SPTOPICS

SPTOPICS
MODULE 1

MODULE 1 PREPARED BY: ENGR. ADRIAN NEIL P. PINEDA 1

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MODULE INTRODUCTION

Algebra, trigonometry, plane geometry, and solid geometry are subjects that are considered
basic for Engineering students. However, a review of selected topics in the subjects Algebra,
Trigonometry, Plane Geometry, and Solid Geometry is still essential when starting to review
for the board exam. For this course, we will not necessarily go back to the fundamental
principles of each subject such as the definition of a polynomial or the definition of the basic
trigonometric functions. We will focus on the review of the essential theorems and on solving
worded problems for each subject.

This module shall be subdivided into four parts which will correspond to each mentioned
subject. There are problems in red color for each module. These are challenging problems
which will truly test your knowledge of each subject.

TIP #1: SOMETIMES, IN WORDED PROBLEMS, THE HARD PART IS NOT

THE MATH PART, BUT THE ENGLISH PART.

TIP #2: IT IS BETTER IF YOU ALSO TRY SOLVING PROBLEMS

WHICH ARE NOT INCLUDED IN THIS MODULE.

TIP #3: BEFORE SOLVING, UNDERSTAND FIRST THE PROBLEM.

IF YOU DO NOT UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM, THEN IT IS MOST LIKELY
THAT YOU WILL NOT BE ABLE TO ANSWER IT CORRECTLY.

MODULE 1 PREPARED BY: ENGR. ADRIAN NEIL P. PINEDA 2

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MODULE OUTLINE

This module will cover these selected subjects and subtopics:

I. ALGEBRA i. Trigonometric Identities

a. Worded Problems ii. Graphical Elements of
i. Number / Digit Problems Trigonometric Functions
ii. Proportion / Variation iii. Spherical Trigonometry
iii. Age Problems
iv. Clock Problems III. PLANE GEOMETRY
v. Mixture Problems a. Areas and other Information
vi. Work Problems about Common Figures
vii. Motion Problems i. Parts of a Circle
b. Sequences and Series ii. Ellipse, Parabola, and
i. Arithmetic Series Spandrel
ii. Geometric Series iii. Triangle Formulas
iii. Harmonic Series and iv. Quadrilateral Formulas
Other Information v. Regular Polygon
c. Special Topics in Algebra Formulas
i. Binomial Expansion b. Circumscribed, Inscribed, and
ii. Diophantine Equation Escribed Figures
c. Circle Theorems
II. TRIGONOMETRY d. Special Problems and Figures
a. Solving Triangles
i. The Triangle Inequality IV. SOLID GEOMETRY
Theorem a. Formulas for Surface Area and
ii. Worded Problems Volume of Common Figures
b. Special Topics in Trigonometry

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MODULE 1
PART I

ALGEBRA

MODULE 1 PREPARED BY: ENGR. ADRIAN NEIL P. PINEDA 4

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SUBJECT OVERVIEW
As shown in the module outline, the focus of this part of the module is to refresh the minds of
the students in solving various worded problems. The only relatively new concept to be
presented in this topic is the Diophantine equation.

a. Worded Problems

i. Number / Digit Problems

In solving number / digit problems, we should remember how a digit should be expressed in
terms of its place values. Also, certain number patterns can also be included in this problem
(e.g. 2n is divided by x. What will be the remainder?).

e.g.)
1. The number 329 can be expressed algebraically as 100H + 10T + U, where H = 3 (the
HUNDREDS digit), T = 2 (the TENS digit), and U = 9 (the UNITS/ONES digit).

2. When 1 is added to both the numerator and denominator of a certain fraction, its value is
decreased by 2/5. We can express this as:
𝑥+1 𝑥 2
= −
𝑦+1 𝑦 5

TIP #4: IF YOU STILL HAVE TIME, YOU MAY WANT TO GO BACK TO THE PROBLEM TO COMPARE
IF YOUR ANSWER SATISFIES THE CONDITIONS GIVEN IN THE PROBLEM.

TIP #5: FOR PROBLEMS INVOLVING FRACTIONS: DO NOT REDUCE THE

ORIGINAL FRACTION TO LOWEST TERMS

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. The sum of the digits of a two-digit number is two more than the square of the tens digit. If
the digits are transposed, the number is increased by 45. Find the original number. (ANS.: 38)

2. The ones digit of a three-digit number is one less than twice the sum of the hundreds and
the tens digit. When the ones digit and the tens digit are interchanged, the number is
increased by 45. When the tens digit and the hundreds digit are interchanged, the number is
increased by 270. Determine the sum of the squares of the digits. (ANS. 98)

3. When 3 is added to both the numerator and the denominator of a certain fraction, its value
is decreased by 9/40. However, when 3 is subtracted from both, its value is increased by 9/10.
What is the original fraction? (ANS. 8/5)

ii. Proportion / Variation

Proportion / Variation problems can be solved by a simple review of the types of variation –
the direct, inverse, and the joint variation.

1. Direct Variation – If x is directly proportional to y, then it means that as x increases, y

increases by the same factor, and vice versa. This factor (represented below as k) is the
constant of variation.
𝑦∝𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥

2. Inverse Variation – If x is inversely proportional to y, then it means that as x increases, y

decreases by the same factor, and vice versa. This factor (represented below as k) is also called
the constant of variation.
1 𝑘
𝑦∝ 𝑜𝑟 𝑦=
𝑥 𝑥

3. Joint Variation – When we say z is jointly proportional to x and y, it means that z is directly
proportional to both x and y.
𝑧 ∝ 𝑥𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = 𝑘𝑥𝑦

4. Combined Proportion – It is a combination of the first three types of variation.

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. Kepler's third law of planetary motion states that the square of the time required for a
planet to make one revolution about the sun varies directly as the cube of the average
distance of the planet from the sun. Find the approximate length of a Martian year (in terms of
Earth days) if Mars is 1.5 times as far from the Sun as is the Earth. Use 1 Earth year = 365 Earth
days. (ANS.: 670.55 Earth days)

2. At constant temperature, the resistance of a wire varies directly as its length and inversely
as the square of its diameter. If a piece of wire 0.10 inch in diameter and 50 feet long has a
resistance of 0.10 ohm, what is the resistance of another piece of wire of the same material,
2,000 feet long, 0.20 inch in diameter? (ANS. 1 ohm)

iii. Age Problems

Usually, age problems are solved in two ways. They can be solved either by tabular form or just
by simply inputting the equations on the calculator. This module recommends solving age
problems by the first method because it provides us a detailed analysis of each part of the
problem. The second method is risky because it is prone to human error especially for those
who are just beginning to review algebra again. Thus, it is not recommended.

e.g.)
Procopio is twice as old as Baldomero. Ten years ago, Procopio was four times as old as
Baldomero. What was Baldomero’s age three years from now?

VERSION 1: TWO VARIABLES

TEN YEARS AGO PRESENT THREE YEARS FROM NOW
Procopio x – 10 x x+3
Baldomero y – 10 y y+3

In Version 1, we will notice that none of the initial conditions were used yet. The resulting
equations from this table will form a linear equation in two variables.

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VERSION 2: ONE VARIABLE

TEN YEARS AGO PRESENT THREE YEARS FROM NOW
Procopio 2x – 10 2x 2x + 3
Baldomero x – 10 x x+3

In Version 2, we will notice that one of the initial conditions (the first sentence) was already
applied. This in turn will result into a linear equation in one variable.

Note that the answer using both tables should be the same. The style of the table we will use
depends on our own understanding of the problem.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. Two years ago, the ratio of the ages of a boy and a girl was 3 is to 4. In eight years, their
ages will be in the ratio 4 is to 5. Find the sum of their ages now. (ANS.: 74 years)

2. The sum of the present ages of Juan, Antonio, and Nancy is 210 years. Thirty-five years ago,
the age of Juan is twice the sum of the ages of Antonio and Nancy. In twenty-five years, the
sum of Juan’s age and twice the age of Antonio is 10 less than thrice the age of Nancy. Find the
difference between the present ages of Antonio and Nancy. (ANS. 25 years)

3. The sum of the parents’ ages is twice the sum of their children’s ages. Four years ago, the sum
of the parents’ ages is thrice the sum of their children’s ages. Sixteen years from now, the sum
of the parents’ ages will be equal to the sum of their children’s ages. How many children does
the couple have? (ANS. 6)

iv. Clock Problems

There are two methods of solving clock problems which are presented below. The advantages
and disadvantages of each method is presented in this chapter.

1. Long Method – The long method makes use of the relationship between the motion of the
minute hand, the motion of the minute hand. There are problems involving the second hand
but these types of problems appear extremely rarely.

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In a standard analog clock, there are 60 lines

equivalent to 12 hours. Each line corresponds to 6°.
The distance from one number to another is 5 lines
equivalent to 30° and corresponding to an hour.

When one minute passes, the second hand has

already moved 60 lines and the minute hand has
already moved 1 line. Using the variable S as the
movement of the second hand and M as the
movement of the minute hand, we have:
60 𝑆 = 1 𝑀
1
𝑀= 𝑆
60

When one hour passes, the minute hand has already

moved 60 lines and the hour hand has already moved
5 lines. Using the variable H as the movement of the
hour hand, we have:
60 𝑀 = 5 𝐻
1
𝑀= 𝐻
12

The advantage of the long method is that it can solve all clock problems. Thus, it is still the
recommended method for solving clock problems. However, analyzing and formulating the
equation under the long method may be hard and may take time.

2. Formulas and Techniques – For common clock problems, we have formulas and techniques
that can be used to solve for the required values in less time. They are listed below:
Where:

11𝑀 − 60𝐻 ϴ = Angle between minute and hour hand (in degrees)
𝜃=
2 M = Number of minutes elapsed
60𝐻
𝑀= H = The smaller of the two numbers where the minute
11 hand lies in between

The formula on top can solve problems for all angles but it cannot solve complicated problems.
Meanwhile, the formula at the bottom can only be used for ϴ values of 0, 90, 180, 270, and 360
degrees (called quadrantal angles).

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. At what time between 2:00 and 3:00 will the hands of the clock extend in exactly opposite
directions? (ANS.: 2:43.64)

2. At what time after 3 o’clock will the hour and the minute hands be 80° with each other for
the second time? (ANS. 3:30.91)

3. What time between 8:00 and 9:00 will the angle between the hands of the clock be bisected
by the line connecting the center of the clock and the 9 o’clock mark? (ANS. 8:46.15)

4. It is now between 9 and 10 o’clock. In 4 minutes, the hour hand will exactly be opposite the
position occupied by the minute hand 3 minutes ago. What is the time now? (ANS. 9:20)

v. Mixture Problems
A mixture problem becomes easier to understand if we draw a figure which will illustrate the
content of the mixture. Also, the basic formula for density may come in handy.

e.g.)

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. A chemist is experimenting on two alcohol solutions of 35% and 50% alcohol, respectively.
How many cubic meters of each solution must he use to produce a mixture of 60 m3 that
contains 40% alcohol? (ANS.: 40 m3 of the 35% solution and 20 m3 of the 50% solution)

2. A container is filled with 70 liters which is 40% alcohol by volume. How much of a mixture
must be taken and then replaced with equal amount of water so that the resulting solution is
30% alcohol by volume? (ANS. 17.5 L)

vi. Work Problems

In solving work problems, we must remember the principle below:
1
𝑟𝑡 = 1; 𝑟 =
𝑡
Where: r = rate of doing work
t = time to finish the work

There are also work problems that can be solved by simply maintaining consistent units. An
example of this is a problem involving the unit man-hours.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. A farmer can plow the field in 8 days. After working for 3 days, his son joins him and
together they plow the field in 3 more days. How many days will it require for the son to plow
the field alone? (ANS.: 12 days)

2. Two pipes running simultaneously can fill a tank in 2 hours and 40 minutes. After the larger
pipe had run for 3 hours, the smaller pipe was also turned on and the tank was full 40 minutes
later. How long (in hours) would it take the smaller pipe to fill the tank alone? (ANS. 8 hrs)

3. Working together, Workers A and B can paint all the walls of a bungalow in 42 days.
Workers B and C can do it together in 31 days, and Workers A and C can do it together in 20
days. In how many days can the three workers paint the bungalow if they work altogether?
(ANS. 18.86 days)

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vi. Motion Problems

In solving motion problems, we must remember the basic principle of speed:

𝑑 = 𝑣𝑡
Where: d = distance traveled, v = speed, and t = time elapsed

Note that motion problems in algebra only cover problems involving constant speed
(acceleration = 0). There are a couple of motion problems which are tricky and are hard to
analyze. Drawing a detailed diagram may ease the pressure in these types of problems.

e.g.)

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. A jogger starts a course at a rate of 8 kph. Five minutes later, a second jogger starts the
same course at 10 kph. How long will it take the 2nd jogger to catch the 1st? (ANS.: 20 mins)

2. Two airplanes left airports which are 960 km apart and flew towards each other. One plane
flew 32 kph faster than the other. If they passed each other at the end of an hour and 12
minutes, what was the rate of the faster plane? (ANS. 416 kph)

3. A boat man rows to a place 4.8 miles with the stream and back in 14 hours, but he finds that
he can row 14 miles with the stream in the same time as 3 miles against the stream. Find the
rate of the stream. (ANS. 0.76 mph)

4. Cid and Jojo travels from point A to point B and back. Cid starts 3 hours after Jojo started.
Cid overtakes Jojo at a point 4.2 km before point B. If Cid reaches A 5 hours and 20 minutes
ahead of Jojo, find the distance from A to B. (ANS. 15 km)

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b. Sequences and Series

A sequence (or progression) is a set of numbers such that the difference or the ratio between
two consecutive numbers is constant. A series is defined as the sum of a specific number of
terms in a progression. This time, we will have a review of the different types of progression,
namely, arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic progression.

TIP #6: There are some topics where you can simply MASTER THE CONCEPT to reduce the
number of formulas to be memorized.

i. Arithmetic Progression
An arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers such that the difference of any two
successive members is a constant. This constant is called the common difference. An
arithmetic series is defined as the sum of a specific number of terms in an arithmetic
progression. The formulas are as follows:
𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑑(𝑛 − 1) 𝑆𝑛 = 2 (𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛 )
Where: an = nth term of the progression d = common difference
a1 = 1st term of the progression Sn = sum of the first n terms of the series

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. A stack of concrete hollow blocks has 61 blocks on the first layer, 58 blocks on the second
layer, 55 blocks on the third layer, and so on until there are 10 blocks on the last layer. How
many blocks are there all together? (ANS.: 639 pcs.)

2. If the 3rd term of an arithmetic sequence is 12 and the 8th term is 27, what is the 5th term?
(ANS. 18)

3. The terms 3(x2-1), x2-4x+5, and 11-9x form an arithmetic progression. What should be the
value of x so that the sum of the first eight terms of this sequence is negative? (ANS. 2)

4. A man owns pigs in his barn. He had purchased feeds that will last for 75 days for his
livestock. The pigs were then infested with a disease. If the man has 4,950 pigs initially and 25
pigs die each day, for how long will the feeds last? (ANS. 100 days)

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ii. Geometric Progression

A geometric progression is a sequence of numbers such that the ratio of any two successive
members is a constant. This constant is called the common ratio. A geometric series is defined
as the sum of a specific number of terms in a geometric progression. The formulas are as
follows:

𝑛−1 𝑎1 (1−𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟
Where: an = nth term of the progression r = common ratio
a1 = 1st term of the progression Sn = sum of the first n terms of the series

There are some geometric progressions which do not end, or which have an extremely large
number of terms. These progressions are called infinite geometric progressions. The sum of the
terms of an infinite geometric series is given below.
𝑎1 NOTE: This formula is only applicable
𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟 when -1 < r < 1

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. If the 3rd term of a geometric sequence is 12 and the 9th term is 768, what is the fifth term?
(ANS.: 48)

2. A rubber ball is made to fall from a height of 50 feet and is observed to rebound 2/3 of the
distance it falls. How far will the ball travel before coming to rest if the ball continues to fall in
this manner? (ANS. 250 feet)

3. The terms x, 2x-7x and 10x-7 form a geometric progression. What should be the value of x
so that the sum of the first nine terms of this sequence is negative? (ANS. -7/6)

iii. Harmonic Progression and Other Information

A series of quantities is said to be in harmonic progression when their reciprocals are in
arithmetic progression.

e.g.) The progression 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5,… is considered a harmonic progression because
their reciprocals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,… form an arithmetic progression.

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The last things that we must know about sequences and series are the arithmetic mean, the
geometric mean, and the harmonic mean.

1. Arithmetic Mean – It is the central term between two numbers of an arithmetic progression.
It is computed simply by getting the average of the two numbers.
𝑎+𝑏
𝐴𝑀 =
2

2. Geometric Mean – It is the central term between two numbers of a geometric progression. It
is computed simply getting the square root of the product of the two numbers.

𝐺𝑀 = √𝑎𝑏

3. Harmonic Mean – It is the central term between two numbers of harmonic progression. It is
computed by dividing the number of observations by the sum of the reciprocals of each number.
2
2𝑎𝑏
𝐻𝑀 = =
1 1 𝑎+𝑏
𝑎+𝑏

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. Find the 20th term of the harmonic progression 1/2, 1/5, 1/8,… (ANS.: 1/59)

2. The arithmetic mean and geometric mean of two numbers are 4 and 18, respectively. Find
their harmonic mean. (ANS.: 81)

3. Three numbers are in harmonic progression. If the third number were decreased by 4, then
they would be in arithmetic progression. If the third number were decreased by 3, then they
would be in geometric progression. Find the third term of the harmonic progression. (ANS. 12)

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c. Special Topics in Algebra

The binomial theorem and the Diophantine equation, though considered special topics, are
still essential topics to be reviewed in Algebra. The binomial theorem has appeared in some
past board examinations, while the Diophantine equation offers us a different approach in
solving problems in Algebra.

i. Binomial Expansion

Let us first review the properties of a binomial expansion. Let us take (a+b)n as an example.

1. The number of terms in the resulting expansion is always equal to n+1.

2. The power of x decreases by 1 in successive terms; the power of y increases in successive
terms.
3. The sum of the powers of each term is equal to n.
4. The coefficients increase and then decrease in a symmetrical pattern. The numbers also
follow the pattern of the Pascal’s Triangle and can also be obtained by the function nCr-1.

Here are some formulas and techniques used in solving binomial expansion problems.

 rth term of the expansion (a+b)n:

𝑟 𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑛𝐶𝑟−1 (𝑎)𝑛−𝑟+1 (𝑏)𝑟−1

 To get the sum of the coefficients of the expansion (a+b)n:

1. Substitute 1 to all variables then evaluate the resulting equation.
2. Subtract all possible constants from the resulting value. Remember that a coefficient is
different from a constant. A coefficient is a multiplier of a variable, while a constant is a term
without a variable.

 To get the sum of the exponents (SOE) of the expansion (ah+bk)n, use this formula:
𝑛
𝑆𝑂𝐸 = (𝑛 + 1)(ℎ + 𝑘)
2

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. What is the 5th term in the expression (x+4y)12? (ANS.: 126720x8y4)

2. Find the term involving x9 in the expression (x2+2/x)12. (ANS.: 25344x9)

3. Find the sum of the exponents in the expansion of (2x3-y5)7. (ANS.: 224)

4. What is the sum of the coefficients of the expansion (2x-1)20? (ANS.: 0)

5. Find the term involving x3y5 in the expression (x-y+z)11. (ANS.: -9240x3y5z3)

ii. Diophantine Equation

A Diophantine equation refers to a system of equations where the number of equations is one
less the number of unknowns. Usually, these equations yield whole numbers for its answers.

The Diophantine equation can be solved by TRIAL AND ERROR. We should assume a whole
number value of one variable and then try to solve for the other variables. In performing this
trial and error, we must remember that first, all answers in a Diophantine equation are whole
numbers, and second, the answers must be realistic.

TIP #7: Do not be afraid to solve board exam problems either by BACKSOLVING or
TRIAL AND ERROR. Remember that the board exam questions have choices,
and we must exploit the weaknesses of those choices. However, make
sure that your techniques are GUIDED BY A CONCEPT.

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS (NOTE: For you to appreciate the concept of the Diophantine
Equation, the answers for these questions will not be revealed in this module.)

1. A small clothing manufacturer produces two styles of sweaters: cardigan and pullover. She
sells cardigans for $31 each and pullovers for $28 each. If her total revenue from a day's
production is $1460, how many of each type might she manufacture in a day?

2. A man is thinking of buying chocolates, nougats, and candies. Chocolates cost P10.00 a
piece, nougats P1.00 for 3 pieces, and candies P2.00 for pieces. He wants to buy an assortment
of 100 pieces of these items, enough for his budget of P60.00. Is the man’s idea possible? If
possible, how many pieces of each item must he buy? If not, prove it.

3. Peter wants to buy pets. He has 151 euros and he must choose at least one of each pet. The
prices are; fishes 3 euro each, cats are 5 euro each, dogs are 10 euros each. How many fishes,
cats and dogs he can buy?

4. Find out if there are solutions of the following equations in the set of positive integers
a. xy = yx − (x + y) b. n3 − 5n + 10 = 2k

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MODULE 1
PART II

TRIGONOMETRY

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SUBJECT OVERVIEW
This module will be a quick review of plane and spherical trigonometry. The trigonometric
identities and properties of trigonometric functions will also be reviewed.

a. Solving Triangles

i. The Triangle Inequality Theorem

The Triangle Inequality Theorem simply states that the sum of the lengths of any two sides of a
triangle is greater than the length of the third side. Thus, for a triangle with sides a, b, and c,
the following should govern:

1. 2.
𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 3𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 1
𝑚𝑖𝑛. 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 3𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 1

The Triangle Inequality Theorem can be proven by the cosine laws (which will be discussed in
the next part of this module). If a+b=c, using the cosine law will produce a result of 180°, which
is impossible. Meanwhile, if a-b=c, the resulting angle by cosine law will be 0°.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. Find out whether these triangles are possible or not.

a. x=1, y=2, z=4 (ANS.: IMPOSSIBLE)
b. m=36, n=49, p=84 (ANS.: POSSIBLE)
c. d=7, e=9, f=13 (ANS.: POSSIBLE)
d. g=215, h=35, j=170 (ANS.: IMPOSSIBLE)

2. Find out the maximum and minimum possible lengths of the third sides of each triangle.
a. q=15, r=30, s=? (ANS.: 16<s<44)
b. t=44, u=22, v=? (ANS.: 23<v<65)

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ii. Worded Problems

This part will refresh us of the laws of triangles and the angles of elevation and depression.
The tangent rule which will also be reintroduced here, but it is not commonly used. Board
exam problems on solving triangles can easily be solved by either the sine or the cosine law.

TIP #8: DRAW YOUR FIGURES PROPERLY.

a.) Laws of Triangles

 SINE LAW – the ratios of the length of each
side to the sines of their corresponding opposite
angles are equal.

 COSINE LAW – the cosine law can be used

when two sides and their included interior angle
are given

 TANGENT LAW – can be used in any case where two sides and an angle,
or two angles and a side are known.

b.) Angles of Elevation and Depression

The angles of elevation and of depression of an object as seen by an observer is the angle
between the horizontal and the line from the object to the observer's eye (the line of sight).
The difference is that the angle of elevation happens when the object is above the observer,
while the angle of depression happens when the object is below the observer.

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. In triangle ABC, c = 30 m, b = 40 m, and angle A = 30°. Solve for angle B. (ANS.: 103.06°)

2. A man is standing on top of building MNO. An engineer by nature, he curiously observes

building VWX across the street. He notices that the angle of elevation of the top of the
building is 27°, and the angle of depression of the base of the building is 31°. If the two
buildings are 50 feet apart, what is the height of building VWX? (ANS.: 55.52 ft)

3. From point A (elev. = 590.46 m), the angle of elevation of the top of a mountain is 25°. From
point B, 298 m nearer the mountain and 35 m lower than point A, the angle of elevation of the
same mountain is 35°. Find the elevation of the top of the mountain. (ANS.: 1,076.23 m)

4. AMBIGUOUS CASE OF SOLVING TRIANGLES: Determine the possibility of forming triangles

out of the given dimensions. Calculate the length of the remaining side of all possible triangles.
a.) In BCD, BD = 81 m, CD = 91 m, and B = 101°. (ANS.: 1 triangle is possible, BC = 28.80 m)
b.) In triangle EFG, EG = 16 m, EF = 7 m, and angle G = 30°. (ANS.: no triangle is possible)
c.) In triangle HIJ, HJ = 50 m, IJ = 30 m, and angle H = 101°. (ANS.: 2 triangles are possible;
possible values of HI are 54.52 m and 29.35 m)

b. Special Topics in Trigonometry

These special topics have appeared in previous board examinations. Also, the trigonometric
identities may help in solving complex problems in other subjects.

i. Trigonometric Identities
The purpose of the trigonometric identities is to simplify complex equations. These identities
may come in handy particularly in integral calculus, where a seemingly complex expression can
easily be integrated. Let us be refreshed of the different trigonometric identities

1. Basic Identities

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2. Pythagorean Identities 3. Opposite Angle Identities

4. Sum and Difference Identities

5. Double-Angle Identities

6. Half-Angle Identities

We really don’t have to memorize all these formulas because some of these can easily be
derived (e.g. The half-angle identities were derived from the double-angle identities). Also,
board exam questions involving identities can easily be solved by TRIAL AND ERROR.

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

Prove that the following equations are true.

1. (tan(x) - sin(x)cos(x))/tan(x) = sin2(x)
2. (sec x + tan x)2 = (1 - sin x)/(1 + sin x)
3. cos x/(1 - tan x) + sin x/(1 - cot x) = sin x + cos x
4. (1 + cos(x) + cos(2x)) / (sin(x) + sin(2x)) = cot(x)
5. 2sin((x+y)/2)cos((x-y)/2) = sin(x) + sin(y)

ii. Graphical Elements of Trigonometric Functions

The trigonometric functions do not end when graphed, and are thus called periodic functions.
The properties of periodic functions include the period, the amplitude, and the phase shift.

Let us focus on the graph below. It will show us the different elements of periodic functions.

Crest / Peak

Trough
The highest points in a periodic function are called crests or peaks, and the lowest points are
called the troughs. The period is the horizontal distance from one peak (or trough) to the next,
or from any point to the next matching point. Meanwhile, the amplitude is the vertical
distance from the center line to the peak (or trough).

The next graphs show periodic function movement. The phase shift is how far the function is
shifted horizontally from the usual position, while vertical shift is the vertical deviation.

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We can obtain all these graphical elements by merely looking at the given equation of the
trigonometric function. (NOTE: This is applicable only to sine and cosine functions)

𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐵 (𝑥 + 𝐶 )) + 𝐷

Where:
 Amplitude = |A|.  Phase shift = C (positive C = phase shift to the left)
 Period = 2π/|B|.  Vertical shift = D (positive D = upward shift)

In case we forget the meanings of these values, or if the given trigonometric function is
neither sine nor cosine, we can always graph the function manually.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

Determine the amplitude, the period, the phase shift and the vertical shift of each function.
1. y = 3cos(2πx + 4π) (ANS.: A = 3, B = 1 , C = 2 (left shift), D = 0)
2. y = 2sin(4x - 2) + 3 (ANS.: A = 2, B = π/2, C = -0.5 (right shift), D = 3 (upward shift))
3. y = -cos(x + π/4) - 2 (ANS.: A = 1, B = 2π, C = π/4 (left shift), D = -2 (downward shift))
4. y = 9cos(6πx) + 12 (ANS.: A = 9, B = 1/3, C = 0, D = 12 (upward shift))
5. y = -2.5sin(0.25x) (ANS.: A = 2.5, B = 8π, C = 0, D = 0)

iii. Spherical Trigonometry

Spherical trigonometry is concerned with triangles extracted from the surface of the sphere,
which are called spherical triangles. The application of spherical trigonometry is primarily in
navigation, which involves latitudes and longitudes.

Figure 1 shows the geometry of a spherical triangle. The

vertices of a spherical triangle are the intersections of three
great circles (the circles with the broken lines). A great circle
is a circle on the surface of a sphere that lies in a plane
passing through the sphere's center. The sides of a spherical
triangle are arcs. Spherical trigonometry usually expresses
the measures of the sides of a spherical triangle as angles.
Therefore, all dimensions of a spherical triangle (sides and
Figure 1
included angles) are expressed in angular units.

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Figure 2 illustrates a spherical triangle in relation with the Earth’s

latitudes and longitudes. The measures of the sides and angles of a
spherical triangle are dependent on these latitudes and longitudes.

As a review, the latitudes are those lines on Figure 2 with the

horizontal orientation. They are angles that tell the location of an
object with respect to the equator (0° latitude). A latitude can have
Figure 2 measure from 0° to ±90° (+N, -S) at the poles. Meanwhile, the
longitudes are those lines on Figure 2 with the vertical orientation.
They are angles that tell the location of an object with respect to the prime meridian (0°
longitude). A longitude can have measures from 0° to ±180° (+E, -W).

As with plane triangles, we also have right and oblique spherical triangles. A right spherical
triangle has exactly one 90° interior angle. Meanwhile, triangles with no right angles or with
more than one 90° angle are obtuse spherical triangles.

 Properties of Spherical Triangles

1. If two sides are equal, the angles opposite are equal and vice versa.
2. If two sides are unequal, the angles opposite are unequal and the greater side is opposite
the greater angle and vice versa.
3. The sum of any two sides is greater than the third side.
4. The sum of the sides of a spherical triangle is less than 360°.
5. The sum of any two angles is less than 180° plus the third angle.
6. The sum of the interior angles of a spherical triangle is greater than 180° but less than 540°.

 Solving Right Spherical Triangles

In solving right spherical triangles, we may use the Napier’s Circle like the one below.

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To do the Napier’s Circle, we must draw a circle with five parts. These five parts represent the
three sides and the two angles of the triangle (excluding the 90° angle). Then we will apply the
Napier’s rules below in solving for the missing dimensions of the triangle.

NAPIER RULE #1: The SIN-COOP Rule

In the Napier’s circle, the sine of any middle part is equal to product of the cosines of its
opposite parts. We can get any part of the Napier’s circle as the middle part.

If we take a as the middle part, its opposite parts are co-c and co-A, then by SIN-COOP rule,
sin(a) = cos(co-c)cos(co-A)
sin(a) = cos(90°−c)cos(90°−A)
sin(a) = sin(c)sin(A)

NAPIER RULE #2: The SIN-TAAD Rule

In the Napier’s circle, the sine of any middle part is equal to the product of the tangents of its
adjacent parts. Again, we can get any part of the Napier’s circle as the middle part.

If we take a as the middle part, the adjacent parts are b and co-B, then by SIN-TAAD rule,
sin(A) = tan(b)tan(co-B)
sin(A) = tan(b)tan(90°−B)

 Solving Obtuse Spherical Triangles

Spherical triangles have their own version of the sine and cosine laws.

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 Area of a Spherical Triangle

𝜋𝑅2 𝐸
𝐴=
180°

Where: R = radius of the sphere, E = spherical excess = A + B + C - 180°.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. Solve all the remaining parts of the following spherical triangles.

a. a=82°, b=62°, C=90° (ANS.: c=86.25°, B=62.23°, A=82.93°)
b. a=92°30’, b=54°28’, c=54°28’ (ANS.: A=125.16°, B=41.7521°, C=41.7521°)
c. A=93°, B=64°, C=116° (ANS.: a=107.62°, b=59.07°, c=120.93°)

2. Determine the area of the following spherical triangles

a. A=90°, B=80°, C=70°, r=45 m (ANS.: 2,120.58 m2)
b. A=100°, B=50°, C=120°, r=30 ft (ANS.: 1,413.72 m2)

3. An airplane flew from Davao City whose latitude is 14° N and longitude of 121.5° E on a
course of S 30° W and maintaining uniform altitude. At what longitude will the plane cross the
equator? (ANS.: 113° 33' East)

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MODULE 1
PART III

PLANE GEOMETRY

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SUBJECT OVERVIEW
This part of the module will be a compilation of the formulas and theorems used in solving
plane geometry problems.

TIP #9: LEARN HOW TO SUBDIVIDE A COMPLEX FIGURE PROPERLY.

a. Areas and Other Information about Common Figures

Of course, we will not be including the areas of elementary figures here. It will be quite
alarming if we will still have troubles with the areas of our basic shapes.

i. Parts of the Circle

The illustration below shows vividly the different parts of a circle.

Diameter
Sector

Arc

Figure 1

Figure 2

Let us define each part of the circle (except for the basic parts).
a. Sector – It is the part of a circle enclosed by two radii and their intersected arc. Figure 1 has
actually 2 sectors. The area highlighted in blue is the smaller sector called the minor sector.
The entire area outside the minor segment is the larger sector called the major sector.
b. Segment – It is the region bounded by a chord and the arc subtended by the chord. Figure 1
also has two segments. The segment highlighted in purple is the smaller one, called the minor
segment. The other segment is the entire area outside of the purple area. It is the bigger
segment, called the major segment.
c. Chord – It is a line segment whose endpoints lie on the circle. A chord passing through the
center of the circle is the diameter of the circle.
d. Secant – It is a line that intersects the circle at two different points. A secant is the infinite
extension of the chord.

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e. Tangent – It is a line that intersects the circle at exactly one point, called the point of
tangency.

TIP #9: Commonly Used and Abused Properties of Circles and their Lines:
1. A tangent line is always perpendicular with the radius/diameter of the circle.
2. Two chords subtending a diameter are perpendicular to each other.
3. The measure of a central angle is twice the measure of the inscribed angle provided both
angles intercept the same arc in the circle.

 Formulas for Arc Length, Areas of a Circular Sector and Segment

NOTE: These formulas are for values of ϴ in radians.

c 𝑆 = 𝑟𝜃
1 2
𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑟 𝜃
h
r 2
𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 − 𝐴𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
1
𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑟 2 (𝜃 − sin 𝜃)
2

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. The area and perimeter of a circular sector are 250 m2 and 66 m, respectively. Find the
radius of the sector. (ANS.: there are 2 possible answers, 11.73 m and 21.22 m)
2. The area of a circular segment is 330 m2. If the length of the longest chord of the segment is
57 m, find its radius. (ANS.: 51.86 m)
3. Find the areas of the shaded regions in the following figures.
a.) ABCD is a square. (ANS.: 57.08 m2) b.) Units are in cm. (ANS.: 19.50 cm2)
A B

10 m

C D
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4. A swimming pool is constructed in the shape of two intersecting identical circles having a
radius of 9 m. The distance between their centers is 9 m. Find the area of the pool.
(ANS.: 409.44 m2)
5. A goat is tied outside a triangular fenced garden at point A. The sides of the fence are AB =
8 m, BC = 9, and CA = 12 m. If the rope with which the goat is tied is 14 m, find the area over
which the goat can graze outside the fence. (ANS.: 565.87 m2)

ii. Ellipse, Parabola, and Spandrel

 Ellipse
An ellipse is a conic section where the sum of the distances from two points (foci) to every
point on the line is constant. We will focus first on the area and the perimeter of the ellipse.
All the other details about the ellipse will be discussed in Analytic Geometry.

Area of an Ellipse
𝐴𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 = 𝜋ab

Where: a = half the length of the major axis

Where: b = half the length of the minor axis

In case we forget this formula, we can always go back to integral calculus and review how to
solve area by integration.

Perimeter of an Ellipse

In reviewing for the board exam, we may encounter this formula a number of times.

𝑎2 + 𝑏2
𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 ≈ 2𝜋 √
2

This is actually the formula used in the board exam. But, this is not actually the exact formula
for the perimeter of an ellipse. The exact way of computing for the perimeter of an ellipse is
through the integral formula for arc length as shown below.
𝑥2
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑦2
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑆 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑥1 𝑑𝑥 𝑦1 𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑥 2
𝑡2
𝑑𝑦 2
𝑆 = ∫ √( ) + ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑡1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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 Parabola and Spandrel

A parabola is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a point (called the focus)
and a line (called the directrix). Again, we will focus first on the area and the perimeter of the
parabola. All the other details about the parabola will be discussed in Analytic Geometry.

The different dimensions of a parabola can be solved in two ways. The first way is by analytic
geometry. The second and faster way is by using the squared property of the parabola.

𝑦1 𝑦2
=𝑥
y1 𝑥1 2 2
2
y2
x1 x2

TIP #10: The squared property of a parabola involves tangent lines which are located OUTSIDE
THE PARABOLA. It does not involve chords which are inside the parabola.

The perimeter of a parabola can easily be solved by the integral formula for arc length.
Meanwhile, the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line, usually a horizontal line, can
be solved by using the formula for a general spandrel.

A spandrel is defined as the area bounded by a

curve of the equation y = kxn and a tangent line.
We encounter the spandrel a number of times in
our civil engineering subjects. A common and very
good example is the shear and moment diagram.

TIP #11: A spandrel is bounded by a TANGENT LINE. This is a common mistake among students
who use the spandrel formula in problem solving.

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Here is some essential information about the spandrel. Note that these values can also be
acquired by integration.

NOTE: Evaluating (b – Cx) will give us the commonly used formula b/(n+2).

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. The major and minor axes of an ellipse measure 10 m and 8 m, respectively. The major axis
is along the x-axis and the minor axis is along the y-axis. Calculate:
a.) The area of the ellipse. (ANS.: 62.83 m2)
b.) The approximate perimeter of the ellipse. (ANS.: 28.45 m)
c.) The exact perimeter of the ellipse. (ANS.: 28.36 m)

2. The cables of a suspension bridge are in the shape of a parabola. The towers supporting the
cable are 400 feet apart and 100 feet high. If the cables are at a height of 10 feet midway
between the towers,
a.) What is the height of the cables at a point 50 feet from the center of the bridge?
(ANS.: 15.63 m)
b.) Find the area in square feet enclosed by the cables and the line connecting the tops of the
towers. (ANS.: 24,000 ft2)

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iii. Triangle Formulas

 Heron’s Formula
We can use this formula if all the sides of the triangle are given.

 Area Using Sines (“Scissors Rule”)

We can use this formula if two sides and their included angle are given.

1 1 1
𝐴 = 2 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝐶 = 2 𝑎𝑐 sin 𝐵 = 2 𝑏𝑐 sin 𝐴

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. The sides of a triangle are given as 3x, x+1 and 3x-1. If the perimeter is 56 ft, find the area.
(ANS.: 62.61 ft2)
2. A cord 93 cm long is divided into two parts from which two equilateral triangles are formed.
If the total area of the triangles is 220 cm2, find the ratio of the perimeter of the larger triangle
to the smaller triangle. (ANS.: 1.63)
3. A triangle has an area of 500 m2 and a perimeter of 106 m. If one of its interior angles
measures 62°, find the length of the longest side. (ANS.: 41.23 m)

iv. Quadrilateral Formulas

There are two ways to get the area of a general quadrilateral. The first way is to divide the
quadrilateral into two triangles. The area of the quadrilateral will then be the sum of the areas
of the individual triangles. This may work depending on the given values.

The second way is using known formulas which will all be listed here.

 Given All Sides and a Set of Opposite Angles

𝐴 = √(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐 )(𝑠 − 𝑑 ) − 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑

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𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+𝑑
where 𝑠= 2

𝐴+𝐶 𝐵+𝐷
and 𝜑= =
2 2

 Given Two Diagonals and their Included Angle

1
𝐴 = 𝑑1 𝑑2 sin 𝜃
2
 Cyclic Quadrilateral
A special type of quadrilateral is the cyclic quadrilateral. A cyclic quadrilateral is a quadrilateral
with all its vertices lying on a circle. Here are some properties of a cyclic quadrilateral.

1. The sum of two opposite angles of a cyclic

quadrilateral is 180°, i.e. A + C = B + D = 180°.

2. The product of the diagonals is equal to the sum of

the p products of non-adjacent sides. (Ptolemy’s Theorem)
𝑑1 𝑑2 = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑

3. An area formula exclusive to the cyclic quadrilateral is shown below. r = radius of the circle.

√(𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑)(𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)(𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐𝑑)

𝐴=
4𝑟

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. A quadrilateral ABCD has sides AB = 17 m, BC = 25 m, CD = 23 m, DA = 19 m, and BAD =
49°. Find the area of the quadrilateral. (ANS.: 291.75 m2)
2. A quadrilateral ABCD is inscribed in a circle. Its sides are AB = 63 m, BC = 92 m, CD = 70 m,
and CBA = 107°. Find the area of the quadrilateral. (ANS.: 7,020.82 m2)
3. A quadrilateral ABCD is inscribed in a circle with a diameter of 25 cm. AB is the diameter of
the circle, angle ACD = 30° and BDC = 20°. What is the length of BC? (ANS.: 8.55 cm)

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v. Regular Polygon Formulas

Here are some things you need to know about regular polygons.

 Number of Diagonals that can be Drawing from a Regular Polygon

A diagonal is defined as a line that connects two non-
adjacent vertices of a polygon. The number of diagonals of a
polygon can be solved by the formula

𝑛
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠 = (𝑛 + 3)
2

Where n = number of sides of the polygon

 Exterior and Interior Angles of a Polygon

The exterior angle is the angle between any side of a shape,
and a line extended from the next side. The sum of the
exterior angles of a polygon is 360°.

Meanwhile, the sum of the interior angles of a polygon can

be computed by the formula below
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 = (𝑛 − 2) ∗ 180°

 Area of a Regular Polygon

In solving for the area of a regular polygon, we should first

divide it into triangles. The number of smaller triangles that
can be cut out of a regular polygon is equal to the number of
its sides. Then, simply get the area of one triangle and
multiply this area by the number of triangles.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. A farmer has a field in the shape of a regular heptagon which has a perimeter of 700 m.
What is its area? (ANS.: 36,339.12 m2)
2. Find the difference in areas of a dodecagon and a hexagon if their perimeters are both 120
ft. (ANS.: 80.38 m2)
3. Two squares each with 12 cm sides overlapped each other such that the overlapping area is
a regular octagon. Find the area of the octagon. (ANS.: 119.29 cm2)

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b. Circumscribed, Inscribed, and Escribed Figures

Let us redefine circumscribed figures, inscribed figures, and escribed figures.

Circumscribe means “to draw around” or “to draw outside of”. A circumscribed circle is
defined as a circle that lies outside a polygon and passes through all the vertices of that
polygon. A circumscribed circle is also known as a circumcircle. The center of the
circumscribed circle lies in the almost in the middle of the polygon (usually in regular
polygons). This center is termed as circumcenter, and the radius of a circumscribed circle is
called circumradius.

Meanwhile, inscribe means “to draw inside of.” An inscribed circle is defined as a circle that
lies inside a polygon and is tangent to all possible sides of the polygon. An inscribed circle is
also known as an incircle. The center of the inscribed circle is called the incenter, and the
radius of an inscribed circle is called inradius.

The figure to the left perfectly illustrates

inscribed and circumscribed figures. Based
from the figure we can say that the red
circle is circumscribed about the triangle,
or the triangle is inscribed in the red circle.
Also, we can say that the blue circle is
inscribed in the triangle, or the triangle is
circumscribed about the blue circle.

TIP #12: Try to look for triangles first in order to break down a complex figure.

Meanwhile, an escribed circle is a circle that is tangent to one side of a triangle and tangent to
the extensions of the other two sides. The escribed circle can also be referred to as the excircle
and the centre of an escribed circle is known as an excentre.

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We have formulas for circles circumscribed, inscribed, and escribed in a triangle. These
formulas, however, can easily be derived.

 Circle Circumscribing a Triangle

 Circle Inscribed in a Triangle

𝐴 𝑇 = 𝑟𝑠

𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
WHERE: 𝑠=
2

 Circle Escribed in a Triangle

𝐴 𝑇 = 𝑟(𝑠 − 𝑐)

𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
WHERE: 𝑠= 2

And c is the side physically tangent to the circle.

For circumscribed and inscribed polygons, simply divide the polygon into triangles and you
should be already able to solve what is required.

TIP #13: As much as possible, try to derive formulas. In this way, you can understand the
formulas better rather than merely memorizing them.

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. If an equilateral triangle is circumscribed about a circle of radius 10 cm, determine the
measure of the side and area of the triangle. (ANS.: 34.64 cm, 519.62 cm2)
2. The sides of a triangle measure 103 ft, 131 ft, and 140 ft. Find the radius of the smallest
escribed circle. (ANS.: 80.38 ft2)
3. A triangle having an area of 22.62 cm2 is inscribed in a circle whose radius is 6 cm. If one of
the sides of the triangle is 12 cm, determine the perimeter of the triangle. (ANS.: 27.31 cm2)
4. Find the area of a regular octagon given the following conditions:
a.) The octagon is circumscribing a circle of area 113.10 sq. cm. (ANS.: 119.29 cm2)
b.) The octagon is inscribed in a circle of area 113.10 sq. cm. (ANS.: 101.82 cm2)
5. A circle is inscribed in a quadrilateral whose sides are 30 in, 27 in, 21 in, and x inches. If the
sum of two opposite angles of the quadrilateral is 210°, what is its area? (ANS.: 617.17 in2)
6. A regular five-pointed star is inscribed in a circle with radius of 10 m. What is the area of the
part not covered by the star? (ANS.: 201.91 m2)

c. Circle Theorems
The following theorems will focus on the relationships between the different lines of the circle,
namely, the chord, the secant, and the tangent. Notice that these theorems are patterns.

 Intersecting Chord or the Cross-Chord Theorem

E
α (𝑋𝐴)(𝑋𝐵) = (𝑋𝐶)(𝑋𝐷)
X
β
ɸ
𝛽+ɸ
𝛼= 2

 Tangent-Secant Theorem

B (𝑋𝐴)(𝑋𝐵) = (𝑋𝐶)(𝑋𝐶)
A
X ɸ−𝛽
α β ɸ 𝛼= 2
C

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 Secant-Secant Theorem

B
A (𝑋𝐴)(𝑋𝐵) = (𝑋𝐶)(𝑋𝐷)
X α β ɸ
C ɸ−𝛽
0 D 𝛼= 2

 Tangent-Tangent Theorem
X
α 𝑋𝐴 = 𝑋𝐵
β 0
ɸ−𝛽
ɸ B 𝛼=
2

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. In Figure 1, OC = 12 ft and OA = 6 ft. Find AB. (ANS.: 18 ft)
2. Two chords of a circle measuring 40 m and 68 m are perpendicular to each other. If the
68-m chord bisects the 40-m chord, how far is the intersection of the chords from the center
of the circle? (ANS.: 27.50 m)
3. In Figure 3, OA = OC = 5 cm, AB = CD = 8 cm, and α=30°. What is the radius of the circle?
(ANS.: 4.67 cm)
4. An observer stands at a certain distance from a circular lake and observes that the angle
subtended by the lake is 104°. He moves 20 m away from the lake and observes that the angle
subtended by the lake was halves. What is the radius of the lake? (ANS.: 19.76 m)
5. Find the area of the shaded region in Figure 5. (ANS. 39.27 m2)

B 5m
A
A B 2R 2r
O
α O α
C C D
0 5m
Figure 1 Figure 3
Figure 5

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d. Additional Problems and Figures

Here are additional problems which will challenge our understanding of plane
geometry.

1. Find the area of the shaded region in Figure 1. (ANS.: 552.85 cm2)
2. In Figure 2, segment AB is tangent to the circle at Point A. ∠OBA=30° and the circumference
of the circle is 8π inches. What is the area of the shaded region? (ANS.: 5.48 in2)
3. Find the area of the shaded region in Figure 3 if ABCD is a square. (ANS.: 12.34 cm2)
4. Find the area of the shaded region in Figure 4. (ANS.: 113.10 cm2)
5. A circle of radius 1 inch and an equilateral triangle are drawn as shown in Figure 5. Find the
area of the shaded region. (ANS. 0.40 in2)

6 cm
Figure 4

Figure 3
Figure 1

Figure 2 Figure 5

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MODULE 1
PART IV

SOLID GEOMETRY

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SUBJECT OVERVIEW
This part of the module will simply be a compilation of solid geometry formulas. LSA stands for
lateral surface area and TSA stands for total surface area.

a. Formulas for Surface Area and Volume of Common Figures

 Cube
s 𝑉 = 𝑠3
s 𝐿𝑆𝐴 = 4𝑠 2
𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 6𝑠 2
s
 Rectangular Parallelepiped

𝑉 = 𝑙𝑤ℎ
𝐿𝑆𝐴 = 2𝑙ℎ + 2𝑤ℎ
𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 𝐿𝑆𝐴 + 2𝑙𝑤

 Prism

𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑅 𝐿 = 𝐴𝑏 ℎ
𝐿𝑆𝐴 = 𝑃𝑅 𝐿 = 𝑃𝐵 ℎ
𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 𝐿𝑆𝐴 + 2𝐴𝑏

Subscript “R” stands for the right section of an oblique prism, while subscript “b” stands for
the base. In a right prism, the right section is equal to the base.

 Cylinder

𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
𝐿𝑆𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 2𝜋𝑟 2

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 Pyramid

1
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑏 ℎ
L h 3
1
𝐿𝑆𝐴 = 𝑃𝑏 𝐿
2
𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 𝐿𝑆𝐴 + 𝐴𝑏

 Cone

1
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
3
𝐿𝑆𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟𝑙
𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟𝑙 + 𝜋𝑟 2

 Frustum – the portion of a cone or pyramid that remains after its upper part has been cut
off by a plane parallel to its base, or that is intercepted between two such planes.

ℎ
𝑉 = (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + √𝐴1 𝐴2 )
3

 Sphere

4 3
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟
3
𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

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 Spherical Zone – the portion of the surface of a sphere included between two parallel
planes. There are two types of spherical zones as shown below.

𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑅ℎ
Note: This formula applies to both types
of spherical zones.

 Spherical Sector – is a solid of revolution enclosed by two radii from the center of a sphere.
The spherical sector may either be "open" or may be a "closed" spherical cone.

1 2 2
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒 ℎ = 𝜋𝑅 ℎ
3 3
Note: This formula applies to both types
of spherical sectors.

 Spherical Segment – the solid defined by cutting a sphere with a pair of parallel planes.
There are also two types of spherical segments like the spherical zone.

For spherical segment of two bases:

𝜋ℎ
𝑉= (3𝑎2 + 3𝑏 2 + ℎ2 )
6

For spherical segment of one bases:

𝜋ℎ2
𝑉= (3𝑅 − ℎ)
3
NOTE: The formula for spherical segment of one base was just derived from the formula for
the spherical segment of two bases.

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 Spherical Lune and Wedge – the portion of a sphere bounded by two half great circles and
an included arc. The bounded area is the lune while the bounded area is the wedge.

4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜃
𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑒 =
360°

4 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜃
𝑉𝑤𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = ∗
3 360°

ϴ is in degrees
 Ellipsoid – or spheroid, is an ellipse rotated about its own axis. There are two types of
ellipsoid. A prolate spheroid is an ellipse rotated about its major axis (c = b), while an oblate
spheroid is an ellipse rotated about its minor axis (c = a).

4
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏𝑐
3

 Ellipsoid – a parabola rotated about its major axis.

1
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
2

 Truncated Prism – A prism which has one base cut off by an intersecting plane.

ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ⋯ + ℎ𝑛
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑏 ( )
𝑛

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 Prismatoid – a polyhedron having for bases two polygons in parallel planes and for lateral
faces triangles or trapezoids with one side lying in one base, and the opposite vertex or side
lying in the other base of the polyhedron. The volume of a prismatoid can be solved by the
prismoidal formula.

A2
L 𝐿
𝑉 = (𝐴1 + 4𝐴𝑚 + 𝐴2 )
Am 6

A1

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. The volume of water in a spherical tank having a diameter of 4 m is 5.236 m3. Determine
the depth of the water in the tank. (ANS.: 1 m)
2. A cubical container that measures 2 inches on a side is tightly packed with 8 marbles and is
filled with water. All marbles are in contact with the walls of the container and with each other
All marbles are of the same size. What is the water volume in the container? (ANS.: 3.81 in2)
3. A prism with an altitude of 15 cm has an octagonal base inscribed in a square with side 10
cm. Find the volume of the prism. (ANS.: 1,242.62 cm3)
4. The volume of the frustum of a regular triangular pyramid is 135 ft3. The lower base is an
equilateral triangle with an edge of 9 ft. The upper base is 8 m above the lower base. What is
the upper base edge in feet? (ANS.: 3 ft)
5. A truncated prism has a triangular base ABC. The sides of the triangle are AB = 30 cm, BC =
40 cm, and CA = 50 cm. The heights at A and C are 18 cm and 27 cm respectively. If the volume
of the truncated prism is 13,800 cm3, find the height at B. (ANS.: 24 cm)
6. An ice cream cone is filled with ice cream and a surmounted ice cream in the form of a
hemisphere on top of the cone. If the hemispherical surface is equal to the lateral area of the
cone, find the total volume of ice cream if the radius of the hemisphere is 1 in and assuming
the diameter of the hemisphere is equal to the diameter of the cone. (ANS.: 3.91 in3)
7. A mixture compound of equal parts of two liquids, one white and the other black, was
placed in a hemispherical bowl. The total depths of the two liquids is 6 inches. After standing
for a short time, the mixture separated, the white liquid settling below the black. If the
thickness of the black liquid layer is 2 inches, find the radius of the bowl. (ANS. 7.33 in)
8. Find the volume of a cone to be constructed from a sector having a diameter of 72 in and a
central angle of 210°. (ANS. 13,503.62 in3)
9. A closed right cylindrical tank with a height of 8 m and diameter of 3 m contains water to a
depth of 5 m. What is the water depth if the tank is laid in a horizontal position? (ANS. 2.07 m)

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