EDDHODJ Questions-True-or-False

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Question 1: 20 Marks – True of False

“Norm” is derived from the word “normal”. It refers to the quality assurance
process. FALSE

A mediator is a person who makes it possible for an idea to be communicated.


TRUE

The IQMS policy supports the use of an assessment policy and uses a four-point
TRUE
scale.

According to Prof Asmal, the father of OBE in South Africa, OBE Focuses on the
TRUE
students and their abilities.

The RNCS document is based on C2005, but it streamlined the curriculum and
FALSE
made it more educator friendly.

The Principles of OBE are 1) Social Justice, 2) Human Rights, 3) Healthy


FALSE
environment 4) Inclusivity.

Range statements, guide educators in the level of complexity that learners


should achieve as stipulated in the RNCS document. FALSE

Assessment Standards are closely linked to learning outcome to be reached by


the learner. TRUE

Assessment can include self-assessment, peer assessment and continuous


assessment. TRUE

The word concept of “curriculum has its origin in the Latin word currere, which
means “to run”, and which is also used to refer to running tracks or chariot tracks
TRUE
for a race.

The word syllabus in Latin means a statement or a list of topics of a discourse, or


the table of contents of a learning area. FALSE

“Covert curriculum” refers to the official, explicit intended curriculum.


FALSE
An empirical or experiential curriculum approach refers to a pre-modern view
spokesperson like Tyler, Gagne and Hunkins can be associated with this FALSE
approach.

A humanistic curriculum approach refers to a pre-modern view spokesperson like TRUE


Tyler, Gagne and Hunkins can be associated with this approach.

The Educator as life-long learner must commit himself/herself to stay informed


about developments in learning and teaching methodologies. TRUE

White paper No 6 explains inclusive education and training. TRUE

The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) was created to bring together


education and training, and consequently, close the gap between the two. TRUE

In their planning teachers might also use discovery learning where they need
learners to draw on their experiences and prior knowledge to work towards
solutions. TRUE

The National Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) replaced


Outcomes Based Education (OBE) TRUE

Tools to be used in designing learning programmes that lead to teacher


education qualifications, such as levels, credits and integrated and applied
knowledge, are discussed in the new policy on minimum requirements for
TRUE
teacher education qualifications.

The department of Higher Education is responsible for monitoring the


performance of Schools and Teachers. FALSE

With whole-school development in mind and working towards the holistic


development of the teacher, there are four important key stages of planning. 1)
Strategic School Planning, 2) Phase Planning, 3) Planning per grade, 4) Lesson
TRUE
Planning.

Walvoord (2004 2-5) and Lambert and Lines (2000 4) define the assessment
process as the systemic collection of information about the learners learning,
using the time, knowledge, expertise and resources available to make informed
TRUE
decisions about how to improve learning.
Question 2: 20 Marks (4 x 5 marks questions) – definitions and
discussions.

Phase planning, pg. 71 (5-mark definition & discussion)


The implementation of the curriculum must be a phase-long process of planning, managing and
organising classroom practice. This means that what is planned must guide and inform what is done
in the classroom – all teaching, learning and assessment.

The following aspects are important when planning for a specific phase:

Contexts / themes within which the teaching, learning and assessment will occur
Principles of the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) that must be incorporated
in all teaching, learning and assessment
Aims and assessment criteria across the phase
The sequencing (conceptual progression) of the aims and assessment criteria
The core knowledge and concepts that will be used to attain the learning outcomes / aims and
assessment criteria for the phase. These should reflect the context of the community, school
and classroom to ensure that the teaching and learning are appropriate for the learners’ needs
How progression (increasing conceptual complexity) will occur within subjects and from grade
to grade, bearing in mind integration across different subjects and real-life application
The time allocation and weighting given to learning in the subject per phase (time frames for
all teaching, learning and assessment)

Phase planning implies that all teachers in a phase should work together to create a clear plan of how
they will guide learners through that phase for a particular subject

Teachers must be involved in different levels of planning, each level serving a different purpose and
involving a different level of detail.

Every teacher remains an individual and the methods used in the classrooms may differ, though all
might be equally effective in ensuring that the learners achieve the aims.

Planning takes place across a phase (three grades). The organising tool for a phase comes from both
the CAPS documents and the characteristics of the learner in this age group.
The South African Council for Educators (SACE), pg. 50 (5-mark definition & discussion)

The South African Council for Educators (SACE) is the professional council for educators / teachers,
which aims to enhance the status of the teaching profession through appropriate registration,
management of professional development and the inculcation of a code of ethics for all educators /
teachers.

The SACE Act (Act 31 of 2000) states that, by means of the functioning of the council, SACE is to

provide for the registration of educators / teachers


promote the professional development of educators / teachers
set, maintain and protect ethical and professional standards for educators / teachers.

As the statutory body for professional education, SACE must also manage the implementation,
management and quality assurance of the Continuous Professional Teacher Development (CPTD)
system.

Each educator / teacher is expected to earn a target number of professional development points in
each successive three-year cycle by undertaking a variety of professional development activities –
endorsed by SACE on grounds of their fitness of purpose and quality – that suit their own needs and
requirements or that are required by their employers (Department of Education, 2008a).

The teacher as interpreter and designer of learning programmes and materials, pg. 52
(5-mark definition & discussion)

Teachers are expected to understand and interpret existing learning programmes, design their
own learning programmes and select and prepare suitable textual and visual resources for
learning.
They also need to sequence and pace learning in a way that shows sensitivity to the needs of
the learning area or subject and those of the learners.
This role is perhaps the one that has been most misunderstood and abused. It has been used
to justify the fact that Curriculum 2005 in its original form did not go far enough in specifying
curriculum requirements on a grade-by-grade basis.
Many bureaucrats argued that this did not present a problem because “each school should
design its own learning programmes, based on the needs and concerns of the community”.
It has become clear that most teachers and schools do not yet have the skills, resources or
inclination to develop a customised curriculum, hence the reluctance to involve schools in the
setting of curriculum standards.
In the CAPS, learning programmes and in some instances work schedules are included in the
documents.
The role of the teacher is still that of interpreter, but with particular emphasis on lesson
planning and effective implementation.
Inclusive education, pg. 58 (5-mark definition & discussion)
White Paper No. 6 (Department of Education, 2001a) defines inclusive education and training as

acknowledging that all children and youth can learn and that all children and youth need
support
accepting and respecting the fact that all learners are different in some way and have
different learning needs, which are equally valued
enabling education structures, systems and learning methodologies to meet the needs of all
learners
acknowledging and respecting differences between children due to age, gender, ethnicity,
language, class, disability, HIV status etc.
being broader than formal schooling, and acknowledging that learning occurs in the home,
the community, and within formal and informal modes and structures
changing attitudes, behaviours, methodologies, curricula and environments to meet the
needs of all children
maximising the participation of all learners in the culture and the curriculum of educational
institutions, and uncovering and minimising barriers to learning.

Inclusive education and training marks a shift from disability and deficit theories, assumptions,
practices and models to an enabling and empowering educational approach.

This new understanding of education accepts that learners have diverse needs, and that the system
might be inadequate to respond to those needs.

In other words, rather than seeing individual learners as being inadequate because they do not fit into
the system, the emphasis is on examining the system itself and identifying the factors within the
system that are not learner-friendly (Department of Education, 2001a)

How will knowledge and skills be organised, pg. 10 (5-mark definition & discussion)
logical sequence
progression of content and conceptual development
teaching / learning methods

To “organise” is to put things together into an orderly, functional, structured whole and to arrange
them in a coherent form.

The importance of what the learners have to learn, in what particular order, and in what space and
time must be established.

How the knowledge is organised, and in what sequence, is central to framing learning; for example,
the knowledge should be relevant to the labour market, appropriate to apply in civil society and be
respectful of learners’ and teachers’ cultural backgrounds.

In curriculum terms, the way in which the knowledge (content) is organised is called an “organising
principle”.

An organising principle is the basic method of arranging content so that key ideas can be located.
Organising the knowledge (content) selected to be included in the curriculum according to an
organising principle helps to simplify a particularly complicated domain and make it easier for the
users to grasp.
The assessment process, pg. 76 (5-mark definition & discussion)

When interpreting and implementing the curriculum, the following questions should also be asked
from the outset.

Which assessment technique is the best for measuring the required outcomes / aims? Is it, for
instance, a research project, or a written assignment?
How will a research project or an assignment be assessed? Will we use an observation sheet
with assessment criteria, or a rubric? These are the tools of assessment; the tool selected
should be appropriate to the assessment criteria for the activity.
Who will be doing the assessing? Will it be group assessment, self-assessment or peer
assessment? These are possible methods of assessment.

Walvoord (2004:2–5) and Lambert and Lines (2000:4) define the assessment process as the systematic
collection of information about the learner’s learning, using the time, knowledge, expertise and
resources available in order to inform decisions about how to improve learning. Assessment must be
more than gathering evidence of how well the learners have achieved objectives / outcomes; it should
also be used to improve the planning for teaching and learning in the next cycle.

In this instance the improvement should be not only in the learners’ learning but also in the
assessment process, and the teacher should be able to adapt the planning for more effective teaching.
It is important to find and introduce ways to plan and teach that encourage and promote the
diagnostic characteristics of assessment, namely its use for guidance and motivation.

The process of gaining and assessing knowledge is one of creating and illustrating one’s own
understanding. Assessment must be an organic part of teaching and learning. Making connections
between teaching, learning and assessment encourages a holistic approach to the analysis of
assessment and its impact on the teaching-learning process.

In order to create a cohesive relationship between teaching, learning and assessment, learners need
to construct their own knowledge networks and the teacher must monitor this knowledge
construction.

The teacher can determine the level of knowledge construction by assessing prior information, the
acquisition of new information and the transformation, and the elaboration and organisation of such
new information. Components that are essential in assessing a learner’s individual ability and needs
include a set of objectives / outcomes and criteria; the use of close-to-reality contexts; ideas about
individual formative feedback; and fostering the ability for self-assessment through a mediation
process (Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall & Wiliam, 2003:30–57).
What is the IQMS, pg. 55 (5-mark definition & discussion)

Teachers must constantly appraise themselves critically; reflecting on how they are teaching must be
part of their daily routine. The National Department of Education issued policies that address the
appraisal of teachers. This is a collective agreement (No. 8 of 2003 in the Education Labour Relations
Council); that is, the employer (government) and employee (represented by teacher unions) have
agreed to the policy. It is important for teachers to take note of this document.

The IQMS Policy combines the different quality management programmes that have been developed
in the past into an integrated quality management system. This system includes

development appraisal, which is the process whereby individual teachers are assessed to
define areas of strength and weakness and to put systems in place for individual development
performance management, which is the assessment of individual teachers to ascertain salary
adjustments, appointment adjustments, promotions etc.
whole-school evaluation, which evaluates the effectiveness of an entire school in respect of
its teaching and learning.

The document is divided into three sections:

Section A describes the IQMS and why it needs to be used. It defines the structures that must be put
in place in order to ensure the efficient running of the school.

These structures are

a senior management team (SMT)


a staff development team (SDT)
a development support group (DSG).

This section also states the guiding principles that inform the IQMS. The procedure to be followed is
then outlined in six steps, stating very clearly how the whole process works. The section concludes
with an outline of the roles and responsibilities of each of the school structures, i.e. the SMT, SDT and
DSG.

Section B consists of an implementation plan. This is presented as a flow chart that details the
procedure, culminating in the whole-school assessment. It specifies at what stage of the year each
part of the process takes place and who is responsible; for example, the teachers must have a personal
growth plan in place by the end of March. It gives a clear picture of the flow of information between
the various stakeholders.

Section C consists of the assessment tool to be used in the various sections of the assessment process.
Each assessment is rated on a four-level scale with a rubric that describes what must be achieved at
each level. Forms that can be used to summarise the measurement and assessment of staff
performance are provided. The purpose of the IQMS is the personal development of each teacher.
Stages of planning for curriculum interpretation and implementation, pg. 69 (5-mark
definition & discussion)
With whole-school development in mind and working towards the holistic development of the
learner, there are four key stages (Figure 4.1) of planning:

1. Strategic school planning


2. Phase planning
3. Planning per grade
4. Lesson planning
Teaching strategies in a teaching-learning environment - also refer to advantages,
disadvantages and practical examples to further elaborate on your answer (pages 36 –
43).

The quote from Carroll illustrates the importance of planning for teaching and learning to act as a
pathway to achieving a set objective, goal or outcome and leading to an effective teaching-learning
situation. Interpreting the curriculum and planning to teach requires arranging content in such a
manner that knowledge transfer can take place most effectively. Planning should also identify the
current level of learner understanding, define the final outcome (goal) of the teaching process
(instruction), and provide some assistance in the process of understanding. Planning and designing
happens within a contextual whole; therefore, the teacher should consider various teaching strategies
in planning for teaching and enable learning that suits the needs of the learners (Figure 2.3).
Questions 3 and 4: 30 Marks (15 Marks each).

Curriculum development focuses on improvement and innovation in education. Draw and


discuss the cyclic process and core activities in curriculum development (pages 2 – 3).

Curriculum development focuses on improvement and innovation in education. During this process,
which may take many years – especially where generic curriculum development is concerned – and
which extends beyond a specific local context, desires and ideals are incorporated in a cyclic process
of design, implementation and evaluation to achieve concrete results in practice. The literature
contains a variety of models for curriculum development, in which especially the five core activities
shown in Figure 1.1 are distinguished.

In a cyclic process, analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation take place
interactively. Curriculum development often starts by analysing the existing setting and formulating
intentions for the proposed change or innovation. Important activities in this phase include problem
analysis, context analysis, needs analysis and analysis of the knowledge base.

Based on these activities, first design guidelines are drawn up. The design requirements are carefully
developed, tested and refined into a relevant and usable product. Evaluation plays an important role
in this process, as can be seen from its central position in the model. Evaluation activities cast light on
the users’ wishes and the possibilities that exist in their practical context, and reveal the best way to
attune the product to the practical setting. When the product has sufficient relevance, consistency
and practical usability, its impact can be investigated. Whereas the primary emphasis is on generating
suggestions for product improvement (formative evaluation), during later phases this emphasis shifts
towards evaluating effectiveness (summative evaluation).
Identify the cognitive category according to Bloom’s taxonomy for different questions. In other
words, you must be able to identify the cognitive category, for example Analysing (Analysis) if
I ask you a question on interpretation of diagrams (pages 89 – 93).
Learners should know what is expected of them. Discuss the features of effective questioning
(page 94).

Contextualised action

Words Learners should understand what is expected of them. So, when teachers set a task, it should
be in writing and it should be clear how the task will be assessed. The best way of doing this is to put
the main assessment criteria and indicators into the instructions for the task. More detailed
performance indicators can go into the marking criteria / memorandum. The teacher must fit the
action word in the task to the context. For instance, to list known items requires recalling facts
(knowledge), but to list a sequence of events requires the learner to choose, collect and do a basic
classification of information and is therefore rated as application.

Clear and accessible language

Most South African learners are assessed in a language that is not their mother tongue. When learners’
main language is not English, it is very important to phrase assessment tasks clearly and in language
that is easy to understand. Writing questions in complicated English is unfair and discriminates against
second-language speakers. Learners might well know the answer, but if they don’t understand the
question, they don’t have a chance to demonstrate their knowledge.

Here are some tips for writing simpler and more accessible English:

Keep sentences short and the vocabulary and terminology suitable to the level of the learners.
Use active rather than passive voice. For example, “add sugar to the cup of tea” is better than
“sugar is added to the cup of tea”.
Avoid words with many syllables. For example, “use the remedy” is better than “implement
the remedy”.
Be careful when using pronouns that it is clear what they refer to. For example, who are “they”
and “them” in the following sentence? “When teachers explain things, they often forget that
they should ask them diagnostic questions first.”
Encourage learners to answer in ways with which they feel most comfortable. For example,
let learners use words in languages other than English (code-switch) if that is how they can
best express an idea, or allow several different ways of answering, such as giving a definition
by using words or a labelled diagram.

Comprehensive instructions

It is of utmost importance to give clear instructions of what is required / expected in a task. Learners
would not be able to complete a task successfully if they do not understand the question or the
instructions.

Keep the following in mind when writing instructions:

Use clear language according to the level / grade of the learner.


Use action words to describe what activities should be part of performing the task.
Link instructions to the set outcomes and the assessment criteria in order to make sure that
what is expected is what is assessed.
Re-read tasks after setting them to make sure that no steps are left out.
Discuss the reasons for using exemplary lesson materials and what the teacher should keep in
mind when choosing lesson materials that can lead to effective implementation of the
curriculum (pages 75 – 76).

Over the past two decades, a large knowledge base has been developed covering the primary
functions and effective features of exemplary lesson materials, particularly on the basis of studies by
the School of Education of the University of Michigan (Ball & Cohen, 1996; Davis & Krajcik, 2005) and
the Department of Curriculum Design and Educational Innovation of the University of Twente in the
Netherlands (the starting point is marked by Van den Akker, 1988). According to these studies,
materials should first and foremost focus on elements that are essential for the effective
interpretation and implementation of the curriculum; but at the same time, such materials should be
considered vulnerable because of their possible complexity or lack of clarity.

Reasons for using exemplary lesson materials include

offering an indication of what can be expected during lessons


stimulating internal dialogue and reflection on questions such as: “How does the material
relate to my personal opinions and my own teaching practice? Can the material be used for
preparing and teaching lessons and if so, how? What reactions and learning outcomes from
learners can be expected?”
presenting specific guidelines for use in practice
preventing early watering down of the intended new approach to content and pedagogy and,
at the same time, stimulating local adaptation and ownership of the new approach
providing a basis for the exchange of experiences, feedback, discussion and reflection
stimulating teachers to (re)design their own materials and / or to make a more selective,
creative and conscious use of existing textbooks and materials.

The teacher should keep the following in mind when choosing lesson materials that can lead to
effective implementation of the curriculum:

The material has a modular and flexible design and structure.


The material raises questions about essential yet vulnerable aspects of lesson preparation,
subject matter content, the role of the teacher and the nature of assessments and tests.
The material displays a balance between providing concrete suggestions and procedural
specifications on the one hand (including some justification for choices made), while avoiding
exhaustive regulations on the other. This will stimulate active adaptation.

At the same time, concrete and specified guidelines are necessary – especially in the early stages of
implementation – in order to actively support teachers in gaining experience, which will combat
feelings of insecurity and avoid premature modifications in planning and instructional design. An
important lesson is that no matter how carefully they are designed and tested, using exemplary lesson
materials alone has its limitations.

Such materials have proven more effective if applied in combination with more comprehensive
professional development schemes for teachers. These development schemes contain activities that
will stimulate collaboration with and coaching by experts and colleagues, for example the exchange
of experiences, collegial feedback and reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action, focused on the
users’ experiences with the material. In such “blended scenarios” virtual teacher networks may also
play a role. Multimedia cases with visualisations of the envisaged teaching practice also have an added
value (Van den Berg, Blijleven & Jansen, 2003).
However, it is clear that the teaching of teachers, in-service development and the choice and
application of exemplary lesson material should not be seen as a short- cut in planning, instructional
design and ways of interpreting and implementing the curriculum. On the contrary, further in-service
teacher development requires time, should be embedded in whole-school development, and should
enjoy the support of the school management and the government. When developing lesson material,
teachers should acknowledge the iterative cycle of analysis, design, development, and evaluation in
working with the curriculum.

The following aspects of material design should be kept in mind:

The first step is to determine the functions and features of the materials to be developed. This
is done on the basis of a thorough analysis of literature, context and the needs of the target
group.
Testing the effectiveness of the lesson material might include observations of lesson
preparation and implementation, as well as interviews, in order to gain insight into teachers’
and learners’ experiences.
The teacher draws on the experience of subject / phase experts who have developed teaching
material of high quality in terms of relevance, consistency, practicality and effectiveness.
Doing this contributes to the professional development of teachers, and extends their
knowledge of material design.

Teachers should assess the expected practicality and effectiveness of teaching materials; however,
this can only be done when teachers and learners have used the new materials in the learning
situation.
Question 5: 30 Marks – Essay question

Discuss different ways and aspects of understanding the concept "curriculum" and how these
different understandings relate to each other. Refer to the concept "curriculum" as
development, interpretation, prescription and in practice; Curriculum context and the teacher
(pages 2 – 7).

The debate around the interpretation of “curriculum” is long-standing. As far back as 1975, Stenhouse
observed that the educationist “is confronted by two different views of the curriculum. On the one
hand the curriculum is seen as an intention, plan or prescription, an idea of what one would like to
happen in schools. On the other hand it is seen as the existing state of affairs in schools, what does in
fact happen” (Stenhouse, 1975).

When we ask what “curriculum” means, we get different answers according to the views, background
and experience of the respondent. At a general level, an explanation can be understood in relation to
what is included and / or excluded in the description. For example, Eisner (1985) defines a curriculum
as a series of planned events that are intended to have educational consequences for one or more
learners, whereas Fraser (1993) has a much wider interpretation of curriculum as the inter-related
totality of aims, learning content, evaluation procedures and teaching-learning activities,
opportunities and experiences that guide and implement didactic activities in a planned and justified
manner.

The older, narrower definition says that when studying a curriculum, we must look at the curriculum
plan, i.e. the document that sets out the intention of what, how and why something should be taught.
In this definition, a curriculum is a “course of study” or “study programme”, whereas the broader
definition is a more inclusive concept that comprises all the opportunities for learning and is viewed
in historical perspective in its socio-political context. Narrow definitions are likely to foster a
conception of curriculum change as a limited and largely technical exercise.

Grundy (1987), Goodson (1984; 1989) and other educationists argue that an awareness of the
different interpretations is important in developing our understanding of what a curriculum is.
Goodman (1998) in particular says that the struggle over the definition of “curriculum” is a matter of
social and political priorities, as well as intellectual discourse; otherwise the study of schooling will
leave unquestioned and unanalysed assumptions that should be at the heart of the intellectual
understanding and practical operation of schooling.

Another broad definition is that of the National Education Policy Initiative (RSA, 1993): “Curriculum
refers to the teaching and learning activities and experiences which are provided by schools.”

The definition includes

the aims and objectives of the education system and the specific goals of the school
the selection of content to be taught, how it is arranged into subjects and what skills and
processes are included
ways of teaching and learning, and relationships between teachers and learners
forms of assessment and evaluation used

This definition covers more than the stated aims and subject-specific documentation, which can be
referred to as the intended curriculum. The curriculum also involves the consideration of actual
classroom practices and experiences – the enacted curriculum, which results from the interpretation
and implementation of the curriculum. Having the same curriculum on paper does not mean that all
schools / learning institutions experience the same curriculum-in-use or enacted curriculum. This is
profoundly affected by resources (e.g. laboratories and libraries) and materials that support the
learning process (e.g. textbooks). It is also affected by experiences of disruption or continuity, and by
the quality and morale of teachers. This means that improving teachers’ knowledge and skills may
have an effect on the way they will interpret and implement the intended curriculum.

If the definition of “curriculum” includes activities, opportunities and experiences, we can ask whether
the following are part of a curriculum:

The preference for a subject because of a teacher’s knowledge of the field and choices of
teaching strategies
The principal locking the gates at 08:00 because she wants to force the children to be punctual
The fact that Mathematics lessons are never scheduled for the last period on a Friday, but Life
Orientation lessons often are
The impact of teachers teaching subjects that they never studied themselves
Classes that consist mainly of weak learners and repeaters

The above are all examples of the enacted, experienced or lived curriculum, which can explain why
the same prescribed curriculum can generate very different results in different schools. In other
words, the enacted curriculum is the actual process of teaching and learning, the operational aspect
of implementing the curriculum, which is based on how the teachers perceive and interpret the
curriculum. This enacted, lived curriculum, or curriculum in action, illustrates the importance of both
teacher and context and can be intentional or unintentional, or even hidden.

In short, the curriculum can be defined as an organised framework that delineates the content that
learners are to learn, the processes through which learners achieve the identified curricular goals, what
teachers do to help learners achieve the objectives / goals, and the context in which teaching and
learning occur.

The following aspects of the curriculum must therefore be considered:

1. Official, explicit intended curriculum.

This is the prescribed curriculum, also described as the blueprint for teaching. It is the plan or
intentions of, for instance, the Department of Basic Education. A single plan can be used for
different learners, although its contexts can differ greatly.

2. Enacted curriculum as practice.

This is the curriculum as it is experienced. It is also referred to as the nonofficial, implicit


curriculum as implemented by a teacher, and is what is actually taught and learnt.
Misunderstandings, resource constraints and so on can interfere with the teacher’s abilities
to implement a curriculum plan exactly as intended.
3. Covert curriculum.

This is teaching that is implicit (not spelt out), but nonetheless deliberate on the part of the
teacher or school. It is especially important in early schooling, when consideration for others,
order and obedience, teamwork and cooperation are focal points. “Play” in early schooling is
a deliberate curriculum strategy to develop important attitudes and skills such as fine motor
skills, spatial differentiation and various prenumeracy skills.

4. Hidden curriculum.

This is learning that is hidden from the teachers as well as from the learners. It is another form
of implicit learning, which the teachers did not intend and are probably not even aware of.
We consciously learn many things about the world, or learn to see the world in particular
ways, simply by spending a lot of time in the sort of environment that schools and classrooms
present to us.

5. Assessed curriculum.

This is the knowledge and skills that are measured to determine learner achievement or what
objectives or learning outcomes have been attained. Assessment is an important element of
a curriculum because it establishes how learners will be measured on performance.
Analyse how the approaches to curriculum planning presented by different authors, like Tyler,
Stenhouse and Freire were used in the design, interpretation and implementation of our
curriculum in South Africa (pages 14 – 23).

South Africa embarked on a radical transformation of education and training between 1989 and 1994,
and subsequently on reviews of the curriculum. One of the most challenging aspects of the initial
transformation has been the adoption of an OBE approach that underpins the introduction of C2005.
C2005 has tried to capture aspects of all three of the approaches discussed above, but just as there
was tension between the three different approaches of Tyler, Stenhouse and Freire, so there was
tension between different aspects of policy (see Chapter 3). Tyler used the narrow definition of
“curriculum”, while Stenhouse argued for a broader definition and Freire just assumed a broader
definition. But that was only their starting point. The main focus of their debate was on what should
go into a curriculum and how it should be approached (see Table 1.6). For this reason, these different
approaches become useful tools for sharpening our understanding and interpretation of C2005, both
its revisions and the amended NCS, referred to as the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement
(CAPS).

The following universal principles in approaches to curriculum, but also to teaching and learning, are
to be found in the views of Tyler, Stenhouse and Freire, as shown in Table 1.6 (see below):

Experiential learning
Clarity of focus
Expanding opportunities
Defining outcomes, aims or objectives
Importance of knowledge, skills and values
Evidence of achievement
Individual learning
What and whether we learn is more important than when we learned it

Tyler wanted structure in the teaching and learning situation and argued that there should be clarity
of focus in what you want to teach, how you want to teach and how you want to assess. Therefore,
the first step in effective teaching is to define objectives (outcomes), keeping in mind that these
objectives should be context-bound. The teacher should ask four basic questions:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to achieve? (By “purpose” Tyler was
referring to behavioural objectives (developed by gathering information from three sources:
the subject matter, the learners and the society)
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to achieve these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being achieved?

Tyler argued that individual learning would ensure that each learner achieved the set objectives
(outcomes). We can interpret this to mean that educational experiences should be derived from
objectives, based on the results of an analysis of the situation (learner, subject, society), and that
objectives should be filtered through a philosophical / psychological screen before being finalised. It
is important to develop citizens who are able to solve problems and can engage in democratic
processes.
The principles mentioned above have their roots in the competency-based education movement and
mastery learning. They are based upon the premise that we can help learners to create definite and
reliable evidence of achievement. This model focuses on the need to create favourable learning
conditions as regards time, teaching strategies and learning success.

A more detailed look at competency-based learning reveals that Stenhouse’s ideas of a teaching-
learning process prepare learners for success in fulfilling various life roles. It is important to test, adapt
and evaluate the process to see whether it is an enlightening one, and in that manner expand
opportunities for application.

Stenhouse stressed the importance of doing research while teaching and of following the route of
“design down, deliver up” – a developmental process where the teacher can change the teaching-
learning environment according to context and learners’ needs. The learner should change in the
teaching-learning process to internalise information and form opinions of his or her own.

Mastery learning promotes the idea that all learners can achieve the desired teaching outcomes if
given favourable learning conditions such as flexibility, sufficient time and alternative ways of learning.
Freire focused on these aspects; he wanted teachers and curriculum developers to make sure that
educational experiences could be used in real life. Experiential learning was of utmost importance:
learners should be able to reflect on the value of learning. What is also considered here is the
perception of what the ideal learner in a particular field should look like, be like, act like and think like.
Freire felt it was important to identify specific knowledge in order to attain a skill which could be
applied in practice as the connection between reflection and action.
Discuss the steps that you will follow to develop a curriculum for your specific subject by
referring to questions to guide interpretation of a curriculum and the stages of planning for
curriculum interpretation and implementation. Make sure that you will be able to provide an
example of a lesson plan (pages 66 – 73).

With regard to the background discussion in Chapter 1 and the importance of the aims and content of
learning, it should be acknowledged that changes to aims and content also presuppose changes to
many other aspects of the plan for learning and teaching (Van den Akker, 2003).

The aspects of curriculum design mentioned below should be kept in mind when working with the
curriculum, and interpreting and planning an instructional design. Thijs and Van den Akker (2009:12)
suggest questions that could guide the interpretation of a curriculum (Table 4.1).

The process of interpreting and implementing the curriculum is actually curriculum development “in
reverse”.

It is therefore important that teachers ask about the sociopolitical view of the learning to be
undertaken (rationale): for example, will the learner be an active co-creator and participant in the
classroom and beyond, or will he or she be trained to be biddable, respectful and unquestioning?

Other questions about what, how and where the learners should learn, and the role of the teacher
and learner, should also be asked. In addition, teachers should think about how the answers will
impact on the interpretation and implementation of the curriculum and the way lesson planning is
approached.
CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

The relationship between whole-school development planning and curriculum interpretation and
implementation

Whole-school development planning may be defined as a process in which all the stakeholders in the
school consider all the activities and interests of the school and then decide on the goals for their
school over a certain period of time. Planning how teaching and learning should take place should be
linked to the whole-school development plan.

This is because the curriculum is the core business of the school and its implementation must inform
the vision and mission of the school, how the budget is allocated and spent, and the skills and
competencies needed in the professional staff. Whole-school planning can be more simply defined as
the process of making sure the school is ready for the learner, rather than the learner having to be
ready for the school.

The learner should be viewed as an individual who comes into the school and the classroom with a
great deal of experience; the learners’ different contexts should be therefore be considered and the
school should be able to apply them in the learning situation to ensure that teaching and learning are
appropriate to the needs of the community, school and classroom. (See Chapter 2 for how a school
goes about taking into account the broader context from which the learner comes.)

For effective teaching and learning to take place, it is important that the school’s vision, mission and
approach are in line with the teachers’ commitment, abilities and willingness to change, and the
culture and infrastructure of the school. In practice, this is a complex endeavour (Nieveen & Paus,
2009).

Tasks that might enhance curriculum interpretation and implementation when following a whole-
school development approach are as follows:

Establish teaching teams per phase.


Assist teaching teams (per phase) to analyse current practice, as teachers do not always have
a clear view of the educational practice of colleagues and the design of education as a whole.
Find common ground: analysing and discussing the existing curriculum often leads to further
collaboration and suggestions for strengthening cohesion. Collaboration often starts with
practical concerns (e.g. how topics can be combined and how they fit with the timetable)
rather than programmatic concerns (e.g. how topics fit with the development line of the
learner and the overall programme).
Develop horizontal cohesion: strengthen cohesion between subjects by developing cross-
curricular themes and projects, or by developing broad learning areas comprising different
subjects.
Develop vertical cohesion: in order to develop a continuous learning trajectory throughout
the school years, teachers should be familiar not only with the years in which they are active,
but also with the years preceding and following these.
Focus on skills development that maintains, combines, refines, transfers or generalises
existing skills. It might also involve reactivating skills that have been acquired previously. All
skills and experiences that learners bring to the learning process must be considered valuable.
Focus on curricular content that extends learners’ access to new areas of experience,
knowledge and / or understanding, based on their current strengths and learning needs. What
is taught should also be flexible and relevant to the lived reality of the large majority of
learners.
Acknowledge learning contexts to support the learning process. Learners can be offered a
variety of activities, resources and environments that are appropriate to their age, interests,
strengths, prior knowledge and achievements. Learning can also happen through a variety of
activities outside the school, such as projects, work experiences and volunteering. These
contexts, as well as the resources used, should make specific provision for learners with
disabilities.
Widen teaching approaches by accommodating learners’ individual strengths and learning
styles at different stages by using appropriate learning and teaching support materials.
Include shared learning, which is about providing opportunities for learners’ participation in
the learning process (e.g. in planning or in assessment). Furthermore, assessment should take
into account the content and level to which learners have been exposed, and should use
alternative methods to accommodate learners’ needs (based on the different barriers to
learning and development).
Recognise that the language of learning and teaching (LoLT) must be accessible to learners.
Encourage and value the participation and involvement of caregivers and families.

Stages of planning for curriculum interpretation and implementation

With whole-school development in mind and working towards the holistic development of the learner,
there are four key stages (Figure 4.1) of planning:

1. Strategic school planning

2. Phase planning

3. Planning per grade

4. Lesson planning
Strategic planning in a school

Before planning for the school year, the school management team and the professional staff should
identify the curricular strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) in the school. From
this SWOT analysis, it should be possible to see at a glance what the teacher should focus on with
learners in a particular phase. We have given a very simple example in Table 4.2.

After discussing the SWOT analysis, the academic staff will select what they consider important
content for learners in the next academic year. Teachers in a phase will negotiate with teachers in
other phases and, on the basis of this negotiation, will select what they want to focus on. To determine
their choices, they will consider both the context from which the learner comes and the context in
which the school is situated.

This process of selection and negotiation in the community / local / school context (environment)
should also be informed by other stakeholders. Learners may have ideas about what is relevant to
their learning, particularly in the secondary school, and so many parents and the broader community.

For example, the academic staff decide that, in the Life Orientation programme, they will develop a
theme for Grade 7 learners on “Being 13” that explores issues of sexuality, including HIV and AIDS.
They consult parents on the issue and also enlist the support of church leaders in the community.

An added dimension of the theme is a charity drive to support the local Cotlands Baby Centre, which
cares for babies and young children with HIV and AIDS. To deal with the literacy issue, staff decide to
integrate a literacy component into the planning, but because the majority of learners come from an
environment that does not have access to printed materials they will have to find innovative ways of
providing resources.

The Intermediate Phase parents have volunteered to raise funds to buy additional books for the school
library. In addition, the teachers have decided to hold a competition in the school to get learners to
read more. “Safety in the home and at school” is another example of a theme, this time in Life
Orientation, which can be chosen because of the incidence of crime in the area. The school might
decide to work with the local Community Policing Forum and Adopt-a-Cop from the local police
station. While the broader context will help teachers to make selections based upon identified needs
and relevance to the learner, they cannot ignore the conceptual progression in each of the subjects.
Phase planning

The implementation of the curriculum must be a phase-long process of planning, managing and
organising classroom practice.

This means that what is planned must guide and inform what is done in the classroom – all teaching,
learning and assessment.

What must teachers keep in mind in each phase?

In the Foundation Phase (Grade R–3), the following subjects are offered: Home Language, First
Additional Language, Mathematics and Life Skills. The latter includes Beginning Knowledge, Creative
Arts, Physical Education and Personal and Social Well-being.

In the Intermediate Phase (Grade 4–6), the subjects are Home Language, First Additional Language,
Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Technology, Social Sciences and Life Skills. In the Senior Phase
(Grade 7–9) there are nine subjects, namely Home Language, First Additional Language, Mathematics,
Natural Sciences, Social Sciences, Technology, Economic Management Sciences, Life Orientation and
Creative Arts. Schools may offer more subjects if they want to.

In the Further Education and Training (FET) Phase (Grade 10–12) there are four compulsory
(fundamental) subjects (Home Language, First Additional Language, Mathematics / Mathematical
Literacy and Life Orientation) and three electives. Schools may offer more subjects and learners may
choose more subjects (Department of Education, 2002b; 2011).

The following aspects are important when planning for a specific phase:

Contexts / themes within which the teaching, learning and assessment will occur
Principles of the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) that must be incorporated
in all teaching, learning and assessment
Aims and assessment criteria across the phase
The sequencing (conceptual progression) of the aims and assessment criteria
The core knowledge and concepts that will be used to attain the learning outcomes / aims and
assessment criteria for the phase. These should reflect the context of the community, school
and classroom to ensure that the teaching and learning are appropriate for the learners’ needs
How progression (increasing conceptual complexity) will occur within subjects and from grade
to grade, bearing in mind integration across different subjects and real-life application
The time allocation and weighting given to learning in the subject per phase (time frames for
all teaching, learning and assessment)

Phase planning implies that all teachers in a phase should work together to create a clear plan of how
they will guide learners through that phase for a particular subject.

Individual planning is not advisable, because all teachers must ensure that learners achieve the
national learning outcomes by the time they leave the phase (exit points are at the end of Grades 3,
6, 9 and 12).

Teachers must be involved in different levels of planning, each level serving a different purpose and
involving a different level of detail. Every teacher remains an individual and the methods used in the
classrooms may differ, though all might be equally effective in ensuring that the learners achieve the
aims.

Planning takes place across a phase (three grades). The organising tool for a phase comes from both
the CAPS documents and the characteristics of the learner in this age group.
The teacher should refer to the Teacher’s Guide and CAPS documents for the subject and familiarise
him- or herself with the characteristics that make the learners in a particular phase distinct from those
in another.

This is important, since learners are clearly at different developmental levels in different phases. As
teachers gain experience, they will find it easier to work with developmental levels and the
characteristics of each. However, for new teachers, it is advisable to read up on the developmental
level(s) the typical learner will have reached.

Across-grade / year planning

The year’s work for each grade in a phase must also be planned. The work schedule for each subject
is based on the CAPS and develops in terms of the sequencing, context, and core knowledge and
concepts at each level.

Though in many instances work schedules are already included in the CAPS documents, teachers
responsible for implementing the curriculum in a particular grade will have to work with the realities
of school and learner context when planning for each term and year.

Lesson plans

Individual teachers have to plan lessons for each grade based on the topics in the curriculum and
ensure that they plan for the particular learners in their class(es); there must be learning outcomes /
aims for each lesson. Examples are given in Figure 4.4.
The way we interpret the world around us is determined partly by our beliefs, values and
norms, but mostly by contextual influences. The educator’s interpretation and implementation
of a curriculum is also influenced by the context. Choices regarding planning and designing a
learning programme, the inclusion of particular instructional strategies and the practical
application is embedded in knowledge and the understanding of the educational situation.
Influences ranging from the political, social and economic culture to the norms and knowledge
structures of educators affect teaching and learning (pages 26 – 31).

CONTEXTUAL EVALUATION OF THE WHOLE CURRICULUM FOR INTERPRETATION AND


INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

The impact of context on curriculum

Lev Vygotsky, an educationist who argued for a constructionist perspective in education, lived during
the Russian Revolution, a time of great change in his culture and society. He believed that the lifelong
process of development is dependent on social interaction, and that social learning actually leads to
cognitive development (Vygotsky, 1978).

Traditionally, schools have not promoted environments in which learners play an active role in their
own education as well as that of their peers. Vygotsky’s theory, however, requires teachers and
learners to play non-traditional roles as they collaborate with each other, because both are influenced
by the contexts in which they live, teach and learn. Instead of teachers dictating meaning to learners
for future recitation, they should collaborate with learners in order to create meaning in ways that
learners can make their own (Hausfather, 1996).

Learning becomes a reciprocal experience for both learners and teachers. This means that a teacher
cannot ignore context in the process of developing learning programmes (see Figure 2.1). According
to Vygotsky’s theory, the physical classroom should provide clustered desks or tables and work space
for peer instruction, collaboration and small-group instruction. Like the environment, the instructional
design of material to be learned should be structured to promote and encourage student interaction
and collaboration. Thus the classroom becomes a community of learning.

Because Vygotsky asserts that cognitive change occurs within the zone of proximal development,
instruction should be designed to reach a developmental level that is just above the student’s current
developmental level. Vygotsky (1978) postulates that “learning which is oriented toward
developmental levels that have already been reached is ineffective from the view point of the child’s
overall development. It does not aim for a new stage of the developmental process but rather lags
behind this process”.

Appropriation is necessary for cognitive development within the zone of proximal development.
Individuals participating in peer collaboration or guided teacher instruction must share the same focus
in order to access the zone of proximal development. “Joint attention and shared problem solving is
needed to create a process of cognitive, social, and emotional interchange” (Hausfather, 1996).

Furthermore, it is essential that the “partners” in this educational environment be on different


developmental levels and that the higher-level partner be aware of the lower one’s level. If this does
not occur, or if one partner dominates, the interaction is less successful (Driscoll, 1994; Hausfather,
1996). This requires the teacher to have a good understanding of contextual influences on planning,
instructional design and assessment in the teaching-learning environment.
The influence of changes in the South African context on curriculum

The context in which we live has undergone significant economic, political and social changes in recent
years (see Figure 2.2). These changes are not necessarily of South Africa’s making, but are economic
imperatives driven by global factors. They are nevertheless having an effect on the new educational
policies in our country. The type of learner we produced in the past no longer meets the requirements
of our rapidly changing world, so we have to explore a variety of forms of assessment to “fit the
purpose” today.

In the South African situation, we can accept that the following social structures have had a powerful
impact on the South African curriculum:

The changing economic relations in the transition from an agrarian to an industrial economy
The shifting power relations both within and between power groups related to the economic
changes
The shifts in ruling-group ideology necessitated by and contributing to the changes

Why was it necessary to change the approach to teaching and learning and the curriculum framework?

In all countries, national curriculum frameworks shape and give direction to teaching and learning.
They set out a country’s education goals.
The key economic forces that drive the South African education system

One of the forces that drives our new education system is globalisation. Since South Africa’s
democratic elections in 1994, we have re-entered the world economy, which means that the economy
of the country has to grow at a rate that is comparable to the growth rates of countries in the rest of
the world. But has this happened?

There are also global expectancies in terms of skills and ways of thinking, capacity to drive the
economy and performance of education systems and performance in international tests such as the
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and the Progress in International
Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS).

South Africa is currently rated 93rd out of 178 countries on the United Nations Human Development
Index. This suggests that our country is not producing people capable of competing with their
counterparts in other parts of the world in terms of producing high-quality goods cost-effectively.

Does this have something to do with how we plan, teach and assess? Does the education system focus
on providing the learner with the right skills and attitudes to enter the job market? The economist,
Nobel Prize winner and professor of economics at the University of Chicago, James J. Heckman, argues
strongly that the economic strength of any nation depends on the skills of its people. According to
Heckman (2000; 2007), the emphasis in education should be on human capital development and the
enhancement of life skills, with a special emphasis on the economics of early childhood.

The context in which the development of human capital takes place should be considered, and should
be coupled with the enhancement of non-cognitive skills such as self-discipline and persistence that
affect educational attainment. Others such as Ndhlovu, Bertram, Mthiyane & Avery (1999:54) confirm
that we need to develop “economic capital; money and physical resources as well as ‘human’ capital;
people with knowledge, skills and attitudes”.

They further stress that we need to develop and assess entrepreneurial abilities to enable people to
start their own businesses, and in this way provide employment for themselves and others (Ndhlovu
et al., 1999:54).
In an effort to develop human capital in South Africa, trade unions such as the National Union of
Metalworkers of South Africa (Numsa) and the Congress of South African Trade Unions (Cosatu),
educational initiatives of the time such as the National Education Policy Initiative, organised business
initiatives such as the Private Sector Education Council, the National Training Board, the ANC and
others began to debate and explore the unification of education and training in South Africa. There
was growing consensus about the need to transform education and training and to address the
difficult issues facing development.

All the parties agreed that the following needs had to be addressed:

Change perceptions that mental work has more value than manual work
Change perceptions that academic education has a higher value than technical-vocational
education
Close the gap between what schools deliver and what success in the workplace requires
Achieve equity in providing quality education, learning resources and access to education
Improve national productivity in order to be internationally competitive

Cosatu has been exploring international trends in training since the 1980s. Its discussions helped the
ANC to formulate a proposal for a National Qualifications Framework (NQF). This was to be a single
national framework that would bring together all education and training under one authority. In June
1995, a draft NQF bill was published and in October 1995 an Act was passed to establish the South
African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) to govern, manage and recognise all educational and training
qualifications in South Africa. In 1996, the SAQA Board was appointed and the NQF, one of the first
formal structures of its kind in the world, became a reality.

Influences from South Africa’s social context

The South African education system encourages learners to develop tolerance and understanding for
people who are different from themselves.

The social aim is to break free from any prejudice and stereotyping, and to reflect a global move
towards a world in which the spiritual aspects of our existence are valued rather than simply our
rational thinking abilities.

This might explain why many South African policies emphasise holism and educating the whole
person.

Influences from South Africa’s political context

As history shows, those in power tend to give education a “flavour and form” that reflects their
interests. Over the past 19 years, political changes in South Africa have been focused on removing the
legacies of the past apartheid regime, in particular segregation and inequality. Democracy has also
found its way into school structures, and governance is now in the hands of the school community:
the parents, teachers and learners.

This signals a move away from the highly centralised, tightly controlled bureaucratic system of the
past to a more open, flexible, democratic and participatory system. Schools are central to building a
new culture of tolerance in South Africa.

One way in which this can be achieved is by building more democratic and participatory structures.
Another way might be through teaching learners the skills and attitudes that will enable them to
participate critically, promote tolerance of differences, eliminate prejudices and promote respect.

We have seen that our past teaching practices were aimed at learning intended to achieve a particular
result and be promoted, while outcomes-based education based attainment on whether outcomes
are achieved. In future, traditional modes might be combined with objective-driven or content-based
education.

All of these will be determined by the acceptance of particular approaches in the educational
environment and the roles that teachers and learners should play in the teaching-learning
environment.

The influence of the educational system, infrastructure and policies on interpretation and
implementation of the curriculum Since 1994.

South Africa has undergone a great deal of educational change. Before 1994, the education system
was fractured (there were 19 different educational departments) and unequal, and was separated
according to racial, geographic and ideological lines.

The emphasis was on what the teacher would do rather than on what the learner would be able to do
at the end of the learning experience. Working in an outcomes-based teaching / learning environment
changed the role of the teacher: he or she became a facilitator and the learner had to take more
responsibility for active learning.

Future changes might again emphasise the role and place of the teacher as that of transmitter of facts
and concepts. The roles of teacher and learner are closely linked to the broader framework and aims
in a curriculum. Following the 1994 elections, one of the first tasks of the National Education and

Training Forum was to begin a process in which the national curricula were revised and certain
subjects were rationalised (i.e. phased out). The purpose of this was to lay the foundations for a single
national core curriculum following an outcomes-based approach, with the intended result that the
learner would be able to achieve critical and developmental outcomes.

The White Paper on Education and Training, the South African Qualifications Act (Act 58 of 1995) and
the National Education Policy Act (Act 27 of 1996) provided a framework for the educational changes.

The NQF was created to bring together education and training and so close the gap between the two.
The principles that support the NQF ensure that the NQF will promote everything we do in South Africa
to develop our people.

The philosophy of the NQF accepts that good learning contributes to national development and
recognises that learners have different needs.

The NQF holds that all learning must be recognised and valued, that achievement standards should
be transparent and uniform, and that learning should be a lifelong activity (Kramer, 1999:128–131).

All this has an impact on how the teacher interprets and implements the curriculum. Working at a
secondary teaching level requires the teacher to take note of the Higher Education Qualifications Sub
framework as an integral part of the NQF, and to ensure the formal recognition and certification of
learning achievement awards by an accredited institution.

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