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Gramatical Units: Sentence – Clause – Phrase – Word – Morpheme

Phrases:
PRONOMINAL He
NOMINAL The cat
ADJECTIVAL Tall
ADVERBIAL Very quickly
PREPOSITIONAL In the morning
VERBAL Is
GERUNDIAL Studying is
INFINITIVAL BARE Run
INFINITIVAL FULL To run
PAST PARTICIPIAL The painted bench
PRESENT PARTICIPIAL The man running is….

Clauses: A group of related words that can be separated into Subject and Predicate.

 MAIN CLAUSE: Expresses a complete thought and can stand on its own.

She is wearing a hat.

 SUBORDINATE CLAUSE: Depends on another clause to make sense.

I met a boy who was reading

TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES:

1. Adverbial Clause: Functions as an adverb. It contains a subject and a predicate.

Answers the questions: Who? – When? – How?
I like to cook for fun.

We left after the speech ended.

He got up lazily.

2. Noun Clause: A clause used as a noun inside another clause or phrase.

Answers the questions: Who(m)? – What?
Their destination is unkown

Where they are going is unkown

It is unkown

Noun clauses are introduced with: that – whether – who – why – whom – what – how – when – whoever –
where – whomever.

Noun clauses can always be replaced with a pronoun: it – they – he – she.

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3. Relative/Adjective Clause: Works as an adjective in a sentence and modifies a noun or pronoun.

 Relative pronouns:

WHO People
WHICH Animals – Things
WHOSE Possession
WHOM People
THAT People – Animals – Things

She is the woman who lives next door.

She is the woman that lives next door.

The book which is on the table is mine

The book that is on the table is mine.

Pronouns used as the OBJECT OF A VERB: The man was Mr. Jones. I saw him.

The man who(m) I saw was Mr. Jones. (very formal)

The man that I saw was Mr. Jones
The man ∅ I saw was Mr. Jones.

Pronouns used as the OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION: She is the woman. I told you about her.

She is the woman about whom I told you.

She is the woman who(m) I told you about.
She is the woman that I told you about.
She is the woman ∅ I told you about.

If the preposition comes at the beginning of the clause, only whom or which may be used.
A preposition is never immediately followed by that or who.

Whose is used to show possession. It carries the same meaning as other poss. pronouns such as: his – her – its – theirs.
Whose is connected to a noun. His bicycle  whose bicycle.

I know his man. His bicycle was stolen.

I know the man whose bicycle was stolen.
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 Relative Adverbs:

WHEN Time In / On which

WHERE Place In / At which
WHY Reason For which

The building is very old. He lives there (in the building).

The building where he lives is very old

The building in which he lives is very old.
The building which he lives in is very old.
The building that he lives in is very old
The building ∅ he lives in is very old.

I’ll never forget the day. I met you on that day.

I’ll never forget the day when I met you.

I’ll never forget the day on which I met you.
I’ll never forget the day that I met you.
I’ll never forget the day ∅ I met you

PUNCTUATION OF RELATIVE/ADJECTIVE CLAUSES: DO NOT USE COMMAS IF the clause is necessary to identify the noun
it modifies.
(1) The professor who teaches Chemistry 101 plays the guitar.
(2) Professor Wilson, who teaches Chemistry 101, plays the guitar.

1- No commas are used because the clause is necessary to identify which professor they are talking about.
2- Commas are used because the professor is already identified as Prof. Wilson. The clause just gives extra
information.

EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY IN ADJECTIVE/RELATIVE CLAUSES: An adjective clause may contain an expression of quantity
with of: some of – many of – most of – none of – two of – half of – both of – neither of – each of – all of – several of – a
few of – little of – a number of – etc. This expressions are always followed by whom, which or whose.

In my class there are 20 students. Most of them are from Korea.

In my class there are 20 students, most of whom are from Korea.

He gave several reasons. Only a few of them were valid.

He gave several reasons, only a few of which were valid.

The teachers discussed Jim. One of his problems was poor study habits.
The teachers discussed Jim, one of whose problems was poor study habits.
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USING WHICH TO MODIFY A WHOLE SENTENCE: The pronouns that and this can refer to the idea of a whole sentence
which comes before. An adjective clause with which may modify the idea of a whole sentence like this or that

Tom was late. That surprised me.

Tom was late, which surprised me.

REDUCTION OF ADJECTIVE/RELATIVE CLAUSES TO ADJECTIVE PHRASES: An adjective phrase is the reduced form of an
adjective clause. It still modifies the noun but does not contain both a subject and predicate. Only adjective clauses that
have a subject pronoun – who, which, or that – can be reduced to adjective phrases.

Adjective Clause: The girl who is sitting next to me is Mary.

Adjective Phrase: The girl sitting next to me is Mary.

CLAUSE: The boy who is playing the piano is Ben

PHRASE: The boy playing the piano is Ben.
CLAUSE: The boy (whom) I saw was Tom
PHRASE: None

WAYS OF CHANGING AND ADJECTIVE CLAUSE TO AN ADJECTIVE PHRASE:

1. The subject pronoun is omitted AND the be form of the verb is omitted

CLAUSE: The man who is talking to John is from Korea.

PHRASE: The man ∅ ∅ talking to John is from Korea.

2. If there is no be form of a verb in the adjective clause, then it is possible to imit the subject pronoun and change
the verb to its –ing form.

CLAUSE: English has an alphabet that consists of 26 letters.

PHRASE: English has an alphabet ∅ consisting of 26 letters.

1) A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause with no dependent clauses.

2) A compound sentence consists of multiple independent clauses with no dependent clauses. These
clauses are joined together using conjunctions, punctuation, or both.
3) A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

If possible, reduce the relative/adjective clause in the following sentences. If it is not possible mark it with “X” and
explain why or why not.

a) The road repairs that are being carried out on the motorway might delay the traffic
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b) If you know anyone who wants to buy my car, let me know.

c) She took me for a ride on the motorbike that she had recently bought.

d) I'd like something that contains less sugar, please.

e) Bread which is made today won't be as fresh tomorrow.

f) Who's the guy who's playing tennis with her?

g) Students who want to study here this September must apply before July.

h) Canada, which is located north of the USA, is a little bigger and much colder.
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DEFINING – NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES:

 Defining Relative Clauses: It refers to the preceding noun. It gives information that is essential and thus cannot be
omitted as this could confuse the meaning of the main clause.

People are thieves. (Which people? Everyone?)

People who steal are thieves.

 Non-Defining Relative Clause: It refers to the preceding noun and gives extra information that can be omitted for it
is not essential.

My brother will be 24 next week. He is studying medicine.

My brother, who is studying medicine, will be 24 next week.

 Relatives with Prepositions: The preposition is places in front of whom or which but it can also be put at the end of
the relative clause, making whom into who.

(formal) That’s the man with whom I went to France.

(less formal) That’s the man that/who I went to France with.
(informal) That’s the man I went to France with.

CONJUNCTIONS: Words used for joining or linking words/phrases/clauses. They appear before the structure they
introduce.

1) I have seen this man before. adverb

2) He stood before the door. preposition
3) The rain fell before we reached home. Conjunction

Coordination Conjunctions: Join structures of the same rank.

NOUN + NOUN
VERB + VERB
MAIN CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE

CUMULATIVE ADDICTION
ALTERNATIVE CHOICE
ADVERSATIVE CONTRAST
ILLATIVE INTERFERENCE

 Cumulative: And – also – too – as well as – no less than – both…and –

 Alternative: Either…or – otherwise – else – or – or else
 Adversative: But – still – yet – nevertheless – however – while – only – and yet – on the other hand.
 Illative: Therefore – then – so then – so far – consequently

Subordinating conjunctions: Join structures of different rank. Like a subordinate clause and a main clause.
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VERBS.

o Transitive: A verb which has one or more objects it affects. (bite – like – give)

They destroyed the evidence.

I bought flowers.

o Intransitive: A verb which doesn’t affect an object. (agree – go – look)

She fainted.
They run very fast.

o Bi-Transitive: A verb which has both an indirect and direct object.

I gave her some flowers.

I bought some chocolate for Sam.

o Dual-Transitivity: Verbs that can be transitive and intransitive. (ate – answer – close – clean – read – hide – try)

She ate fish.

She ate.

o Complete Predication: The verb can predicate on its own.

She opened the door.

o Incomplete Predication: The verb cannot predicate on its own and needs a subjective/objective complement.

She is tired.

o A Complex Transitive verb is also called TVIP. It has an object and an objective complement.

She considers him a genius.

o Middle Verb: Verbs that cannot be turned to the passive voice. (to resemble – to have – to fit)

John resembles his father.

Give an example of:

1) A verb which may function as both TVCP and IVIP

2) A verb that may function as IVIP AND IVCP.

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SUBJECT:

o Surface structure function: It is the subject determined by form, position and agreement. Where the subject is
in the sentence. It immediately precedesthe verb.
o Deep structure function: Who performs the action.

The door was opened by John.  John was the one who opened the door.
AGENT

o The agent is the cause or initiator of an event

CATEGORIES FUNCTIONING AS A SUBJECT:

1. A noun/nominal phrase:
The car is white
John studies English.

2. A pronoun:
He is tall.
Someone is singing.

3. A gerund:
Smoking is makes you cough.
His constant hammering was annoying.

4. A noun clause:
What he said is right.

5. An infinitive:
To see you is always a pleasure.
To act like that is foolish.

ANTICIPATORY SUBJECT “IT”: The ‘it’ doesn’t have any meaning in itself but is used when there is a short predicate and a
long subject. The AS leaves the important information at the end and fulfills the role of the subject. The real subject at
the end is called Real Subject in Extra-Position (RSEP).

The AS can anticipate:

1. An infinitive:
It is nice to see you.
It is easy to do that.

2. A nominal clause:
Is it true that he died?
It is a mistery how he died.

3. A gerund:
It’s been a pleasure talking to you.
It was nice meeting you here.
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It would be a mistake to ignore his advice.

It is foolish behaving like that.

It is a mistery whether he will be able to come.

ANTICIPATORY DIRECT OBJECT: The ‘it’ works just like in the AS. But in this case it anticipates the direct object of the
sentence. The DO at the end is called Real Direct Object in Extra-Position (RDOEP).

The ADO anticipates:

1. An infinitive:
I always make it a rule to verify all quotations.
You musn’t take it upon yourself to spend a lot of money without getting your parents’ approval.

2. A gerund:
We found it difficult business getting everything ready in time.
I find it hard opening this jar.

3. A nominal clause:
We found it impossible to believe that she had died.

I consider it wrong to cheat in examinations.

I think it dangerous climbing the mountain alone.

I find it necessary that you create your own examples.

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DIRECT OBJECT: It is a noun phrase which has the following characteristics.

1. May become the subject in the passive
2. Answers the question “What?” or “Who?”
3. Usually follows the verb immediately

Relationships with the verb:

AFFECTUM OBJECT: The DO is the receiver of the action performed by the subject. It already existed and is only affected.
He broke the glass.
They hit John.

EFFECTUM OBJECT: The DO is created by the action.

They painted a picture.
They lit a fire.

INSTRUMENTAL OBJECT: The DO is used to perform the action.

He pointed his finger at Arthur.
The dog waved its tail.

LOCATIVE OBJECT: The object is where the action takes place.

He walked the streets.
He left London yesterday.

OBJECTS TO VERBS OF EMOTION:

I love you.
She hates you.

OBJECTS TO VERBS OF PERCEPTION

I saw John this morning.
I heard you the first time.

OBJECTS TO VERBS OF COMMUNICATION.

I told him the truth,
I already ordered our food.

OBJECTS TO VERBS EXPRESSING ABSTRACT CONNECTIONS:

It doesn’t concern me.
It depends on the circumstances.

CATEGORIES THAT FUNCTION AS A DO:

1. Nouns
He has lit a cigarette.
2. Pronouns
I love you.
3. Noun Clauses
Describe what you saw.
4. Gerunds
I enjoy reading.
5. Infinitives
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I want to go home.
INDIRECT OBJECT: It is the object which receives something, this “something” being the direct object.

Give him my regards.

I sent Tom a letter.
I sent flowers to Sarah

CATEGORIES THAT FUNCTION AS IO:

1. Noun
I gave the beggar a dollar.
2. Pronoun
Give me that.
3. Noun clause
Tell whoever is there that I’m leaving.
4. Gerund
Give studying a chance.
5. Prepositional phrase.
He gave the letter to me.

SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT: It states something about the subject.

a) The verb to be is always followed by something; it is a linking verb and therefore cannot be alone. What follows
the verb to be is always a subjective complement. It can state:
ESSENCE Sugar is sweet.
ACCIDENT John is perplexed.
A PLACE He is in the room.
OBJECTS This is a book.
IDENTIFICATION That is John.

CATEGORIES THAT FUNCTION AS S/C:

1. ADJECTIVE
It was dark. She is very pretty.
2. PAST/PRESENT PARTICIPLE
That is interesting. Your jacket is torn.
3. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
He is at home. That letter is from my brother.
4. NOUN
His father is a lawyer. This is a book.
5. PRONOUN
That is him.
6. GERUND
That is cheating. You are asking for trouble.
7. NOUN CLAUSE
That is what I meant. This is where I stayed.
8. ADVERB
He is right here.That is too much.
9. INFINITIVE
To see her is to love her
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b) The verbs to look, sound, taste, feel, smell.

It looks nice.
It sounds like Jazz.
It tastes spicy.
It feels rought.
Your perfume smells awful.

c) The verbs to appear, seem.

She seems friendly.

The fruits seemed fresh.
The bridge appears to be safe.

d) The verbs lie, stand, rest, remain, keep.

He laid quietly.
Rest assured!
I hope it will keep fine.
Stand back!

e) Dynamic or Inchoactive Verbs: To get, to become, to go, to fall, to run, to turn, to come, to grow.

He became a lawyer.
The story came true.
It’s getting late.
He is going mad.
They grew old together.
He fell ill.
They are running wild.
He turned out a traitor.

OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT: It is a function that, instead of adding information about the subject, it complements the
object. A sentence having S + V+DO+OC is equivalent to a sentence with a “that” clause as a DO.

I imagine her (to be) beautiful.

I imagine that she was beautiful.

The object “her” and the complement “to be beautiful” are in the same relation to each other.

CATEGORIES THAT FUNCTION AS O/C:

 ADJECTIVE
I found the house empty. I painted the house green.
 PAST/PRESENT PARTICIPLE
I must get my hair cut. I saw the thief running away.
 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
We left her in tears
 NOUN
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We appointed him head manager.

 GERUND
I call that cheating. I consider that lying.
 NOUN CLAUSE
Call it what you will
 FULL INFINITIVE
I don’t want anyone to know. They proved him to be wrong.
 BARE INFINITIVE
They watched him run. They made me do it.

ADVERBIAL MODIFIER: It is a word or group of words that describes another word and makes its meaning more specific.
They often answer questions about when, where, or how something is done. One of the hallmarks of adverbs is their
ability to move around in a sentence. Adverbs of manner are particularly flexible in this regard.

 Solemnly the minister addressed her congregation.

 The minister solemnly addressed her congregation.
 The minister addressed her congregation solemnly.

TYPES OF ADVERBIAL MODIFIER:

 TIME – Answers “when”

I was in South America last year.
During this time I learned to speak Spanish.
While (or When) I was in South America last year, I learned to speak Spanish.
I learned to speak Spanish while (or when) I was in South America last year

 PLACE – Answers “where”

She has lived on the island all her life. 
   She still lives there now.
We were in the street.
I found the book behind the desk.

 MANNER – Answers “how something is done”

He slept peacefully.
He ran quickly.
He    She moved slowly and spoke quietly.

 FREQUENCY – Answers “How often”

She often goes by herself.
   She drives her boat slowly to avoid hitting the rocks.
   She shops in several stores to get the best buys.

 DURATION – Answers “For how long”

They kept the ball rolling for hours.

 CONDITION – Answers “Under what circumstances”

If you save your money, you will be able to go to college.
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 CAUSE/REASON – Answers ”why an action takes place”

I couldn’t sleep for worrying.
We lost ourselves becausewe did not know the way.
He took care not to face the future for fear of breaking up his untroubled manner.

 PURPOSE – “What for”

 I tell him everyday in order that he can remember.
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PREPOSITIONS:

about by outside according to

above down over because of
across during since by way of
after except through in addition to
against for throughout in front of
around from till in place of
at in to in regard to
before inside toward in spite of
behind into under instead of
below like until on account of
beneath near up out of 
beside of upon
besides off with
between on without
beyond out

PRONOUNS:

PERSONAL POSSESSIVE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN

SUBJECT OBJECT ADJECTIVE PRONOUN
I ME MY MINE MYSELF
YOU YOU YOUR YOURS YOURSELF
HE HIM HIS HIS HIMSELF
SHE HER HER HERS HERSELF
IT IT ITS ITS ITSELF
WE US OUR OURS OURSELVES
YOU (PL) YOU YOUR YOURS YOURSELVES
THEY THEM THEIR THEIRS THEMSELVES