
1 1 2 4
0 1 6 3
0
4 9 10
0
12 17
9
R1 + R2 , R3 4R2 , R4 9R2
1 0 8 7
0 1 6 3
0 0 33 22
0
0 66 44
R4 2R3
1 0 8 7
0 1 6 3
0 0 33 22
0
0 0 0
R3 1
11
1 0 8 7
0 1 6 2
0 0 3 2
0
0 0 0
C3 - C4
1 0 1 7
0 1 3 3
0 0 12
0 0 0 0
R1 + R3 , R2 3R3
1 0 0 5
0
1 0 3
0 0 1 2
0
0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
20
I 0
3
0
0
Rank of A= 3
Reduce the following to normal form and hence find the ranks of the
matrices.
2 3 4 3 4 6
1 2 3
i) ii) 4 3 1 iii) 5 5 7
3
1
2
1 2 4 3 1 4
1 2 1 0
1 2 3 0
2 1 3 6 3 2 1 2
2 4 3 2
iv) v) 3 3 1 1 vi) 2 1 2 5
3 2 1 3
1 1 1 2 5 6 3 2
6 8 7 5
1 3 1 3
26 26 10 3 4 5 6 7
33 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
vii) 1 2 4 3 5 viii) 5 6 7 8 9
2 0 4 6 10 10 11 12 13 14
1 0 2 3 5 15 16 17 18 19
If A is any mxn matrix „r‟ then there exist non singular matrices P and Q
such that,
I 0
r PAQ
0 0
We observe that, the matrix A can be expressed as
A = Im In …………(i)
I 0
r PAQ …………(ii)
0 0
21
2 1 3
i) A 3 4 1
1 5 4
Solution: Consider
A= I3 AI 3
2 1 3 1 0 0 1 0 0
3 4 1 = 0 1 0 A 0 1 0
1 5 4 0 0 1 0 0 1
R1 R3
1 5 4 0 0 1 1 0 0
3 4 1 = 0 1 0 A 0 1 0
2 1 3 1 0 0 0 0 1
C2 5C , C3 4C1
10 0 0 0 1 1 5 4
3 11 11 = 0 1 0 A 0 1 0
2 11 11 1 0 0 0 0 1
R2 R3
10 0 0 0 1 1 5 4
10 0 = 1 1 0 A
0 1 0
2 11 11 1 0 0 0 0 1
R2 R1 , R3 2R1,
10 0 0 0 1 1 5 4
0 00 = 1 1 1 A 0 1 0
0 11 11 1 0 2 0 0 1
C C
3 2
22
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 5 1
0 0 0 = 1 1 1 A 0 1 1
0 11 0 1 0 2 0 0 1
R 1 ,
3
11
1 0 0 00 1 1 5 1
0 0 0 = 1 1 1 A 0 11
0 1 0 1 0 2 0 01
11 11
R2 R3
1 0 0 0 01 1 5 1
0 1 0 = 1 0 2 A 0 11
11 11
0 0 0 0 01
1 1 1
Thus
0 0 1
1
P= 1 0 2 P =
11 11
11
1 1 1
1 5 1
Q= 0 1 1 Q =1
0 0 1
P and Q are non-singular matrices
Also Rank of A = 2
2
1 3 6
ii) A 3 3 1 2
1 1 1 2
Solutions:
Consider
1 0 0 0
1 0 0
A= 0 1 0 A 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0
0 1
0
0 0
1
23
1 0 0 0
2 1 3 6 1 0 0
3 3 12 0 1 0 A 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 112 0 0 1
0
0 0 1
R 1 R3
1 0 0 0
1 11 2 0 0 1
A
0 1 0 0
3 6 2 4 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
2 1 5 10 1 0 0
0 1
0 0
C2 C1 , C3 C1 , C4 2C1
1 1 1 2
1 00 0 0 0 1
3 6 2 4 0 1 0 A 0 100
0 0 1 0
2 1 5 10 1 0 0
0
0 0 1
R2 3R1 , R3 2R1
1 1 1 2
1 00 0 0 0 1
0 6 2 4 0 1 3 A 0 100
0 0 1 0
0 1 5 10 1 0 2
0
0 0 1
R2 6R 3 ,
1 1 1 2
1 00 0 0 0 1
0 0 28 56 6 1 9 A 0 1 00
0 0 1 0
0 1 5 10 1 0 2
0
0 0 1
C4 2C3
1 1 1 0
1 00 0 0 0 1
0 0 28 0 6 1 9 A 0 100
0 0 1 2
0 1 5 0 1 0 2
0
0 0 1
C3 5C2
1 1 4 0
1 00 0 0 0 1
0 0 28 0 6 1 9 A 0 1 5 0
0 01 2
0 1 0 0 1 0 2
0 1
0 0
R 2 1 , R3 1
28
24
1 1 4 0
0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 5 0
0 0 1 0 3 1 9
A
0 0 1 2
14 28 28
0 1 0 0
1 0 2
0
0 0 1
R2 R3
1 1 4 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 2 A 0 1 5 0
0 0 1 2
0 0 1 0 3 1 9
14 28 28 0 0 0 1
0 0 1
P = 1 0 2 ,P 1
28
3 1 9
14 28 28
1 1 4 0
0 1 5 0
Q = , Q 1
0 0 1 2
0
0 0 1
P&Q are non
singular. Also,
Rank of A = 3.
1 0 2 1 2 3 2 3 1 1
i) 2 3 4 ii) 2 3 5 1 iii) 1 1 1
3 3 6 1 3 4 5 1 1 1
25
iv) (v)
ª º
1) Find the inverse of matrix A « »
if exists.
« »
« »
¬ ¼
ª º
ii) Find Adjoint of Matrix A « »
« »
« »
¬ ¼
26
1 0 2 1
iii) Find the inverse of A by adjoint method if A 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 2
2 3 1 0
1 2 3
iv) Find Rank of matrix A 4 5 6
7 8 9
Cos Sin 0
v) Prove that the matrix A Sin Cos 0 is orthogonal
0 0 1
1
Also find A .
0 1 3 1
Reduce the matrix A
1
vi) 0 1 1 to the normal form and
3 1 0 2
1
1 2 0
find its rank.
vii) Find the non singular matrix ρ and α . such that ρ A α is the normal
1 1 1
form when A = 1 1 1
3 1 1
Also find the rank of matrix B
2 4 2
A=2 1 2
27
15 12 16 4
*****
2
LINEAR ALGEBRIC EQUATIONS
UNIT STRUCTURE
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Canonical or echelon form of matrix
2.4 Linear Algebraic Equations
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Unit End Exercise
2.1 OBJECTIVES
2.2 INTRODUCTION
th
In XII we have solved linear equations by using method of
reduction also by rule. Here we are going to find solution of homogeneous
28
Note :
1) The number of non-zero rows in Echelon form is the rank of the
matrix.
2) To reduce the matrix to Echelon form only row transformations are
to be applied.
Solved Examples :-
2 3 -1 1
1 -1 -2 4
A
3 1 3 2
6 3 0 7
Solution:
2 3 -1 1
1 -1 -2 4
A
3 1 3 2
6 3 0 7
R1 R2
1 -1 -2 4
2 3 -1 1
A
3 1 3 2
6 3 0 7
R2 R2 2 R1
R3 R3 3 R1
R4 R4 6 R1
29
1 1 2 4
A 0
5 3 7
0 4 9 10
0
9 12 17
4
R3 R3 5 R2
R R 9 R
4 4 2
5
1 1 2 4
A
0
5 3 7
0 0 33 5 22 5
0
0 33 5 22 5
R4 R4 R3
1 1 2 4
A
0 7
5 3
0 0 33 5 22 5
0
0 0 0
No. of non-zero rows
3
1 -1 2 -3
30
a1 b1 c1 x d
a b c y d 1
2 2 2 2
a b c z d
3 3 3 3
A X D
i.e. AX D
a b c d
A D a b c d
a b c d
1 1
A AX A D
1
IX A B
1
X A B
which is required solution of the given non-homogeneous equation.
i.e
2 x1 3 x2 x3 0
x1 2x2 3x3 0
4 x1 x2 2 x3 0
Solution: The system is written as
AX 0
2 3 1 x1 0
1 2 3 x 0
2
4 1 2 x 0
3
Hence the coefficient and augmented matrix are the same
We consider
2 3 1
A 1 2 3
4 1 2
2 3 1
A 1 2 3
4 1 2
R1 R1 R2
32
12 3
A2 3 1
4 1 2
R2 R2 -2 R1 & R3 R3 4R1
1 2 3
0 7 7
0 9 10
1
R R
2 2 7
1 2 3
0 1 1
0 9 10
R2 R2 +R3 & R1 R1 R3
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
Hence Rank of A is 3
( A) 3,
The coefficient matrix is non-singular
x1 x2 x3 0
Example 3:
Solve the following system of equations
x1 3x2 2x3 0
2x1 x2 4x3 0
x1 11x2 14x3 0
Solution: The given equations can be written as
AX 0
33
1 3 2 x 1 0
2 1 4 x2
0
1 11 14 x 0
3
Here the coefficient & augmented matrix are the same
1 3 2
A 2 1 4
1 11 14
R2 R2 -2 R1 & R3 R3 R1
1 3 2
0 7 8
0 14 16
R3 R3 2R2
1 3 2
0 7 8
0 0 0
Here rank of A is 2 i.e
( A) 2
So the system has infinite non-trivial solutions.
1 3 2 x 1 0
0 7 8 x 0
2
0 0 0 x 0
3
x1 3 x2 2 x3 0
7 x2 8 x3 0
7x2 8x3
8
x2 7 x3
Let x3 8 x3
8
x2 7
8
x1 3 2 0
7
24
x1 7 2 0
24
x1 2 7
10
x1 7
34
2 x 3 y 4 z 2
xy3z4
3 x 2 y z 5
Solution: In the matrix form
2 3 4 x -2
1 1 3 y 4
3 2 1 z -5
Consider an Agumental matrix
A D
R R 1 R
2 2 1
2
R R 3 R
3 3 1
2
A D
R2 R3 R2
A D
35
AD
A
AD A
The system is inconsistent and it has no solution.
3xy2z3
2 x 3 y z 3
x2yz4
Solution: In the matrix form,
3 1 2 x 3
2 3 1 y -3
1 2 1 z 4
A X D
Now we join matrices A and D
Consider
We reduce to Echelon form
R1 R3
R
2 R 2 R
2 1
R
3 R3 3 R1
5
R3 R3 7 R2
36
This is in Echelon form
AD
A
system is consist and has unique solution.
Step (2) : To find the solution we proceed as follows. At the end of the
row transformation the value of z is calculated then values of y and the
value of x in the last.
1 2 1 x 4
0 7 3 y -11
0 0 8 7 z -8 7
Expanding by R3
8 8
7 Z 7
z -1
expanding by R2
7 y 3z 11
7 y 3(1) 11
7 y 3 11
7 y 14
y2
exp anding by R1
x2yz4
x 41 4
x 1
x 1, y 2,z -1
Example 6: Examine for consistency and solve
5x 3y 7z 4
3x 26 y 2z 9
37
7 x 2 y 10 z 5
Solution:
5 3 7 x 4
y
3 26 2
5
7 2 10 z 6
A X D
Consider
A D
R 1 R
1
5 1
A D
R 2 R2 3 R1
R 3 R3 7 R1
A D
R R 1R
3 3 2
11
A D
ANumber
The system is consistent and has infinitely many solutions.
Let
38
zk k
By expanding R2
121 5y 11 5z 33 5
11y-z 3
z3
y
11
put z k
k3
y
11
By exapanding R1
3 7 4
x 5y 5z 5
7 16k
x
11 11
i) 2x1 x2 2x3 x4
6 6x1 6x2 6x3 12x4 36
4x1 3x2 3x3 3x4 1
2x1 2x2 x3 x4
10 Ans : consistent
ii) x1 2, x2 1, x3 1, x4 3
2x1 x2 x3 x4 2
3x1 x2 x3 x4 2
x1 2x2 x3 x4 1
6x1 2x2 x3 x4 5
Ans : Infinitely many solutions,
5 9
iii) x1 k , x2 3 4k , x3 2 2 k , x4 2 k 3
3 x1 x2 x3 4
2x1 5x2 2x3 3
x1 7x2 7x3 5
Ans : Inconsistent
iv) x1 x2 x3 0
39
x1 2 x2 x3 0
2 x1 x2 3 x3 0
Ans: Trivial Solution.
v) x1 2x2 3x3 0
2 x1 4 x2 7 x3 0
3 x1 6 x2 10 x3 0
Ans : Definitely many solution
x 1
x 1
2 2
x
3
0
1) Reduce the following matrix in Echolon form & find its Rank.
1 3 6 1
A
1
i) 4 5 1 Ans : Rank = 2
1 5 4 3
1 2 1 3
ii) A 4
1 2 1 Ans : Rank = 3
3 1 1 2
1 2 0 1
40
1 2 3
iii) A 2 1 0 Ans : Rank = 2
0 1 2
1 1 1
iv) A 1 1 1 Ans : Rank = 2
3 1 1
2) Solve the following system of equations.
Ans:- x 2, y 1, z 0.
ii) 2x1 - x2 - x3 = 0, x1 - x3 = 0, 2x1 + x2 - 3x3 = 0
1
Ans:- x x x ..... 1.
1 2 3
1
.
iii) 5x1 - 3x2 -7x3 + x4 = 10
-x1 +2x2 +6x3 - 3x4 = -
3 x1 + x2 +4x3 - 5x4 = 0
*****
41
3
LINEAR DEPENDANCE AND
INDEPENDANCE
OF VECTORS
UNIT STRUCTURE
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Definitions
3.4 The Inner Product
3.5 Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors
3.6 Summary
3.7 Unit End Exercise
3.1 Objectives
After going through this chapter you will able to
Find linearly independent & linearly dependent vector.
Inner product of two vector
Find characteristic equation of matrix
Find the of characteristic equation i.e
Find the corresponding .Eigen vector to Eigen value.
3.2 Introduction
Note : Any two or column matrix is called as a vector and numbers are
called as scalars.
3.3 Definitions
Let c x c x ...........x c 0
1 1 2 2 n n
Solved examples:-
c1 3c2 0
2c1 7c2 0
4c1 10c2 0
Consider first two equations in matrix form.
1 3 c1 0
2 7 0
c
2
A X 0
A 7 6
A 1
A 0
system has zero solution.
i.e. c1 c2 0
x1 , x2 are linearly independent
43
Let c1 x1 c 21 x2 c3 x3 0
1 3 1 0
c 2 c 2 c 6 0
1 2 3
3 1 5 0
c1 3c2 c3 0
2c 2c 6c 0
1 2 3
3c c 5c 0
1 2 3
c1 3c2 c3 0
2c1 2c2 6c3 0
3c1 c2 5c3 0
Step (ii) In matrix form,
1 3 1 c 0
2 2 6 c 1 0
2
3 1 5 c 0
3
A X 0
Consider
R2 R2 2 R1
R3 R3 3 R1
R3 R3 R2
R 1 R
2
8 2
e
44
e
e
system has non-zero solution
i.e. c1 , c2 , c3 are non zero
x1 , x2 , x3 are linearly
dependent Step (iii):
Ans : Independent.
Solution: X , Y x1 y1 2 x2 y2 4x3 y3
i) X ,Y x y 2x y 4x y
1 1 2 2 3 3
2 2 2
( x1 ) 2( x2 ) 4( x3 ) 0
X , Y 0
2 2 2
X , Y 0( x1 ) 2( x2 ) 4( x3 ) 0
x1 0, x2 0, orx3 0
X , X 0 x 0
ii) X ,Y x y 2x y 4x y
1 1 2 2 3 3
y1 x1 2 y2 x2 4y3 x3
Y ,X
iii) X ,Y Z x (y z ) 2x (y z ) x4 y( z )
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
x1 y1 x1 z1 2 x2 y 2 2 x2 z 2 4 x3 y 3 4x3 z3
x1 y1 2 x2 y2 4 x3 y3 x1 z1 2 x 2 z 2 4x 3 z3
X ,Y X ,Z
iv) X , Y x(y)2x(y)x4(y )
1 1 2 2 3 3
x1 y1 2 x2 y2 4x3 y3
(x1 y1 2x2 y2 4x3 y3 )
x, y
Here all properties are satisfied
X ,Y is an inner product.
Check Your Progress:
iii. X ,Y 3x y x y 4x y
1 1 2 2 3 3
Definition:-
AX X ..........(1)
Our aim is to find and x for given matrix A using equation (1)
is called as eigen value, latent roots of a matrix value, characteristic
value or root of a matrix A and x is called as eigen vector or characteristic
vector etc.
X is a column matrix
0
(3)
AI ..........
This equation is called the characteristic equation of
First we solve equation (3) to find eigen values or roots. Then we solve
equation (2) to find Eigen vectors.
Let b c
a1 1 1 x1
A a b c and x x
2 2 2 2
a b c x
3 3 3 3
equation x
a b c 1 0 0 x 0
1 1 1 0 x1
2 1 0 2 0
a b c
2 2
a b c 0 0 1 x 0
3 3 3 3
47
a 1 b1 c1 x1 0
b c x 0 (2)
2
i.e. a2 2 2
b c x 0
a3 3 3 3
and equation (3) i.e. A- x 0 is
a1 b1 c1
a b c 0 (3)
2 2 2
c
a
3
b
3 3
Note :
1) Equation (2) is called as matrix equation of A in
2) Equation (3) is called as characteristic equation of A in
3) Usually given matrix A is of order 3X3 . Therefore it will have 3
eigen values and for every eigen value there will be corresponding eigen
vector which is a column matrix of order 3X1. There are 3 such column
matrices.
4) Eigen vectors are linearly independent.
5) Method of finding eigen values is same for any given matrix A.
Method of finding eigen vectors is slightly different and we study 3 types
of such problems.
Type (I) : When all eigen values are distinct and matrix A may be
symmetric or non- symmetric.
Type (II) : When eigen values are repeated and A is non-symmetric
Type (III) : When eigen values are repeated and A is symmetric.
Solved examples :-
Type (I) : All roots are non- repeated.
Example 4: Find eigen values and given vectors for
2 2 3
A 1 1 1
1 3 1
Solution: Step (1) : Charactristic equation of A in i s
A- I 0
2- -2 3
i.e. 1 1-1 0
1 3 -1-
sum of
sum of
A
48
-8-4 6
A 6
Characteristic equation is given by
3 2
2 -5 6 0
sin ce sum of coefficient 0
Synthetic division:
1 1 -2 -5 6
1 -1 -6
1 -1 -6 0
1, -2, 3
The roots are non- repeated
Step (ii) :- Now we find eigen vectors
Matrix equations is given by
A X
2- -2 3 x1 0
i.e. 1 1- 1 x 0
2
1 3 1 x 0
3
n
Case (i) : When 1, matrix eq becomes
1 -2 3 x1 0
1
0 1 x 2 0
1 3 2 x 0
3
Solving first two rows by Cramer‟s rule.
We have,
x1 2x2 3x3 0
x1 x2 x3 0
x 1
x 2 x 3
-2 2 2
x 1
x 2 x 3
-1 1 1
49
1
x1 1
1
Case (ii) :- When 2 2
Matrix equation is given by
4 2 3 x1 0
1
3 1 x 2 0
1 3 1 x 0
3
x1 x2 x3
-11 1 14
11
x2 1
14
Case (iii) : When 33matrix equation is given by
1 2 3 x1 0
1 2 1 x 0
2
1 3 4 x 0
3
x
x 1 -x2 3
4 4 4
x x 1
x31 2
1 1 4 x3 1
1
Type (II) :- Repeated eigen values and A is non- symmetric.
Example 5: Find eigen values and eigen vectors for
2 1 1
A2 3 2
Solution:
Step (1) :- Characteristic equation of A in is
A
i e
3 2
-9 15 -7 0
since sum of co-efficients 0
synthetic division
50
1 1 9 15 7
1 8 7
1 8 7 0
2
-8 7
23
-9 15 -7 0
7, 1, 1
Here two roots are repeated. First we find eigen vectors for non-repeated
root.
Step II :- Matrix equation of A in is
A X
2 1 1 x1 0
2 3 2 x 0
2
3 3 4 x 0
3
x1 -x2 x3
6 -12 18
x x
1
2 x3
1 2 3
1
x1 2
3
Case (ii) :- Let 1
Matrix equation is
1 1 1 x1 0
2 2 2 x 0
2
3 3 3 x 0
3
By cramers‟s rule we get
x 1 x2 x 3
0 0 0
0
i.e. 0
0
But by definition we want non-zero x2
51
So we proceed as follows
Expanding by R1
x1 x2 x3 0
Assume any element to be zero say x1 and give any conventional value say 1 to x2
and find x 3
Let
x1 0, x2 1
x3 1
0
x2 1
1
Case (iii) :- Let x=1
Again consider
x 1 x 2 x3 0
Let x2 0, x1 1
x3 1
0
x2 1
1
Type (iii) :- A is symmetric and eigen values are repeated
Example 6: Find eigen values and eigen vectors for .
6 2 2
A 2 3 1
2 1 3
Solution:
Step :- Characteristic equations of A in is
A I
6 2 2
2 3 1 0
2 1 3
i e
3 2
12 36 -32 0
Synthetic division :-
2 1 12 36 32
2 20 32
1 10 16 0
52
2
10 6
3 2
12 36 32 0
8, 2, 2
x1 x2 x
12 6 63 ........By cramer's rule
x1 x2 x3
2 1 1
2
x 1
1
1
x2 1
1
Case (iii) :- Let
2
A is symetric
x1, x2 , x3 are orthogonal
53
l
Let, x3 m
n
x1 , x3 are orthogonal
1
x1 , x3 0
2l-m n 0..........(1)
x2 , x3 are orthogonal
1
x2 , x3 0
ol m n 0..........(2)
solving (1) and (2) by cramer's rule
l m n
-2
2 2
l m n
1 1 1
1
x3 1
1
Check your progress:
2 8 12
i) A 1 4 4
0 0 1
Ans :- Eigen values are 0,1,2
2 2 3
(iii) A 2 1 6
1 2 0
Ans : Eigen values are 5, -3,-3
3.6 SUMMARY
AI0
which is corresponding to Eigen value which we get
Eigen vector
from A I 0
2 2 0
i) A 2 1 1
7 2 3
1 2 4
ii) A 0 2 4
0 0 3
1 0
iii) A
2 4
2 1
iv) A
8
4
1 1 1
v) A 1 2 1
3 2 3
1 3 0
vi) A 3 2 1
0 1 1
Cos 0 Sin
vii) A
Sin Cos0
2 2 1
viii) A 1 3 1
1 2 1
*****
56
4
CAYLEY – HAMILTON THEORY
UNIT STRUCTURE
4.1 Objective
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Cayley – Hamilton Theorem
4.4 Similarity of Matrix
4.5 Characteristics Polynomial
4.6 Minimal Polynomial
4.7 Complex Matrices
4.8 Let Us Sum Up
4.9 Unit End Exercise
4.1 OBJECTIVE
4.2 INTRODUCTION
In previous chapter we learn about Eigen values & Eigen Vector. How
here we are going to discuss Cayley Hamilton Theory & its application
also we had study only Real matrix. We introduce here complex matrix
with type of complex matrix also minimal polynomial.
4.3 CAYLEY – HAMILTON THEOREM
n
A I n a n a
n n
a then
n An a An a An
an I
57
Example 1:
2 1 1
A 0 1 0
Solution:
The characteristic equation of the matrix A is A I 0
2 1 1
0 1 0 0
1 1 2
2 2 3
4 6 2 2 3 1 0
3 2
5 7 3 0
3 2
5 7 3 0
3 2
A 5 A 7 A 3I 0 ………………………..(1)
Now, we have
2 1 12 1 1 5 4 4
A2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 21 1 2 4 4 5
2 1 15 4 4 14 13 13
3
A 0 1 00 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 24 4 5 13 13 14
3 2
A 5 A 7 A 3I
14 13 13 5 4 4 2 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 -5 0 1 0 +7 0 1 0 3 0 1 0
13 13 14 4 4 5 1 1 2 0 0 1
58
14 13 13 5 4 4 2 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 -5 0 1 0 +7 0 1 0 3 0 1 0
13 13 14 4 4 5 1 1 2 0 0 1
14 13 13 25 20 20 14 7 7 3 0 0
0 1 0 - 050 + 0 7 0 0 3 0
13 13 14 20 20 25 7 7 14 0 0 3
28 20 20 28 20 20
080 080
20 20 28 20 20 28
0 0 0
0 0 0
0
3 2
A 5 A 7 A 3I 0
Example 2 :
3 6
Where A =
1 2
Solution :
A I 0
3 6
0
1 2
2
6 2 3 6 0
2
5 0
2
A 5A0
i.e. A2 5A
59
Now to calculate
7 5 2 5 6
A A . A A .5 A 5A
4 2 5
5 A . A 25A
3 2 4
25 A . A 125A
125A2 .A2 125(5A).(5A)
2
3125 A 3125(5 A)
15625A
73 6
A 15625
1
2
46875 93750
15625 31250
46875 93750
The value of A7
15625 31250
Example 3:
1
1 1
A 1 1 2
1 2 1
Solution:
A I 0
1 1 1
1 1 2 0
1 2 1
2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 0
3 2
3 3 9 0
3 3 2 3 9 0
Multiply by A1
3 1 2 1 1 1 1
A A 3A A 3AA 9IA 0A
2 1
A 3A 3I 9A 0
1 2
A 1 3 A 3I A …….(1)
9
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 0 0
A2 1 1 2 1 1 2 0 6 3
12 1 12 1 0 3 6
1 1 1 1 0 0 3 0 0
3 A 3 I A 3 1 1 2 3 0 1 0 0 6 3
12 1 0 0 1 0 3 6
3 3 3 3 0 0 3 0 0
3 A 3 I A2 3 3 6 0 3 0 0 6 3
36 3 0 0 3 0 3 6
3 3 3
3 0 3
3 3 0
1 1 2
A 3 A 3I A
9
3 3 3
1
9 3 0 3
3 3 0
1 1 1
1
1 0 1
3
1 1 0
1 1 1
1 1
A 1 0 1
3
1 1 0
Check your progress:
3 1 1
A 1 5 1 Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for this matrix.
1 1 3
61
1
Hence find A
7 2 3
1 1
Ans: A 1 4 1
20
2 2 8
2) Use Cayley-Hamilton theorem to find inverse of the matrix.
1 1 3 24 8 12
1
A 1 3 3 Ans: 10 2 6
8
2 4 4 2 2 2
3) Use Cayley-Hamilton theorem to find the inverse of
1 2 4 3 8 6
1 1
A 1 0 3 Ans: A 7 14 7
7
3 1 2 1 5 2
4) Show that the following matrices satisfy their characteristics
equation
2 2 1 1 0 2
A 1 3 1 A 0 2 1
1 2 2 2 0 3
5) Using the characteristics equation show that inverse of the matrix
1 0 2
i) A 2 2 4
0 0 2
3 1 1
ii) A 1 5 1
1 1 3
2 1 1
iii) A 1 2 1
1 1 2
3 1 1
1 1
Ans: A 1 3 1
4
1 1 3
62
Example 4:
Solutions:
Since A and B are similar, there exists a non-singular matrix P such that
B P 1 AP
1
Consider B I P AP I
B I P 1 AP P 1IP
P A I P
P 1 A I P
A I P 1 P
A I P 1 . P 1
BI = A I
Example 5:
Show that A 1 1 and B 1 0 have same characteristics equations
01 0 1
but A and B not similar matrices.
Solutions:
Let A 1 1 and B 1 0
0 1 0 1
63
Characteristics equation of A is A I 0
i.e. s equation
Characteristics equation of B is
B I 0
i.e.
1
There exist non-singular matrix C such that, B 0 C AC
1 0
Let C
0 2
1 0
C 2, C is non-singular as C
0
2
1
C exists
2 0
adj C
0
1
C
C
1 0 1 11 0
1
C 1 AC
0 0 1 0 2
2
1 0 1 01 2
1 B
0 0 2 0 1
2
Hence A and B are not similar matrices.
2 2 3
Example 6: Let A 2 1 6 , Find similarity to a diagonal matrix.
1 2 0
Find the diagonal matrix.
64
2 0 0
0
Ans : A 2 0
0 0 8
2 1 1
For e.g. A 1 2 1
1 1 2
The characteristics polynomial is given by
2 1 1
AI 1 2 1
1 1 2
3 2
6 9 4
Hence the degree of the equation is 2 and less than the order of the
polynomial.
Example 7:
2 2 3
i) A 1 1 1
1 3 1
Solution:
2 2 3
A I 1 1 1
1 3 1
3 2
2 5 6
2 11
ii) A 2 3 2
3 3 4
Solution:
2 1 1
AI 2 3 2
3 3 4
3 2
9 15 7
Example 8:
Show that the matrix A is derogatory also find its minimal polynomial.
1 6 4
A 0 4 2
0 6 3
Solution:
1 6 4
AI 0 4 2
0 6 3
f
Example 9:
2 2 1
Where, A 1 3 1
1 2 2
Solution:
2 2 1
AI 1 3 1
1 22
roots are.
7 12 6 12 12 6 5 0 0
6 13 6 6 18 6 0 5 0
6
12 7
6 12 12 0 0 5
A
The minimal of polynomial of A is
And degree of polynomial is 2 which is less than 3
(1) Show that the following matrices are derogatory and hence find the
minimal polynomial.
1 2 3
2
(i) A 0 2 3 Ans: 3 2 0
0 0 3
2 1 1
(ii) A 0 3 2 Ans: 2 0
2 4 3
(2) Check whether the following matrix is derogatory or non-derogatory
also find the minimal polynomial.
1 3 0
(i) A 3 2 1 Ans: Non – derogatory
0 1 1
2 1 0
(ii) A 0 2 0 Ans: Derogatory
0 0 2
Let A be a mxn matrix having complex numbers as its elements, then the
matrix is called a complex matrix.
Conjugate of a Matrix:
A 2 3i 1 i 3
2i 1 22i3
For e.g. A 1 i i 1
3 i 2 3i 2
1 i 3
1 i i 1
A 3 i 2 3i 2 then A i i 2
1 3i 2
Properties of Transpose of Conjugate of a matrix:
(1) A A
(2) A B A B
(3) AB B A
Hermitian matrix:
71
A square matrix A is called Hermitian matrix if A= A i.e. A= A a
ij
mn
is Hermitian if aij a ji i and j.
Example 10:
1 2 i 3 i
Show that the matrix A 2 i 3 i is Hermitian
3i i 3
Solution:
1 2i 3 i
Here A 2 i 3 i
3i i 3
1 2i 3 i
A 2i 3 i
3 i i 3
1 2i 3 i
A 2 i 3 i
3i i 3
A A
Example 11:
2i 5 i 6 i
Show that the matrix A 5 i 0 i is called a Skew Hermitian
6 i i 0
Matrix.
Solution:
2i 5 i 6 i
Here A 5 i 0 i
6 i i 0
72
2i 5 i 6 i
A 5 i 0 i
6 i i 0
2i 5 i 6 i
A 5i 0 i
6i i 0
2i 5 i 6 i
A 5 i 0 i
6 i i 0
θ
Hence A = -A
Note:
A A A i A A B iC
i
B A A and C i A A
Unitary Matrix:
A square matrix A is said to be unitary matrix if A A 1
Example 12:
1 1 3i 2 i
Show that the matrix A is Unitary matrix.
15 1 2i 3 i
Solution:
1 1 3i 2 i
Here A
15 1 2i 3 i
1 1 3i 1 2i
A
15 2 i 3 i
1 1 3i 2 i 1 3i 1 2i
AA
15 1 2i 3 i 2 i 3 i
73
1
0 1 0
0
15
I
15 15 0 1
AA I
Example 13:
2 i 13 3i
Express the matrix, A i 1 i 2 i As the Hermitian Matrix and
1 i 3 5
Skew Hermitian Matrix.
Solution:
2 i 1 3 3i
Let A i 1 i 2 i ......( I )
1i 3 5
2i 1 3 3i
A i 1i 2i
1 i 3 5
2i 1 1 i
A 1 1i 3 ......( II )
3 3i 2 i 5
2i 13 3i 2i i 1 i
AA i 1i 2i 1 1 i 3
1 i 3 5 3 3i 2 i 5
4 1i 4 4i
i1 2 i 1
4 4i i 1 10
i i
B AA
i i III
i i
i i i i i
also A A
i i i i
i i i
74
2i 1 i 2 2i
i1 2 5i
2 2i 5 i 0
i i i
AA
i i IV
i i
Now, A=B+iC
4 1i 4 4i 2i 1i 2 2i
A 1 i 1 2 i 1 1 i 1 2 5i
2
2 4 4i i 1 10 2 2i 5 i 0
Example 14:
Prove that the matrix, A 1 1 i
2 i 1
Solution:
1 1 i
Let A
2 i 1
1 1 i
A
2 i 1
1 1 i 1 1 i
A A
2 i 1 2 i 1
2
1 1 i ii
2
2 i i i 1
1 2 0 1 0
I
0 0
2 2 1
AA I
Hence A is Unitary.
2i 2 3 4i 1 i 2 2i
(i) A 2 4i 6 (ii) A i 1 i 5i
3 6 0 2 2i 5i 3i
(2) Show that the following matrices are Unitary matrices.
75
1 1 1 i
(i) A (ii)
1 3i1
1 1 i 1 i
A
i
2 1 1 i
(3) If A is Hermitian matrix, then show that iA is Skew- Hermitian
matrix.
Hermitian matrix. i.e A A
Skew Hermitian matrix. i.e A A
Unitary matrix= AA I.
2 1 1
i) A 1 2 1
1 1 2
1 1 3
ii) A 1 3 3
2 4 4
76
1 4
2 3
3. Calculate A5 by Cayley Hamilton Theorem if A
2 2 3
4. Let A 2 1 6 . Find a similarity transformation that
1 2 0
diagonalises matrix A.
6 2 2
5. Let A 2 3 1 Find matrix P such that is diagonal matrix
2 1 3
.
1 0 1
1
6. Diagonalise the matrix 2 1
2 2 3
4 1 0
7. For the matrix A 1 4 1 .
0 1 4
Determine a matrix P such that is diagonal matrix.
2 i 3 4
i) A 3 3 i 5
4 5 4i
0 1 i 2 3 i
ii) 1 i 0 6i
2 3 i 6 i 0
10. Show that the following matrix are unitary matrix
1i 1 i
2 2
i) A
1
i 1i
2 2
77
1 1 1
ii) A 1 1 2
w
2
w
3 1 w w
11. Prove that a real matrix is unitary if it is orthogonal.
2 2 3
i) A 2 1 6
1 2 0
1 0 1
ii) A 1 2 1
2 2 3
1 2 3
iii) A 2 4 6
3 6 9
2 0 1
iv) A 0 3 0
1 0 2
1 1 3
v) A 1 5 1
3 1 1
5 0 1
vi) A 0 2 0
1 0 5
2 2 1
vii) A 1 3 1
1 2 2
9 4 4
viii) A 8 3 4
16 8 7
3 10 5
ix) A 2 3 4
3 5 7
78
13. Show that the following matrix is derogatory also find minimal
polynomial.
2 2 2
i) A 1 1 1
1 3 1
3 10 5
ii) A 2 3 4
3 5 7
2 2 3
iii) A 2 1 6
1 2 0
*****
79
5
VECTOR CALCULAS
UNIT STRUCTURE
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Vector differentiation
5.3 Vector operator ’
5.3.1 Gradient
5.3.2 Geometric meaning of gradient
5.3.3 Divergence
5.3.4 Solenoidal function
5.3.5 Curl
5.3.6 Irrational field
5.4 Properties of gradient, divergence and curl
5.5 Let Us Sum Up
5.6 Unit End Exercise
5.0 OBJECTIVES
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Vector:
Vector is a physical quantity which required magnitude and direction both.
Unit Vector:
80
Unit Vector is a vector which has magnitude 1. Unit vectors along co-
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ordinate axis are i and j , k respectively.
ˆ ˆ ˆ
i = j = k =
Scalar triple product of three vectors is defined as
.
We have,
a b c = b c a = c a b
a b c =- b a c
Vector Triple Product:
Then,
81
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
ˆ ˆ ˆ
(v) If 1 2 3
Note:
ˆ
If ˆ ˆ then r = r = x2 y2 z2
Example 1:
ˆ 2
ˆ
dr d r
If ˆ find dt and dt
Solution:–
Ö Ö 2 Ö
2 -t+1 k
r t+1 i+ t +t-1 j+ t
dr
dt i + 2t + 1 j + 2t - 1 k
d2 r
dt2
Example 2:
If r
r
dt
Solution: –
r a
d
dt r
r
=0
2
b w cos wt b w sin 2 wt
a a =
b b0
b =
2
b w cos wt b w sin wt
2
a a =-
ab
a b w cos2 wt sin 2 wt
a b w 1
w a b
n
Again differentiating eq (ii) w.r.t. „t‟
d2 r
-a w 2 cos wt - b w 2sin wt
2
dt
= -w2 a cos wt + b sin wt
-w2 r from (i)
Example 3. Evaluate the following:
2
i) d a b c ii) d a da d a
2
dt dt dt dt
8
3
Solution: – i) d a b c
dt
= dt d
= a . dt
d
= . b
a
d
= a . b
dt
d
= a b
d
Solution: – ii) dt
d
= dt
a
(From Result i)
= d
a dt dt 3
= . da a
3
d a
3
dt dt
Solution: dt =
d
=ab
c
d c
+
= a b dt a dt
+
d c db d
= a b dt + a dt c +
dr Ö = r Ö dr Ö
Example 5. Show that r Ö dt , where
2
dt r r
84
r
Solution : We have ˆ
ˆ
2
2
r
L.H.S. ˆ
1dr
r r dr
2
r r dt r dt
r 1 d r r r dr
r r dt r2 dt
5t
Solution:
3 3 1 j
r=ti+ 2t 2
5t
dr 2 2 2
3t i + 6t 3 j
dt 5t
L.H.S.
i j k
dr 1
r t3 2t3 0
dt 5t2
2
3t2 6t2 3 0
5t
85
ˆ
Example 7. If r
Solution:
(1) If d u
dt
Show that
(2) If
(3) If:
dt
ˆ d2 r
(4) If Find
dt
2 at t = 2
magnitude of a .
86
5.3.1 Gradient:
d r
2 3 z
Example 8: Find grad , where = x y e
Solution: grad
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
Example 9: If find grad r
Solution:
87
ˆ ˆ ˆ
2 2 2
Grad r ˆ ˆ ˆ 222
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆˆ ˆ
r
grad r = r
ˆ ˆ 1
Example 10: If ˆ find grad r
Solution:
ˆ ˆ ˆ
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
ˆ ˆ ˆ 1
grad 1
r
ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1
ˆ ˆ ˆ
2 2 2
ˆ ˆ
2
88
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ
ˆ
3 2
Example 11: If 2x y y z find grad at (1, -1, 2)
Solution:
grad
ˆ ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
At (1, -1, and 2)
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
89
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
grad 2
= grad log r = grad (2log r) = 2 grad (log r)
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
2
r r i +yj + zk
90
Solution: let
a = a1 i + a 2 j + a3 k
a . r = a1 x + a 2 y + a3
grad
a. r
rn
a. r
n
r
similarly
ˆ
ˆ
and
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
91
Show that:
a)
3
b) grad r 3rr
c)
2 2
(2) If = 4x yz + 3xyz 5xyz
3 5
(3) Show that grad r -3 r r
2 2 2 2
(6) Find unit vector normal to the surface x y z 3a at (a, a, a)
[Hint :- Unit vector normal to surface i.e. ]
5.3.1 Divergence:
ˆ ˆ ˆ
If v (x, y, z) = 1 2 3 can be defined and differentiated at each
point (x, y, z) in a region of space then divergence of v is defined as div v
=.v
92
ˆ ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
Example 16 If
, find F
Solution: div F = . F
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
Example 17 Show that div r = 3 where
Solution: div r
ˆ
ˆ
ˆˆˆ
ˆ
ˆˆˆ
Example 18 For show that where r r
93
Solution: We have ˆ
n r
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ
94
2 2
3r -r
= 3
r
=2
r
2 3 4
Example 20 If F = x y z Find div (grad F)
Solution: grad F
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ
ˆ
Example 21
vector and
Solution: div
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
95
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
1 2 3
3 2 3
1 2
1
ˆ ˆ ˆ
The curl of the linear velocity of any particle of rigid body is equal to
twice the angular velocity of body.
i.e. if ˆ ˆ ˆ
be the angular velocity of any particle of the
1 2
ˆ 3
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
96
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
2
ˆ
Example 22 Find curl (curl F) If ˆ ˆ at (1, 0, 2)
Solution: Curl F
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ
At (1, 0, 2)
97
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
Example 23 Find curl V if Solution: curl V
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ
Solution: Curl r
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
Example 25 Evaluate curl where if
Solution:
ˆ r
2
ˆ ˆ ˆ
2 2 2 ˆ
9
8
ˆ
ˆ
2
ˆ
2
2
ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
2 2 2
ˆ
3
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
Example 25 If
2
ˆ ˆ ˆ find div (curl F )
Solution: curl F
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ
99
ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
Solution:
ˆ ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
100
Proof:
(i) ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
(ii) Let 1 2 3
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
(ii) Let
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ
101
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
(1) If 1 2 3 , Evaluate
(2) Prove that
ˆ r
(3) For ˆ ˆ ) show that the vector div 3 is both
r
solenoidal and irrotational.
(7) If ˆ ˆ ˆ is
solenoidal find value of a.
2
(7) Find the direction derivative of a scalar field x y z at (4, -1, 2)
in the direction of (3, 2, 1).
grad f F
grad F . F
curl F F
2 2 2
1) If A x yi 2xzj xy k, B 3zi 2yj 2x k
2
Find the value (A B)G (1, 0,1)
y x
1 1
2) If r xi yi zk prove that 3 r.
R R
where R r
3) Find the unit normal vector to the surface at the point(1,0,1).
2 3
4) Find the directional derivative of f (x, y, z) xy yz the point
(1,-1,1) in the direction of (3,-1,1)
2 2
5) If f 3x y xyj 3y zk find div F curl F.
*****
103
6
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
UNIT STRUCTURE
6.1 Objective
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Differential Equation
6.4 Formation of differential equation
6.5 Let Us Sum Up
6.6 Unit End Exercise
6.1 OBJECTIVE
6.2 INTRODUCTION
th
We have already learned differential equation in XII . Hence we
are going to discuss differential equation in brief. In this chapter we
discuss only formulation of differential equation.
Definition:-
e.g.1 dy =9
dx
x=independent variable
y= depedent variable
d2y dy
2 2 +y=0
2
dx dx
n
3 d y
y=0
n
dx
104
dx dx dx
d2 y
e.g 1) 2
2 dy y 0
dx dx
Order = 2
2) E = Ri + L
di
dt Order = 1
Degree:-
The degree of differential equation is the degree of the highest ordered
derivative in the equation when it is made free from radicals and fractions.
e.g.
d2y
1 k2y
2
0 dx
order = 2, degree = 1
2 d 2 y2 2 dy 2 Y 0
dxdx
Order =2, degree =1
dy 1
3 y x
dx dy
dx
Order=1, degree=2
3 dy2 dy
4 dx2 dx
d2 y 13 dy 12
2
dx dx
Cubing both sides
105
3 2
d2y dy
2
dx dx
Squaring both sides
d 2 y 2 dy 3
2
dx dx
Order=2, degree=2
Solved examples:
2
d y
dx2
Solution:
e d y 1 dy
2
2 32
2
dx dx
Squaring both sides
e2 d y2 1 dy
2 2
2 3
dx dx
order = 2, degree = 2
d x d 2 y 3 x
ii) 3 sin(xy ) e
dx dx
Solution:
d3 y 2 d 4 y
3
d3y
3 x 3 3
x
4 sin(xy ) e
dx dx dx
Order = 4, degree=1
iii) y x dy 5
dx dy
dx
Solution:
2
dy
dy
y x 5
dx dx
Order =1, degree=2
106
dy dy 2
iv) yx 5 1
dx dx
Solution:
dy 2
dy
yx 5 1
dx dx
Squaring on both sides
y-x dy 2 25 1 dy
2
dx dx
2
2
y 2xy dy x2 dy 25 1 dy
2
dx
dx dx
Order =1, degree=2
3) y ye x
5) y11 1 y12
Ans : order=2, degree=2
y x y xy
Ans : order =1, degree=3
2
y ax 1
Where y= independent variable
x = dependent variable
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to x
dy
we have dx 2ax (2)
From equation (1) we have
y
ax 2
Note:-
To eliminate two arbitrary constants, three equations are required. To
eliminate three arbitrary constants, four equations are required.
In general to eliminate n arbitrary constants. (n+1) equations are required.
In other words elimination of n arbitrary consonants will bring us to
th
differential equation of n order.
Solved Examples:-
Example 2: Form the differential equations if y c1 cos x c2 sin x
Solution: We have
Y= c1 cos x + c 2 sinx -------------(1)
This equation contains two arbitrary constants, therefore we shall require
three equations to eliminate c1 and c 2 .
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to x
dy
dx = -c1 cos x c2 cos x.
Again differentiate with respect to x
d2 y
= -c1 cos x c2
2
sin x dx
108
2
d y = (c cos x +c sin x)
2
dx 1 2
y
y from eq
dx
d2 y
+y=
0 dx2
This is the required differential equation.
w
dt
dt
wx u g
dt
d2 x
2
w2 x 0
dt
This is the required differential equation
2
Example 5: Obtain the differential equation for the equation Y=cx+ c
Solution: we have,
2
y cx c (1)
Differentiate equation (1) with repect to x
dy
dx c
Put value of c in equation (1)
2
y= x dy dy
dx dx
This is the required differential equation.
Example 6: Obtain the differential equation for the relation
2x 3x
y= a e b e Where a,b are
constants. Solution: we have,
y= a e 2x b e3x -------------(1).
Here the number of arbitrary constants is two
Hence we shall require three equations to
Eliminate and b. So we differentiate the given equations twice.
dy 2x 3x
dx = 2a e 3b e -------------(2).
d2 y 2x 3x
= 4a e 9b e ----------
2
---(3) dx
From equation (1) (2) & (3) elimination of a & b gives directly
y 1 1
dy
2 30
dx
d2y
4 9
dx2
In the determinant
1st column is LHS
Column 2nd column 2nd column contains coefficients a e2 x
Expanding the determinant
3x
2nd column contains coefficients of b e
dy d y
y dx dx
dy d2 y
6y-5
2
0 dx dx
110
d2y dy
-5 +6y 0
2
dx dx
This is the required differential equation.
Example 7: Find the differential equation of all circles
touching y axis at the origin and centers on x-axis
Solution:
dy 2 2
2xy dx x y 0
Which is the require differential equation.
Ans.
2 3
2
1 dy a2 d y
2
dx dx
2) Obtain the differential equation whose general solution is given by
ye
x
A x Bx
2
d y dy
Ans 2
2 2y0
dx dx
Soln dy cos x
dx
x
Viii y (c c x )e
1 2
2
d y
Ans 2
2 dy y 0
dx dx
ii. i k 2
dx dx
2 35
iii. d y 1 dy
2 dx dx
2 2
d y dy
iv. 2 2 3 1 y 0
dx dx
dy
yx
dy
v.
dx dx
2) Formulate the differential equation
i. Y A Blogx
ii. X = asin(w++c)
x
iii. Y = c (Acosx + Bsinx)
1
iv. Y = em cos x
2
v. Y = ax bx
2 3
vi. Y = cx + 2c c
2 2
vii. X +Y = 2ax
2
viii. Y = 4ax
x y
ix. e +Ce = 1
113
x. Y = ACos2x+ BSin2x
*****
7
SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION
UNIT STRUCTURE
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Solution of Differential equation
7.4 Solution of Differential Equation of first order and first degree
7.5 Let Us Sum Up
7.6 Unit End Exercise
7.1 OBJECTIVES
7.2 INTRODUCTION
General Solutions:-
The general Solution of a differential equation is the most general
relation between the dependent and the independent variable occurring in
the equation which satisfies the given differential equation.
Particular Solutions:-
114
dy=5 dx constant
Y= 5x+C
This is called as general solution
Suppose C=7 is given
Then particular solution is given by putting of c in the general solution
y = 5x+7
Check Point:-
1) Find the general solution and particular solution of the differential
equation
dy
dx x When y 4 at x 0
2
Solution: y=x c
2
x2
y 24
Differential equations of first order and of First Degree :-
An equation of the form,
dy
M+N dx 0
Where „M‟ and „N‟ are functions of x and y or constant. is called
differential equation of first order and first degree. This equation can also
be written as
Mdx Ndy 0
7.4 SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF
FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE
There are many methods that can be used to solve the differential
equations. Important one among those are listed below.
1) Variable seperable form.
2) Equations reducible to variable seperable form.
3) Homogeneous equations.
4) Exact differential equations.
5) linear differential equations.
6) Equations reducible to linear differential equation.( Bernoullis‟s
differential equation)
115
7) Methods of substitution.
We will explain all these methods one by one in detail.
Solved Examples:-
Example 1: Solve x ydx e x Sec y dy
y
x
3e sec2 y
x dx dy 0 1)
1-e tan y
This is in variable separable form
Integrate equation (1), we get Sec 2 y
x
3e
1e x dx dyconstant
e Sec 2 y
-3 e 1 dx tan y dy c
x
y c
y c
tany = c
e x - 13
y
× dy = x 1+ x × dx - - - - - - - - - -1
2
1+ y 2
\ f x dx = 2 f
1
x + c
f x
f x × f x dx
1
n
f x n+1
=
n+1
1 1 2 3
2 1+ y2 = × × 1+ x2 2 +c
×
22 3
1
1+ y = 3
2
1+ x2 3 2 +c
This is in required general solution.
dy
Example 3: Solve x dxey
Solution: The given equation is
dy
x dx e y
1 × dy = 1 × dx
2e-y - 1 x+1
ey 1 1
y
e dy 1 dx
y
2e x 1
y
0= 1 dx e dy
y
x+1 2 e
117
y
1 dx e dy 0 (1)
x 1 ey2
This is in variable separable form,
Integrate equation (1), we get
ey
x dx ey dy
x e c y
e c y
x e c y
Example 4: Solve e
x
y dx e x y dy
y
given when x=0
4
Solution: The given equation is
ex y dx e x y dy
y
x 2
3e dx sec y dy 0 (1)
1+ex tan y
This is in variable separable form,
Integrate equation (1) we get
3ex sec2 y
1+ex dx tan y dy log c
ex sec2 y
3 1+ex dx tan y dy log c
e x
y
c
y
This is the required general solution
To final particular solution:-
put y= at x=0 in equation --------(2)
4
118
c
c=8
Put value of c in equation (2)
e x y
This is a particular solution
x
Example 5: Solve dy
dx
Solution: The given equation is
dy x x
dx yy y
yy y dy x x dx
This is in variable separable form
Integrate equation (1), we get
2 2
5) solve: Sec x tan y dx sec y tan x dy 0
ans tan x tan y c
dy
6) solve: x 2 y
dx e
1 2y x
ans e e c
2
7.4.2 Equations Reducible to variable separable forms:
Sometimes we come across differential equations which cannot be
converted into variable separable form by mere rearrangement of its terms.
These differential equation can be suitable substitution
Solved Examples:-
dy
Example 6: solve: x y dx a
dy
Solution: we have x y dx a
Substitute x-y=t
Differentiating with respect to x, we get
dy dt
1
dx dx
dy dt
dx 1 dx
Using equation (1) we have
2 dt 2
t 1 a
dx
dta2
1
2
dx t
dta2
1
2
dx t
2 2
dt 2 t a
dxt
t2
dt dx
t 2 a2
This is invariable separable form
Integrating we get
t
dx t 2 2 a2 dt cons tan t
t 2 a 2 a2
x= dt c
2 2
t a
120
a2
x= dt dtc
2 2
t a
2
t a
1
x=t+a 2 a log t a c
a t a
x=t+ 2 log t a c
t=x-y
a xya
x=x-y+ log
c 2 x y a
a xya
y= log c
2 xya
This is the required general solution
Example 7: Solve
dy
x y
dx
Solution: We have
dy
x y
dx
Put xyt
Differentiating above with respect to x, we get
dy dt
1+ dx dx
dy dt
dx dx 1
Using equation (1)
dt
dx 1 cos t
dt
dx 1 cos t
1
1 cos t dt dx
1
dt dx
2 t
2cos 2
This is invariable separable form,
Integrating we get
1
dt dx cons tan t
2cos2t2
1 t
2 sec
2
2 dt x c
121
1 2 t
tan 2
x c 2 1
t
tan 2 x c
t=x+y
xy
tan x c
2
This is the required general solution,
dx
Example 8: Solve xy dy
Put x y t
Differentiating above with respect to x
dy dt
4 dx dx
dy dt
dx dx 4
Using equation (1), we have
dt 2
4t
dx
1 dt dx
t 4
2
2 2
t=x+y
1 tan 1 x y x c
2 2
1 xy
tan 2x c1 where c1 c
2
This is the required general solution
dy
Example 9: Solve x y dx y
122
Solution:
dy
x y dx y
Put xyt
Differentiating with respect to x, we get
dy dt
1+ dx dx
dy dt
dx dx 1
Using equation (1), we have
dt
t 1 t x 0
dx
dt 1 xt
dx t
dt x
dx 1 t 1
dt x
dx t
xdx tdt
This is in variable separable form
Integrating we get,
xdx=tdt+constant
2 2
x t c
2 2
2 2
x t 2c
t=x+y
x y c
2 2 2
x x 2xy y 2c
2
2xy y 2c
2
y 2xy c1 where c1 2c
This is the required general solution
y y x y y
Example 10: Solve cos dx sin cos dy 0
x x y x x
Solution:
y y x y y
The equation is, cos dx sin cos dy 0
x x y x x
123
Substitute y v
x
y=vx
Differentiating above with respect to x, we get
dy dv
dx vx dx
But the above equation can be written as
y y x y y dy
cos sin cos 0
xx yxx dx
1 dy
v cosv- sin v cos v v x 0
vdx
By rearranging the terms, we have
1 dx sin v v cos v dv 0
xv sin v
This is in variable separable form
Integrating we get,
1 sin v v cos v
dx dv cons tan t
xv sin v
c
c
xv sinv=c
y
v= x
y y
x x sin x c
y
ysin x c
This is the required general solution
x x
y y x dy xy
2) 1 e e
1
0 Ans : x+y e c
y
dx
124
yx y x dy yx
3) x y e y x e xe c
dx
y y 2 y 2 y
tan sec dx sec dy 0
x x x x
y
Ans x tan c
x
7.4.3 Homogeneous Equations
y dx
y dx
dy x 2 y2
(1)
dx 2xy
put y=vx
dy dv
dx vx dx
Using equation 1 we have
2
v2 2x dv x v
x dx 2 x vx
125
x v
v x dv
dx v x
2
x dv 1 2v 1
dx 2v
x dv2 1
3v dx 2v
-2v 1
1+3v 2 dv x dx
This is in variable separable form
Integrating above expression we have
1 6v 1
- 3 1+3v 2 dv= x dx cons tan t
x c
cx
cx
2
dy y
2
(1)
dx xy x
This is a homogeneous equation
Put y=vx
dy dv
dx v x dx
Using equation (1),we have
v 2 x2
v x dv 2
dx x vx x
dv vx
v x dx x v
dv v
x dx v v
dv v
x dx v
v 1 1
v dv x dx
1 1
1 dv
dx v x
This is in variable separable form
Integrating we get,
1 1
1 dv = dx cons tan t
v x
vlogv=logx+logc
v=logv+logx+logc
y
v= x
x
x
y
x c
y
=log
y
x =log cy
y=xlog cy
This is the required general solution
Example 13: solve x y dx xy dy
.
Solution:
127
x y dx xy dy
v x c
v cx
v cx
v c x
Put v= y
x
2 y3 1 1
3 2 2
x c x
3 3
x
2y x c 2
128
3 3
1
2y x kx where k= c 2
x x x
Solution:
The given equation is
y 2 y 2 y
x tan y sec dx x sec dy 0
x x x
y sec2 y x tan y
dxdy x x 2y
x sec x
y
dy y tan x (1)
dx x sec 2 y
x
This is a homogeneous equation
Put y vx
dy dv
dx vx dx
Using equation 1 we have
dv tan v
v+x v
dxsec2 v
x dv tan2 v
dx sec v
sec2 v 1
dv dx
tan vx
sec2 v 1
dv dx 0
tan vx
This is in variable separable form
Integrating we get,
sec2v 1
dv dx cons tan t
2
tan vx
log tanv + log x =log c
l
x tanv = c
129
y
Put v =
x
y
x tan x = c
This is the required general solution
Check Your Progress:
1) solve the following
2 2
i) xdy ydx x y dx
2 2 2
ans y x y cx
x
ii) x y cot y dy ydx 0
x
ans y c sec
y
2 2
dy dy
iii) y x dx xy dx
ans cy e y x
Definition:-
The equation Mdx+Ndy=0 is said to be an exact differential equation if
and only it.
Mdx+ Ndy=du
Where u is some function of x and y
e.g. xdy+ydx=0 is exact
u=xy
Where
xdy+ydy = du
130
Solved Examples:-
Example15: Solve x x y xydxx y x y ydy
Solution: The given equation is:
N 2 2
x 12x y 24xy
M N
yx
Hence differential equation (1) is exact
Its solution is given by
M treat dxNterms dyc
131
dx y dy c
5 3 2 5
x x x y
2 4 3
5 5 6 y 3 8 y 2 5 5 c
5 3 2 2 3 5
x 2x y 4x y y c
This is the required general solution
dy 4x 3 y 2 y cos xy
Example 16: Solve 4
dx 2x y x cos xy
Solution:
The given equation is
3 3
dy 4x y y cos xy
4
dx 2x y x cos xy
x y y xy dx x y xy dy
Comparing with Mdx+Ndy=0; we have
M 4x 3 y 2 y cos xy
4
N 2 x y x cos xy
M
y y x y yxy
M
8x 3 y 2 cos xy xy sin xy
y
x x x y yxy
N
8x 3 y cos xy xy sin xy
x
M N
y x
Hence differential equation (1) is exact
Its solution is given by
Min treat dx N terms dy c
xy y xy
4 y 2 x 3 dx ycos xy c
4y2 x 4 y sin xy c
4 y
x4 y 2 sin xy c
This is the required general solution
Example 17: Solve x e dy y xxdx
y
.
132
Solution:
The equation given is
x e dy y x x dx
y
dxxe dy y
x
Comparing with Mdx+Ndy=0; we have
1
M y 1 cos y
x
N x log x x sin y
M 1
y 1 cos y
Yy x
133
M 1
1 sin y
Yx
x x x xy
N 1
x 1 x sin y
M N
Y x
Hence the differential equation (1) is exact
Its solution is given by
M treat c
1
y 1 cos y dx ody c
x
1
x
y 1 dx cos y dy c
x yc
This is the required general solution
Example 19: Solve dy y cos x sin y y 0
dx sin x x cos y x
Solution: The given equation is
dy y cos x sin y y 0
dx sin x x cos y x
dy y x yy
dx xx y x
xx y xdy y x y y
y x y y xx y xdy
Comparing with Mdx+Ndy=0; we have
M=y cos x sin y y
N=sin x x cos y x
M
y yy x y y
M
cos x cos y 1
y
N
x x x xy x
N cos x cos y 1
x
134
M N
yx
Hence the differential equation (1) is exact
Its solution is given by
M treat dxNterms dyc
y x y y dx ody c
Ans. x y e x y c
(3) x y x y dx x y x y dy o
Ans. x y xyc
(4) y e xy x dx xy e xy y dy
4 2 3
Ans. e xy x y c
x
(5) xy dx dy
y
Ans. y x xy c
(6) xy e dx x y xe y dy
2 y
Ans. x y xe c
(7) y xy xy xy dx x xy x y xy dy
M N 2 2
Ans. sin xy xy cos( xy ) 2 xy cos( xy ) x y sin( xy)
y x
General solution is given by
xy xy c
135
f x dx f y dy c
Equations reducible to variable separable form.
dy f ( xy)
Homogeneous differential equation i.e dx g
( xy)
With substituting Y=Yx.
2 2
xiv. dy + x + 3y =
2 2
0 dx 3x +y
dy
xv. 4( x y ) dx = 3x - 4y
*****
8
EQUATION REDUCIBLE TO EXACT
EQUATIONS
UNIT STRUCTURE
8.1 Objective
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Definition
8.4 Linear Equation And Equations Reducible To Linear Form
8.5 Equations reducible to linear form
8.6 Let Us Sum Up
8.7 Check your progress
8.8 Unit End Exercise
8.1OBJECTIVE
8.2 INTRODUCTION
In previous chapter we have learn about exact differential equation & its
solution. Now here we are going to discuss none exact differential
equation. To find the solution of non-exact differential equation we use
integrating factor which convert non-exact differential equation to exact
differential equation. Also we discuss about solution of linear differential
equation.
137
In some cases equations which are not exact can be converted to exact
differential equation by multiplying by some suitable factor called as
Integrating factor.
8.3 DEFINITION
Integrating Factor
If the equation leMdx +leNdy=0 is exact
then le is said to be an integrating factor of the equation Mdx+ Ndy = 0
Rule (1)
1
If the equation Mdx+Ndy=0 is homogeneous then is
Mx Ny
integrating factor
Solved Example:
Example 1: x y xy x y dy
Solution: The given equation is
x y xy x y dy
This is a homogeneous equation.
yx y y
Its general solution is given by
M terms free from x
138
1 2 3
dx dy c
y
x y
1 1 1
y dx-2 x dx 3 y dyc
x
2 2log x 3log y c
This is required general solution
Solve
i) xy y x y
1
2 2
Hint : I.F. x y
General solution is given by
2 y
cy c x
3
x
ii) x xy y
Hint: I.F. 13
x
General solution is given by
x2 log x 3xy y2 cx2
N x
1
I . f . Mx Ny
xy x y
1
3 3
I . f . 3x y
y dx x dy
xy xy
1
2 1 2 2
i. e 3 2 dx 3 3 dy 0
3x 3 x y 3x y 3y
which is a exact equation
Its General solution is given by
treat
1 2 1 2
3 2 dx - dy c
3x 3 x y 3y
1 1 1 2 2 1
3 x dx 3 y 2 x 3 dx 3 y dy c
1 log x 2 2 log y c
2 2
3 6x y 3
log x- 1 2log y c where c 2c
x 2 y2 1 1
Check your progress:
1. solve :
x y xy y xy
1
2 2
Hint: I.F. 2x y
G.S . is given by
xy log x- 1 log y c
xy
2. y xy x y x xy
1
2 xy
Ans x cy e
140
M N
y x
If N a function of x alone. Say f(x) then e f x dx is
integrated. factor.
Solved Examples :-
y
3
y function of y alone
dy
-3 1 dy
e y
e-3 log y
141
1
log
e 3
y
1
I .F. 3
y
y dx xy y x dy
y y
This is exact differential equation
Comparing with Mdx+ Ndy=0; we get
2
M yy 2
x
Nx2y4y 3
y y3
ii) x y dx x y
Ans3 x 3 y 2 y 6 cy e 3y
Working Rule:
y ex
x
This is of the type
dy
dx py Q
Hence equation (1) is linear differential equation.
143
Where
P Q x
x
I.F. e
pdx
e
1
x 1
dx
1
log
I .F . e x1
1
I .F.
x 1
Hence the solution of differential equation (1) is
y Q dx c
e x x dx c
y
x 1 e dx c
x
y x
x 1 e c
c x
This is the required solution.
1 dy
e1 y 2
I .F . etan y
1
144
2
1 y
consider the integral
tan -1 y
e tan1 y dy
2
1 y
-1
put z tan y
Example 6: Solve
dy
xx dx x yx
Solution: The given equation is
dy
xx dx x yx
2
through out by x(1-x ) we have
x x
x x y x
Hence equation (1) is linear in dependent variable y
This is of the type
145
dy py Q
dx
x x
where xx Q x x
I.F.e
pdx
x
Let x x x
P
x x x
(By partial fraction)
x x x dx
x x
2
e- logx 1-x
2 1
elog x 1-x
1
IF
2
x 1 x
Hence solution of differential equation (i) is
y QIFdxc
x dx c
x x x
x
x dx c
x x dx c
x
c
n
f f
n
y 1 c
2 2
x 1 x 1 x
2
y x cx 1 x
Example 7: Solve
146
e 2 x y dx
1
x x dy
Solution: The given equation is
e 2 x y dx
1
x x dy
dy y e2
x
........(1)
dx x x
Which is of the type
dy
dx py Q
where P 1 , Q e-2 x
x x
The equation (1) is linear in y
I.F. e
pdx
e x
1 dx
2 x
I .F . e
Hence the solution of differential equation (1) is
y IF Q dxc
x e2 x
ye 2 2
x e x dx c
1
x dx c
ye2
x
2 x c
This is the required general solution.
dydx
yxe
y
Example 8: Solve
Solution: The given equation is
y x e dx
dy
y
dy
y dx y
dx
y y dy
1
dx x etan y ........(1)
2
dy 1 y 1 y2
Which is of the type
dx
px Q
dy
147
1
where p 1 ,Q etan y
2 2
1y 1 y
The equation (1) is linear differential equation
Hence
IF e
pdy
1 dy
e1 y 2
IF etan
1
y
tan y 2 tan y
2 x e 1 e 1
c1 where c1 2c
This is the required general solution.
1) Solve
i) y x dx xdy
cx
dy y 2
ii) dx 1 x x x
c x
iii) dx
x c
148
iv)
dy
x
y
x x
dx x x
1
-
H int I.F. e 1x
2
1
y 1 c c 1x 2
2
1 x
y 2
v) dx xdy e sec
y
dy H int : I.F. e
y
x e tan y c
dy
vi x x dx xx x y
H int : I.F. x
sec x
xy cos x x c
dy
vii x dx x x y
H
x y
xc
dy
viii x y dx
-y
H int : I.F. e
x y 2 c ey
ix x y dy ydx
1
H int I.F. y
3
x y cy
I) Bernoulli‟s Equation :
The equation of the form
dy n
dx py Q y
is called as Bernoulli's equations
n
throughout by y , we get
n dy 1n
y dx P y Q.........(1)
149
1-n
Let y u
dy du
yn dx dx
u sin g equation (1) we get
1 du
1 -n dx Pu Q
du
dx pu n Q
This is Bernoulli‟s differential equation and can be solved.
Note: The equation is also Bernoulli‟s equation
n 1-n
We divide by x and substitute u= x and proceed.
Solved Examples:-
Example 9: Solve dy y xe x y2
dx x .
Solution:
dy y xe x y2 .............(1)
dx x
Which is of the type
dy n
Py Q y ........
dx
1 x
Where p x , Q xe ,n2
Equation (1) is Bernoulli's differential equation
throughtout by y2 , we get
-2
dy 1 1 x
y dx x y x e .................(2)
Put y-1 u
Differentiating with respect to x
dy
2
du
-1 y
dx dx
-2
dy du
y dx dx
u sin g equation 2 we get
du 1 x
- dx x u x e
du 1 x
dx x u x e
Which is linear differential equation.
1 x
where p , Q -x e
x
Pdx
I .F . e
150
- 1 dx
e x
elog x
1
log
I .F . e x
1
I.F. x
Hence, General solution is given by
u IF Q
1 x 1
u x -x e x dx c
-1
Put u y
1
x e
-1 x
y dx
1 x
c xy e c
This is the required solution.
dy
Example 10: Solve xy xy dx
Solution: The given equation is
dy
xy xy dx
dx 2 3
dy xy x y
dx 2 3
dy xy x y .........(1)
which is of the type,
dx n
px Q x
dy
where p -y, Q y3 , n 2
I.F. e
pdy
e y dy
I .F.
y2
e 2
y3e dyc
y2
ue 2
y2
2
Let
y2
t
2
y dy dt
2t e t dt c
y2
ue 2
2
y
2 t e e c
t
ue 2
Put u x 1 , ty
2
2
1 y2 y2 y 2 y2
e 2 2 e 2 e 2 c
x 2
1 y2 y2 y2
x e 2 y 2 e 2
2 e 2 c
1
y 2 y 2 y2
e 2 y 2 e 2 2 e 2 c
x
This is the required general solution.
Check your progress:
i) solve:-
i)
dy 4
dx y tan x y sec x
3
Hint : If sec x
sec3 x
3tan x tan3 x c
3
y
dy 2 x2
ii) dx xy y e 2
x2
log x Hint : I.F. e 2
152
1 x2
y e 2 x log x x c
dy 3 -x
iii) xy dx y e 2
x
Hint : If e 2 e
x y x c
dy 4 12 3
iv) x dx 3y x e x y
1
x
ans y 2 x 6 e 2 c 1
v) xdx y
y3
y x dy
Hint : If e 3
y 3
y3
x2 ce 3 3
dy
vi) dx e
xy
e x ey
Hint : IF eex
e y c e e x e x 1
dy
y xy
dx
y x c e
x
dy 2
sin y dx cos y x cos
y throughout by cos2 y , we get
sin y dy cos y
cos 2 y dx cos 2 y x
dy
secy tany dx sec y x.........(1)
which is of the form
dy
y dx pf y Q
where f(y) secy, p -1. Q -
x Let secy u
Differentiating with respect to x
dy du
secy tany dx dx
equation (1) becomes
du
dx u x
Which is a linear differential equation.
Where p -1, Q -x
I.F. e
pdx
x
e
x
I .F e
Hence General solution is given by
u IF Q IF dx c
u e x x e x dx c
- x e x dx c
x
e c
x x
u e x e
Put u sec y
sec y x 1 c ex
This is required general solution
1) Solve :
dy 1 1
I) dx x tan y x 2 tan y
siny H int throughout by tany sin y
1 1c
2
x sin y 2x
154
dy 3 2
ii) dx x cos y x sin 2y
dy 3 2
H int x sin2y x cos y
dx
2
through out by cos y
x2
IF e
2 x2
2 tan y x 1 c1 e
8.6 LET US SUM UP
In this chapter we have learned
Integrating factor for non-exact equation.
Using integrating factor find the solution of non-exact equation.
Using integrating factor find the solution of linear differential equation.
Bernoulli‟s equation.
2
dy tan 1
xiii. (1 x ) dx + y = e x
xiv. dy + y =1 x
dx (1 x) x
xv. Sec x dy = (y+Sin x)dx
xvi. (y log x - 1)y dx = x dy
155
dy 3 3
xvii. dx + xy = x y
dy xy 1
xviii. 2 = xy
dx + 1 x 2
dy 2
xix. y - Cosx dx = y (1- Sinx)Cosx
2 2
xx. y dx+ x(1- 3x y )dy = 0
*****
9
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
UNIT STRUCTURE
9.1 Objective
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Geometrical
9.4 Physical Application
9.5 Simple Electric Circuits
9.6 Newton‟s Law of Cooling
9.7 Let Us Sum Up
9.8 Unit End Exercise
9.1 OBJECTIVE
9.2 INTRODUCTION
Cartesian Co-ordinates:
Let f ( x1 y1 ) = 0 be the equation of the curve Let p ( x1 y1 ) i.e. any
point on it.
Equation of tangent at p is
x y
dx p
X intercept of tangent = 1 1
dy
157
y1
x
1 dy
d x p
y
y intercept of tangent = 1 x1 dy P
dx
Equation of the normal at P is given by
dx
y-y1 dy (x x1)
dx 2
6) Length of tangent = PT = y 1 dy
1
d y 2
7) Length of Normal at 1+
P PN y1
y
1
8) Length of Sub tangent
dy
dx
dy
9) Length of Sub normal y1
dx
3
1 d y 2
2
dx
e
d2 y
d x2
Solved Examples:
Example 1:
Find the curve which passes through the points [ 2, 1 ] and [ 8, 2 ]
for which sub tangent at any point varies as the abscissa of that point.
We know,
158
y
subtangent dy
dx
From given condition-
y
dx
y
dy kx.....[k
constant] dx
dy
y kx dx
1 k
x dx y dy
dy 1
k
y x dx
which is in variable seperate form
integrate both side
1
k. y dy constant
k. log y =log x + log c
The Curve passes through the points [2,1] and [6, 2]
put x = 2 , y = 1, in equation [1]
k
1 2c
1 2c
1
c 2
n
put x = 8, y = 2, in eq [1]
2k c x 8
1
k 4
2 2x 8
2k 4
k 2
2 2
K2
n
put Value of C and K in eq [1]
159
1
y2 x
2
2
2 y x
dy
2 3/2
1+
Radius of curvature = dx
d2 y
dx2
dy 2
Lenght of normal = y 1+
dx
From given condition -
2 3/2
1+ dy
2
dx dy
2
25 1+
d y dx
dx2
2 1/2
1+ dy
1+ dy
2
2
1/2
dx dx dy
= 25 1+
2
d y dx
dx2
dy 2 d2y
1+ = 25 2 [ 1 ]
dx dx
Let dy = z
dx
dy2 d dy
2 =
dx dx dx
dz dy
= dy dx
160
dz
= z
dy
2
d y =z dz
2
dx dy
2
dz
1 + z = 25 z dy
dz 2
2zy dy =1+z
2z 1
2
dz = dy
1+z y
which is in variable separable form
Integrate both side
2z 1
1 + z2 dz y dy constant
2
1+z = cy
z2 = cy - 1
z = cy - 1
dy
Again put z = dx
dy
dx = cy - 1
1
dy = dx
cy - 1
This is in variable separable form
Integrate both sides
1 c1
c cy 1 dy dx constant
1
c2 cy 1 = x + c1
161
2 cy 1 = cx + cc 1
2 cy 1 = cx + c2
Where c2 cc1
n
which is the eq of the curve.
Check your progress:
1) Determine the curves for which sub normal is the arithmetic mean
between the abscissa and the ordinate
[ Hint :
y dy = x + y ; simplify
dz z z
Equation is homegeneous.
9.4 PHYSICAL APPLICATION
Rectilinear Motion:
It is a Motion of a body of Mass in start moving from a fixed point O
along a straight line OX under the action of a force F. Let p be the position
of the body at any instant
Where OP = X , then
1) velocity v dx
dt
dv
2) The acceleration =
dt
2
= d 2x
dt
dv
=vdx
By chain rule -
dv dv dx
dt dx dt
dv
dx v
dv
v dx
3) Newton‟s second law of motion is given by
162
f = ma
dv
=m dt
2
=md x
2
dt
dv
f = mv dx
dx
2
mbv
2
ie mcx and mbv are forces to the right
By D‟ Alembert‟s principle
dv 2
mv mcx mbv
dx
dv 2
v dx bv cx [1]
163
2
Let v z
dv dz
2v dx dx
I.F. = e 2bx
Q
-2c x
2bx
e dx c1
2bx d 2bx
-2c x e dx- x e dx c1
dn
-2c x e 1 e dx c
2bx 2bx
2b 2b 1
2bx 2bx
2bx xe 1 e
ze = 2c 2b 2b 2b + c1
-cx e
2bx
c +
v
2
e
2bx
b 2b 2 e
2bx
c 1
cx c
v c1 e-2bx [3]
2
= b 2b 2
[III] to find c1 , we impose initial conditions
n
ie for x = o , v = o in eq [3]
164
c
2
o = 0 + 2b + c1
c
g = - 2b 2
1
2 cx c c 2bx
v = + 2 2 e
b 2b 2b
e bx
m v
Solution:
Step
Let the body of mass m fall from „O‟
The forces acting on the body are
1) Its weight mg acting vertically downwards.
2
2) The resistance kv of the air acting vertically upwards.
The net forces acting on the body vertically downwards
2 2
= mg kv . . . . [ mgka given]
2 2
= ka kv
2 2
=k[a v ] . . . . . .[ 1 ]
Step [ 2 ] By D‟Alembert‟s Principle
mv
dv
dx
v
dv k dx
2
a2 v m
This is in variable separable form
Integrating both sides
v k
a v dv m dx c c
k
a v m x c
165
v 5 s e . . . = 25 m/s
25 -gt/25
x =5 st+ e c1
g
125 -gt/25
1
x =25t g e
166
The following Notations are frequently used. Units are given in Brackets .
t Time
Ch e on capacitor
Current
voltage
sis ce
Indua ce
capaci ce
Current is the rate of electricity
dq
i= dt
[ II ] Current at each point of a network is got from Kirchhoff‟s laws :
1) The algebraic sum of the currents into any point is zero.
2) Around any closed path the algebraic sum of the voltage drops in
any specific direction is zero.
3) Voltage drops as current i flows through a resistance R is Ri ;
through an induction L is L di and through a capacitor C is q .
dt c
Solved examples:
Example 5: A constant emf E volts is applied to a ckt. containing a
constant resistance. R ohms in
series and a constant inductance L henries. It the initial current is zero,
show that the current builds upto half its theoretical maximum
in L log 2 seconds.
R
Solution:
Step (1) R
di
E L dt Ri
di
L dt Ri E
di R E
dt L i L ( 1 )
Which is a linear equation in i .
R E
P= L Q L
I.F. = e
pdt
= eR
R dt
L
t
I.F. = e L
The general solution is given by
i .( IF ) = Q .( IF ) dt + constant
R R
E
t
i. e L L e Lt dt c
E L R t
L R e L
c
R R
E
i. e Lt R e L t c
-R
E t
i = R c e L ( 2 )
To find c , we impose initial conditions
i.e. at t = o , i = o
E
O= R C
E
C = R
Equation (2) becomes
R
E E e t
i= L
R R
E Rt
i = 1 e L ( 3 )
R
This is the expression for i at any time t.
R t
Now as t increases decreases e L increases and its maximum
value is E
R
Step ( 2 )
Let the current in the circuit be half its theoretical maximum after a
time T seconds then.
168
1 E E 1 R t
From eqn ( 3 ) = eL
2 R R
1 R t
2 = 1e L
R
t
=1 1
e L
2
R 1
t = log
L 2
= log 1 log 2
= O log 2
R
L t = log 2
t = L log 2
R
Check Your Progress:
1) The equation of the eml in terms of current i for an electrical
circuit having resistance R and a condenser of capacity C, in series is.
i
E Ri c dt
Find the current i at any time t , when
E = Eo sin wt
t
Ans : i e RC
CW
-1
where o = tan (RCW)
2) An electrical circuit contains an inductance of 5 henries and on
resistance of 120 in series with an emf 120 sin (20t) Volts. Find current if
it is zero when
t = o ; at t = 0.01
20 -3
Ans : 12 sin (0.2) 100 cos (0.2) + 100.e
10144 125
The law states that the rate at which the temp of a body changes is
proportional to the difference between the instantaneous temp of the body
and the temp of the surrounding medium.
If Q is the instantaneous temp of the body an Qo the temp of the
surrounding then.
169
dQ
dt Q Qo
dQ k Q Qo
dt
Where k is a constant and Q decreases as t increases i.e. dQ is negative
dt
hence negative sign is added.
Solved Examples:
0
Example 6: The temperature of the air is 30 C.and the substance cools from
0 0 0
100 C to 70 C in 15 minutes, find when the temperature will be 40 C.
Solution:
Initially at t 0, T 100
c
c1 log 80
Put value
kt
k
0
When t 1 , T 60 c
k log 80 log 40 (3)
Divide eqn (2) by (3) we have
t log80 log(T 20) (4)
log80 log 40
when t 2min ute, T ?
n
from eq (4) we have
80
log
2 T 20
280
log
40
80
4 T 20
80
4= T 20
4T 80 80
4T 160
40
T 160
41
0
T 40 c
170
0
The temp of the body at the end of second minutewill be 40 c
0
Ans :- 46.4 c.
*****
172
10
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION
UNIT STRUCTURE
10.1 Objective
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Some standard results
10.4 Type III: Using Complex Numbers
10.5 Problems
10.6 Let Us Sum Up
10.7 Unit End Exercise
10.1 OBJECTIVE
10.2 INTRODUCTION
(1) Let
ax
ye
ax 2 ax n ax
y ae y a e .....y a e
1 2 n
(2) Let
mx
ya
y ma mx m amx a
m n a mx an
3) y axb
ya a ax b
y a s a ax b
n n
yn a ax b
If a=l then
n
y xb
yn x b
Also if b=0 then y= sin x and y sin x n .
n
2
4)If y axb
n
y a n cos ax b
n
2
174
y ax b
m
y ma ax bm
y m m a ax b
m
:
yn m m ax bmn
y
n n n ax b n an
If m=n then
n
If a=1, b=0, then y=x
yn n!
6) y ax b
y m a ax bm
7) y 1
ax b
a
ax b a ax b
y
a
y a a ax b
ax b
: : :
y
n n an
n ax bn xb
y
n n
n x bn
y
8) y ax b
a
ax b
175
y a
a
a
ax b ax b ax b
y
n an
n ax bn
9) y eax bx c
ax
y e a bx c b bx c
Let a = r cos , b = r sin ,
And r= a 2 b =tan -1 b
2
a
eax r bx c r bx c
reax bx c
b
b
b
a
similarly it can be proved that
b
b
b
a
b
b
b
a
If a=1,b=1, c=0
y eax sin x
n x n
yn 2 2 e sin x+
4
bx c
b
a b
bx c n
a
Type I
th
Example1: Find n derivatives of the following :
3
i) sin x
ii) cosx cos2x cos 3x
x
iii) y e cos x cos 2 x
iv) yex
x
176
Solution:
i) Let y x x x x
3
4sin x 3sin x sin 3x
x x
th
Using the result for n derivative of y=sin (ax+b) and nothing that
th th
n derivative of sum or difference is sum or difference of n derivatives,
we get
1 n n
yn 3sin xn 3 sin 3 x
4 2 2
ii) Let
y x x x x x x
c
x x x x
c
A B AB
x x x
x x x x x x
x x x
1 6 n n n n n
yn 6x 4 4x 2x
n
cos cos 2 cos
4 2 2 2
ex
iii) x x
1 x x
e cos3x+e cosx
2
th ax
[Using the result for n derivative of y=e cos (bx+c) n
e x e x
n x n x iv)
y ex x
Here note
n
n ex x
e
x
x n
177
Example2
n
n
If y px pxt thanshow that p px
Solution: y sin px cos px
n n
n
p
n
px p px
n n n
p sin px cos px
2 2
n n 2 2
1
n
p
sin px
cos px
2 2
1
1 2sin px n cos px n 2
n
p
2 2
a b a b
A A
px n
n
p C S
pn n px SA C B C A S B
sin n 0
and
nx n y
y n xn
Example 3: If y x
n
than show that y y1 y2 3 .....
n! .
2! 3!
Solution:
y x n
yn x n
y n x n
y nnxn
:
yn n !
y y y
y y1 3 .....
2 n
2! 3!n!
n n n
x n x n x n
n n
nnxn xn n
n
xn
178
n an na n b
n n n n
a b b
Type II
th
Find n derivatives by method of fraction :
x
th
Example 4: Find n derivative of y
x x x .
Solution : Using method of partial fraction
x
y x x x
x A B C
x x x x x x
A 1 B -2 C 3
2 2
y x
th 1
Example 5: Find n derivative of y x a22
Solution.:
We have y x ai x ai
By partial fractions,
179
y
ai x ia ai x ia
n n
Using result (7) ai x ia n ai x ia
n
n
n
ia x ia x ian
n
To eliminate, we substitute
i i
x ia r e x-ia r e
n n
i
ia
n
re rei
n
n e i n ei n
n
ia r n
n n e i n e i n e i n ei n
n
ar i i
n
n
ar n
a
1
r a 2 x2 , tan x
th x
Example 6: Find n derivative of y x 2 a2
Solution.:
x
We have y x ia x ia
ia ia
x ia ai x ia ai
y
x ia x ia
nn n
n n
y n
n x ia x ia
i i
Let x+ia re , x ia re
180
4
1
2 2
r x a , tan x
From
n
n
n n
r ei n r e i n
n n e i n ei n
n
r
n n
r n n
x a ax
th -1
Example 7: Find n derivative of tan x
Solution.:
1
y tan x
y
x xixi
i
x i x i th derivatives of
n n n
n
i X i
n
X i n
n
n
X i X i n
n
i
i i
Let x 1 re , x i re
1
r 1 x2 , tan x
n
n
re i rei
n n
i
n n ein ein
yn n
r
n n n
where
rn
1 1
x 1 tan
2
r
x
181
x
x
cos1
1
th
Example 8: Find n derivative of : xx 1
Solution. :
x x1
cos1
xx 1
x x1
y cos1
xx 1
x2 1
cos1
x2 1
x tan
y
2
2 tan1 x, from previous result.
n n n
n
r
Where r x x
2
d y dy 2
Example 9: If y=sinx (sinx), Show that 2 tan x y cos x 0
dx dx
Solution: y x
x x
x x x x
d2y dy
2
+tanx +ycos2 x
dx dx
x x x x
x x x x x
2 2 2 2 2 d2 p a 2 b2
Example 10: If p a cos b sin , Prove that p+
d 2 p3
Solution.:
Diff. given relation twice,
dp 2 2
2p d -a 2cos sin +2b sin cos
182
b
p
b
d
p b
b
d p
d
p
p b b
b
b
p
a
b
b
b a
a b a
2 2 4
a b p
d2 p
p 3
a 2 b 2 p4
2
d
2 p+ 2 2
d p a b
p3
d 2
Example 11: If y sin 1 1 2sin x then show that
dy 3
2 sin x dx 2 sin x
Solution.:
We have
Now y
183
3 cos x
2 sin x
dy x
dx x y
x x
x x
3
2 sin x
10.5 PROBLEMS
Type (I) :
In this type of problem we have to chosen one function as u and the other
as v. If there is a polynomial in x then that is to be chosen as u and then
apply Leibnitz theorem.
th
Example 12: Find n derivative of x 2e x cos x
Solution:
Let y x e x x
2 x
u x , v e cos x.
Using standard result number
n
2
x n
yn 2 e cos x .
4
Here y u v
By Leibnitz theorem
yn uvn nc1u1vn 1 nc2 u2 vn2 ........
n x rn n x n
x e xx n x e x
nn n
n
x
e x
Example 12:If f(x)=tan x then show that
n
f
n
n c f n
n n cf
n
Solution: x f x x
th
Taking n derivatives both sides to the left side we apply Leibnitz theorem and to
th
the right we use standard formula for n derivative of
sinx, we get,
f
n
nCfnxnCfn n
log x
Example 14: If y x then show that :
185
n n
yn n x
x n
Solution:
v n
n
n xn
We have y=u. v
By Leibnitz theorem
n n
y uv C u v C u v ....... u v
n n 1 1 n 1 2 2 n 2 n
x
n
n
n
n n n n
n
xn x xn
x n n n n n n n n
xn x xn
nnn
n n
n
x
Example 15: If I n d n x n n
x then show that
dx
(i) I n n n n
1 1
(ii) In n ! logx 1 .....
2 n
Solution:
x
n n
(i) We have
d
n x n x
d
n
d
x n
dx dx dx
n 1
d n1 nx log x xn1
dx n1
d n 1 d n1
n x n 1 log x xn1
dx n 1 dxn1
n n n
if is derivative of
th
x
n
ii
nI n
n
nn
186
I
n I
ie n n
placing n we get
n
n n
I
n
n n
1 2 1 1 1
2! 1 2
1 1 1 0
1! 0! 1
Adding all the results columnwise we get,
n n
n n
n n
n n
1 1 1 1
....... 1
n n 1 n 2 2
cancelling common terms on both sides and noting that
th 0
I0 0 derivative of x log x
log x
and 0! 1 we get
1 1 1
In n ! log x 1 .......
2 3 n
th 2n
Example 16: By forming in two different ways the n derivative of x
show that :
n n n n
n
Solution:
Step 1: We have
y x2n Standard formula
n n n n x nn
n
n n n n n x
n n
187
nn xn
Step 2: Again y x2 n xn .xn
We apply Leibtnitz theorem to find yn
u xn ,v xn
un n !, vn n!
n n C nx n n x
x n
n n xn x n
n
n n n
n
n
n n
n
From
n xn n
n
n
n
n n
n
n
Note :
th n th n
The n derivative of x is n! but (n-1) derivative of x is not (n-1)!
but n! .x.
To prove that this use the formula No.5 and put m = (n-1).
Type (II)
Then apply Leibnitz theorem term by term and simplify to get the result.
1 1
Solution:
1 1
y my m
2x
1 1
y m 1 2x
y m
y xym m
is a quadratic equation in y 1m
1
y m 2x 4x2
4 2
ym x x
y x x
y m x x m
x
x
x x
y m x x
x
m
x ym x x m
m y
x y m y
Differentiating both the sides with respect to x, we get,
x y y xy m yy
x y xy m y
1 y x n
Example 18: If we cos log then Show that
b n
x yn n xyn n yn
Solution:
We have
y
n x n
n
b
n xn n
s n xn n n
x
n s n xn n
differentiating both the sides with respect to x
n
n c n xn n
x
xy n
n xn n
n 2 y
2 2
x y2 xy1 n y 0
Applying Leibnitz theorem term by term to differentiate n times, we get,
x y nn
n n xyn y n xy n n y n n yn
x yn x n yn n yn
1
If y sin x then show that
Example 19: 1 x 2
x yn n xynnyn
Solution:
We have
1
y sin x
1 x2
xy
x
x y xy
Differentiating with respect to x
x y xy xy y
x y xy xy y
Applying Leibnitz term by term, we get
x y n n x y n n n y n
xy n n y n yn
x yn x n yn n yn
Solution:
y sec1 x
Differentiating with respect to x
y 1
1 x x2 1
y
ie x y
Differentiating with respect to x
ie xy y
Differentiating term by term n times using Leibnitz theorem, we get,
x x yn n x y n n n x yn
y
n
n n n
nn
x yn n x y n y n
191
n n n
ie x x y n x x y n n x nx y
n
n n n n n y
n
n
iex x y n x n y
n n xyn n n yn
-1
Example 21: If y = tan x,then show that.
x yn nxyn n n yn and also show that
yn is respectively
Solution:
Step I :
1
y tan x
y 1
1 1 x2
Applying Leibtnitz theorem to differentiate n times, we get,
n n
x yn n xyn yn
ie x yn nxyn n n yn
Step (II) :
Now,
x
nr
nf
and n
192
xy m y
2. If y=easin-1x then show that
x yn n xyn n a yn
3. If b x
then show that
yn n xyn n yn
H int : x2 y xy y 0 apply Leibnitz theorem
2 1
4. If x
x yn n xyn n yn
5. If x tan(log y) then show that:
n n n
x y n x y nn y
Wehave y=etan-1x.....
6. If x
x yn n x yn n yn
H
a n n n
ii) y axbyn
ax b
n
193
Ÿ yn
mx mx n n
iii) y a a log a .m
n
nS ¸
¨
Ÿy
n
iv) y sin ax b
§ ·
a cos ax b
2© ¹
n
ax n ax
v) y e sin bx c Ÿy r e cos bx c Dn
n
ax n ax
v) y e sin bx c Ÿ y r e cos bx c Dn
2 2
where r a b
1
b
and D tan a
Leibnatz's theorem
____________________________________________________________
10.7 Unit End Exercise
___________________________________________________
1. Find nth order derivative of the following functions:
9
i) (8x - 7)
ii) Sin( 9x+3) + cos(2x+5)
6
iii) Cos 2x
iv) Sin4xsin3x
v) 2sinxcosx
19
x 20 5x 7
2. If y , find y
5
x 34 20.
35
3x 7x 12
3. If y , find y
x 7 35.
th 4 x
4. Find 5 order derivative of y x e .
th 3
5. Find 4 order derivative of y x sin x .
n n !
6. If y x log x , then show that yn 1 x .
1
7. If log y tan x, then show that
2
(i) (1 x )y y
2 1
(ii) (1 x )y [1 2(n 1)x ]y n( 1)(n 2)y
n n 1 n 2
*****
194
11
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
UNIT STRUCTURE
11.1 Objective
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Partial Differential Coefficients
11.4 Total differentiation
11.5 Some additional results
11.6 TYPE - III Variable to be treated as constant
11.7 Let Us Sum Up
11.8 Unit End Exercise
11.1 OBJECTIVE
11.2 INTRODUCTION
v u
(2) x uv x x
v
kv k
xx
u v
u v x u x
2
xv v
196
k k v
2
x v vx
(2) If u f t
i.e. u t x,y,z
then u du t
x dt x
3 2 2 2
e. g . u=t ,t x y z
then u 3t2 2x 6xt 2
x
3) If u f x y z
then the flow diagram becomes,
i.e. u x,y,z r,s
then u 2x 1+2y 2 s 2 z 0 6 x 4 ys
s
(1) Let
u f (x , y , z ) and x=1 (t), y 2 (t) ,z 3 (t)
[i.e. u is function of x,y,z and x,y,z each is a function of only one variable
t.]
Thus,
u x,y,zt
d d dy u
d d d z
du u
We write total derivative and not
d tt
e. g. If u= x2 + y2 + z2 , y=t2 , z= t3
then u x, y, z t
198
d
d
(2) Let u= f(x, y) and (x, y) = 0
(x, y) = 0, y can be regarded as
a function of x and hence flow-diagram is
u x, y x
du = u 1 + u d y
dx x y dx
2 2
e. g. if u= x + y
du
3
and x
+ y + 3xy = 4then to find
3 dx
x + y3 + 3xy = 43
2
x +y
and du = u + u d y = 2x +2y 2
dx x y d x x+y
3)
If \
This
Let
u x, y
y x
u x, y x
d u = u + u d y
then
dx x y dx
du =0
u=0
dx
u
dy = x
dx u
y
or, dy = f x
dx f y
199
u x, y, z x and
du u u dy u dz
= + + ,
dx x y dx z dx
u + u d y + u d z
then =0
x y dx z dx
4) If
We use the following notations :
2 2 2
p = f , q = f , r = f , s = f , t = f
x y x2 x y y2
dp dq
d y =-
2 q
dx
- p
dx
2 2
..................(i)
dx q
p, q x, y x
and dp = p + p dy =
dx x y dx
f f p
+
x x y x q
2 f 2 f p p rq -sp
= 2 - = r-s =
q
x x x q q
dq q q dy f f p
dx x y dx x y
2 f 2 f p y y q
2
x y y q
p
stq
sq pt
q
200
2
d y 1 rp - sp sq - pt
from (i), 2 =- 2
q
-p
=
dx q q q
2 2
- 1 q -r 2pqs + p t
3
q
11.5 SOME ADDITIONAL RESULTS
r
and since , x2 + y2 = r2
2r r = 2x
x
r x
= = cos
xr
from (i) and (ii),
x 1
r r
x
(2) When we write
u x, y, z
It means u depeds on x, y, z and x,y,z are independent among themselves.
EXAMPLES
201
TYPE – I
NOTE :
Problem in this type are based on direct differentiation
(1) First find dependent and independent variables.
(2) Use the necessary formulae.
Examples 1 :
y x
If z = x + y then show that 2z = 2 z
x y yx.
y x
Solution: z=x +y z x, y
z
= yx y-1 + yx log x .........(i)
y
z y x-1
and = x log x + x y ..........(ii)
y
Differentiating (i) partially with respect to y,
2 z y x y-1 log x + x y-1
=
yx
1 x-1
+ log y xy
x y y
y-1 y-1 x-1 x-1
= y x log x + x + y + xy log y..........(iii)
Differentiating (i) partially with respect to x,
2 z 1
= x y + yx y-1 log x + 1 yx-1 + xyx-1 log y........(iv)
xy x
From (iii) and (iv)
2z 2 z
xy = yx
3 3 3
3xyz)
Examples 2: If u = log (x + y +z then show that
2
-9
+ + u= 2
x y z x + y + z
Solution:
Note that u is a function of x, y, z
i.e. u x, y, z
u = log (x3 + y3 +z3 3xyz)
u 1 2
= 3 3 3 (3x 3yz)
x (x + y +z 3xyz)
see the rule of partial Differentiating applied to log function
and similarly
u 1 2
= 3 3 3 (3y 3xz)
x (x + y +z 3xyz)
202
u= 1 2
(3z 3 xy)
3 3 3
x (x + y +z 3 xyz)
2 2 2
u + u + u = 3 (x + y +z xy -yz - zx)
3 3 3
x y z x + y +z 3xyz
2 2 2
3 (x + y +z xy -yz - zx) 3
2 2 2
= (x + y + z ) (x + y +z xy - yz - zx) = x + y + z
Note that :
2 u
u u
+ + u= + +
z
+ +
x y z x y x y z
3
= + +
x y z x + y + z
3 3 3
= + +
Solution: (i) v x, y
We write v2 = 1 - 2xy + y2
Differentiate partially with respect to x and y,
-2 v
-3 v = -2y
x
3 v
and -2v = -2x + 2y
y
from 1 and 2
203
v
xv
xv
x
yv
= y v3 3y v-2 v2 - 3y
2 2
=0 v = 1 - 2 xy + y
Example 4 : If
sin 2x u + sin 2y u + sin 2z u = 2
x y z
Solution: Here u x, y, z
u 1 2
= sec x
x tan x + tan y + tan z
u 1 2
= sec y
y tan x + tan y + tan z
204
u = 1 2
sec z
x tan x + tan y + tan z
sin 2x u + sin 2y u + sin 2z u
x y z
2
= sin 2x . sec x + sin2y . sec2 y + sin2z. sec2 z
tan x + tany + tan z
2 1
sin 2x. sec x = 2 sin x . cos x . 2 = 2 tan x
cos x
n
Examples 5 : If = t , e-r
2 4t
then find the value of n show that
1 2
2 r
=
r r r t
We have
Solution: r, t
2
r
We have, log = n log t -
rt
Diff. partially with respect to r,
1 = -2 r
r 4t
= - r
r 2
2
r 2
r =-
r 2t
Diff. partially with respect to r,
2 1 2 3
r
=- 3 r +r =
r r 2 r
r
1 r
- 3 r2 - 2t ...... from (1)
2t
2
1 1 - r
2 r
2
=- 3 ........ (2)
r r r 2 2t
Again diff. given relation with respect to t partially ,
1
= n + r 1
2
t t 4 t2
n r2
= + 2
t
t 4 t
205
1
r 2 = ,
2
r r r t
From (2) and (3) we get,
2 2
n + r r
2 =- 3 + 2 n= - 3
t 4t 2 t 4t 2
Example 6 : If
and if u = u u then show that g = n
2
x x2 2u
Solution: u x, t
Again diff. u partially with respect to x, we get,
u = 2 u
tx2
From (1) and (2)
-gx 2 gx
(A n .e . cos (nt-gx) = . 2. Ag . e . cos (nt-gx)
n
n= 2 g2 g=
2
xy x y x y
2 2 2
1 1 2y x -y
= 1 - 2y 2 y = 1 - 2 2 = 2 2
x x +y x +y
1+ y2
Check your progress:
2 2
1) If u, (x + y ) = x + y then show that:
u u u u
- = 4 1 - -
x y x y
x2 + y 2 u u
H int u = x+y u x, y find x , y .......
(2) Find the value of n so that u= rn (3 cos2 - 1) satisfy the equation
2 u 1 u
r + sin =0
r r sin
u u
Hint : u r, , Find , ....... Ans. n = 2, -3.
r
xyz
(3) If u = e then show that
x
u 2 u 3u
First find then and
z x z x y z
2
2
c
x
2 v 2 v
(4) If v = e 4a t , then prove that =a 2
t t x
1 x2
H int : Take log, log v = log c - log t - 2 v x, t
2 4a
t
v 2 v
(Find and , apply the rule of P.D. applied to log function)
t x2
2u 4 yz
2 2 2 2
2 2
(5) Find y where u = log (x + y + z2 ) Ans. (x + y + z )
z
2 u 2 u
(6) Verify y = y Where (i) u = log (y sin x + x sin y )
x
207
3 3
m n u u
xyz = yx
2
(7) If u = x y then show that
If 2 u 2u
x y yy
2 2 2
(9) If u=log x y z then show that
y z u u u
2u 2 2 2
H int : e x y z u x,y,z
u
2e2u 2x
x
u
x e-2u
x
u u
x e xe e x
2
x 2 y2 z
u u
yz
m
Ans
TYPE – II
Note :- Here we deal with the the problems of the type u = f (x, y, z )
where x, y functions of x, y, z
i.e. u X, Y, Z x, y, z.
We shall be frequently using the Chain- Rules can be develop drawing the
flow- diagram.
Example 8 : If
Let
Solution: X=x-y, Y=y-z, Z=z-x
u X,Y,Z x,y,z
208
u u X u Y u Z
+
x = X x + Y x Z x
and u u X u Y + u Z
Y X y Y y Z y
=uu
Y X
Similarly u u X u Y + u Z
Z X z Y z Z z
From (1), (2), (3)
u u + u 0
X Y Z
x2
Example 9 : If u=f then prove that
y
u u 2 2 u 2 u 2 u
(i) x + 2y =0 (ii) x 2 + 3xy +2y 2
2 =0
x y x xy y
Solution:
x
y
x2
Note that u is a function of only one variable =t, which in turn is a
y
u t x,y ( see chain rule 2)
u = d u t = d u 2x
x d t x d t y
2
u d u t d u -x
and , = = 2
y dt y dt y
2x 2 d u 2x2
x u +2y u
du
0
x y y dt y dt
x u +1 u 2 y u
2 2
0................(2)
x
2
x x y
2
and x 2 u +2 y u 2 u 0................(3)
x x y2 y
x
2u 2 u u 2 u u 2
2 u
x
2
2 +2xy x +xy +2y 2y 2 0
x x y x x y y y
x u +2y u =0 from (1)
y y
x2 2 u +3xy 2 u 2y 2 u
2
=0
x2 x y y2
Example 10: If yx
y
Solution:
Taking logs, we get,
y log cos x = x log sin y
Let f (x,y) =y log cos x -xlog sin y=0
dy =- df dx
dx df dy
= -y tan x-log sin y
x y
xy
Example 11: If
Solution:
x yx y y x x y o
f x ..................(1)
dy
dx f y
Now
210
d
d
x y z
Example 12: Pr ove that at a point of the surface x y z =c
z
x ex
x
Solution:
2z
From the expression it is clear that z x,y
xy
Taking logs
x log x+y log y+z log z =log c
Different with respect to y partially, (i.e. keeping x constant)
1 1 z
0+log y+y log z+z
y z y
y
z
Diff . with respect to x partially, we get,
y
z z
y
z z
x
Now we z
x y
d d z z
x
At d d x x x
x x
x
Check your progress:
If
211
z f f u f v
=
x v x
u
To find we must have an equation in u, x and y only.
x y
Example 13: If x=r cos , y=r sin then show that
x x y 2 2 2
y x y ,
r r
r2 = x2 +y2
u x 2
(i) 2 2 and
x y u v m
y v 2
(ii) 2 2
v x u m
y
Solution: We have
u=l x+my
v=mx-l y
(i) u=l x+my
u
l ....................(1)
x y
x
(ii) To find we must have relation between x,u and v
u v
Eliminating y from the given relations, we get,
l l m
x= lu2 mv2
l m
x 1
2 2 ............(2)
u v l m
From (1) and (2)
l2
u x
x y u v l 2 m2
(iii ) v= mx-ly ..............(3)
Diff with respect to v keeping x constant,
y
l =0-l
v x
y 1
y
x l
v
(iv) To find , we e lim inate x from given relations,
y
u
lv l m y
l l m
v l 2 m2
=-
u
y
l
From (4), (5)
213
2 2
y v = l m
2
v x
y
u l
z 1
Example 15: If
x y x
z y
Solution:
f
then y x
xy f
y
z fx
We have, =-
x y fz
x fz
(ii) And =-
z y fx
z 1
From (1) and (2)
x y x
z y
Example 16: If x= cos , y= sin , evaluate
u u
x u u u
x x y
u y x
Solution
(i) x= cos
u
x cos
= - 2
................(1)
u u
2
sin
(ii) y =- 2
u
y sin2
= .....................(2)
u u
u
(iii) To find , we eliminate from given relations,
u
214
2 2 1
i.e. x y 2
u
2 1
or u 2 2 ............................(A)
x y
x
y y
x
y y
2 1
(iv) and again u 2 2
x y
y
x y
y
y y
From (1), (2), (3), (4) we get,
x y
y
y
x
y
2 2
cos sin 1
but x cos y sin
u u
quired
y
= 1 u4 1 (from A)
4
u
2 2 2 2 2 2
Example 17: If x+y+z+u+v=a, x +y +z +u +v =b ,
where a,b are constants, prove that
u x v y
x y,z u v , z
y
x , z v u , z
215
Solution:
u
To find we have to eliminate v from the given equations and as this
x y,z
process will have to be repeated four times, we proceed in the following way.
Let x+y+z+u+v=a ..................(1)
x2 +y2 +z2 +u2 +v2 =b2 ..............(2)
differentiating with respect to x partially keeping y,z as constants, we get,
u v
1+ 0 .........(3)
x y,z x y , z
u v
and 2x+2u 2y 0 ..........(4)
x y,z x y , z
u
Solving the equations (3), (4) for by Cramer's Rule we get
x y,z
u v-x
..........(5)
x y,z u-v
Similarly differentiating (1), (2) partially with respect to y keeping x,
z as constants, we have
u v v
1+ 2v 0..............(7)
y y
x,z x , z
y
x,z
u v
ey+ex 2v 0
y x,z
y
x , z
v
Solving (6), (7) for we get
y
x,z
v y-u
.........(8)
y
x,z u-v
Similarly differentiating (1), (2) partially with respect to u treating v,z as
constant we get,
x u
1 0 ............(9)
u u,z u v , z
x y
and 2x 2y 2u 0 .............(10)
u v,z u v , z
x
solving (9), (10) for we get,
u v,z
x yu
....................(11)
u v,z xy
216
Similarly differentiating (1), (2) pallyrti with respect to v where u,z, are kept
constants, we get,
x y
10 ..... (12)
vu,z v u ,z
x y
2x 2y 2v 0.........(13)
vu ,z v u ,z
y
Solving equations (12), (13) for we get,
v u ,z
y v-x
....................(14)
v u , z x-y
From (5), (11) and from (8), (14) we get,
u x v-x y-u v y
y
xy,z uv,z u-v x-y v u , z
x,z
2 u
Example 18: If u x 2 y2 and x s 3t , y 2s - t. Find 2 .
t
2 2
Solution: We have ux y
u 2x , u 2y
x y
Now, u x, y s, t
u u x u y
s x s y s
(2x ) (1) (2 y) (2)
2x 4y
2u u
Now, 2 (2x 4 y)
s s s s
=2 x + 4 y
s s
=2 1+42=10
And u = u x + u y .............(i)
t x t y t
= 2x 3 +2y (-1)
= 6x-2y
2 u u
And 2 = = (6x 2 y)
t t t t
x y
=6 - x
t t 2
217
= 6(3)-2(-1)=20 ......................(ii)
y
x y x
2
1 u u 2 3
2
4. If
u (1 2xy y 2 )
x 2 u 2 u 0.
12
then prove that (1 ) y
x x y y
2 2 2
2 1 y 2 1 x
5. If u x tan y tan then prove that u
x y .
y 2 2
x yx x y
2
3 3 3 9
6. If u log(x y +z xyz ), then prove that u .
2
x y z (x y z)
218
3 3
7. Ifu 1
x y , then show that
xy
tan
u u
(i) x x y y sin 2u.
2u 2u 2 2u
(ii) x2 2xy y 2cos3u sinu.
2 2
x xy y
4
x y 4
u u
then show that x x y y 3.
8. If u log ,
xy
*****
219
12.0 OBJECTIVES:
12.1 INTRODUCTION:
The Mean Value Theorem is one of the most important theoretical tools in
Calculus. Let us consider the following real life event to understand the concept
of this theorem: If a train travels 120 km in one hour, then its average speed
during is 120 km/hr. The car definitely either has to go at a constant speed of 120
km/hr during that whole journey, or, if it goes slower
(at a speed less than 120 km/hr) at a moment, it has to
go faster (at a speed more than 120 km/hr) at another
moment, in order to end up with an average speed of
120 km/hr. Thus, the Mean Value Theorem tells us that
at some point during the journey, the train must have
been traveling at exactly 120 km/hr. This theorem form
one of the most important results in Calculus.
Geometrically we can say that MVT states that given a
continuous and differentiable curve in an interval [a, b],
there exists a point c ∈ [a, b] such that
the tangent at c is parallel to the secant joining (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)).
12.1.1 Rolle’s Theorem:
If f is a real valued function such that (i) f is continuous on [a, b], (ii) f is
differentiable in (a, b) and (iii)f(a) = f(b) then there exists a point c (a, b) such
0
that f c
220
Fig 12.1
We know that f (c ) is the slope of the tangent to the graph of f at x = c. Thus the
theorem simply states that between two end points with equal ordinates on the
graph of f, there exists at least one point where the tangent is parallel to the X
axis, as shown in the
Fig 12.1. After the geometrical interpretation, we now give you the algebraic
interpretation of the theorem.
Algebraic Interpretation of Rolle's Theorem:
We have seen that the third condition of the hypothesis of Rolle's theorem is that
f(a) = f(b). If for a function f, both f(a) and f(b) are zero that is a and b are the
roots of the equation f(x) = 0, then by the theorem there is a point c of (a, b),
where f (c ) = 0, which means that c is a root of the equation f (cx) = 0.
Thus Rolle's theorem implies that between two roots a and b of f(x) = 0 there
always exists at least one root c of f (cx) = 0 where a < c < b. This is the
algebraic interpretation of the theorem.
Example 1: Verify Rolle‟s Theorem for the following:
2 2 ª º
(1) x in [ 1,1] (2) x in 1, 3 ¬ ¼
2
Solution: (1) Let , x •[ 1,1]
As is a polynomial in x, it is continuous and differentiable everywhere on its
domain. Also 1 1 1
The conditions of the Rolle‟s theorem are satisfied.
We may have to find some c •[ 1,1] such that f cc0
Now f x?
2x. f c ? 2c.
2 c c
(iii) f 3 f 0 0.
All conditions of Rolle‟s Theorem are satisfied. There exists c 3, 0 such
that f c 0 ec/2 c 2 c 3 0
2 2
2 2
c c 6 0 c c6=0
c = 3, -2
3 3, 0 c 3, c 2 3, 0
a, b > 0 x a b
Solution: is continuous in (a, b) and f x =
2
log x ab
log x log a b
2
2x 1 x ab
2
f x x ab x x x ab 2 exists, since it is not indeterminate or
infinite.
f b 0 All conditions of Rolle‟s Theorem are satisfied.
Also f a
There exists c a, b such that f c 0
2
c ab
c c ab 2 0 (i.e.) c
ab , which lies in (a, b).
2
ab 0 c
x
Example 4: Verify Rolle‟s Theorem for f x = e sin x cos x in
[ / 4, 5 / 4].
x
Solution: Since e , sinx, cosx are continuous and differentiable functions, the
5 5
given functions is also continuous in , and differentiable in ,
4 4 4 4
/4
Also, f / 4 e sin / 4 cos / 4 0
222
f (a ) (a ) (a)
Solution: Consider the function F x defined by, F(x) = f (b ) (b ) (b )
f (x ) (x ) (x)
Example 8: Prove that between any two real roots of the equation,
x x
e sin x 1 there is at least one roots of e cos x 1 0 .
x
Solution: Let a and b be two real roots of the equation e sin x 1
x x
(i.e.) of sin x e (i.e.) of e sin x 0
x
Let f x e sin x , which is continuous and differentiable.
Also, f a f b 0 . Since a and b are roots of f x .
By Rolle‟s Theorem there is at least one real value c between a and b such
that f c 0
'
Now, f x = e
x
cos x
c
f c e cosc
c
f c 0 e
'
cos c 0
c
e cos c 0
c
e cos c 1 0
x
c is a root of e cos x 1 0 lying between a and b.
2
Example 9: Us Rolle‟s Theorem to prove that the equation ax bx a b
3 2
has a root between 0 and 1.
3 2
a b
Solution: Let =
ax bx
x which is obtained by integrating
3
3 2 2
the given equation.
Here f x is continuous in 0, 1 and differentiable in (0, 1) and
f 0 f 1 0
By Rolle‟s Theorem there is a value c 0,1 such that f c 0
Now, f x ax
2
bx
a
b
and this is zero at x = c which means the
3 2
2 a b
equation, ax bx has a root between 0 and 1.
3 2
224
3
Example 10: Show that the equation x x 1 0 where x has exactly
one real root.
Solution: Let f x x 3 x 1, x
f 0 1 0 and f 1 1 0
Since f x is a polynomial, it is continuous.
Thus, using Intermediate value theorem, we get, there is a number c between 0
and 1 such that f c 0
Thus the given equation has a root.
Now, let if possible f x have two roots, say a and b. Then f a = f b 0 .
Since f x represents a polynomial, it is differentiable on (a, b) and continuous
on a , b
Thus by Rolle‟s Theorem there exists a member c between a and b such that f
c 0
But f x 3x 1,
2
x
f x 1 , x
d) e sin x cos x on / 4, 5 / 4
2 2
e) x 1 x on 0, 1
f b f a
f c
b a
12.1.3 Another form of Lagrange’s Mean value Theorem:
If (i) f x is continuous in the closed interval a, a h , (ii) f x is
differentiable in the open interval (a, a + h) then there exists at least one number
in (0, 1) such that, f a h f a hf a h
= f a
f b
ba
Also, f c is the slope of the tangent at the point C
Physical Significance:
We note that f b f a is the change in the function f x as x changes from
f b f a
a to b, so that ba is the change rate of change of the function f x
over a , b . Also f c is the actual rate of change of the function for x c .
Thus the theorem states that the average rate of change of a function over an
interval is also the actual rate of change of the function at some point of the
interval.
2
2
f x 2 f x1
We have thus proved: A function whose derivative is positive for every value of
x in an interval is a monotonically increasing function of x in that interval.
(2) Let f x 0 for every value of x in (a, b) from equation we have,
f x2 f x1 0 f x2 f x1
for x 2 x1 is positive and f c negative.
Hence f x is a decreasing function of x.
We have thus proved: A function whose derivative is negative for every value of
x in an interval is a monotonically decreasing function to x in that interval.
log e log 1 f c
e1
Since loge = 1, log1 = 0 and f x 1 we get 1 1
x e1 c
c e 1 which lies in the interval (1, 2) and hence in (1, e), since 2 < e < 3.
i.e.
x2 1
0 x
2 2
1 0 i.e if x < 1.
x2
i.e. if 1 ⇒ 1 1
Hence f x is decreasing in (-1, 1).
2 2
Example 14: Show that if 0, x x log 1 x x x for
2 21 x
0.
2
Solution: Let us assume, f x log 1 xx x
2
2
1 x
f x 1x 1x 1x .
… (ii)
2
x
2
From (i) and (ii), x x log 1 x x for x 0.
2 1 x
2 2
229
1 1
Example 15: Show that tan x tan y x y
1
Solution:
Let f x tan x
By Lagrange‟s Theorem,
1
tan x tan1 y 1 for xcy
2
xy 1c 2 2
1 1 2
But, ( c is positive)
2
1c
1 1
tan x tan y
1
x y
1 1
tan x tan y xy
But,
f x
1
x 1 loge 10
1 log10 e
f x 1 x loge 10 1 x
But, f x xf x
f x log e
f ' x 10
x1 x
x log e
log x 1 10
1 x
Now, f a h f a hf ' a h
a h
ea h ea he
e
a h
a h
e 1 he .e
eh
eh 1
h
h
e 1
h log
h
h
1 e 1
log
h h
h
1 e 1
But, 0 1 0 log 1
h h
Now by substituting h = x in the above equation, we get,
x
1 e 1
0 log 1
x x
ba ba
1 1
Example 18: Show that, 1 b tan
2
b tan a 1a
2
3 1 4 1
Hence show that tan
4 25
3
4 6
1
Solution: Let f x tan x in a , b
f x
1x
1
2
By Lagrange‟s M. V. T.
1 tan
1
b tan1 a (1)
2
1 c ba
2 2 2
Since a c b, a c b
2 2 2
1a 1c 1b
(2)
12 1 1 2
2
1 a 1c 1b
From (1) and (2)
1 1
1 tan b tan a 1
2
1b b a 1a 2
b a b a (3)
tan1 b tan1 a
1 b21 a 2
For the second part;
1 4
Since tan 4 we put a = 1 and b 3 in (3)
231
43 1
tan
1 4 3 tan 1 1 4 3 1
1 16 9 11
3 1 4 1
25 4 tan 3 6 4 .
ba ba
Example 19: Prove that, b log a b
a for 0 a b
Hence deduce that 1 log 4 1
4 3 3
Solution:
Let f x log x in a , b
Since f x is (i) continuous in a , b and (ii) differentiable in (a, b)
1
x
1
f x f c c
log b log a 1
b ac
(1)
But a c b,
1 1 1 (2)
a c b
From (1) and (2) we get,
1 log b log a 1 ⇒b a log b loga b a
b ba a b a
b a
b log
b
a b a a
For the second part a = 3, b = 4.
1 4 1
4 log 3 3
Check Your Progress
1. Examine the validity of the conditions and the conclusions of LMVT for
the functions given below:
x
(i) e on 0,1
Ans : c log(e 1)
2
(ii) x 4 on 2, 3 Ans : c 5
(iii) x 1 in 1 , 3 Ans : c 3 2
x 2
(iv) 1 on 1,1 Ans:Not applicable
x
232
(iii)
x log 1 x x , 0.
1 1 ba ,
4. Prove that, b a sin b sin a 0ab
2 2
1a 1b 2
Hence deduce that,
b 15 sin1 3 5 b 8
3 1
(i) (ii)
1 sin
1 1
1
b 2 3 4 b 15
5. Separate the intervals in which the following polynomials are increasing or
3 2 3 2
decreasing. (i) x 3x 24x 31 (ii) x – 6x – 36x + 7
[ Ans : (i )Increasing , 2 , 4, ; Decreasing 2, 4
(ii )Increasing , 2 and 6, ; Decreasing 2, 6 ]
Remark:
233
(i)
Taking f x x , we can derive Lagrange‟s mean value theorem. In
other words, we may easily see that Lagrange‟s theorem is only a particular case
of Cauchy mean value theorem.
(ii) Usefulness of this theorem depends on the fact that f and g are
considered at the same point c. If we apply LMVT to „f‟ and „g‟ separately then
f (b ) f (a ) (b a )f (c1), g (b ) g (a ) (b a )g c2 for some c1, c2 a, b
12.2.2 Geometrical Application of Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem:
Geometrically, we consider a curve whose paramedic equations are xg t ,
dy f t
y f t , a t b . Then, slope of the curve at any point is,
dx g t
Also the slope of the chord joining the end points and
f c f 2 f 1
g c g 2 g1
2 2 2
2c 2 1 4 1 3 23
2 3 3
3c 2 1 8 1 7 ⇒ 3c 7
14
⇒9 14 c 1, 2
9
Cauchy mean value theorem is verified.
Example 21: Using CMVT show that sin b sin a cot c, a c b,
cos a cosb
a 0, b 0
Solution: sin x and g x cos x.
Let f x
x
Example 22: If in CMVT we write f x e and g x e
x
show that c is
the arithmetic mean between a and b.
x
Solution: Now f x e and g x e
x
If can be proved that function f x
are continuous on any closed and g x
interval [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b). Also g x 0 and x a, b
f c f b f a
∃ c a, b
Then CMVT can be applied. such that,
g c gb ga
f c
e
f
e e
c f b a b a
a
Now g c ec e
2c
and g b g a e b e e
a b
where
c a, b
? e 2c
ea b
⇒a b 2c
a b
c 2 a, b
Thus, c is the arithmetic mean between a and b.
Example 23: Using CMVT prove that there exists a number c such that
b
0 a c b and f b f a cf c log a . By putting f x x 1n
deduce that
1
lim § n ·
n ¨b 1 ¸ log b.
n © ¹
1 1n
lim n b n
1 logb [c 1 as n ]
n
Example 24: If 1 a b , show that there exists c satisfying a c b such
that
b 2 2
log b a
a 2c 2
Solution: We have to prove that, log b log a 12
2 2
b a 2c
(iii) 3 2, 2
1 on 1 4. (iv) f x e x ,
on [0, 1]
f x e x ,
2
(v) , [1,1]
2
1
[Ans :- (i) ab (ii) 4 (iii) 5 2 (iv) 1 2 (v) 0.]
12.3 Summary
In this chapter we have learnt about the mean value theorems. The
Rolle‟s theorem which is the fundamental theorem in analysis has been proved.
The Lagrange‟s MVT and the Cauchy‟s MVT have also been proved. Problems
based on these theorems have been done in order to understand the Mean Value
theorems. In the next chapter we are going to learn about Taylor‟s theorem and
its applications.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units we have seen how we can successively differentiate a
function, partial differentiation of a function and also various mean value
theorems. Differential Calculus has various applications. Some of the physical
and geometrical applications we have seen before. Derivatives can also be used
to find maximum and minimum values of a function in an interval. The
maximum and minimum values are called extreme values of a function. The
extreme values can be absolute or can be local. The first derivative test and the
second derivative tests are used to determine the points of local extrema. In this
chapter we are going to use the differential calculus concept to answer questions
like:
(1) What is the approximate value of sin1 ?
(2) What is the error in calculating the area of a square, if the error in
calculating the side length was 1%?
(3) What are the maximum and minimum values of a function in a given
interval?
13.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to:
compute the approximate value of a function at a given point.
compute error, relative error and percentage error
compute maxima and minima for a function in a given interval.
z
Relative error: If z is an error in z then the relative error in z is given by: z .
238
In this section, we shall study how we can use the derivative to solve
problems of finding the maximum and minimum values of a function on
an interval. We begin by looking at the definition of the minimum and the
maximum values of a function on an interval.
3
Fig. 13.1: f(x) = x, x (0, 1) Fig. 13.2 f(x) = x , x
Fig. 13.3
Note that at x = x0 , the point A on graph is not an absolute maximum
because f(x2) > f(x0). But if we consider the interval (a,b), then f has a
maximum value at x = x0 in the interval (a,b). Point A is a point of local
maximum of f. Similarly f has a local minimum at point B.
Fig 13.4
Definition :
If f is defined at c, then c is called a critical number if f if f ' (c) = 0 or f’ is
not defined at c. The following theorem which we state without proof tells
us that relative extreme can occur only at critical points.
Fig 13.7
Fig 13.8
Example 3: Find the local (relative) extrema of the following functions :
3 2 1 x
(i) f (x) = 2x + 3x – 12x +7 (ii) f (x) = 2 (iii) f (x) = x.e
x 2
Solution
(i) f is continuous and differentiable on R, the set of real numbers.
Therefore, the only critical values of f will be the solutions of the equation
f´(x) = 0.
2
Now, f´(x) = 6x 6x 12 = 6( x 2)( x 1)
Setting f´(x) = 0 we obtain x = – 2, 1
Thus, x = –2 and x = 1 are the only critical numbers of f. Figure 13.9
shows the sign of derivative f´ in three intervals. From Figure 13.9 it is
clear that if x < –2, f´(x) > 0; if
–2 < x < 1, f´(x) < 0 and if x > 1, f´(x) > 0.
Fig 13.9
Using the first derivative test we conclude that f (x) has a local maximum
at x = – 2 and f (x) has local minimum at x = 1.
3 2
Now, f (–2) – 2 = 2(– 2) +3(– 2) – 12(–2) + 7 = –16 + 12 + 24 + 7 = 27
is the value of local maximum at x = – 2 and f (1) = 2 + 3 – 12+ 7 = 0 is
the value of local minimum at x = 1.
2 2
(ii) Since x + 2 is a polynomial and x + 2 0 is continuous and
differentiable on R, the set of real numbers. Therefore, the only critical
1
values of f (x) = x2 2 will be the solutions of the equation f '(x) = 0.
243
Fig. 13.10
From Figure 13.10 it is clear that f '(x) > 0 if x < 0 and f '(x) < 0 if x > 0.
Using the first derivative test, we conclude that f(x) has a local maximum
at x = 0.
Remark : If f´(c) = 0 and f´´(c) = 0, then the second derivative test fails. In
this case, we use the first derivative test to determine whether c is a point
of local maximum or a point of a local minimum.
We summarize the second – derivative test for local maxima and minima
in the following table.
Second Derivative Test for Local Maxima and Minima
f ( c) f ( c) f ( c)
0 + Local Minimum
0 - Local Maximum
0 0 Test Fails
We shall adopt the following step to determine local maxima and minima.
Example 4: Find the points of local maxima and minima, if any, of each
of the following functions. Find also the local maximum values and local
minimum values.
3 2
(i) f (x) = x 6 x 9 x 1 , x
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3 2 2
(ii) f(x) = x 2 ax a x ( a 0), x
Solution:
2
(i) f ´ (x) = 3 x 12 x 9 = 3( x 1)( x3)
To obtain critical number of f, we set f ´ (x) = 0 this yields x = 1, 3.
Therefore, the critical number of f are x = 1, 3.
Now f ´ (x) = 6x – 12 = 6(x – 2)
We have f ´ (1) = 6(1 – 2) = – 6 < 0 and f (3) = 6(3 – 2) = 6 > 0.
Using the second derivative test, we see that f (x) has a local maximum at
x = 1 and a local minimum at x = 3. The value of local maximum at x = 1 is f
(1) = 1– 6+ 9 +1 = 5 and the value of local minimum at x = 3
3 2
is f (3) = 3 – 6(3) + 9(3) + 1 = 27 – 54 + 27 + 1 = 1.
3 2 2
(ii) We have f(x) = x 2ax a x (a 0) Thus,
2 2
f ( x) 3 x 4ax a (3x a )(x a)
As f '(x) is defined for each x R, to obtain critical number of f we set
f '(x) = 0.
This yields x = a/3 or x = a.
Therefore, the critical numbers of f and a/3 and a. Now, f ( a) = 6x – 4a.
We have f ( a / 3) 6( a / 3) 4a 2a 0
and f ( a ) 6a 4a 2a 0
Using the second derivative test, we see that f(x) has a local maximum at x
= a/3 and a local minimum at x = a.
4 3
The value of local maximum at x a / 3 is f ( a / 3) 27 a and the value
of local minimum at x = a is f ( a) 0 .
2. Using first derivative test find the local maxima and minima of the
following functions.
3 x 2
(i) f ( x) x 12 x (ii) f ( x) 2 x , x 0
3. Use second derivative test to find the local maxima and minima of the
following functions.
3 2
(i) f ( x) x 2 x x 1, x (ii) f ( x) x 2 1 x, x1
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