Ring Theory

MAT 3143

Winter 2018

Alistair Savage

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

University of Ottawa

This work is licensed under a

Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License
Contents

Preface 3

1 Rings 4
1.1 Examples and basic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Integral domains and fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Ideals and quotient rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2 Polynomials 32
2.1 Polynomial rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2 Factorization of polynomials over a field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3 Quotient rings of polynomials over a field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3 Integral domains 56
3.1 Unique factorization domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2 Principal ideal domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.3 Euclidean domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4 Fields 72
4.1 Brief review of vector spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.2 Field extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3 Splitting fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.4 Finite fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Index 93

2
Preface

These notes are aimed at students in the course Ring Theory (MAT 3143) at the University
of Ottawa. This is a first course in ring theory (except that students may have seen some
basic ring theory near the end of MAT 2143/2543). In this course, we study the general
definition of a ring and the types of maps that we allow between them, before turning our
attention to the important example of polynomials rings. We then discuss classes of rings
that have some additional nice properties (e.g. euclidean domains, principal ideal domains
and unique factorization domains). We also spend some time studying fields in more depth
than we’ve seen in previous courses. For example, we examine the ideas of field extensions
and splitting fields.

Notation: In this course N = Z≥0 = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } denotes the set of nonnegative integers.

Acknowledgement: Portions of these notes are based on handwritten notes of Erhard Ne-
her and Hadi Salmasian. Other portions follow the text Abstract Algebra: Theory and
Applications by Tom Judson, which is the recommended text for the course.

Alistair Savage

Course website: http://alistairsavage.ca/mat3143

3
Chapter 1

Rings

In this chapter we introduce the main object of this course. We start with the basic defi-
nition of a ring, give several important examples, and deduce some important properties.
We then turn our attention to integral domains and fields, two important types of rings.
Next, we discuss the important concept of an ideal and the related notion of quotient rings.
Finally, we conclude with a discussion of ring homomorphisms and state the important First
Isomorphism Theorem. A reference for the material in this chapter is [Jud12, Ch. 16].

1.1 Examples and basic properties

Definition 1.1.1 (Ring). A ring is a nonempty set R with two binary operations, usually
usually written as (and called) addition and multiplication satisfying the following axioms.
(R1) a + b = b + a for all a, b ∈ R.
(R2) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) for all a, b, c ∈ R.
(R3) There exists an element 0 ∈ R such that a + 0 = a for all a ∈ R.
(R4) For every a ∈ R, there exists an element −a ∈ R such that a + (−a) = 0.
(R5) (ab)c = a(bc) for all a, b, c ∈ R.
(R6) There exists an element 1 ∈ R such that 1a = a1 = a for all a ∈ R.
(R7) a(b + c) = ab + ac and (a + b)c = ac + bc for all a, b, c ∈ R.
A ring R is said to be commutative if, in addition,
(R8) ab = ba for all a, b ∈ R.
When we wish to specify the ring, we sometimes write 0R and 1R for the elements 0 and 1.
Sometimes condition (R6) is omitted from the definition of a ring and one refers to a ring
with unity (or identity) to specify that condition (R6) also holds. However, in this course,
we will always assume that our rings have a unity and use the term general ring for objects
that satisfy all the axioms of a ring other than (R6). Axioms (R1)–(R4) are equivalent to
(R, +) being an abelian group. Axioms (R5)–(R6) imply that (R, ·) is a monoid. Thus, the
element 1, called the unity, or identity element, of R, is unique. The zero element 0 is also
unique. See Exercise 1.1.1.

4
1.1. Examples and basic properties 5

Remark 1.1.2. Nonassociative rings are also an important area of study. These are objects for
which we do not require (R5) to hold. (A better name might be “not necessarily associative
rings”.) Lie algebras are a well studied class of nonassociative rings.

Example 1.1.3. Each of Z, R, Q, and C is a commutative ring.

Example 1.1.4. Let n be a positive integer and let Zn = {0̄, 1̄, . . . , n − 1} with addition and
multiplication performed modulo n. Then Zn is a commutative ring.

Example 1.1.5 (Matrices). The set Mn (Q) of all n × n matrices with rational entries is a
ring under matrix addition and multiplication. If n ≥ 2, this ring is noncommutative. More
generally, if R is a ring, then Mn (R) is also a ring (with the usual rules for matrix addition
and multiplication).

Example 1.1.6 (Polynomial rings). For any ring R, we have the ring

R[x] = {a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + am xm | a0 , . . . , am ∈ R},

called the ring of polynomials with coefficients in R. Here x is an indeterminate (and addition
and multiplication of polynomials is “formal”). We will discuss polynomial rings in further
detail in the next chapter.

Example 1.1.7 (Function rings). If X is a nonempty set, then the set F(X, R) of real valued
functions f : X → R is a commutative ring under pointwise addition and multiplication.

Example 1.1.8 (Direct product of rings). If R1 , . . . , Rn are rings, then their direct product is
the cartesian product R1 × · · · × Rn with the operations

(a1 , . . . , an ) + (b1 , . . . , bn ) = (a1 + b1 , . . . , an + bn ),

(a1 , . . . , an ) · (b1 , . . . , bn ) = (a1 b1 , . . . , an bn ).

Example 1.1.9 (The zero ring). The smallest ring is the zero ring R = {0}. A ring R is
the zero ring (i.e. has only one element, its zero element) if and only if 1R = 0R . See
Exercise 1.1.2. Since the zero ring is not very interesting, we usually assume that rings are
nonzero.

Example 1.1.10. The set 2Z of even integers, with the usual addition and multiplication, is
a general ring that is not a ring. Another such example is the set of all 3 × 3 real matrices
whose bottom row is zero, with usual addition and multiplication of matrices.

Definition 1.1.11 (Unit, multiplicative inverse). Let R be a ring. An element a ∈ R is

called a unit if there exists an element b ∈ R such that ab = ba = 1. The element b is called
the multiplicative inverse of a. The set of units of R is denoted R× . (In some references, the
group of units is denoted R∗ . We use the notation R× to avoid confusion with the dual of a
vector space.)

Proposition 1.1.12 (Uniqueness of multiplicative inverses). If a ∈ R has a multiplicative

inverse, then this inverse is unique.
6 Chapter 1. Rings

Proof. If b and c are both multiplicative inverses of a, then

b = b1 = b(ac) = (ba)c = 1c = c.
Proposition 1.1.13. For every ring R, the set R× is a group under multiplication.
Proof. The proof of this proposition is left as Exercise 1.1.5.
From now on, we will call R× the group of units of R.
Suppose R is a ring. If m ∈ Z and a ∈ R, then we define

a
|+a+ {z· · · + a} if m > 0,




 m summands

ma := 0 if m = 0, (1.1)




 −a + (−a) + · · · + (−a) if m < 0.
| {z }
m summands

If m ∈ N, then we define
am := a
| · a{z· · · a} .
m factors

Here we interpret a = 1. If a is a unit, then am is defined for all m ∈ Z. For negative m,

0

we define
−1 −1 −1
am := a| · a {z · · · a } .
|m| factors

It is easy to show (see Exercise 1.1.6) that

(m + n)a = ma + na, m(na) = (mn)a for all m, n ∈ Z, a ∈ R, (1.2)
am+n = am an , (am )n = amn for all m, n ∈ N, a ∈ R. (1.3)
If a is a unit, then (1.3) holds for all m, n ∈ Z.
Theorem 1.1.14. Let R be a ring and r, s ∈ R. Then
(a) r0 = 0 = 0r,
(b) (−r)s = r(−s) = −(rs),
(c) (−r)(−s) = rs, and
(d) (mr)(ns) = (mn)(rs) for all m, n ∈ Z.
(Here 0 = 0R , as opposed to the integer zero.)
Proof. For r ∈ R, we have r0 = r(0 + 0) = r0 + r0. Adding −r0 to both sides gives r0 = 0.
The proof of the relation 0r = 0 is similar. The remainder of the relations are left as an
exercise (or see [Jud12, Prop. 16.1]).
Definition 1.1.15 (Subtraction). If r and s are elements of a ring R, their difference is
defined to be
r − s := r + (−s).
In this way, we can define subtraction in a ring.
1.1. Examples and basic properties 7

Definition 1.1.16 (Characteristic). If R is any ring, the characteristic of R, denoted char R,

is defined to be the order of 1R in (R, +) if this order is finite and zero if this order is infinite.

Example 1.1.17. We have

char Z = 0, char R = 0, char C = 0, char Zn = n, char(zero ring) = 1.

Remark 1.1.18. Note that if the ring R is finite (i.e. |R| < ∞), then char R > 0.

Lemma 1.1.19. The characteristic of a ring R is the exponent of the ring’s additive group.
That is, it is the smallest positive integer n such that na = 0 for all a ∈ R.

Proof. It suffices to show that n1 = 0 if and only if, for all a ∈ R, we have na = 0. Clearly
the latter condition implies the former (just take a = 1). Now, if n1 = 0, then, for all a ∈ R,
we have na = n(1a) = (n1)a = 0a = 0.

Definition 1.1.20 (Idempotent, nilpotent). An element a ∈ R is called an idempotent if

a2 = a. It is called nilpotent if an = 0 for some positive integer n.

Examples 1.1.21. In any ring R, the elements 0 and 1 are idempotents and 0 is nilpotent. In
M2 (R) we have other idempotents:
   
1 0 1/2 1/2
, ,... .
0 0 1/2 1/2

In M2 (R) we also have many nilpotent elements:

   
0 1 0 0
, ,... .
0 0 −2 0

Definition 1.1.22 (Subring). A subset S ⊆ R of a ring R is called a subring of R if it is

itself a ring with the same operations (and the same unity) as R.

Proposition 1.1.23 (Subring Test). A subset S ⊆ R of a ring R is a subring of R if

(SR1) 0 ∈ S and 1 ∈ S,
(SR2) If s, t ∈ S, then s + t, st and −s are all in S.

Alternatively, S is a subring of R if

(SR1 0 ) 1 ∈ S,
(SR2 0 ) rs ∈ S for all r, s ∈ S, and
(SR3 0 ) r − s ∈ S for all r, s ∈ S.

Proof. The proof of this proposition is left as Exercise 1.1.7.

Examples 1.1.24. (a) Z is a subring of R.

(b) M2 (Z) is a subring of M2 (Q).
8 Chapter 1. Rings

    
R R x y 
(c) := x, y, z ∈ R is a subring of M2 (R).
0 R 0 z 
(d) 2Z is not a subring of Z.
(e) The gaussian integers Z(i) := {a + bi | a, b ∈ Z} form a subring of C.
(f) If a, b ∈ R with a < b, then the continuous real valued functions on the interval [a, b]
form a subring of F([a, b], R).

Example 1.1.25. Let us find Z(i)× . We have

(a+bi)(c+di) = 1 =⇒ (a−bi)(c−di) = (a + bi)(c + di) = 1̄ = 1 =⇒ (a2 +b2 )(c2 +d2 ) = 1.

Since a2 + b2 , c2 + d2 ∈ N, this implies that a2 + b2 = 1. Thus, either a = 0, b = ±1 or

a = ±1, b = 0. Therefore Z(i)× = {±1, ±i}.

Definition 1.1.26 (Center). The center of a ring R is defined to be

Z(R) := {r ∈ R | rs = sr for all s ∈ R}.

Example 1.1.27. A ring R is commutative if and only if Z(R) = R.

Lemma 1.1.28. The center Z(R) of a ring R is a subring of R.

Proof. The proof of this lemma is left as Exercise 1.1.10.

Later, in Section 1.4, we will discuss the notion of a ring homomorphism. However,
it is useful to give here the definition of the special case of a ring isomorphism (see also
Definition 1.4.10).

Definition 1.1.29 (Isomorphic rings). Two rings R, S are said to be isomorphic, and we
write R ∼
= S, if there exists a map σ : R → S such that

(a) σ is bijective,
(b) σ(a + b) = σ(a) + σ(b) for all a, b ∈ R, and
(c) σ(ab) = σ(a)σ(b) for all a, b ∈ R.

The map σ is called an isomorphism.

Remark 1.1.30. Note that if σ : R → S is an isomorphism of rings, then we have the following:

(a) σ is an isomorphism of the corresponding additive groups. In particular, σ(0R ) = 0S .

(b) σ(1R ) = 1S . This can be seen as follows. For any s ∈ S, there exists r ∈ R such that
σ(r) = s. Thus sσ(1R ) = σ(r)σ(1S ) = σ(r1S ) = σ(r) = s. Similarly σ(1R )s = s. Since
s ∈ S was arbitrary, this implies that σ(1R ) is the unity of S.
1.1. Examples and basic properties 9

Example 1.1.31. Let

         
R R a b  R 0 a 0 
R1 = = a, b, c ∈ R and R2 = = a, b, c ∈ R .
0 R 0 c  R R b c 

Consider the map σ : R1 → R2 given by

     −1  
a b 0 1 a b 0 1 c 0
σ = =
0 c 1 0 0 c 1 0 b a

0 1
It is easy to see that σ 2 = id. Thus σ is invertible and hence bijective. If M = , we
1 0
also have

σ(A + B) = M (A + B)M −1 = M AM −1 + M BM −1 = σ(A) + σ(B),

σ(AB) = (M AM −1 )(M BM −1 ) = M ABM −1 = σ(AB).

Thus σ is an isomorphism and so R1 ∼

= R2 .
Note that the map A 7→ AT is not a ring isomorphism since (AB)T 6= AT B T in general.

Exercises.
1.1.1. Prove that the identity element in any monoid (hence in any group) is unique.

1.1.2. Show that a ring R is the zero ring (i.e. R = {0}) if and only if 0R = 1R .

1.1.3. Explain why each of the following is not a ring.

(a) N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , } under usual addition and multiplication.

(b) 2Z.
(c) The set of all mappings f : R → R under pointwise addition, but with multiplication
given by composition.

1.1.4. Suppose R is a ring. The opposite ring Rop of R is the same set as R, with the same
addition, but with multiplication given by r · s = sr. (Here · denotes the multiplication in
Rop and juxtaposition denotes the multiplication in R.) Prove that Rop is a ring.

1.1.5. Prove Proposition 1.1.13.

1.1.6. Prove (1.2) and (1.3).

1.1.7. Prove Proposition 1.1.23.

1.1.8 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.1.3]). For each of the following, show that S is a subring of R.
10 Chapter 1. Rings

  
a b 
 a, b, c, d ∈ R, a + c = b + d , R = M2 (R).
(a) S =
c d 
  
a b 
 a, b ∈ R , R = M2 (R).
(b) S =
0 a 
  
 a 0 b  
(c) S = 0 c d  a, b, c, d ∈ R , R = M3 (R).
 
0 0 a 
 
  
a 2b 
(d) S = a, b ∈ R , R = M2 (R).
b a 

1.1.9 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.1.4]). If S and T are subrings of R, show that S ∩ T is a subring of R.
Is it necessarily true that S + T = {s + t | s ∈ S, t ∈ T } is a subring of R?

1.1.10. Prove Lemma 1.1.28.

1.1.11. Find the center of M2 (R).

1.1.12. Show that if R and S are rings, then (R × S)× = R× × S × .

1.1.13 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.1.5]). Suppose X is a nonempty subset of a ring R. The centralizer of
X in R is defined to be

C(X) = {c ∈ R | cx = xc for all x ∈ X}.

Prove that C(X) is a subring of R.

1.1.14 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.1.10]). Suppose a and b are elements of a ring.

(a) If ab + ba = 1 and a3 = a, prove that a2 = 1.

(b) If ab = a and ba = b, prove that a2 = a and b2 = b.

1.1.15 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.1.11]). Show that 0 is the only nilpotent in a ring R if and only if a2 = 0
implies a = 0.

1.1.16 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.1.14]). Given r and s in a ring R, show that 1 + rs is a unit if and only
if 1 + sr is a unit. Hint: s(1 + rs) = (1 + sr)s.

1.1.17. Find all the rings of characteristic one.

1.1.18 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.1.18]). Find the characteristics of the following rings.

(a) Zn × Zm .
(b) M2 (Zn ).
(c) Z × Zn .

1.1.19 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.1.20]). If ua = au, where u is a unit and a is a nilpotent, show that
u + a is a unit.
1.2. Integral domains and fields 11

1.1.20 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.1.28]). For each of the following rings, find all the units, nilpotents, and
idempotents:

(a) Z
(b) Z24
(c) M2 (Z2 )
 
R R
(d)
0 R

1.1.21 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.1.36]). For each of the following pairs of rings, show that the two rings
are not isomorphic.

(a) R and C.
(b) Q and R.
(c) Z and Q.
(d) Z8 and Z4 × Z2 .

1.2 Integral domains and fields

We now consider certain special types of rings that we will examine in further detail later in
the course.

Definition 1.2.1 (Zero divisor, integral domain, division ring, field). Suppose R is a ring.
A nonzero element r ∈ R is said to be a zero divisor if there exists a nonzero s ∈ R such
that rs = 0 or sr = 0. A nonzero ring is said to be a domain if it has no zero divisors.
A commutative domain is called an integral domain. If every nonzero element in a (not
necessarily commutative) nonzero ring is a unit, then R is called a division ring (or skew
field ). A commutative division ring is called a field .

Rings

Commutative
Domains
Rings

Integral Division
Domains Rings

Fields

Figure 1.1: Types of rings

12 Chapter 1. Rings

Example 1.2.2. The rings R, C, Q are fields. The ring Z is an integral domain, but not a
field.

Example 1.2.3. The ring Z(i) of gaussian integers is an integral domain (Exercise 1.2.1) but
not a field, since Z(i)× = {±1, ±i} (see Example 1.1.25).

Example 1.2.4. The ring M2 (R) is not a domain since, for example,
    
1 0 0 0 0 0
= .
0 0 0 1 0 0

Proposition 1.2.5. The ring Zm is a field if and only if m is a prime number.

Proof. Let m be a prime. For every ā ∈ Zm , ā 6= 0, we have gcd(a, m) = 1 and so there exist
x, y ∈ Z such that ax + my = 1. Thus āx̄ = 1̄ in Zm . Thus every nonzero element of Zm is
a unit.
Now suppose m is not prime. Then m = m1 m2 for some 1 < m1 , m2 < m. In particular,
m̄1 , m̄2 6= 0, but m̄1 m̄2 = m̄ = 0̄. Therefore m1 and m2 are not units of Zm .

Proposition 1.2.6. Let R be a ring such that |R| = p, where p is a prime number. Then R
is isomorphic to Zp . In particular, R is a field.

Proof. By Lagrange’s Theorem, the additive group h1i generated by the unity is equal to all
of R and this must be isomorphic to the group Zp (since this is the only group of order p
when p is a prime number). Define σ : Zp → R by σ(m̄) = m1R . Then we have the following:

• σ is injective since, for a, b ∈ Z,

σ(ā) = σ(b̄) =⇒ a1 = b1 =⇒ (a − b)1 = 0 =⇒ p|(a − b) =⇒ ā = b̄ in Zp ,

where the third implication follows from the fact that (a − b)1 = 0 in the additive
group (R, +) ∼= Zp (isomorphism of groups) if and only if p|(a − b). (Note that we
cannot simply conclude from a1 = b1 that a = b, since the expressions a1 and b1 do
not represent products in the ring R. Rather they are of the form (1.1).)
• σ is bijective because σ is injective and |R| = |Zp |.
• We have

σ(ā + b̄) = σ a + b = (a + b)1 = a1 + b1 = σ(ā) + σ(b̄).
• σ(ab) = σ(ā)σ(b̄). The proof of this fact is similar to the above and is left as an
exercise.

Proposition 1.2.7. Let R be a ring. Then the following statements are equivalent:

(a) R is a domain.
(b) If ab = ac in R and a 6= 0, then b = c.
(c) If ba = ca in R and a 6= 0, then b = c.
1.2. Integral domains and fields 13

Proof. (a) =⇒ (b). Suppose R is a domain and ab = ac in R. Then a(b − c) = ab − ac = 0.

Since a 6= 0 and R is a domain, we must have b − c = 0, hence b = c.
(b) =⇒ (a). Suppose R satisfies (b) and that ab = 0 in R. Then we have ab = a0.
Thus, if a 6= 0, we must have b = 0 by (b). Hence R is a domain.
We have proven the equivalence of (a) and (b). The proof that (a) and (c) are equivalent
is similar.

Examples 1.2.8. (a) Every division ring is a domain.

(b) Every field is an integral domain.
(c) If R is an (integral) domain and S is a subring of R, then S is an (integral) domain.
(d) Z(i) is an integral domain (since it is a subring of C).
√ √
Example 1.2.9. The subring Q( 2) := {a + b 2 | a, b ∈ Q} of the field of complex numbers
is a field. Being a subring of C, it is an integral domain. Thus,√it remains to show that every
√
nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse. Suppose x ∈ Q( 2) \ {0}. Then x = a + b 2
with a 6= 0 or b 6= 0. Then
√
−1 1 a−b 2 a b √
x = √ = 2 = − 2.
a+b 2 a − 2b2 a2 − 2b2 a2 − 2b2
2 √
Note that a2 − 2b2 6= 0 since if a2 − 2b2 = 0, then ab2 = 2, which implies that 2 = ± ab ∈ Q,
√
which contradicts the fact that 2 is an irrational number.

Definition 1.2.10 (Quaternions). The quaternions are the ring

H = {a + bi + cj + dk | a, b, c, d ∈ R}

with multiplication determined by the rules

ij = k = −ji, jk = i = −kj, ki = j = −ik, i2 = j 2 = k 2 = −1.

For w = a + bi + cj + dk ∈ H, we define w∗ := a − bi − cj − dk and N (w) := a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 .

For example, we have

(3 − 4j)(2i + k) = 6i + 3k − 8ji − 4jk = 6i + 3k + 8k − 4i = 2i + 11k.

Lemma 1.2.11. If w ∈ H \ {0}, then w−1 = 1

N (w)
w∗ .

Proof. See [Jud12, Example 6].

By Lemma 1.2.11, the ring of quaternions is a division ring. However, it is not a field
since it is not commutative. Thus, the quaternions are an example of a noncommutative
division ring.

Proposition 1.2.12. The characteristic of an integral domain is either zero or a prime

number.
14 Chapter 1. Rings

Proof. Let R be an integral domain and suppose that the characteristic of R is n 6= 0. If n

is not prime, then n = ab, with 1 < a < n and 1 < b < n. Then 0 = n1 = (ab)1 = (a1)(b1).
Since R has no zero divisors, either a1 = 0 or b1 = 0. Thus the characteristic of R must be
less than n, which is a contradiction. Therefore, n must be prime.

Proposition 1.2.13. Every finite integral domain is a field.

Proof. Let R be an integral domain with |R| = n < ∞. Suppose r ∈ R with r 6= 0. Then,
by Proposition 1.2.7, the function f : R → R, f (x) = rx is injective. Since R is finite, this
implies that f is bijective. Thus f (s) = rs = 1 for some s ∈ R. Hence r is a unit. Since r
was an arbitrary nonzero element of R, this implies that R is a field.

A proof of the following theorem can be found in [Jud12, Th. 16.16]. (We will not use
this theorem.)

Theorem 1.2.14 (Wedderburn’s Theorem). Every finite division ring is a field.

We conclude this section by showing that every integral domain “embeds” into a field.
We do this by mimicking the construction of the rational numbers from the integers. We
assume for the rest of this section that R is an integral domain.
Let
X = {(r, u) | r, u ∈ R, u 6= 0}
and define a relation on X by

(r, u) ≡ (s, v) ⇐⇒ rv = su.

This is an equivalence relation on X. It is easy to see that this relation is reflexive and
symmetric. We therefore must show that it is transitive. Suppose that

(r, u) ≡ (s, v) and (s, v) ≡ (t, w).

Then, by definition, we have rv = su and sw = tv. Therefore,

(rw)v = (rv)w = (su)w = u(sw) = utv (since R is commutative).

Since (s, v) ∈ X, we have v 6= 0 and so we can cancel v in the above by Proposition 1.2.7.
This gives rw = tu and so (r, u) ≡ (t, w). Thus ≡ is an equivalence relation on X. We write
r
s
for the equivalence class of (r, s). Thus rs = vs if and only if (r, s) ≡ (s, v).
We now define nr  o
Q :=  r, u ∈ R, u 6= 0 . (1.4)

u
We define addition and multiplication on Q by
r s rv + su r s rs
+ = and · = .
u v uv u v uv
Note that uv 6= 0 since u, v 6= 0 and R is a domain. Since the quotients above are equivalence
classes, we must show that these operations are well defined. We show this for multiplication
1.2. Integral domains and fields 15

r r0 s s0
and refer the reader to [Jud12, Lem. 18.2] for addition. If u
= u0
and v
= v0
, we must show
rs 0 0
that uv = ur 0sv0 . This follows from the fact that

(rs)(u0 v 0 ) = (ru0 )(sv 0 ) = (r0 u)(s0 v) = (r0 s0 )(uv).

We leave it as a Exercise 1.2.14 to show that Q is a field with zero 10 and unity 11 . The
negative of an element ur is −r
u
. Furthermore, if ur in nonzero in Q, then r 6= 0. Thus ur ∈ Q
−1
and we have ur = ur .

Define nr o
R0 := |r∈R . (1.5)
1
It is easy (Exercise 1.2.15) to verify that R0 is a subring of R. Furthermore, it is not hard
to check that the map
r
σ : R → R0 , σ(r) = , r ∈ R.
1
is an isomorphism of rings (see [Jud12, Th. 18.4]) and so R ∼ = R0 . One usually identifies R
with R0 via this isomorphism. That is we set r = 1r for all r ∈ R. In this way, we view R as
a subring of Q. We call Q the field of fractions (or field of quotients) of the integral domain
R.

Example 1.2.15. The field of fractions of Z is Q. The field of fractions of R[x] is called the
field of rational functions.

Exercises.
1.2.1. Show that the ring of gaussian integers is an integral domain.

1.2.2. Show that Z×

m = {k ∈ Zm | gcd(k, m) = 1}.

1.2.3 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.2.1]). Find all the roots of x2 + 3x − 4 in the rings Z, Z6 , and Z4 .

1.2.4 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.2.2]). Suppose p is a prime and define

nn  o
Z(p) = ∈ Q  p does not divide m .

m
Show that Z(p) is an integral domain and find all its units.

1.2.5 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.2.3]). Determine all the idempotents and nilpotents in a domain.

1.2.6 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.2.4]). Suppose R and S are nonzero rings. It is possible for R × S to be
a domain?

1.2.7 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.2.5]). Show that Mn (R), where R is a ring, is never a domain if n ≥ 2.
16 Chapter 1. Rings

1.2.8 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.2.6]). If a2 = b2 and a3 = b3 in a domain, show that a = b. Now do it

for am = bm and an = bn where gcd(m, n) = 1. Hint: 1 = xm + yn for some x, y ∈ Z.

1.2.9 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.2.7]). Suppose that a ring R has no nonzero nilpotent elements. If ab = 0
in R, show that ba = 0.

1.2.10 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.2.8]). Show that a ring R is a division ring if and only if, for each
nonzero a ∈ R, there is a unique element b ∈ R such that aba = a.

1.2.11 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.2.11]). If F is a field with q elements, show that aq = a for all a ∈ F .
Hint: Use Lagrange’s Theorem.

1.2.12 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.2.14]). Show that there is no field with 6 elements. Hint: Use Lagrange’s
Theorem.

1.2.13 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.2.15]). Show that the center of a division ring is a field.

1.2.14. Show that Q as defined in (1.4) is a field.

1.2.15. Show that R0 as defined in (1.5) is a subring of Q.

1.2.16 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.2.28]). Let R be a commutative ring and call u ∈ R a nonzero-divisor if
ur = 0, r ∈ R, implies r = 0. Let U ⊆ R be a set of nonzero-divisors in R such that 1 ∈ U ,
and ab ∈ U whenever a, b ∈ U . Generalize the field of fractions construction by showing that
a ring of quotients nr  o
Q= r ∈ R, u ∈ U

u


exists. Show further that R can be regarded as a subring of Q and, in this case, that each
element of U is a unit in Q and Q = {ru−1 | r ∈ R, u ∈ U }.

1.3 Ideals and quotient rings

Recall that that if G is a group and H ⊆ G, then in order for the quotient set G/H to
naturally be a group, we need H to be a normal subgroup of G. What is the analogous
notion for rings? That is, if R is a ring and S ⊆ R, when is R/S naturally a ring?

Example 1.3.1. Let R = Z × Z, and S = {(x, x) | x ∈ Z}. It is straightforward to verify that

S is a subring of R. Note that (0, 1) + S = (−1, 0) + S. If we try to define a multiplication
on the set of cosets R/S by multiplying representatives, we have

((0, 1) + S)((0, 1) + S) = (0, 1) + S 6= (0, 0) + S = ((0, 1) + S)((−1, 0) + S),

which is a contradiction.

Definition 1.3.2 (Ideal). Let R be a ring. An additive subgroup I ⊆ R is called an ideal of

R if for every r ∈ R, we have rI ⊆ I and Ir ⊆ I. The ideal I is said to be proper if I 6= R.
1.3. Ideals and quotient rings 17

We now want to define the structure of a ring on the quotient set R/I := {a + I | a ∈ R}.
(Recall that a + I = a0 + I ⇐⇒ a − a0 ∈ I.) We want the addition and multiplication to
be given by

(a + I) + (b + I) = (a + b) + I and (a + I)(b + I) = ab + I. (1.6)

Theorem 1.3.3. Let I ⊆ R be an ideal of R. Then R/I, with addition and multiplication
defined by (1.6), is a ring. The unity of R/I is 1 + I and the zero is 0 + I = I. If R is
commutative, then R/I is also commutative.

Proof. We must first show that the addition and multiplication are well defined. If a + I =
a0 + I and b + I = b0 + I, then a − a0 , b − b0 ∈ I. Thus

ab − a0 b0 = (a − a0 )b + a0 (b − b0 ) ∈ Ib + a0 I ⊆ I

and so ab + I = a0 b0 + I. Thus the multiplication is well defined. The proof that the
addition is also well defined and that A/I satisfies the axioms of Definition 1.1.1 is left as
Exercise 1.3.1.

Proposition 1.3.4. Let I be an ideal of a ring R. Then the following statements are equi-
valent:

(a) 1 ∈ I.
(b) I contains a unit.
(c) I = R.

Proof. We leave the proof of this result as Exercise 1.3.2.

Definition 1.3.5 (Principal ideal). If a ∈ Z(R), then Ra = aR and this is an ideal of R,

often denoted hai. It is called the principal ideal of R generated by a.

Proposition 1.3.6 (Ideals of Z). Every ideal of Z is principal.

Proof. The zero ideal {0} is a principal ideal since 0Z = {0}. If I is any nonzero ideal in
Z, then I must contain some positive integer. Then there exists a least positive integer n
in I by the Principle of Well-Ordering. Now let a be any element in I. Using the division
algorithm, we know that there exist integers q and r such that

a = nq + r

where 0 ≤ r < n. This equation tells us that r = a − nq ∈ I, but r must be 0 since n is the
least positive element in I. Therefore, a = nq and I = nZ.

Example 1.3.7. If R is any ring, then {0} and R are ideals of R. The corresponding quotient
rings are R/{0} ∼
= R and R/R ∼ = {0}. The ideal {0} is called the zero ideal of R.

Definition 1.3.8 (Simple ring). A nonzero ring R is called simple if its only ideals are {0}
and R.
18 Chapter 1. Rings

Example 1.3.9. It follows from Proposition 1.3.4 that the only ideals of a division ring R are
{0} and R. Hence division rings are simple.

Example 1.3.10. Let R = Z(i) be the ring of gaussian integers. Let I = h2 + ii. We wish to
describe the ring R/I. Since i − (−2) = 2 + i ∈ I, we have i + I = (−2) + I. Thus, for all
m, n ∈ Z,
(m + ni) + I = (m + I) + (−2n + I) = (m − 2n) + I.
Moreover, 5 = (2 + i)(2 − i) ∈ (2 + i)R = I, which implies that 5 + I = I. Thus the only
elements of R/I, are I, 1 + I, 2 + I, 3 + I, 4 + I. Are all of these elements distinct? Suppose
n, m ∈ Z and n + I = m + I. Thus (m − n) + I = I. Then, for some a, b ∈ Z, we have

m − n = (2 + i)(a + bi) = (2a − b) + (a + 2b)i =⇒ a = −2b =⇒ m − n = −5b ∈ 5Z.

Therefore, R/I ∼
= Z5 (a field).

Definition 1.3.11 (Prime ideal). An ideal P of a commutative ring R is called a prime

ideal if P 6= R and
r, s ∈ R, rs ∈ P =⇒ r ∈ P or s ∈ P.
(See Exercises 1.3.5 and 1.3.20(d) for an indication of why these ideals are called prime.)

Examples 1.3.12. (a) 2Z is a prime ideal of Z, but 4Z is not.

(b) Z × {0} is a prime ideal of Z × Z, but 2Z × {0} and {0} × {0} are not.

Theorem 1.3.13. If R is a commutative ring, an ideal P 6= R is prime if and only if R/P

is an integral domain.

Proof. Assume P is prime and (a + P )(b + P ) = ab + P = 0 + P in R/P . Then ab ∈ P and

so a ∈ P or b ∈ P . Thus a + P = 0 + P or b + P = 0 + P . Thus R/P is an integral domain.
Now assume that R/P is an integral domain and ab ∈ P . Then (a+P )(b+P ) = ab+P =
0 + P and so either a + P = 0 + P or b + P = 0 + P . Hence a ∈ P or b ∈ P .

Examples 1.3.14. (a) (Z × Z)/(Z × {0}) ∼

= Z. The ideal Z × {0} is prime and Z is an
integral domain.
(b) Zn is an integral domain if and only if n is prime (see Exercise 1.3.5).
(c) Since, for any ring R, we have R/{0} ∼ = R, we have that R is an integral domain if
and only if its zero ideal is prime.

Theorem 1.3.15. Let I be an ideal of a ring R. Then there exists a bijective, inclusion pre-
serving correspondence between the set of ideals of R/I and the set of ideals of R containing
I.

Proof. We split the proof into three steps.

(a) We first show that if à is an ideal of R/I, then

A := {b ∈ R | b + I ∈ Ã}
1.3. Ideals and quotient rings 19

is an ideal of R containing I with à = A/I. Since 0 + I ∈ Ã, we have 0 ∈ A. If a, b ∈ A,

then a + I ∈ à and b + I ∈ Ã. Since à is an additive subgroup of R/A, we then have
(a − b) + I = (a + I) − (b + I) ∈ Ã. Hence a − b ∈ A. Thus A is an additive subgroup of R.
Now, if a ∈ A and r ∈ R, then

a + I ∈ à and r + I ∈ R/I =⇒ ra + I = (r + I)(a + I) ∈ à (since à in an ideal of R/I)

=⇒ ra ∈ A (by the definition of A).

Similarly, one can show that ar ∈ A. Thus A is closed under multiplication by elements of
R and hence is an ideal of R.
To see that I ⊆ A, note that

a ∈ I =⇒ a + I = 0 + I ∈ Ã =⇒ a ∈ A (by the definition of A).

It remains to show that à = A/I. Since

r + I ∈ Ã =⇒ r ∈ A =⇒ r + I ∈ A/I,

we have à ⊆ A/I. To prove the reverse inclusion, suppose x ∈ A/I. Then there is some
a ∈ A ⊆ R such that x = a + I. This implies that x = a + I ∈ Ã by the definition of A.
(b) Next we show that if A is an ideal of R containing I then à := {a + I | a ∈ A} is an
ideal of R/I and à = A/I := {a + I | a ∈ A} (which is clearly true). Since 0 ∈ I, we have
0 + I ∈ Ã.
Suppose x1 , x2 ∈ Ã. Then there exist a1 , a2 ∈ A such that x1 = a1 + I and x2 = a2 + I.
Since A is an ideal or R, we have a1 − a2 ∈ A. Then x1 − x2 = (a1 + I) − (a2 + I) =
(a1 − a2 ) + I ∈ Ã. Thus à is an additive subgroup of R/I.
Now suppose x ∈ Ã and r + I ∈ R/I. Then x = a + I for some a ∈ A. Since A is an
ideal of R, we have ra ∈ I. Hence (r + I)x = (r + I)(a + I) = ra + I ∈ Ã. The proof that
(a + I)(r + I) ∈ à is similar. Hence à is an ideal of R/I.
(c) Finally, we show that if A1 and A2 are ideals of R containing I, then A1 ⊆ A2 if and
only if A1 /I ⊆ A2 /I. That A1 ⊆ A2 =⇒ A1 /I ⊆ A2 /I is obvious. We show the reverse
inclusion. Suppose A1 /I ⊆ A2 /I. Then

a1 ∈ A1 =⇒ a1 + I ∈ A1 /I
=⇒ ∃ a2 ∈ A2 such that a1 + I = a2 + I
=⇒ a1 − a2 ∈ I
=⇒ a1 = a2 + a for some a ∈ I
=⇒ a1 ∈ A2 (since a2 + a ∈ A2 + I ⊆ A2 because I ⊆ A2 )

Theorem 1.3.16. A commutative ring is simple if and only if it is a field.

Proof. Since a field is a commutative division ring by definition, the reverse implication
follows from Example 1.3.9. Therefore it suffices to prove the forward implication. Suppose
R is a simple commutative ring and let a ∈ R \ {0}. Then aR 6= {0} is an ideal and so
aR = R. Thus ab = 1 for some b ∈ R.
20 Chapter 1. Rings

Definition 1.3.17 (Maximal ideal). An ideal I of a ring R is said to be maximal if I 6= R

and there is no ideal J such that I ( J ( R.

Theorem 1.3.18. Let R be any ring and let I be an ideal of R. Then R/I is simple if and
only if I is a maximal ideal.

Proof. Suppose R/I is simple and A is an ideal of R with I ⊆ A ⊆ R. By Theorem 1.3.15,

A/I is an ideal of R/I with I/I ⊆ A/I ⊆ R/I. Since R/I is simple, we have A/I = R/I or
A/I = I/I, which implies that A = R or A = I.
Now suppose that I is maximal and, towards a contradiction, that R/I is not simple.
Then R/I has a nonzero proper ideal of the form A/I. So I/I ( A/I ( R/I. Then, by
Theorem 1.3.15, A is an ideal of R with I ( A ( R, which is a contradiction.

Corollary 1.3.19. An ideal I of a commutative ring R is maximal if and only if R/I is a

field.

Proof. This follows from Theorems 1.3.16 and 1.3.18.

Corollary 1.3.20. Every maximal ideal of a commutative ring is a prime ideal.

Proof. Suppose I is a maximal ideal of a commutative ring R. Then, by Corollary 1.3.19, the
quotient R/I is a field. Hence R/I is an integral domain and so I is prime by Theorem 1.3.13.

Example 1.3.21. We have that {0} is a prime ideal of Z that is not maximal. Similarly,
{0} × Z is an ideal of Z × Z that is prime but not maximal.

Example 1.3.22. By Theorem 1.3.15, the ideals of Z/nZ are of the form A/nZ for some ideal
A of Z such that nZ ⊆ A. By Proposition 1.3.6, A = mZ for some m ∈ Z. Since nZ ⊆ mZ
if and only if m | n, the ideals of Z/nZ are mZ/nZ for m | n.
As an explicit example, consider n = 6. The bijective correspondence of Theorem 1.3.15
is given explicitly by:

Ideal of Z/6Z Ideal of Z

Z/6Z = h1̄i Z
{0̄, 2̄, 4̄} = h2̄i 2Z
{0̄, 3̄} = h3̄i 3Z
{0̄} = h0̄i = h6̄i 6Z

Example 1.3.23. We will discuss polynomial rings in detail in Chapter 2. However, we give
here an example involving them. Consider

R = Z[x] = {a0 + a1 x + · · · + ak xk | k ∈ N, a0 , . . . , ak ∈ Z},

I = {4a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + ak xk | k ∈ N, a0 , . . . , ak ∈ Z}.

Then
R/I = {0 + I, 1 + I, 2 + I, 3 + I} ∼
= Z4 .
1.3. Ideals and quotient rings 21

And, for example, the ideal h2̄i ⊆ Z4 corresponds to the ideal

J = {2a0 + a1 x + · · · + ak xk | k ∈ N, a0 , . . . , ak ∈ Z}.

Remark 1.3.24. We have seen (Theorem 1.3.16) that if a commutative ring is simple, then it
is a field. For noncommutative rings, this situation is more complicated. There are simple
rings that are not division rings. For example, if F is a field, then Mn (F ) is a simple ring
that is not a division ring. This follows from the following result.

Theorem 1.3.25. If R is a ring and n ∈ N+ , then every ideal of Mn (R) is of the form
Mn (I) where I is an ideal of R.

We will not prove the above theorem (nor will we use it). The proof can be found, for
instance, in [Nic12, Lem. 3.3.3].

Exercises.
1.3.1. Complete the proof of Theorem 1.3.3.

1.3.2. Prove Proposition 1.3.4.

1.3.3 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.1]). For each of the following, decide whether A is an ideal of the ring
R. Justify your answer.

(a) R = C, A = Z.
(b) R = Z × Z, A = {(k, k) | k ∈ Z}.
   
R R 0 R
(c) R = ,A= .
0 R 0 R
   
Z Z Z 2Z
(d) R = ,A= .
0 Z 0 Z
   
R R Z R
(e) R = ,A= .
0 R 0 Z
(f) R = Z(i), A = {n + ni | n ∈ Z}.

  
S S 0 S
1.3.4 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.2]). Suppose S is a ring. If R = and A = , show that
0 S 0 0
A is an ideal of R and describe the cosets in R/A.

1.3.5. Show that nZ is a prime ideal of Z if and only if n is either zero or a prime number.

1.3.6. Prove that the maximal ideals of Z are precisely the ideals pZ where p is a prime
number.
22 Chapter 1. Rings

1.3.7. Suppose R is a ring and m ∈ Z. Show that mR = {mr | R ∈ R} and Am = {r ∈ R |

mr = 0} are ideals of R.

1.3.8 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.5]). Suppose R and S are rings.

(a) If A is an ideal of R and B is an ideal of S, show that A × B is an ideal of R × S.
(b) Show that every ideal A of R × S is of the form A = A × B for some ideal A of R and
some ideal B of S. Hint: A = {a ∈ R | (a, 0) ∈ A}.
(c) Show that the maximal ideals of R × S are either of the form A × S, where A is a
maximal ideal of R, or of the form R × B, where B is a maximal ideal of S.

1.3.9 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.6]). If A is an ideal of R, show that M2 (A) is an ideal of M2 (R).

1.3.10 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.8]). If A and B are ideals of a ring R such that A ∩ B = 0, show that
ab = 0 = ba for all a ∈ A and b ∈ B.

1.3.11 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.9]). Let R = Z(i) be the ring of gaussian integers. For each of the
following, find the number of elements in the factor ring R/A and describe the cosets:
(a) A = Ri
(b) A = R(1 − i)
(c) A = R(1 + 2i)
(d) A = R(1 + 3i)
Hint: (1 + 2i)(1 − i) = 3 + i and (1 + 3i)(1 − 3i) = 10.

1.3.12 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.10]). If R is a simple

 ring,
 show that Z(R) is a field. Show that the
F F
converse is not true by considering R = where F is a field.
0 F

1.3.13 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.12]). If X ⊆ R is a nonempty subset of a commutative ring R, define

the annihilator of X to be ann(X) = {a ∈ R | ax = 0 for all x ∈ X}.
(a) Show that ann(X) is an ideal of R.
(b) If X ⊆ Y , show that ann(Y ) ⊆ ann(X).
(c) Show that ann(X ∪ Y ) = ann(X) ∩ ann(Y ).


(d) Show that X ⊆ ann ann(X) .


(e) Show that ann(X) = ann ann ann(X) .

1.3.14 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.13]). Give an example of a ring R and an ideal A such that R/A is
commutative, but R is not.

1.3.15 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.14]). If X and Y are additive subgroups of R, define X + Y = {x + y |

x ∈ X, y ∈ Y }.
(a) Show that X + Y is an additive subgroup of R that contains both X and Y .
1.3. Ideals and quotient rings 23

(b) If A and B are ideals of R, show that A + B is an ideal of R.

(c) If A is an ideal of R and S is a subring of R, show that A + S is a subring of R.

1.3.16 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.15]). If A is an ideal of R, show that A ∩ S is an ideal of S for all
subrings S of R.

1.3.17 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.16]). If A is an ideal of R, show that R/A is commutative if and only
if rs − sr ∈ A for all r, s ∈ R.

1.3.18 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.17]). Let Z = Z(R) denote the center of a ring R.

(a) When is Z an ideal of R? Justify your answer.

(b) If R is simple, show that Z is a field.
(c) If R/Z is cyclic as an additive group, show that R is commutative.

1.3.19 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.24]). An additive subgroup L of R is called a left ideal if Ra ⊆ L for
all a ∈ L. Show that R is a division ring if and only if 0 and R are the only left ideals of R
(extending Theorem 1.3.16). Hint: Ra is a left ideal for each a ∈ R.

1.3.20 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.25]). Let R be a commutative ring. Write a | b if b = ra for some
r ∈ R.

(a) Show that Rab ⊆ Ra ∩ Rb for all a, b ∈ R.

(b) If Ra + Rb = R (see Exercise 1.3.15), show that Rab = Ra ∩ Rb.
(c) Show that u ∈ R is a unit if and only if Ru = R.
(d) Suppose p ∈ R and Rp 6= R. Show that Rp is a prime ideal if and only p | ab implies
p | a or p | b.
(e) If R is an integral domain, show that Ra = Rb if and only if a = ub for some unit
u ∈ R.

1.3.21 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.26]). Let A, B, and C be ideals of R and define

AB = {a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn | ai ∈ A, bi ∈ B, n ≥ 1}.

(a) Show that AB is an ideal of R and AB ⊆ A ∩ B.

(b) Show that A(B + C) = AB + AC and (B + C)A = BA + CA. (See Exercise 1.3.15.)
(c) Show that AR = A = RA.
(d) Show that A(BC) = (AB)C.

1.3.22 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.3.27]). If a ∈ R, let

RaR = {r1 as1 + r2 as2 + · · · + rn asn | ri , si ∈ R, n ≥ 1}.

Show that RaR is an ideal of R containing a and that it is contained in any such ideal.
24 Chapter 1. Rings

1.3.23. Let R be a commutative ring. The ring R is said to be noetherian if it satisfies the
ascending chain condition on ideals: for every ascending chain I1 ⊆ I2 ⊆ · · · of ideals in R,
there exists a positive integer N such that In = IN for all n ≥ N . An ideal I of R is said to
be finitely generated if there exist elements a1 , . . . , am ∈ I (called generators of I) such that
every element of I can be written as a1 r1 + · · · + am rm for some r1 , . . . , rm ∈ R. Prove that
R is noetherian if and only if every ideal of R is finitely generated.

1.3.24 (Bonus problem). Prove that every ring has a maximal ideal.

1.4 Homomorphisms
We now discuss the natural maps between rings, together with some of their properties.

Definition 1.4.1 (Ring homomorphism). Let R and S be rings. A mapping f : R → S is

called a ring homomorphism if it satisfies the following properties.
(RH1) f (1R ) = 1S .
(RH2) f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b) for all a, b ∈ R.
(RH3) f (ab) = f (a)f (b) for all a, b ∈ R.

Examples 1.4.2. (a) f : Z → Q, f (x) = x is a ring homomorphism.

(b) f : Z → Zn , f (x) = x̄ is a ring homomorphism.
(c) f : Z × Z → Z, f (x, y) = x is a ring homomorphism.
(d) f : Z × Z → Z, f (x, y) = x + y is not a ring homomorphism since, for example,

f ((1, 1)(1, 2)) = f (1, 2) = 1 + 2 = 3 but f (1, 1)f (1, 2) = (1 + 1)(1 + 2) = 6.

Remark 1.4.3. If f : R → S is a ring homomorphism, then f is a homomorphism of additive

groups:

f (0R ) = f (0R + 0R ) = f (0R ) + f (0R ) =⇒ f (0R ) = 0S ,

f (a) + f (−a) = f (a + (−a)) = f (0R ) = 0S =⇒ f (−a) = −f (a).

Here we only used axiom (RH2).

Axioms (RH2) and (RH3) are not enough to conclude that f (1R ) = 1S as the following
example illustrates.

Example 1.4.4. The mapping f : Z → Z × Z given by f (x) = (x, 0) satisfies (RH2) and
(RH3), but not (RH1). Some references call mappings satisfying (RH2) and (RH3) but not
necessarily (RH1) general ring homomorphisms.

Proposition 1.4.5. Let f : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Then the following hold.

(a) For every m ∈ Z and r ∈ R, we have f (mr) = mf (r).
(b) For every m ∈ N and r ∈ R, we have f (rm ) = f (r)m .
1.4. Homomorphisms 25

(c) If u ∈ R× , then f (u) ∈ S × and, for every m ∈ Z, we have f (um ) = f (u)m . In

particular, f (u−1 ) = f (u)−1 .

Proof. The proof of this result is left as Exercise 1.4.1.

Example 1.4.6. We will show that the equation m3 − 6n3 = 3 has no solutions for m, n ∈ Z.
Consider the mapping f : Z → Z7 given by f (x) = x̄. If m3 − 6n3 = 3, then (f (m))3 +
(f (n))3 = 3̄ in Z7 . But, by explicitly considering all possible values, one can see that, for
a ∈ Z7 , we have a3 ∈ {0̄, 1̄, 6̄}. We compute

0̄ + 0̄ = 0̄, 0̄ + 1̄ = 1̄, 0̄ + 6̄ = 6̄, 1̄ + 1̄ = 2̄, 1̄ + 6̄ = 0̄, 6̄ + 6̄ = 5̄.

Thus, the equation m̄3 −6n̄3 = 3̄ does not have any solutions in Z7 . It follows that m3 −6n3 =
3 cannot have any solutions in Z.

Example 1.4.7 (Frobenius homomorphism). Let R be a commutative ring with p = char R a

prime number. Then the map

f : R → R, f (r) = rp

is a ring homomorphism, called the Frobenius homomorphism. See Exercise 1.4.3.

Definition 1.4.8 (Kernel, image). Let f : R → S be a ring homomorphism. The kernel of

f is ker f := {x ∈ R | f (x) = 0} and the image of f is im f = f (R) := {f (r) | r ∈ R}.

Remark 1.4.9. A ring homomorphism f is one-to-one if and only if ker f = {0}. This follows
from the corresponding fact about group homomorphisms since f is a homomorphism of
additive groups. By definition, f is surjective (or onto) if and only if f (R) = S

Definition 1.4.10 (Monomorphism, epimorphism, isomorphism, automorphism). An in-

jective ring homomorphism is called a monomorphism. A surjective ring homomorphism is
called an epimorphism. A ring homomorphism that is both a monomorphism and an epi-
morphism is called an isomorphism. If there exists an isomorphism from a ring R to a ring
S then we say that R and S are isomorphic and write R ∼ = S. (Note that this definition
agrees with Definition 1.1.29.) A homomorphism (resp. isomorphism) from a ring to itself is
called an endomorphism (resp. automorphism).

Example 1.4.11. The map σ : C → C given by σ(z) = z̄ is an automorphism of C.

Example 1.4.12 (Inner automorphism). If R is a ring and u ∈ R× , then

σu : R → R, σu (r) = uru−1 , r ∈ R,

is an automorphism of R called an inner automorphism. We leave the proof of this as

Exercise 1.4.4. Also see Example 1.1.31.

Theorem 1.4.13. Let f : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Then:

(a) f (R) is a subring of S.

26 Chapter 1. Rings

(b) ker f is an ideal of R.

Proof. (a) Since f (1R ) = 1S , we have 1S ∈ f (R). Since f (0R ) = 0S , we have 0S ∈ f (R).
Now suppose r, s ∈ f (R). Then there exists s0 , t0 ∈ R such that f (s0 ) = s and f (t0 ) = t.
Thus
−s = −f (s0 ) = f (−s0 ) ∈ f (R),
s + t = f (s0 ) + f (t0 ) = f (s0 + t0 ) ∈ f (R),
st = f (s0 )f (t0 ) = f (s0 t0 ) ∈ f (R).
(b) We know (from MAT 2143) that ker f is an additive subgroup of R (since f is a
homomorphism of additive groups). Now,
r ∈ R, x ∈ ker f =⇒ f (rx) = f (r)f (x) = f (r)0S = 0S =⇒ rx ∈ ker f.
Similarly, one can show that r ∈ R, x ∈ ker f implies xr ∈ ker f . Thus ker f is an ideal of R.

Example 1.4.14. If I is an ideal of R, then f : R → R/I, f (x) = x + I, is a ring epimorphism

and ker f = I.
Theorem 1.4.15 (First Isomorphism Theorem). Let f : R → S be a ring homomorphism.
Then the map
f¯: R/(ker f ) → im f, f¯(r + ker f ) = f (r)
is a ring isomorphism. In particular, R/(ker f ) ∼
= im f .
Proof. Let I = ker f . Then f¯ is well-defined since

r + I = s + I ⇐⇒ r − s ∈ I ⇐⇒ f (r − s) = 0 ⇐⇒ f (r) − f (s) = 0
⇐⇒ f (r) = f (s) ⇐⇒ f¯(r + I) = f¯(s + I).
The reverse implications above also show that f¯ is injective. It is clear that f¯ is surjective
and it is straightforward to verify that f is a ring homomorphism.
Remark 1.4.16. Theorem 1.4.15 is called the First Isomorphism Theorem because there are
also Second and Third Isomorphism Theorems (see Exercises 1.4.25 and 1.4.25).
Examples 1.4.17. (a) Consider f : Z → Zn , f (x) = x̄. Then ker f = nZ and Z/nZ ∼ = Zn .
(b) Consider f : Z → Z2 × Z2 , f (x) = (x̄, x̄). Then f (Z) = {(0̄, 0̄), (1̄, 1̄)} ∼
= Z2 and
ker f = 2Z. Thus Z/2Z ∼= f (Z) ∼
= 2
Z .
(c) Consider f : Z4 → Z10 , f (x) = 5x. Then ker f = {0̄, 2̄} ⊆ Z4 and im f = {0̄, 5̄} ⊆ Z10 .
We have im f ∼= Z2 and so Z4 /(ker f ) ∼
= Z2 . (Note here that f is not actually a ring
homomorphism, since it does not send the unity to the unity, but it is a general ring
homomorphism.)
Example 1.4.18. Let m and n be positive integers and let I = nZmn = {nā | ā ∈ Zmn }. Then
the map f : Zmn → Zn , f (x̄) = x̄, is a ring homomorphism with im f = Zn and ker f = I.
Thus Zmn /I ∼
= Zn .
1.4. Homomorphisms 27

Remark 1.4.19. If I and J are ideals of a ring R, then

I ∩ J,
IJ := {r ∈ R | r = a1 b1 + · · · + ak bk , a1 , . . . , ak ∈ I, b1 , . . . , bk ∈ J}, and
I + J := {r ∈ R | r = a + b, a ∈ I, b ∈ J}

are also ideals of R. See Exercises 1.3.15(b) and 1.3.21(a).

Theorem 1.4.20. If R is any ring, then Z1R = {k1R | k ∈ Z} is a subring of R contained

in the center of R. Furthermore, we have the following.

(a) If n = char R > 0, then Z1R ∼

= Zn .
(b) If char R = 0, then Z1R ∼
= Z.

Proof. Define a map

θ : Z → R, θ(k) = k1R for all k ∈ Z.
By Proposition 1.4.5, θ is a ring homomorphism. Thus Z1R = θ(Z) is a subring of R by
Theorem 1.4.13. Furthermore, one can verify (exercise) that Z1R is contained in the center
of R.
We have ker θ = {k ∈ Z | k1R = 0}. If n = char R > 0, then ker θ = nZ by Lemma 1.1.19.
Thus Z1R = θ(Z) ∼ = Z/nZ ∼ = Zn by the First Isomorphism Theorem (Theorem 1.4.15).
If char R = 0, then ker θ = {0} and the result again follows by the First Isomorphism
Theorem.

Lemma 1.4.21. If R and S are rings and I ⊆ R and J ⊆ S are ideals, then I × J is an
ideal of R × S and we have (R × S)/(I × J) ∼
= (R/I) × (S/J).

Proof. The map f : R × S → (R/I) × (S/J) given by f (r, s) = (r + I, s + J) is a ring

homomorphism with ker f = I × J and im f = (R/I) × (S/J) (exercise). The result then
follows from the First Isomorphism Theorem (Theorem 1.4.15).

Lemma 1.4.22. Let R and S be rings. Then every ideal of R × S is of the form A × B
where A ⊆ R and B ⊆ S are ideals.

Proof. Let I ⊆ R × S be an ideal. Let

A = {r ∈ R | (r, 0) ∈ I}, B = {s ∈ S | (0, s) ∈ I}.

It is straightforward (exercise) to show that A is an ideal of R and B is an ideal of S. If

(r, s) ∈ I, then (r, 0) = (r, s)(1, 0) ∈ I and (0, s) = (r, s)(0, 1) ∈ I. Thus r ∈ A and s ∈ B.
Hence I ⊆ A × B. Now suppose (a, b) ∈ A × B. Then, by the definition of A and B, we have
(a, 0) ∈ I and (0, b) ∈ I. Hence (a, b) = (a, 0) + (0, b) ∈ I (since I is closed under addition).
Therefore A × B ⊆ I and so I = A × B.

Theorem 1.4.23 (Chinese Remainder Theorem). Let R be a ring and let A, B be two ideals
of R such that A + B = R. Then R/(A ∩ B) ∼
= (R/A) × (R/B).
28 Chapter 1. Rings

Proof. Consider the map

f : R → (R/A) × (R/B), f (r) = (r + A, r + B).

For r, s ∈ R, we have

f (1) = (1 + A, 1 + B) = 1(R/A)×(R/Jy) ,
f (r + s) = (r + s + A, r + s + B) = (r + A, r + B) + (s + A, s + B) = f (r) + f (s)

and

f (rs) = (rs + A, rs + B) = ((r + A)(s + A), (r + B)(s + B))

= (r + A, r + B)(s + A, s + B) = f (r)f (s).

Thus f is a ring homomorphism.

We next show that f is surjective. Since R = A + B, we have 1 = a + b for some a ∈ A
and b ∈ B. Now choose r1 , r2 ∈ R and set r = r1 b + r2 a. Then

r1 − r = r1 − (r1 b + r2 a) = r1 (1 − b) − r2 a = r1 a − r2 a ∈ A =⇒ r1 + A = r + A,
r2 − r = r2 − (r1 b + r2 a) = r2 (1 − a) − r1 b = r2 b − r1 b ∈ B =⇒ r2 + B = r + B.

Thus f (r) = (r + A, r + B) = (r1 + A, r2 + B). Since r1 , r2 ∈ R were arbitrary, this implies

that f is surjective.
Finally,

f (r) = (0 + A, 0 + B) ⇐⇒ (r + A = 0 + A and r + B = 0 + B)
⇐⇒ (r ∈ A and r ∈ B) ⇐⇒ r ∈ A ∩ B.

So ker f = A ∩ B. The result then follows from the First Isomorphism Theorem (Theo-
rem 1.4.15).

Example 1.4.24. Since gcd(5, 6) = 1, we have 5Z + 6Z = Z. We also have 5Z ∩ 6Z = 30Z.

Thus, by the Chinese Remainder Theorem (Theorem 1.4.23), we have Z30 ∼= Z5 × Z6 .

More generally, we have the following result.

Lemma 1.4.25. If gcd(m, n) = 1, then Zmn ∼

= Zm × Zn .

Proof. Since gcd(m, n) = 1, we have ma + nb = 1 for some a, b ∈ Z. Hence mZ + nZ = Z.

Also, we have mZ ∩ nZ = mnZ since if m | x and n | x, then mn | x (since m and
n are relatively prime). Thus the result follows from the Chinese Remainder Theorem
(Theorem 1.4.23).

Example 1.4.26. How many units does Z345 have? Since 345 = 3 · 5 · 23, we have Z345 ∼ =
Z3 × Z5 × Z23 by Lemma 1.4.25. Thus Z345 has 2 · 4 · 22 = 176 units (see Exercise 1.1.12).
1.4. Homomorphisms 29

Example 1.4.27. Little Mary wants to take the farm’s eggs to the market. She tries to put
them evenly in two baskets, but one is left out. She tries three baskets, but one is still left
out. Four baskets, one is left out. Five baskets. Aha! It works! How many eggs does Little
Mary have?

Let x ∈ N be the number of eggs. Then we have

x̄ = 1̄ in Z2 ,
x̄ = 1̄ in Z3 ,
x̄ = 1̄ in Z4 ,
x̄ = 0̄ in Z5 .

First note that the fourth equation implies the first. So we ignore the first equation. Now,
we know that Z12 ∼ = Z3 × Z4 by Lemma 1.4.25. Under this isomorphism x̄ (in Z12 ) is mapped
to (1̄, 1̄) ∈ Z3 × Z4 . Thus x̄ = 1̄ in Z12 .
Now, again by Lemma 1.4.25, we have Z60 ∼ = Z12 ×Z5 ∼= Z60 /(12Z60 )×Z60 /(5Z60 ). Under
this isomorphism x̄ (in Z60 ) is mapped to (1̄, 0̄) ∈ Z12 × Z5 . Checking all the elements of Z60
which map to 1̄ ∈ Z12 , i.e. 1̄, 13, 25, 37, 49, we see that 25 reduces to 0̄ ∈ Z5 . Thus x̄ = 25 in
Z60 . So Mary has 25 + 60k, k ∈ Z, eggs.

Exercises.
Throughout these exercises, R is a ring.

1.4.1. Prove Proposition 1.4.5.

1.4.2 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.4.1]). For each of the following determine whether the map is a ring
homomorphism. Justify your answer.
(a) θ : Z3 → Z12 , where θ(r) = 4r.
(b) θ : Z4 → Z12 , where θ(r) = 3r.
(c) θ : R × R → R, where θ(r, s) = rs.
(d) θ : F(R, R) → R, where θ(f ) = f (1).

1.4.3. Show that the Frobenius homomorphism (see Example

  1.4.7) is indeed a homomor-
p p i p−i
phism. Hint: Use the binomial formula: (a + b)p = i=0
P
ab .
i
1.4.4. Prove that the map defined in Example 1.4.12 is a ring automorphism.

1.4.5 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.4.2]). Let θ : R → S be a general ring homomorphism, where R and S
are rings.
(a) If θ is surjective, prove that θ is a ring homomorphism.
30 Chapter 1. Rings

(b) If S is a domain and θ(1) 6= 0, prove that θ is a ring homomorphism.

1.4.6 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.4.3]). Show that a general ring homomorphism θ : Z → Z is either a ring
homomorphism or θ(k) = 0 for all k ∈ Z.

1.4.7 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.4.4]). Determine all ring homomorphisms and general ring homomor-
phisms Z12 → Z6 .

1.4.8 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.4.5]). If θ : R → S is a surjective ring homomorphism, show that

θ(Z(R)) ⊆ Z(S). Give an example of a (not necessarily surjective) ring homomorphism
θ : R → S where θ(Z(R)) 6= Z(S).

1.4.9 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.4.6]). If θ : R → S is a ring homomorphism and char R > 0, show that
char S divides char R.

1.4.10. Show that the composition of two ring homomorphisms is a ring homomorphism.

1.4.11. Complete the proof of Theorem 1.4.20 by showing that Z1R is contained in the center
of R.

1.4.12. If f is the map defined in the proof of Lemma 1.4.21, show that ker f = I × J and
im f = (R/I) × (S/J).

1.4.13. Show that A and B as defined in the proof of Lemma 1.4.22 are ideals of R and S
respectively.

1.4.14 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.4.9]). Describe the homomorphic images of a division ring. More pre-
cisely, if R is a division ring, what possible rings can be the image of a ring homomorphism
with domain R?

1.4.15 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.4.11–3.4.14]). (a) Show that x3 − 8x2 + 5x + 3 = 0 has no solution
x ∈ Z.
(b) Show that m3 + 14n3 = 12 has no solution in Z.
(c) Show that 7m2 + 11n2 = 9 has no solution in Z.
(d) Show that n3 + (n + 1)3 + (n + 2)3 = k 2 + 1 has no solution in Z.

1.4.16. Prove that the inverse of a ring isomorphism is also a ring isomorphism.

1.4.17. Show that the set Aut R of all ring automorphisms of R is a group under the operation
of composition.

1.4.18. Show that isomorphism is an equivalence relation on the class of all rings.

1.4.19 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.4.19]). Let θ : R → S be an onto ring homomorphism.

(a) If A is an ideal of R, show that θ(A) = {θ(a) | a ∈ A} is an ideal of S.

(b) If also ker θ ⊆ A, show that R/A ∼
= S/θ(A). Hint: Use the First Isomorphism Theorem
where α : R → S/θ(A) is defined by α(r) = θ(r) + θ(A) for all r ∈ R.
1.4. Homomorphisms 31

1.4.20 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.4.20]). If n > 0 in Z, describe all the ideals of Z that contain nZ.

1.4.21 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.4.21]). Show that there is no ring homomorphism C → R.

1.4.22 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.4.22]). Let θ : R → S be a ring homomorphism. If θ(R) and ker θ both
contain no nonzero nilpotent elements show that the same is true of R.
 
S S
1.4.23 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.4.27]). Let R = be the upper triangular matrix ring over a ring
  0 S
0 S
S. Show that A = is an ideal of R and R/A ∼= S × S.
0 0

1.4.24 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.4.31]). Let R = S × T , where S and T are rings, and write S̄ = {(s, 0) |
s ∈ S}. Show that S̄ is an ideal of R, and that R/S̄ ∼ = T and S̄ ∼
= S as rings. What is the
unity of S̄?

1.4.25. Prove the Second Isomorphism Theorem: If A is an ideal of R and S is a subring of

R, then

(a) S + A is a subring of R,
(b) A and S ∩ A are ideals of S + A and S, respectively, and
(c) (S + A)/A ∼
= S/(S ∩ A) as rings.

1.4.26. Prove the Third Isomorphism Theorem: If A ⊆ B ⊆ R, where A and B are ideals of
R, then B/A = {b + A | b ∈ B} is an ideal of R/A and (R/A)/(B/A) ∼
= R/B as rings.

1.4.27 ([Nic12, Ex. 3.4.37]). Show that Zm × Zn has a subring isomorphic to Zt , where t is
the least common multiple of m and n.

1.4.28 (Bonus problem). Let f : R → R be a ring homomorphism. Prove that f (x) = x for
all x ∈ R. In other words, the identity map is the only ring homomorphism from R to R.

1.4.29 (Bonus problem). Prove that if f : R · · × R} → R

| × ·{z | × ·{z
· · × R} is a ring isomorphism,
m times n times
then m = n.

1.4.30 (Bonus problem). Let R be a finite commutative

√ ring with n = |R| < ∞. Assume
that R is not a field. Prove that R has at least n − 1 non-units.

1.4.31 (Bonus problem). Let R = C([0, 1]) := {f ∈ F([0, 1], R) | f is continuous}. One easily
checks that this is a ring.

(a) Prove that, for every a ∈ [0, 1], the set Ia := {f ∈ R | f (a) = 0} is a maximal ideal of
R.
(b) Conversely, prove that every maximal ideal of R is of the form Ia for some a ∈ [0, 1].
(c) Prove that part (b) is false for the ring C(R) := {f ∈ F(R) | f is continuous}.
Chapter 2

Polynomials

In this chapter we turn our attention to a particularly important class of rings: polynomial
rings. We first introduce polynomial rings in full generality and deduce some of their fun-
damental properties. We then focus on polynomials whose coefficients lie in a field. We
discuss the factorization of such polynomials and the structure of the quotient rings of these
polynomial rings. A reference for the material in this chapter is [Jud12, Ch. 17].

2.1 Polynomial rings

Definition 2.1.1 (Indeterminate). If R ⊆ S are rings, then an element x ∈ S is called an
indeterminate over R if

a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn = 0, ai ∈ R =⇒ ai = 0 ∀ i.

Lemma 2.1.2. Given a ring R, there exists a ring S satisfying the following:

(a) R ⊆ S.
(b) There exists x ∈ S such that x is an indeterminate over R.
(c) We have xa = ax for all a ∈ R.

Sketch of proof. The proof of this lemma is somewhat technical. We will only give an out-
line here. The details can be found in [Nic12, §4.6] or, under the assumption that R is
commutative, in [Roy, Prop. 4.2].
Let S be the set of all sequences in R. That is, S is the set of all functions N → R. We
often denote an element α ∈ S by (α(0), α(1), α(2), . . . ). We define a ring structure on S by
setting

(α + β)(k) = α(k) + β(k),

k
X
(αβ)(k) = α(`)β(k − `).
`=0

Then R is a subring of S if we identify a = (a, 0, 0, . . . ) for a ∈ R. This proves (a).

32
2.1. Polynomial rings 33

Now define x = (0, 1, 0, 0, . . . ). Then we can show that

a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = (a0 , a1 , . . . , an , 0, 0, . . . )

for all a0 , . . . , an ∈ R. This proves (b). Since ax = (0, a, 0, . . . ) = xa for all a ∈ R, we also
have (c).

Definition 2.1.3 (Ring of polynomials). Let R be a ring and let S be as in Lemma 2.1.2.
Then
R[x] = {a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn | n ≥ 0, ai ∈ R ∀ i}
is a subring of S called the ring of polynomials over R. A polynomial over R is an element

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn , n ∈ N, a0 , . . . , an ∈ R

of R[x]. The ai ’s are called the coefficients of the polynomial f (x). We adopt the convention
that am = 0 for m > n. We sometimes write f instead of f (x).

Remark 2.1.4. It follows from Definition 2.1.1 that two polynomials f (x) = a0 +· · ·+ak xk and
g(x) = b0 + · · · + b` x` are equal if and only if ai = bi for i ∈ N. Note that this is not the same
as equality of polynomial functions. For example, consider f (x) = 0, g(x) = x2 + x ∈ Z2 [x].
These polynomials are not equal, but the functions Z2 → Z2 given by a 7→ f (a) and a 7→ g(a)
are equal (they are both the zero function). Thus, we consider polynomials to be abstract
expressions and not functions.
It also follows that R[x] is the subring of S (from Lemma 2.1.2) consisting of sequences
that are eventually zero. That is, the elements of R[x] are sequences α ∈ S for which there
exists N ∈ N with α(k) = 0 for all k > N .

It follows from the above that if R is a ring, the addition and multiplication on R[x] is
computed as follows. If

f (x) = a0 + · · · + ak xk and g(x) = b0 + · · · + bk xk

(note that we can write f (x) and g(x) in this form, with the same highest power xk of x by
letting some of the coefficients be zero if necessary), then

f (x) + g(x) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + · · · + (ak + bk )xk , and

2k i
!
X X
f (x)g(x) = aj bi−j xi = a0 b0 + (a0 b1 + a1 b0 )x + (a0 b2 + a1 b1 + a2 b0 )x2 + · · · .
i=0 j=0

Example 2.1.5. We have

1
1 − 3x + x2 ∈ Z[x], 2x − 3 ∈ Z[x], but 1 − 6∈ Z[x].
x
Also

(1−3x+x2 )(2x−3) = (1−3x+x2 )(−3+2x) = −3+(2+9)x+(−6−3)x2 +2x3 = −3+11x−9x2 +2x3 .

34 Chapter 2. Polynomials

Example 2.1.6. We have

1̄ − 2̄x, 1̄ + 2̄x2 ∈ Z4 [x]
and
(1̄ − 2̄x) + (1̄ + 2̄x2 ) = (1̄ + 1̄) − 2̄x − 2̄x2 = 2̄ − 2̄x + 2̄x2 = 2̄ + 2̄x + 2̄x2 ,
2̄(1̄ + 2̄x2 ) = 2̄ + 0̄x2 = 2̄,
(1̄ − 2̄x)(1̄ + 2̄x2 ) = 1̄ + (−2̄)x + 2̄x2 − 0̄x3 = 1̄ + 2̄x + 2̄x2 .
Definition 2.1.7 (Degree, leading coefficient, constant coefficient, monic polynomial). Let
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + ak xk ∈ R[x].
• If ak 6= 0, then the degree of f (x) is deg f (x) = k and ak is the leading coefficient of
f (x).
• a0 is called the constant coefficient of f (x).
• If ak = 1, then f (x) is called a monic polynomial .
Theorem 2.1.8. Let R be a ring. Then
(a) the center of R[x] is Z(R)[x],
(b) x ∈ Z(R[x]), and
(c) if R is commutative, then R[x] is also commutative.
Proof. We leave the proof of this theorem as Exercise 2.1.4
The zero element of R[x] is the zero polynomial 0 = 0 + 0x = 0 + 0x + 0x2 = · · · .
A polynomial is called a constant polynomial if it is of the form f (x) = a0 = a0 + 0x =
a0 + 0x + 0x2 = · · · for some a0 ∈ R. Note that R is the subring of R[x] consisting of
constant polynomials.
Theorem 2.1.9. Let R be a ring. If f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x] \ {0}, then we have the following.
(a) deg(f (x) + g(x)) ≤ max{deg f (x), deg g(x)}.
(b) deg(f (x)g(x)) ≤ deg f (x) + deg g(x).
(c) If R is a domain, then deg(f (x)g(x)) = deg f (x) + deg g(x).
(d) If R is a domain, then R[x] is also a domain.
(e) If R is a domain, then the only units of R[x] are the units of R.
(f ) If the leading coefficient of either f (x) or g(x) is a unit in R, then f (x)g(x) 6= 0 in
R[x] and deg(f (x)g(x)) = deg f (x) + g(x).
Proof. The proof of this theorem is left as Exercise 2.1.5.
Example 2.1.10. To see that the inequalities of Theorem 2.1.9 can be strict when R is not a
domain, consider 1̄ + 2̄x, 2̄x ∈ Z4 [x]. Then (1̄ + 2̄x)(2̄x) = 2̄x and so
deg(1̄ + 2̄x)(2̄x) = 1 < 2 = deg(1̄ + 2̄x) + deg(2̄x).
Also,
deg((1̄ + 2̄x) + (2̄x)) = deg(1̄) = 0 < 1 = max{deg(1̄ + 2̄x), deg(2̄x)}.
2.1. Polynomial rings 35

Example 2.1.11. Let I ⊆ Z[x] be the ideal generated by x, i.e., I = hxi = xZ[x]. So

I = {xf (x) | f (x) ∈ Z[x]} = {a1 x + · · · + ak xk | k ≥ 1, a1 , . . . , ak ∈ Z}.

Consider the ring homomorphism ϕ : Z[x] → Z given by ϕ(a0 + . . . + ak xk ) = a0 . It is a

straightforward exercise (Exercise 2.1.6) to see that ϕ is a surjective ring homomorphism with
ker ϕ = I. Thus, by the First Isomorphism Theorem (Theorem 1.4.15), we have Z[x]/I ∼ = Z.

Theorem 2.1.12 (The Division Algorithm). Let R be a ring, f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x], f (x) 6= 0,
and suppose the leading coefficient of f (x) is a unit in R. Then there exist unique polynomials
q(x), r(x) ∈ R[x] such that

(a) g(x) = q(x)f (x) + r(x) and

(b) either r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg f (x).

Proof. We first prove the existence result by induction on deg g(x). If g(x) = 0 or deg g(x) <
deg f (x), then we can take q(x) = 0 and r(x) = g(x). So assume m ≥ n, where m = deg g(x)
and n = deg f (x). Write

f (x) = uxn + axn−1 + · · · , g(x) = bxm + cxm−1 + · · · ,

where u is a unit by hypothesis. Let

g1 (x) = g(x) − bu−1 xm−n f (x)

= (bxm + cxm−1 + · · · ) − bu−1 xm−n (uxn + axn−1 + · · · )
= 0xm + (c − bu−1 )xm−1 + · · · .

Then either g1 (x) = 0 or deg g1 (x) < m. Thus, by the inductive hypothesis, there exist
polynomials q1 (x) and r(x) such that g1 (x) = q1 (x)f (x) + r(x) with either r(x) = 0 or
deg r(x) < deg f (x). Then

g(x) = g1 (x) + bu−1 xm−n f (x) = (q1 (x) + bu−1 xm−n )f (x) + r(x),

which completes the proof of the inductive step.

It remains to prove uniqueness. Suppose that we have

q1 (x)f (x) + r1 (x) = g(x) = q2 (x)f (x) + r2 (x)

with ri (x) = 0 or deg ri (x) < deg f (x) for i = 1, 2. Then r1 (x) − r2 (x) = (q2 (x) − q1 (x))f (x).
If q2 (x)−q1 (x) 6= 0, then, since the leading coefficient of f (x) is a unit (see Theorem 2.1.9(f)),
we have (q2 (x) − q1 (x))f (x) 6= 0 and

deg(r1 (x) − r2 (x)) = deg[(q2 (x) − q1 (x))f (x)] = deg(q2 (x) − q1 (x)) + deg f (x).

But this implies that deg(r1 (x) − r2 (x)) ≥ deg f (x), which is a contradiction. Thus q2 (x) −
q1 (x) = 0 and so r1 (x) − r2 (x) = (q2 (x) − q1 (x))f (x) = 0. This completes the proof of
uniqueness.
36 Chapter 2. Polynomials

Remark 2.1.13. Note that if R is in fact a field, then the leading coefficient of any nonzero
polynomial is a unit in R. Then Theorem 2.1.12 says that R[x] is a euclidean domain with
euclidean function f (x) 7→ deg f (x).
Example 2.1.14. Let’s divide x3 − x2 + 2x − 3 by x − 2.
x2 + x + 4
x − 2 x3 − x2 + 2x − 3
x3 − 2x2
x2 + 2x − 3
x2 − 2x
4x − 3
4x − 8
5
Hence,
3 2
+ 2x − 3} = (x2 + x + 4) (x − 2) + |{z}
|x − x {z 5 .
| {z } | {z }
g(x) q(x) f (x) r(x)

Example 2.1.15. Divide x3 + 2̄ by 2̄x + 2̄ in Z3 [x].

2̄x2 + x + 2̄
2̄x + 2̄ x3 + 0̄x2 + 0̄x + 2̄
x3 + x2
−x2 + 2̄
2̄x2 + 2̄x
−2̄x + 2̄
x + 1̄
1̄
Thus
3 2
x
| {z+ 2̄} = 2̄x
| +{zx + 2̄} (|2̄x{z
+ 2̄) + |{z}
1̄ .
}
g(x) q(x) f (x) r(x)

Can we always evaluate polynomials by specializing the indeterminate? We are used to

doing this in calculus, but in fact we must be careful!
Example 2.1.16. Consider the polynomial f (x) = x3 − 2x − 4 ∈ Z[x]. We have f (2) = 0,
which implies that x − 2 is a factor of f (x). In fact, we have f (x) = (x2 + 2x + 2)(x − 2).
Example 2.1.17. Suppose R is a ring and a, b ∈ R with ab 6= ba. Let f (x) = (x − a)(x − b) ∈
R[x]. Then f (a) = (a − a)(b − a) = 0(b − a) = 0. But we also have f (x) = x2 − ax − bx + ab
and so f (a) = a2 − a2 − ba + ab = −ba + ab 6= 0. So “evaluation” of f (x) at a does not
seem to be well-defined. The problem is that x lies in the center of R[x] and we are trying
to construct a (surjective) ring homomorphism that maps x to something that is not in the
center of R.
Theorem 2.1.18 (Evaluation Theorem). Let R be a ring and a ∈ Z(R). Then the map
ϕa : R[x] → R, ϕa (f (x)) = f (a) is a surjective ring homomorphism.
2.1. Polynomial rings 37

Proof. Recall that we can view elements of R as constant polynomials in R[x]. For any r ∈ R
we have ϕa (r) =
Pr. Hence ϕa is surjective.
Let f (x) = ki=0 ai xi and g(x) = ki=0 bi xi be arbitrary elements of R[x]. Then we have
P

X  X
ϕa (f (x) + g(x)) = ϕa (ai + bi )xi = (ai + bi )ai
X X
= ai ai + bi ai = ϕa (f (x)) + ϕa (g(x),

2k i
!! 2k i
!
X X X X
ϕa (f (x)g(x)) = ϕa aj bi−j xi = a0 bi−j ai
i=0 j=0 i=1 j=0
k
! k
!
X X
= ai ai b i ai = ϕa (f (x))ϕa (g(x)),
i=0 i=0

ϕa (1R[x] ) = ϕ(1R ) = 1R .
The map ϕa of Theorem 2.1.18 is called evaluation of at a. The problem in Example 2.1.17
was that we tried to evaluate a polynomial at an element that was not in the center of the
coefficient ring R.

Example 2.1.19. Let R be a ring. Then

ϕ : R[x] → R, ϕ(a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn ) = a0 + a1 + a2 + · · · + an ,

is a surjective ring homomorphism since ϕ = ϕ1 .

Theorem 2.1.20 (Remainder Theorem). Let R be a commutative ring and f (x) ∈ R[x].
Then, for every a ∈ R, the remainder of the division of f (x) by x − a is f (a).

Proof. By Theorem 2.1.12, we can write f (x) = q(x)(x − a) + r(x) where r(x) = 0 or
deg r(x) < 1. Thus we have that r(x) is a constant polynomial. That is, r(x) = r for some
r ∈ R. Then

f (a) = ϕa (f (x)) = ϕa (q(x))ϕa (x − a) + ϕa (r(x)) = 0 + r(a) = r.

Theorem 2.1.21 (Factor Theorem). Let R be a commutative ring and f (x) ∈ R[x]. Then
a ∈ R satisfies f (a) = 0 if and only if f (x) = (x − a)q(x) for some q(x) ∈ R[x].

Proof. Clearly, f (a) = 0 if f (x) = (x − a)g(x) for some g(x) ∈ R[x]. The converse follows
immediately from the Remainder Theorem (Theorem 2.1.20).

Corollary 2.1.22. Let R be a commutative ring and ϕa : R[x] → R, ϕa (f (x)) = f (a). Then
ker ϕa = hx − ai = (x − a)R[x] and R[x]/hx − ai ∼
= R.

Proof. We have

f (x) ∈ ker ϕa ⇐⇒ f (a) = 0

38 Chapter 2. Polynomials

⇐⇒ f (x) = q(x)(x − a) + 0 for some q(x) ∈ R[x]

⇐⇒ f (x) ∈ hx − ai.

The second assertion then follows from the First Isomorphism Theorem (Theorem 1.4.15).

Definition 2.1.23 (Root of a polynomial). Let R be a commutative ring and f (x) ∈ R[x] \
{0}. An element a ∈ R is called a root of f (x) if f (a) = 0.
Example 2.1.24. The roots of x2 − 1̄ ∈ Z8 [x] are 1̄, 3̄, 5̄, 7̄.
Definition 2.1.25 (Multiplicity of a root). Let R be a commutative ring and f (x) ∈ R[x] \
{0}. If a ∈ R is a root of f (x), we say a has multiplicity m ≥ 0 if f (x) = (x − a)m g(x) with
g(a) 6= 0.
Example 2.1.26. Let’s find the multiplicity of the root 3̄ for f (x) = x3 + 3̄x + 4̄ ∈ Z5 [x]. We
have f (3̄) = 0̄. Dividing f (x) by x− 3̄ gives f (x) = (x− 3̄)g(x) with g(x) = x2 + 3̄x+ 2̄. Since
g(3̄) = 0̄, we divide again to obtain g(x) = (x− 3̄)(x+ 1̄). Thus we have f (x) = (x− 3̄)2 (x+ 1̄).
Since 3̄ is not a root of x + 1̄, we see that the multiplicity of the root 3̄ is 2.
Theorem 2.1.27. Let R be an integral domain and f (x) ∈ R[x] \ {0}. If n = deg f (x), then
f (x) has at most n roots.
Proof. We prove the result by induction on n, the cases n = 0, 1 being straightforward.
Suppose deg f (x) = n + 1. Then, if f (a) = 0, we have f (x) = (x − a)g(x) with deg g(x) = n.
If f has more than n + 1 roots, then we have f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) = · · · = f (an+1 ) = 0 for
some distinct a1 , . . . , an+1 , none of which is equal to a. Then, for i = 1, . . . , n + 1, we have
0 = f (ai ) = (ai − a)g(ai ) and ai − a 6= 0, which implies that g(ai ) = 0. Thus g(x) has at
least n + 1 roots, which contradicts the inductive hypothesis since deg g(x) = n.
Theorem 2.1.28 (Rational Roots Theorem). Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ∈ Z[x] with
a0 6= 0, an 6= 0. If r ∈ Q and f (r) = 0, then r = dc with c | a0 and d | an .
c
Proof. Write r = d
with gcd(c, d) = 1. Then
c  c n
0 = f (r) = a0 + a1 + · · · + an =⇒ a0 dn + a1 an−1 c + · · · + an cn = 0.
d d
Thus

a0 dn = −c(a1 an−1 + a2 dn−2 c + · · · an cn−1 ) and

an cn = −d(a0 dn−1 + a1 dn−2 c + · · · + an cn−1 ).

Since c and d are relatively prime, this implies that c | a0 and d | an .

√
Example 2.1.29. Although we already know that 2 is irrational, we can give another proof
based on the Rational Roots Theorem (Theorem 2.1.28). Consider the polynomial x2 − 2.
If it had a rational root, it must be one of ±2, ±1. But one easily
√ checks that none of these
is a root of x2 − 2. Thus, x2 − 2 has no rational roots. Since 2 is a root of x2 − 2, it is not
rational.
2.1. Polynomial rings 39

Example 2.1.30. If f (x) ∈ Z[x] \ {0} is monic, then any rational root of f (x) is an integer.

Exercises.
2.1.1. Compute f + g and f g, where

f = 2 + 3x + x2 , g = 1 + x2 + x3 + 4x3 ∈ Z5 [x].

2.1.2 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.2]). (a) Compute (1 + x)5 in Z5 [x].

(b) Compute (1 + x)7 in Z7 [x].
(c) Show that (1 + x)p = 1 + x in Zp [x] if p is a prime number.

2.1.3 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.3]). (a) How many polynomials of degree 3 are there in Z5 [x]?
(b) How many monic polynomials of degree 3 are there in Z5 [x]?

2.1.4. Prove Theorem 2.1.8.

2.1.5. Prove Theorem 2.1.9.

2.1.6. Show that the map ϕ of Example 2.1.11 is a surjective ring homomorphism with
ker ϕ = I.

2.1.7. Give an example of a commutative ring R and a polynomial f (x) ∈ R[x]\{0} of degree
n with more than n distinct roots.
√
2.1.8. Use the Rational Roots Theorem (Theorem 2.1.28) to show that 3 5 is irrational.

2.1.9 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.4]). (a) Find all roots of (x − 4)(x − 5) in Z6 and in Z7 .
(b) Find all roots of x3 − x in Z6 and in Z4 .

2.1.10 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.5(a)]). Find the number of roots of x2 − x in Z4 , Z2 × Z2 , any integral
domain, and Z6 .

2.1.11 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.8]). Let R be a subring of a ring S, let f (x) 6= 0 and g(x) be polyno-
mials in R[x], and assume that the leading coefficient of f (x) is a unit in R. If f (x) divides
g(x) in S[x], show that f (x) divides g(x) in R[x]. Hint: The Division Algorithm.

2.1.12 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.9]). Show that R[x] and R have the same characteristic for any ring
R.

2.1.13 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.11]). If a is a nonzero root of f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an−1 xn−1 + an xn ,

show that a−1 (if it exists) is a root of g(x) = an + an−1 x + · · · + a1 xn−1 + a0 xn . Assume
that the coefficient ring R is commutative.
40 Chapter 2. Polynomials

2.1.14 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.12]). If a, b, and c are real and f = x2 − (a + c)x + (ac − b2 ), show
that every complex root of f is real.

2.1.15 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.13]). Divide x3 − 4x + 5 by 2x + 1 in Q[x]. Why is it impossible in

Z[x]?

2.1.16 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.14]). In each case, write g = qf + r in R[x], where r = 0 or deg r <
deg f .
(a) g = x5 + 4x4 + x3 + 5x2 + x + 2, f = x2 + x + 1, R = Z6 .
(b) g = x3 + x2 + 3x + 2, f = 3x + 1, R = Z8 .
(c) g = 3x3 + 2x2 − 8x + 1, f = x2 + 2, R = Q.

2.1.17 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.15]). Which of x−1, x+1, and x−2 is a factor of x4 −2x3 −x2 +3x−2
in Z[x]?

2.1.18 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.16(a)]). For which primes p is x−1 a factor of f = 3x4 +5x3 +2x2 +x+4
in Zp [x]?

2.1.19 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.17]). In each case, factor f into linear factors in F [x].
(a) f = x4 + 12, F = Z13 .
(b) f = x3 − x2 + x − 1, F = Z5 .

2.1.20 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.18]). Let a 6= 0 in a field F . Determine the integers n ≥ 1 such that
x + a is a factor of xn + an in F [x]. In these cases, write down the factorization.

2.1.21 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.19]). If F is a field, let u, v, and w be distinct roots of f = x3 + ax2 +
bx + c in F [x]. Show that a = −(u + v + w), b = uv + uw + vw, and c = −uvw.

2.1.22 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.21]). (a) Show that Z4 [x] has infinitely many units and infinitely
many nilpotents.
(b) Find a polynomial in Z4 [x] that is neither a unit nor a nilpotent.

2.1.23 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.23]). In each case determine the multiplicity of a as a root in f ∈ R[x].
(a) f = x3 − 2x2 − 4x + 3, a = 3, R = Z6 .
(b) f = x5 + 2x4 + x3 − x2 + 2x − 1, a = 1, R = Z4 .

2.1.24 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.25]). In each case find all rational roots of f and factor f as much as
possible in Q[x].
(a) f = 4x4 + x3 − 3x2 + 4x − 3
(b) f = x4 − x3 − x2 − x − 2
(c) f = x4 + x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 2
√
2.1.25 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.26]). Show that n
m is not rational unless m = k n for some integer
k.
2.2. Factorization of polynomials over a field 41

2.1.26 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.1.27]). If f is a monic polynomial in Z[x], show that the only rational
roots (if any) are integers.

2.1.27. (a) Suppose R is an infinite integral domain. Show that if f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x] satisfy
f (a) = g(a) for all a ∈ R, then f (x) = g(x). In other words, two polynomials are equal
if and only if they correspond to the same polynomial function.
(b) Suppose R is a finite commutative ring. Show that there exists a polynomial f (x) ∈
R[x] \ {0} such that f (a) = 0 for all a ∈ R.

2.1.28. Let G be the multiplicative group of positive rational numbers. Show that G is
isomorphic as a group to (Z[x], +).

2.1.29 (Bonus). Let R be a commutative ring. Prove that f (x) ∈ R[x], f (x) = a0 +· · ·+an xn
is a nilpotent element of R[x] if and only if a0 , . . . , an are nilpotent elements of R.

2.2 Factorization of polynomials over a field

We start this section with a few examples.

Example 2.2.1. Let’s factor f (x) = 3x3 − x2 − x − 4 ∈ Q[x] as much as possible. By the
Rational Roots Theorem (Theorem 2.1.28), the only possible rational roots are of the form
c
d
where c | 4 and d | 3. We see that x = 43 is a root. Polynomial division then gives that
f (x) = x − 43 (3x2 + 3x + 3) = (3x − 4)(x2 + x + 1). Again, using the Rational Roots

Theorem, we can see that x2 + x + 1 has no rational roots and so we can factor no further.

Example 2.2.2. Let’s factor f (x) = x4 +25x+24 ∈ Q[x] as much as possible. Since f (−1) = 0,
we know that x + 1 is a factor of f (x). Polynomial division then gives f (x) = (x + 1)(x3 −
x2 + x + 24). By the Rational Roots Theorem (Theorem 2.1.28), any rational roots of
x3 − x2 + x + 24 must be in the set {±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±8, ±12, ±24}. But none of these
is a root and therefore f (x) cannot be factored any further (since if it factored, at least one
factor would need to be of degree one).

Example 2.2.3. Let’s factor f (x) = 2x5 + x4 + 4x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 1 ∈ Q[x] as much as possible.
Since f (−1/2) = 0, we get f (x) = (2x + 1)(x4 + 2x2 + 1) = (2x + 1)(x2 + 1)2 . Since x2 + 1
has no rational (or even real) roots, we cannot factor f (x) any further (in Q[x]).

Definition 2.2.4 (Irreducible polynomial). Let F be a field. A polynomial f (x) ∈ F [x] is

called irreducible over F if

(a) f (x) 6= 0 and deg f (x) ≥ 1 (i.e. f (x) is a nonconstant polynomial), and
(b) if f (x) = p(x)q(x) in F [x], then either deg p(x) = 0 or deg q(x) = 0.

A nonzero polynomial of positive degree is called reducible (or we say that it factors) if it is
not irreducible.

Example 2.2.5. If deg f (x) = 1 then f (x) is irreducible.

42 Chapter 2. Polynomials

Example 2.2.6. If f (x) is irreducible, then, for every a 6= 0, the polynomial af (x) is also
irreducible.

Theorem 2.2.7. Let F be a field and consider f (x) ∈ F [x] \ {0} such that deg f (x) ≥ 2.

(a) If f (x) is irreducible, then it does not have any roots in F .

(b) Assume deg f (x) ≤ 3. Then f (x) is irreducible if and only if f (x) does not have any
roots in F .

Proof. (a) If f (x) has a root a ∈ F , then f (x) = (x − a)q(x) for some q(x) ∈ F [x] by
the Factor Theorem (Theorem 2.1.21). Since deg f (x) ≥ 2, this means that f (x) is not
irreducible, contradicting the hypothesis. Thus f (x) has no root in F .
(b) Assume f (x) has no root in F . If f (x) is reducible, then f (x) = p(x)q(x) and so
p(x) and q(x) have no roots in F . Thus deg p(x) 6= 1 and deg q(x) 6= 1. But this contradicts
the fact that deg p(x) + deg q(x) = deg f (x) is equal to 2 or 3. Thus f (x) is irreducible. The
converse follows from part (a).

Example 2.2.8. The polynomial x2 − 2 is irreducible over Q but reducible over R since it has
roots in R but not in Q.

Example 2.2.9. The polynomial x2 + 1 is irreducible in R[x] but reducible in C[x].

Example 2.2.10. The polynomial x3 + 2x2 + x + 2 is irreducible in Z5 [x] because it has no

roots.

Example 2.2.11. The polynomial x2 − 2 is reducible in R[x] but irreducible in Z3 [x]. The
polynomial x2 + 2 is irreducible in R[x] but reducible in Z3 [x] (in particular, x2 + 2 =
(x − 1)(x + 1) in Z3 [x]).

Theorem 2.2.12 (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra). If f (x) ∈ C[x] is a nonconstant

polynomial, then f (x) has a root in C.

We will accept the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra without proof. For those interested
in reading the proof, it can be found in [Jud12, Th. 23.33].

Corollary 2.2.13. Suppose f (x) ∈ C[x] with deg f (x) ≥ 1. If we write f (x) = a0 + a1 x +
· · ·+an xn , an 6= 0, then f (x) factors as f (x) = an (x−z1 )(x−z2 ) · · · (x−zn ), where z1 , . . . , zn
are the roots of f (x), counted according to multiplicity. In particular, the only irreducible
polynomials in C[x] are linear.

Proof. The proof is by induction on the degree of f (x), using the Fundamental Theorem of
Algebra (Theorem 2.2.12). The details are left as Exercise 2.2.1.

Theorem 2.2.14. If f (x) ∈ R[x] is a nonconstant polynomial, then it factors (in R[x]) as
a product of polynomials of degree at most two. In particular, the irreducible polynomials in
R[x] are either linear or quadratic.
2.2. Factorization of polynomials over a field 43

Proof. The proof is by induction on deg f (x). The case deg f (x) ≤ 2 is immediate. Assume
the result holds for polynomials of degree ≤ n and consider f (x) with deg f (x) = n + 1.
There are two cases.

(a) If f (z) = 0 for some z ∈ R, then f (x) = (x − z)g(x) and deg g(x) = n. The result then
follows by the inductive hypothesis applied to g(x).
(b) Otherwise, f (x) has no real roots. By the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra (Theo-
rem 2.2.12), it has a complex root z. Then f (z) = 0 and so f (z̄) = f (z) = 0̄ = 0.
(Here z̄ denotes the complex conjugate of z.) Therefore,

f (x) = (x − z)(x − z̄)g(x) = (x2 − (z + z̄)x + z z̄) g(x),

| {z }
∈R[x]

and the result again follows by applying the inductive hypothesis to g(x).

If α : R → S is a ring homomorphism, then we have an induced ring homomorphism

X X
R[x] → S[x], ai xi 7→ α(ai )xi , ai ∈ R.

In particular, if p is a prime number, taking α to be usual ring homomorphism Z → Zp ,

α(x) = x̄, gives a ring homomorphism Z[x] → Zp [x] called reduction modulo p.

Theorem 2.2.15 (Gauss’ Lemma). Let f (x) = g(x)h(x) in Z[x]. If a prime p ∈ Z divides
every coefficient of f (x), then either p divides every coefficient of g(x) or p divides every
coefficient of h(x).

Proof. Consider the reduction modulo p, ϕ : Z[x] → Zp [x], ϕ( ai xi ) = āi xi . We let

P P
f¯(x) = ϕ(f (x)). If a prime number p divides every coefficient of f (x), then f¯(x) = 0 in Zp [x].
Thus 0 = ḡ(x)h̄(x). Since Zp is a field, Zp [x] is an integral domain by Theorem 2.1.9(d).
Thus f¯(x) = 0 or h̄(x) = 0. But this implies that either every coefficient of g(x) is zero in
Zp or every coefficient of h(x) is zero in Zp .

Definition 2.2.16 (Proper factorization). Let f (x) ∈ Z[x] be a nonconstant polynomial. A

proper factorization of f (x) is a way of writing f (x) = g(x)h(x), where g(x), h(x) ∈ Z[x]
with deg g(x), deg h(x) > 0.

Theorem 2.2.17. Suppose f (x) is a nonconstant polynomial in Z[x].

(a) If f (x) = g(x)h(x) with g(x), h(x) ∈ Q[x], then f (x) = g0 (x)h0 (x) for some g0 (x), h0 (x) ∈
Z[x] with deg g0 (x) = deg g(x) and deg h0 (x) = deg h(x).
(b) The polynomial f (x) is irreducible in Q[x] if and only if it has no proper factorization
in Z[x].

Proof. (a) Let a and b be the least common multiples of the denominators of the coeffi-
cients of g(x) and h(x), respectively. Then g1 (x) := ag(x) ∈ Z[x] and h1 (x) := bh(x) ∈ Z[x].
Thus, we have
abf (x) = g1 (x)h1 (x)
44 Chapter 2. Polynomials

in Z[x]. Suppose p is a prime number dividing ab. Then, by Gauss’ Lemma (Theorem 2.2.15),
either p divides all the coefficients of g1 (x) or it divides all the coefficients of h1 (x). Thus we
can cancel p to give
ab
f (x) = g2 (x)h2 (x)
p
in Z[x]. Continuing in this manner, we can cancel every prime factor of ab to obtain a
factorization
f (x) = gk (x)hk (x)
in Z[x]. The result then follows since deg g(x) = deg g1 (x) = · · · = deg gk (x) and similarly
deg h(x) = deg hk (x).
(b) If f (x) is irreducible in Q[x], then it has no proper factorization in Z[x], since such a
factorization would also be a factorization in Q[x]. The converse follows from part (a).

Theorem 2.2.18 (Modular Irreducibility Test). Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ∈ Z[x],

n ≥ 1, an 6= 0. Suppose that there exists a prime number p such that
(a) p - an and
(b) the reduction of f (x) modulo p is irreducible in Zp [x].
Then f (x) is irreducible in Q[x].

Proof. The first condition tells us that deg f¯(x) = deg f (x). Suppose f (x) is reducible in
Q[x]. Then there is a proper factorization f (x) = g(x)h(x) in Z[x] by Theorem 2.2.17. Then

deg ḡ(x) ≤ deg g(x) < deg f (x) = deg f¯(x).

Similarly, deg h̄(x) < deg f¯(x). Since f¯(x) = ḡ(x)h̄(x), this contradicts the irreducibility of
f¯(x) in Zp [x].

Example 2.2.19. We show that f (x) = 4x4 − 3x2 − 2x − 1 is irreducible in Q[x]. We apply
Theorem 2.2.18 with p = 3. Suppose f¯(x) = x4 + x + 2̄ = ḡ(x)h̄(x) in Z3 [x]. Then
deg ḡ(x) + deg h̄(x) = 4. Assume, without loss of generality, that deg ḡ(x) ≤ deg h̄(x). Then
deg ḡ(x) ≤ 2.
It is not possible to have deg ḡ(x) = 1, since x4 + x + 2̄ does not have a root in Z3 . So it
remains to consider the case that x4 + x + 2̄ factors as a product of two quadratics in Z3 [x].
So assume that in Z3 [x] we have

x4 + x + 2̄ = (x2 + ax + b)(x2 + cx + d).

This implies that

bd = 2̄, ad + bc = 1̄, b + d + ac = 0̄, a + c = 0̄. (2.1)

The first equation implies that b = 2̄d−1 and the fourth implies that a = −c. Substituting
into the third equation then gives

2̄d−1 + d − c2 = 0 =⇒ 2̄ + d2 = c2 d. (2.2)
2.2. Factorization of polynomials over a field 45

On the other hand, substituting into the second equation of (2.1) gives

ad + 2̄cd−1 = 1̄ =⇒ ad2 + 2̄c = d =⇒ (2̄ − d2 )c = d.

Since bd = 2̄, we have d 6= 0̄, and so the above implies that c 6= 0̄. Thus c is equal to 1̄ or 2̄.
In either case we have c2 = 1̄ and so (2.2) becomes 2 + d2 = d. Hence d2 − d + 2̄ = 0̄. But
this equation has no roots in Z3 . This contradiction completes the proof.

Theorem 2.2.20 (Eisenstein Criterion). Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ∈ Z[x], n ≥ 1,

an 6= 0. Suppose that there exists a prime p ∈ Z such that

(a) p divides each of a0 , . . . , an−1 ,

(b) p does not divide an , and
(c) p2 does not divide a0 .

Then f (x) is irreducible in Q[x].

Proof. Suppose, towards a contradiction, that f (x) is not irreducible in Q[x]. Then, by
Theorem 2.2.17, we have a proper factorization f (x) = g(x)h(x) in Z[x]. Let

g(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bs xs and h(x) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + ct xt ,

with bs , ct 6= 0.

• Since p | b0 c0 , but p2 - a0 = b0 c0 , we have that p divides exactly one of b0 or c0 . Without

loss of generality, assume that p | b0 but p - c0 .
• Since p - an = bs ct , we have p - bs .
• Let k be the smallest integer such that p - bk . So 0 < k ≤ s < n.
• Equating the coefficients of xk in f (x) = g(x)h(x) gives

ak = bk c0 + bk−1 c1 + · · · + b0 ck .

We know that p divides ak by assumption. Also, by our choice of k, p divides every

term in the sum after the first. Thus p also divides bk c0 . Since p is prime, it must
therefore divide either bk or c0 , a contradiction.

Example 2.2.21. The polynomial 2x7 − 5x4 + 10x2 − 15 is irreducible in Q[x]. This can be
seen by applying the Eisenstein Criterion (Theorem 2.2.20) with p = 5.

Example 2.2.22. The polynomial f (x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 is irreducible in Q[x]. To see

this, first note that f (x)(x − 1) = x5 − 1. Thus,

(x + 1)5 − 1 (x + 1)5 − 1
f (x + 1) = = = x4 + 5x3 + 10x2 + 10x + 5.
(x + 1) − 1 x

Then we see that f (x + 1) does not factor by the Eisenstein Criterion (Theorem 2.2.20) with
p = 5. Hence f (x) does not factor either.
46 Chapter 2. Polynomials

Example 2.2.23. If p is a prime number, then xp−1 + xp−2 + · · · + x + 1 is called a cyclotomic

polynomial . Using the argument of Example 2.2.22, one can show that this polynomial is
irreducible.

Theorem 2.2.24. Let F be a field and f (x), g(x) ∈ F [x] \ {0}. Then there exists a unique
polynomial d(x) ∈ F [x] \ {0} such that

(a) d(x) is monic,

(b) d(x) | f (x) and d(x) | g(x),
(c) if h(x) ∈ F [x] satisfies h(x) | f (x) and h(x) | g(x), then h(x) | d(x),
(d) there exists u(x), v(x) ∈ F [x] such that d(x) = u(x)f (x) + v(x)g(x).

Proof. Let d(x) be a monic element of {u(x)f (x) + v(x)g(x) | u(x), v(x) ∈ F [x]} of smallest
degree. Then (a), (c) and (d) are obvious. To see (b), divide f (x) by d(x) to obtain
f (x) = q(x)d(x) + r(x) with r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg d(x). Then, writing d(x) =
u(x)f (x) + v(x)g(x) for some u(x), v(x) ∈ F [x], we have

r(x) = f (x) − q(x)d(x) = f (x)(1 − q(x)u(x)) + g(x)(−q(x)v(x)).

Thus, by our choice of d(x), we cannot have deg r(x) < deg d(x). Thus r(x) = 0, which
proves that d(x) | f (x). The proof that d(x) | g(x) is analogous. Thus (b) is proved.
It remains to show the uniqueness assertion. Suppose d1 (x) and d2 (x) both satisfy the
given conditions, Then, d1 (x) | d2 (x) and d2 (x) | d1 (x). Hence

d1 (x) = d2 (x)k1 (x) = d1 (x)k2 (x)k1 (x) for some k1 (x), k2 (x) ∈ F [x].

Thus k1 (x)k2 (x) = 1, which implies that k1 (x) and k2 (x) are constant polynomials. But since
d1 (x) and d2 (x) are both monic, we much have k1 (x) = k2 (x) = 1. Thus d1 (x) = d2 (x).

Definition 2.2.25 (Greatest common divisor of polynomials). The polynomial d(x) whose
existence is asserted in Theorem 2.2.24 is called the greatest common divisor of f (x) and
g(x) and is denoted gcd(f (x), g(x)).

Algorithm 2.2.26 (Euclidean Algorithm). Let f (x), g(x) ∈ F [x] with g(x) 6= 0. Set a1 (x) =
f (x) and a2 (x) = g(x). By repeated polynomial division, we have


 a1 (x) = q1 (x)a2 (x) + a3 (x) with a3 (x) 6= 0 and deg a3 (x) < deg a2 (x),

 a2 (x) = q2 (x)a3 (x) + a4 (x) with a4 (x) 6= 0 and deg a4 (x) < ϕa3 (x),



... ...




 ak−2 (x) = qk−2 (x)ak−1 (x) + ak (x) with ak (x) 6= 0 and deg ak (x) < deg ak−1 (x),

a (x) = q (x)a (x).
k−1 k−1 k

Then gcd(f (x), g(x)) = 1c ak (x), where c is the leading coefficient of ak (x). A proof of this
result is outlined in Exercise 2.2.3.

Example 2.2.27. In Q[x], we have gcd(x2 +1, 2x−1) = 1 and gcd(x4 −2x2 +1, 2x2 −2) = x2 −1.
2.2. Factorization of polynomials over a field 47

Proposition 2.2.28. Let F be a field, p(x) ∈ F [x] an irreducible polynomial, and f1 (x), . . . , fn (x) ∈
F [x]. If p(x) | f1 (x) · · · fn (x), then p(x) | fi (x) for some 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Proof. We prove the result by induction. The case n = 1 is obvious. Now consider the case
n = 2. Suppose p(x) divides f1 (x)f2 (x). Let d(x) = gcd(p(x), f1 (x)). Then d(x) | p(x) and
thus, since p(x) is irreducible, we have deg d(x) = 0 (so d(x) = 1) or deg d(x) = deg p(x). If
deg d(x) = deg p(x), then p(x) = ad(x) for some nonzero a ∈ F and so p(x) divides f1 (x)
since d(x) does. On the other hand, if d(x) = 1, then we have
u(x)p(x) + v(x)f1 (x) = 1 for some u(x), v(x) ∈ F [x]
by Theorem 2.2.24. Thus u(x)p(x)f2 (x) + v(x)f1 (x)f2 (x) = f2 (x). Therefore p(x) divides
f2 (x) since it divides f1 (x)f2 (x). Thus the result holds for n = 2.
If n > 2, then p(x) | f1 (x)f2 (x) · · · fn (x) implies p(x) | f1 (x) or p(x) | f2 (x) · · · fn (x) (by
the n = 2 case). The result then follows by the inductive hypothesis.
Corollary 2.2.29. If F is a field and p(x) ∈ F [x] is irreducible, then hp(x)i is a prime ideal
of F [x].
Proof. Suppose p(x) is irreducible and f (x)g(x) ∈ hp(x)i. Then p(x) | f (x)g(x). Hence, by
Proposition 2.2.28, p(x) divides f (x) or g(x), which implies that f (x) ∈ hp(x)i or g(x) ∈
hp(x)i.
Example 2.2.30. We have that hx2 + x + 1i is a prime ideal of Z2 [x]. We will see later that
hp(x)i is in fact a maximal ideal of F [x] whenever p(x) is irreducible (see Theorem 2.3.6).
Theorem 2.2.31 (Unique Factorization Theorem). Let F be a field and f (x) ∈ F [x] be a
nonconstant polynomial. Then
(a) f (x) = ap1 (x) · · · pm (x) where a ∈ F × and p1 (x), . . . , pm (x) ∈ F [x] are irreducible and
monic, and
(b) the factorization of part (a) is unique up to a reordering of the pi (x)’s.
Proof. (a) We prove the result by induction on n = deg f (x). The case n = 1 is obvious
since degree one polynomials are irreducible. Assume the result holds for n and consider
a polynomial f (x) of degree n + 1. If f (x) is irreducible, we are done. Otherwise, we
can factor f (x) = g(x)h(x) with deg g(x), deg h(x) ≤ n. The result then follows from the
inductive hypothesis.
(b) Suppose we have two factorizations
f (x) = ap1 (x) · · · pm (x) = bq1 (x) · · · q` (x), (2.3)
with a, b ∈ F × and p1 (x), . . . , pm (x), q1 (x), · · · , q` (x) monic irreducible. Equating the leading
terms, we see that a = b. Now, p1 (x) | q1 (x) · · · q` (x), and so p1 (x) | qi (x) for some 1 ≤ i ≤ `
by Proposition 2.2.28. Thus p1 (x) = qi (x) since both are monic and irreducible. Canceling
p1 (x) and qi (x) in (2.3) gives
p2 (x) · · · pm (x) = q1 (x) · · · qi−1 (x)qi (x) · · · q` (x).
The theorem follows by repeating the above argument.
48 Chapter 2. Polynomials

Exercises.
2.2.1. Prove Corollary 2.2.13.

2.2.2. Show that if p is a prime number, then the cyclotomic polynomial xp−1 +xp−2 +· · ·+x+1
is irreducible. See Example 2.2.23.

2.2.3. Let f (x), g(x) ∈ F [x], with g(x) 6= 0.

(a) Show that Algorithm 2.2.26 terminates after a finite number of steps.
(b) In the notation of this algorithm, show that gcd(ai (x), ai+1 (x)) = gcd(ai+1 (x), ai+2 (x))
for all i = 1, . . . , k − 2.
(c) In the same notation, show that gcd(ak−1 (x), ak (x)) = ak (x).
(d) Conclude that gcd(f (x), g(x)) = ak (x).

2.2.4 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.1]). (a) If F is a field and a ∈ F , a 6= 0, show that a divides f for
every f ∈ F [x].
(b) If p ∈ F [x] divides f for every f ∈ F [x], show that p ∈ F , p 6= 0.

2.2.5 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.2]). If f, g ∈ F [x] and F is a field, consider the following statements:

(a) f = ag for some 0 6= a ∈ F ;

(b) f and g have the same roots in F .

Prove that (a) =⇒ (b). Does (b) =⇒ (a)? Justify your answer.

2.2.6 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.3]). In each case, explain why f is reducible over any field.

(a) f = x3 − 2x2 + 3x − 2
(b) f = x3 + x2 + 4

2.2.7 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.4]). In each case determine whether the polynomial is irreducible. Give
reasons.

(a) x3 + 5 in Z7 [x]
(b) x2 − 2 in R[x]
(c) x2 + 11 in C[x]
(d) x3 − 4 in Z11 [x]
(e) x3 + x + 1 in Z5 [x]
(f) x2 + x + 1 in Z17 [x]

2.2.8 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.5]). In each case, determine whether the polynomial is irreducible over
each of the fields Q, R, C, Z2 , Z3 , Z5 , and Z7 .
2.2. Factorization of polynomials over a field 49

(a) x2 − 3
(b) x2 + x + 1
(c) x3 + x + 1
(d) x3 − 2

2.2.9 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.6]). Let R be an integral domain and let f ∈ R[x] be monic. If f
factors in R[x], show that it has a factorization f = gh, where g and h are both monic (and
of positive degree).

2.2.10 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.8]). (a) If x2 + ax + b has roots u and v in a field F , show that
b = uv and a = −(u + v).
(b) Show that 1 + i is a root of x2 + (1 − 2i)x − (3 + i) ∈ C[x]. Find the other root.

2.2.11 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.9]). Show that an odd degree polynomial in R[x] has a real root.
(Requires calculus.)

2.2.12 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.10]). Find all monic irreducible cubics in Z2 [x].

2.2.13 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.12]). Let p be a monic quartic in Z2 [x]. Show that p is irreducible in
Z2 [x] if and only if

(a) p has no root in Z2 , and

(b) p 6= x4 + x2 + 1.

Hint: Exercise 2.2.8.

2.2.14 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.13]). Show that a monic quintic p in Z2 [x] in irreducible if and only if

(a) p has no root in Z2 , and

(b) p is neither x5 + x4 + 1 nor x5 + x + 1.

Hint: Exercise 2.2.12.

2.2.15 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.14]). Find all monic irreducible quadratics in Z3 [x].

2.2.16 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.15]). Find a list of six quartics in Z3 [x] such that a monic quartic p
is irreducible if and only if it has no root in Z3 and is not in the list. Hint: Exercise 2.2.15.

2.2.17 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.18]). In each case, factor f as a product of irreducible polynomials in
F [x].

(a) f = 3x4 + 2, F = Z5
(b) f = 3x4 + 2, F = Z11
(c) f = x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 1, F = Z7
(d) f = x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 1, F = Z3
(e) f = x4 − x2 + x − 1, F = Z13 .
50 Chapter 2. Polynomials

(f) f = x4 − x2 + x − 1, F = Z17 .

2.2.18 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.19]). Factor x5 + x4 + 1 as a product of irreducible polynomials in

Z2 [x].

2.2.19 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.20]). Factor x5 + x2 − x + 1 as a product of irreducible polynomials

in Z3 [x].

2.2.20 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.21]). Show that each polynomial is irreducible in Q[x].

(a) 3x3 + 5x2 + x + 2

(b) 5x3 + 2x + 3
(c) x3 + 9x2 + x + 6
(d) x3 + x2 + 10x + 8

2.2.21 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.22]). Show that each polynomial is irreducible in Q[x].

(a) x5 + 6x4 + 12x + 15

(b) 4x5 + 28x4 + 7x3 − 28x2 + 14

2.2.22 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.24]). Show that f (x) = x4 + 4x3 + 4x2 + 4x + 5 is irreducible over Q
by considering f (x − 1).

2.2.23 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.29]). Show that xn − p is irreducible in Q[x] for all n ≥ 2 and all
primes p ∈ Z. (Hence Q[x] has infinitely many irreducible polynomials of every degree ≥ 2.)

2.2.24 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.30]). Suppose p is a prime number. Show that xp − a is reducible in
Zp [x] for every a ∈ Zp .

2.2.25 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.31]). Let F ⊆ K be fields and f, g ∈ F [x].

(a) If f is irreducible in K[x], show that it is irreducible in F [x].

(b) If f and g are relatively prime in F [x] (i.e. their greatest common divisor is 1), show
that they are relatively prime in K[x]. Hint: Theorem 2.2.24(d).

2.2.26 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.34]). Let f = x3 − 42x2 + 35x + m. Show that there are infinitely
many integers m for which f is irreducible in Q[x]. Hint: Eisenstein Criterion.

2.2.27 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.35]). In each case, factor f into irreducible polynomials in Q[x].

(a) f = x4 + 3x3 + x2 + 3x + 1
(b) f = x4 + x3 − 7x2 + 3x − 2
(c) f = x4 + 2x3 − 2x2 + 7x − 2
(d) f = x4 − x3 + 2x2 − 3x + 2

2.2.28 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.36]). If m and p are integers with p prime, show that x4 + mx + p is
irreducible in Q[x] if and only if it has no roots in Q.
2.3. Quotient rings of polynomials over a field 51

2.2.29 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.2.39]). In each case compute d = gcd(f, g), and express it in F [x] as a
linear combination of f and g.

(a) f = x2 + 2, g = x3 + 4x2 + x + 1, F = Z5
(b) f = x2 + 1, g = x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1, F = Z2
(c) f = x2 − x − 2, g = x5 − 4x3 − 2x2 + 7x − 6, F = Q
(d) f = x3 + x − 2, g = x5 − x4 + 2x2 − x − 1, F ∈ Q

2.2.30 (Bonus problem). (a) Let R be a commutative ring. Prove that f (x) ∈ R[x],
f (x) = a0 + · · · + an xn is a nilpotent element of R[x] if and only if a0 , . . . , an are nilpotent
elements of R.
(b) Let θ : M2 (R) → M2 (R) be a map such that
   
c 0 c 0
(i) for all c ∈ R, θ = ,
0 c 0 c
(ii) for all A, B ∈ M2 (R), we have θ(AB) = θ(A)θ(B),
(iii) for all A, B ∈ M2 (R) and a, b ∈ R, we have θ(aA + bB) = aθ(A) + bθ(B).
Prove that θ(X) = P XP −1 for some invertible P ∈ M2 (R).

2.3 Quotient rings of polynomials over a field

The following result states that, if F is a field, all ideals in F [x] are principal.

Theorem 2.3.1. Let F be a field and let I be a nonzero ideal of F [x]. Then there is a unique
monic polynomial h(x) ∈ F [x] such that I = hh(x)i = h(x)F [x] = {h(x)g(x) | g(x) ∈ F [x]}.

Proof. Let I be a nonzero ideal of F [x]. Then I contains nonzero polynomials and hence
it contains monic polynomials (since it is an ideal, we can multiply any polynomials by the
inverse of the leading coefficient to obtain a monic polynomial in I). Among all the monic
polynomials in I, choose h(x) of minimal degree. Then hh(x)i ⊆ I.
Now suppose f (x) ∈ I. By the Euclidean Algorithm (Algorithm 2.2.26), we have f (x) =
q(x)h(x) + r(x) for q(x), r(x) ∈ F [x] with r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg h(x). Suppose r(x) 6= 0
and let a be the leading coefficient of r(x). Then a−1 r(x) is monic and

a−1 r(x) = a−1 (h(x) − q(x)f (x)) ∈ I.

But deg(a−1 r(x)) = deg r(x) < deg h(x), which contradicts our choice of h(x). Thus r(x) = 0
and so I = hh(x)i.
To prove uniqueness, suppose that hh1 (x)i = hh2 (x)i =
6 0. Then there exist f1 (x), f2 (x) ∈
F [x] such that
h1 (x) = f1 (x)h2 (x) and h2 (x) = f2 (x)h1 (x).
Thus h1 (x) = f1 (x)f2 (x)h1 (x), which implies that deg f1 (x) = deg f2 (x) = 0. Thus f1 (x) ∈
F . Since h1 (x) and h2 (x) are both monic, we have f1 (x) = 1. So h1 (x) = h2 (x).
52 Chapter 2. Polynomials

Example 2.3.2. Consider the ring R[x] and let I = hx2 + 1i. We can divide any f (x) ∈ R[x]
by x2 + 1 to obtain f (x) = q(x)(x2 + 1) + (ax + b) for unique q(x) ∈ R[x] and a, b ∈ R.
Thus, any element of R[x]/I can be written uniquely in the form (ax + b) + I. We have
(ax + b) + I = (a0 x + b0 ) + I if and only if a = a0 and b = b0 . Furthermore we have
((ax + b) + I) + ((a0 x + b0 ) + I) = ((a + a0 )x + (b + b0 )) + I,
((ax + b) + I)((a0 x + b0 ) + I) = (aa0 x2 + ab0 x + a0 bx + bb0 ) + I = ((a0 b + ab0 )x + (bb0 − aa0 )) + I.
Thus the map R[x]/I ∼
= C via the map ax + b 7→ ai + b.
The above example is a special case of the following general theorem. Its proof can be
found in [Nic12, §4.3].
Theorem 2.3.3. Let F be a field, h(x) ∈ F [x], and I = hh(x)i. Suppose n = deg h(x).
Then every element of R = F [x]/I has a unique representative of degree ≤ n − 1. Thus the
factor ring R = F [x]/I is given by
R∼
= {a0 + a1 t + · · · + an−1 tn−1 | a0 , . . . , an−1 ∈ F }
(isomorphism of vector spaces).
In Theorem 2.3.3, t corresponds to x + I. The addition in the representation of R given
in Theorem 2.3.3 is given by adding coefficients. The multiplication is computed by using
the fact that h(t) = 0. This allows us to express tn in terms of lower powers of t.
Example 2.3.4. Consider the quotient ring Z2 [x]/hx2 i. By Theorem 2.3.3, we have
Z2 [x]/hx2 i ∼
= {at + b | a, b ∈ Z2 } = {0̄, 1̄, t, 1̄ + t}.
When computing in this ring, we use the fact that t2 = h(t) = 0. Thus we have the following
addition and multiplication tables.
+ 0̄ 1̄ t 1̄ + t × 0̄ 1̄ t 1̄ + t
0̄ 0̄ 1̄ t 1̄ + t 0̄ 0̄ 0̄ 0̄ 0̄
1̄ 1̄ 0̄ 1̄ + t t 1̄ 0̄ 1̄ t 1̄ + t
t t 1̄ + t 0̄ 1̄ t 0̄ t 0̄ t
1̄ + t 1̄ + t t 1̄ 0̄ 1̄ + t 0̄ 1̄ + t t 1̄
Note that this ring is not a field since, for example, the nonzero element t is not invertible.
Example 2.3.5. Consider the quotient ring Z2 [x]/hx2 + x + 1̄i. By Theorem 2.3.3, we have
an isomorphism of vector spaces
Z2 [x]/hx2 + x + 1̄i ∼
= {at + b | a, b ∈ Z2 }.
When computing in this ring, we use the fact that h(t) = 0 and so t2 = −t − 1̄ = t + 1̄. The
multiplication table is therefore as follows:
× 0̄ 1̄ t 1̄ + t
0̄ 0̄ 0̄ 0̄ 0̄
1̄ 0̄ 1̄ t 1̄ + t
t 0̄ t 1̄ + t 1̄
1̄ + t 0̄ 1̄ + t 1̄ t
2.3. Quotient rings of polynomials over a field 53

This is a field with four elements. (Recall that Z4 is not a field, so this quotient is not
isomorphic to Z4 .)

Theorem 2.3.6. Let F be a field and h(x) ∈ F [x] with deg h(x) ≥ 1. Then the following
statements are equivalent:
(a) h(x) is irreducible.
(b) hh(x)i is a prime ideal.
(c) hh(x)i is a maximal ideal.

Proof. (a) ⇒ (b): This is Corollary 2.2.29.

(b) ⇒ (c): Suppose hh(x)i is prime but not maximal. Then there exists some ideal I of
F [x] such that hh(x)i ( I ( F [x]. Now, we know by Theorem 2.3.1 that I = hp(x)i for some
p(x) ∈ F [x]. Thus h(x) = p(x)q(x) for some q(x) ∈ F [x]. But p(x) 6∈ hh(x)i, and so q(x) ∈
hh(x)i, i.e., q(x) = h(x)r(x) for some r(x) ∈ F [x]. This implies that h(x) = p(x)h(x)r(x),
and so deg p(x) = 0, which contradicts the fact that I 6= F [x].
(c) ⇒ (a): If h(x) is not irreducible, then h(x) = h1 (x)h2 (x) for some h1 (x), h2 (x) ∈ F [x]
with deg h1 (x), deg h2 (x) < deg h(x). Thus hh(x)i ( hh1 (x)i ( F [x], which implies that
hh(x)i is not maximal.
One of the important consequences of Theorem 2.3.6 is that fields of order pm exist
for all prime numbers p and positive integers m. More precisely, it can be shown that
a monic irreducible polynomial h(x) of degree m exists in Zp [x] for every such p and m.
Then, by Theorem 2.3.6, the ideal hh(x)i is maximal and hence Zp [x]/hh(x)i is a field by
Corollary 1.3.19. It is straightforward to verify that this field has pm elements.

Example 2.3.7. The polynomial x2 + x + 1 has no root in Z2 and so it is irreducible by

Theorem 2.2.7. Thus

Z2 [x]/hx2 + x + 1̄i = {a + bt | a, b ∈ Z2 , t2 + t + 1̄ = 0}

is a field with four elements. We saw this by direct computation in Example 2.3.5.

Exercises.
Throughout these exercises, F denotes a field.

2.3.1. Prove Theorem 2.3.1. Hint: Consider a monic element f (x) ∈ I of smallest degree
and follow the approach of Proposition 1.3.6.

2.3.2 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.1(b)]). Let F be a field and define

A = {f (x) ∈ F [x] | The sum of the coefficients of f (x) is zero}.

Find a monic polynomial h(x) ∈ F [x] such that A = hh(x)i.

54 Chapter 2. Polynomials

2.3.3 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.2]). In each case, describe R = F [x]/hhi as in Theorem 2.3.3 and write
out the addition and multiplication tables for R.

(a) h = x2 + 1, F = Z2
(b) h = x2 + x, F = Z2
(c) h = x3 + 1, F = Z2
(d) h = x2 − 1, F = Z3
(e) h = x2 , F = Z3
(f) h = x2 − x + 1, F = Z3

2.3.4 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.3]). Construct a field of order 8 and write down the multiplication
table.

2.3.5 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.4]). Construct a field of order 9 and write down the multiplication
table.

2.3.6 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.5(b)]). Construct a field of order 25.

2.3.7 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.6]). In each case, determine all the idempotents, nilpotents, and units
in R = F [x]/hhi:

(a) h = x2 − x
(b) h = x2

2.3.8 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.7]). In each case, show that r is a unit in R = F [x]/hhi and find the
inverse. Use the notation of Theorem 2.3.3.

(a) r = 1 + t2 , F = Z11 , h = x3 + 1
(b) r = 1 + t − t2 , F = Z7 , h = x3 + x2 − 1

2.3.9 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.8]). Because x − a is irreducible over the field F , Theorem 2.3.6 and
Corollary 1.3.19 imply that F [x]/hx − ai is a field. Describe this field. How is it related to
F?

2.3.10 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.9]). Find a subring of R isomorphic to Q[x]/hx3 − 2i.

2.3.11 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.10]). (a) Show that

  
2 ∼ a b 
F [x]/hx i = a, b ∈ F , a subring of M2 (F ).
0 a 

(b) Show that

   
 a b c  
F [x]/hx3 i ∼

= 0 a b   a, b ∈ F , a subring of M3 (F ).

0 0 a
  
2.3. Quotient rings of polynomials over a field 55

(c) Generalize the above results.

2.3.12 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.11]). Find a ring isomorphism F [x]/hx2 − xi → F × F .

2.3.13 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.12]). Let R = F [x]/hx2 − 1i = {a + bt | a, b ∈ F, t2 = 1}. Show

that a + bt is a unit in R if and only if a2 6= b2 . Hint: If r = a + bt, let r∗ = a − bt, and
N (r) = rr∗ . Show that (rs)∗ = r∗ s∗ , and hence that N (rs) = N (r)N (s) for all r, s ∈ R.

2.3.14 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.18]). Let A denote the set of all polynomials in Z[x] with even constant
term. Show that A is an ideal of Z[x] that is not principal. (Note: You must show that A
is an ideal.) This shows that Theorem 2.3.1 fails if we replace F by an integral domain in
general.

2.3.15 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.21]). (a) Suppose a, b ∈ F such that a2 − 4b is not the square of an
element of F . Show that x2 + ax + b is irreducible in F [x].
(b) Show that the converse of (a) holds if 2 6= 0 in F .

2.3.16 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.22]). Let f and g be nonzero polynomials in F [x].

(a) Show that A = {uf + vg | u, v ∈ F [x]} is an ideal of F [x].

(b) Explain how Theorem 2.3.1 is related to Theorem 2.2.24.

2.3.17 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.23]). Polynomials f1 , f2 , . . . , fm in F [x] are called relatively prime if
1 is the only common monic divisor of all of them in F [x]. Show that f1 , f2 , . . . , fm are
relatively prime if and only if 1 = q1 f1 + q2 f2 + · · · + qm fm for some q1 , q2 , . . . , qm ∈ F [x].
Hint: Theorem 2.3.1.

2.3.18 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.26]). (a) Let A 6= F [x] be an ideal in F [x]. If A 6= 0, show that A
is prime if and only if it is maximal.
(b) What happens if A = 0? Justify your answer.

2.3.19 ([Nic12, Ex. 4.3.27]). Let h be a nonconstant monic polynomial in F [x]. Show that
F [x]/hhi has no nonzero nilpotent elements if and only if h = p1 p2 · · · pr , where p1 , p2 , . . . , pr
are distinct monic irreducible polynomials. Hint: Use Theorem 2.2.31.

2.3.20. Use the First Isomorphism Theorem (Theorem 1.4.15) to give an alternative proof
that R[x]/hx2 + 1i ∼
= C (see Exercise 2.3.2).

2.3.21 (Bonus). Prove that C[x]/hx2 + 1i ∼

= C × C (as rings).
Chapter 3

Integral domains

In this chapter we discuss integral domains in further detail. In particular, we introduce the
notions of unique factorization domains, principal ideal domains and euclidean domains. A
reference for the material in this chapter is [Jud12, Ch. 18]. Throughout this chapter, unless
otherwise noted, we assume that R is an integral domain.

3.1 Unique factorization domains

Recall that, for a, b ∈ R, we say that a divides b, and we write a | b if b = ac for some c ∈ R.

Definition 3.1.1 (Factorization). A factorization of an element a ∈ R is way of writing

a = bc with b, c ∈ R. Such a factorization is said to be trivial if b or c is a unit in R.

Trivial factorizations are not so interesting. We will consider two factorizations r = ab

and r = (ua)(u−1 b) for some unit u ∈ R× to be essentially the same.

Example 3.1.2. In Z we have 8 = 4 · 2 = (−4) · (−2). In R[x] we have

 
3 2 1 2 1 1
(x − 1) = (x − 1)(x + x + 1) = (3x − 3) x + x+ .
3 3 3

Theorem 3.1.3. Let a, b ∈ R. The following are equivalent:

(a) a | b and b | a,
(b) a = ub for some u ∈ R× ,
(c) hai = hbi.

Proof. The proof of this theorem is left as Exercise 3.1.1.

Definition 3.1.4 (Associates). Two elements a, b ∈ R are called associates if a | b and b | a.

When a and b are associates, we write a ∼ b.

Lemma 3.1.5. The relation ∼ (i.e. being associates) is an equivalence relation.

Proof. The proof of this lemma is left as Exercise 3.1.2.

56
3.1. Unique factorization domains 57

Example 3.1.6. The equivalence classes of ∼ in Z are {0}, {±1} {±2}, . . . .

√ √ √ √
Consider√the ring Z( 3) :=√{a+b √3 | a, b ∈ Z}.
Example 3.1.7. √ √ Since (2+ 3)(2−
√ 3) =
√1,
×
we see that 2+ 3 ∈ Z( 3) . Then, since 3(2+ 3) = 3+2 3, we see that 3 ∼ 3+2 3.
The following concept is useful when analyzing subrings of C. For x ∈ C, we define the
norm of x to be
N (x) = x̄x = |x|2 .
Then N (xy) = N (x)N (y) for x, y ∈ C. Note also that N (x) ∈ N whenever x ∈ Z(i), and
that N (x) = 0 if and only if x = 0.
√ √
Example 3.1.8. Let’s find all the units in Z( −5) := {a + b −5 | a, b ∈ C}. We have
√ √ √ √
(a+b −5)(c+d −5) = 1 =⇒ N (a+b −5)N (c+d −5) = 1 =⇒ (a2 +5b2 )(c2 +5d2 ) = 1.

Since both a2 + 5b2 and c2 + 5d2 √

are nonnegative integers, we must have a2 + 5b2 =√1 and so
a = ±1 and b = 0. Therefore Z( −5)× = {±1}. So, the only associates of z ∈ Z( −5) are
±z. In contrast, recall that Z(i)× = {±1, ±i} (see Example 1.1.25).
The next definition generalizes the concepts of irreducible and prime elements to arbitrary
integral domains.
Definition 3.1.9 (Irreducible, prime). Let r ∈ R. We say that r is irreducible if the following
conditions are satisfied:
(a) r 6= 0,
(b) r 6∈ R× ,
(c) if r = ab, then a ∈ R× or b ∈ R× .
We say that r is prime if the following conditions are satisfied:
(a) r 6= 0,
(b) r 6∈ R× ,
(c) for every a, b ∈ R, if r | ab, then r | a or r | b.
Example 3.1.10. Every prime number p ∈ Z is both irreducible and prime.
Example 3.1.11. Every irreducible polynomial f (x) ∈ F [x] (where F is a field) is both irre-
ducible (by definition) and prime (by Proposition 2.2.28).
Theorem 3.1.12. Any prime element of an integral domain is irreducible.
Proof. Suppose r ∈ R is prime and r = ab for some a, b ∈ R. Then r | ab and so r | a or
r | b. Without loss of generality (i.e. interchanging a and b if necessary), we can assume
r | a. Then a = rc for some c ∈ R. Then

r = ab = rcb =⇒ 1 = cb =⇒ b is a unit,

where in the first implication we used the cancelation law in domains (Proposition 1.2.7).
58 Chapter 3. Integral domains

The converse of the above theorem is false, as the next example illustrates.
√ √
Example 3.1.13. We will show that 1 + −5 is an irreducible element of Z( −5) that is not
prime.
Suppose that we have a factorization
√ √ √
1 + −5 = (a + b −5)(c + d −5).
Then, applying the norm function N , we have
√
√
√

6 = N 1 + −5 = N a + b −5 N c + d −5 = (a2 + 5b2 )(c2 + 5d2 ).
Since each of the factors on the right is positive, we must have (interchanging the two factors
if necessary)
• a2 + 5b2 = 1 and c2 + 5d2 = 6, in which case a = 1, b = 0; or
• a2 + 5b2 = 2 and c2 + 5d2 = 3, which is impossible.
Thus the factorization
√ is trivial. √ √ √
To see that 1 + −5 is not prime, note √ that (1 + −5)(1 − −5) = 6. So 1 + −5
divides 6 = 3 · 2. However, we claim that 1 + −5 does not divide 2 or 3. If it divided 2, we
could find x ∈ Z(i) with
√ √

2 = (1 + −5)x =⇒ 4 = N (2) = N 1 + −5 N (x) =⇒ 4 = 6N (x),
√
which is a contradiction since N (x) ∈ Z. Similarly, if 1 + −5 divided 3, we would have
x ∈ Z with
√ √

3 = (1 + −5)x =⇒ 9 = N (3) = N 1 + −5 N (x) =⇒ 9 = 6N (x),
√
which is again a contradiction. Thus 1 + −5 is not prime.
Definition 3.1.14 (Unique factorization domain). An integral domain R is called a unique
factorization domain (or UFD) if it satisfies the following conditions:
(a) If r ∈ R such that r 6= 0 and r 6∈ R× , then r can be written as a product of irreducible
elements.
(b) If r ∈ R, r 6= 0 and r 6∈ R× with r = p1 · · · ps = q1 · · · qt (where the pi and qi are
irreducibles) then s = t and, after relabeling if necessary, pi ∼ qi for i = 1, . . . , s.
Example 3.1.15. The ring Z of integers is a UFD. Also, by Theorem 2.2.31, the ring F [x] is
a UFD for any field F .
Lemma 3.1.16. Every irreducible element in a UFD is prime.
Proof. Suppose R is a UFD and r ∈ R is irreducible with r | ab for some a, b ∈ R. Then
we have ab = rs for some s ∈ R. Since R is a UFD, we can factor a, b, s as products of
irreducibles:
a = p1 · · · pk , b = q1 · · · q` , s = t1 · · · tn .
Thus p1 · · · pk q1 · · · q` = rt1 · · · tn . By the uniqueness of factorization in a UFD, we have
r ∼ pi for some i = 1, . . . , k or r ∼ qj for some j = 1, . . . , `. Thus r | a or r | b.
3.1. Unique factorization domains 59

√
Example 3.1.17. By Example 3.1.13 and Lemma 3.1.16, we see that Z( −5) is not a UFD.
The factorizations √ √
(1 + −5)(1 + −5) = 6 = 3 · 2
are not equivalent (i.e. the factors on the left are not associates of the factors on the right).
In a UFD, one can use the factorization of an element to find all its divisors (up to
associates). Suppose R is a UFD and a ∈ R is a nonzero nonunit. Then we can write
uniquely
a ∼ pa11 pa22 · · · par r ,
where ai ≥ 1 and pi is a prime in R for i = 1, . . . , r and the pi are nonassociates (i.e.
pi 6∼ pj for i 6= j). The uniqueness here means that the primes are uniquely determined up
to associates (and reordering) as are the exponents ai . The divisors of a are then determined
uniquely (up to associates). Precisely, we have
d | a ⇐⇒ d ∼ pd11 pd22 · · · pdr r , for 0 ≤ di ≤ ai , i = 1, . . . , r.
The proof of this is left as an exercise (or see [Nic12, §5.1, p. 258]).
Definition 3.1.18 (Greatest common divisor, least common multiple). Suppose s1 , . . . , sn ∈
R. An element d ∈ R is called a greatest common divisor (gcd ) of s1 , . . . , sn , and is denoted
gcd(s1 , . . . , sn ), if it satisfies the following conditions:
(a) d | si for i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
(b) If r ∈ R satisfies r | si for i = 1, 2, . . . , n, then r | d.
An element m ∈ R is called a least common multiple (lcm) of s1 , . . . , sn , and is denoted
lcm(s1 , . . . , sn ) if it satisfies:
(a) si | m for i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
(b) If r ∈ R satisfies si | r for i = 1, 2, . . . , n, then m | r.
Note that the definition of gcd given above agrees with usual definition of a gcd of integers
and Definition 2.2.25 for polynomials, except that we require the gcd in Z to be positive and
the gcd in F [x] to be monic. These extra conditions ensure uniqueness of the gcd. In a
general UFD, we do not have any analogous condition to ensure uniqueness. Thus, in an
arbitrary UFD, greatest common divisors (and least common multiples) are defined only up
to associates. We write gcd(s1 , . . . , sn ) and lcm(s1 , . . . , sn ) to denote any gcd and lcm. In
particular, we have:
if si ∼ s0i for i = 1, . . . , n then gcd(s1 , . . . , sn ) ∼ gcd(s01 , . . . , s0n ).
Note that gcd’s and lcm’s need not exist in an arbitrary integral domain, as the following
example illustrates.
Example 3.1.19. Consider Pthe elements x5 , x6 in the subring Z[x2 , x3 ] of Z[x] consisting of all
finite sums of the form aij (x2 )i (x3 )j , aij ∈ Z. We see that x2 and x3 are both common
divisors of x and x , but neither of x2 or x3 divides the other (in Z[x2 , x3 ]). Thus, the gcd
5 6

of x5 and x6 in Z[x2 , x3 ] does not exist.

60 Chapter 3. Integral domains

Proposition 3.1.20. Gcds and lcms exist in UFDs. Suppose R is a UFD and a, b, c, . . . is
a finite list of nonzero elements in R. Let p1 , . . . , pr be the nonassociated primes dividing
one of a, b, c, . . . and write

a ∼ pa11 pa22 · · · par r , ai ∈ N,

b∼ pb11 pb22 · · · pbrr , bi ∈ N,
c∼ pc11 pc22 · · · pcrr , ci ∈ N.
..
.

For each i = 1, 2, . . . , r, let di = min(ai , bi , ci , . . . ) and mi = max(ai , bi , ci , . . . ). Then

gcd(a, b, c, . . . ) ∼ pd11 pd22 · · · pdr r and lcm(a, b, c, . . . ) ∼ pm1 m2 mr

1 p2 . . . pr .

Proof. The proof when R = Z carries over to the general case. The details are left as
Exercise 3.1.3.

Definition 3.1.21 (Ascending chain condition on principal ideals). We say an integral dom-
ain R satisfies the ascending chain condition on principal ideals (or ACCP ) if R contains no
strictly increasing infinite chain

ha1 i ( ha2 i ( ha3 i ( · · ·

of principal ideals.

Example 3.1.22. Suppose we have an chain of strictly increasing chain of principal ideals in
Z:
{0} =
6 hm1 i ( hm2 i ( m3 i ( · · · .
Then |m1 | > |m2 | > |m3 | > · · · . Thus the chain must terminate after finitely many ideals.
So Z satisfies the ACCP.

Example 3.1.23. Consider an ascending chain of principal ideals in F [x], where F is a field:

{0} =
6 hp1 (x)i ( hp2 (x)i ( p3 (x)i ( · · · .

Then deg p1 (x) > deg p2 (x) > · · · and so the chain must be finite. Therefore F [x] satisfies
the ACCP.

Example 3.1.24. Let R = {n + xf (x) | n ∈ Z, f (x) ∈ Q[x]}, the set of polynomials in Q[x]
whose constant term is an integer. Since R is a subring of Q[x], it is an integral domain.
However,
hxi ( h 21 xi ( h 212 xi ( · · ·
is an infinite ascending chain of principal ideals in R. Thus R does not satisfy the ACCP.

Theorem 3.1.25. Suppose R is an integral domain that satisfies the ACCP. Then every
nonzero nonunit in R is a product of irreducibles.
3.1. Unique factorization domains 61

Proof. Suppose a nonzero nonunit a ∈ R cannot be written as a product of irreducibles.

Then a is not irreducible and so we have

a = r1 a1 , a 6∼ r1 , a 6∼ a1 .

Now, at least one of r1 , a1 cannot be written as a product of irreducibles (since if they both
can, then so can a). Without loss of generality, we may assume that a1 cannot be written
as a product of irreducibles. Then we again have

a1 = r2 a2 , a1 6∼ r2 , a1 6∼ a2 ,

where a2 cannot be written as a product of irreducibles. Continuing in this manner, we have

hai ( ha1 i ( ha2 i ( · · · .

Thus R does not satisfy the ACCP.

Theorem 3.1.26. The following are equivalent:

(a) R is a UFD.
(b) R satisfies the ACCP and gcd(a, b) exists for all a, b ∈ R.
(c) R satisfies the ACCP and every irreducible element of R is prime.

Proof. (a) ⇒ (b): Assume R is a UFD. Then Proposition 3.1.20 shows that gcds exist in R.
Now suppose we have an ascending chain of principal ideals in R:

{0} ( ha1 i ( ha2 i ( · · · .

Consider a factorization a1 = p1 · · · pm of a into irreducibles. Since ha1 i ( ha2 i, we have

a2 ∼ pi1 · · · pik , where {i1 , . . . , ik } ( {1, . . . , m}. Similarly, we have a3 ∼ pj1 · · · pj` , where
{j1 , . . . , j` } ( {i1 , . . . , ik }. Continuing in this manner, we see that the chain is finite. Thus
R satisfies the ACCP.
(b) ⇒ (c): Suppose (b) holds. Suppose p ∈ R is irreducible and p | ab in R. Let
d = gcd(a, p). Then d | p and so d ∼ p or d ∼ 1 (since p is irreducible). If p ∼ d then, since
d | a, we have p | a. On the other hand, if d ∼ 1, then gcd(a, p) ∼ 1. We claim that this
implies that gcd(ab, pb) ∼ b. Assuming this claim, we have p | b since p | ab and p | pb. So
we have shown that p | a or p | b and so p is prime.
It remains to prove the claim. Let d0 = gcd(ab, pb). We have b | ab and b | pb. Thus
b | d0 . Say d0 = bu. We show that u is a unit. Write ab = d0 x for x ∈ R. So ab = bux. Thus
a = ux, since b 6= 0. Thus u | a. Similarly, u | p. So u | gcd(a, p) ∼ 1. Hence u is a unit.
(c) ⇒ (a): Suppose (c) holds. By Theorem 3.1.25, every element is a product of irredu-
cibles. So it remains to show the uniqueness of such factorizations. Suppose

p1 p2 · · · pr ∼ q1 q 2 · · · qs

are distinct factorizations, where the pi and qi are irreducibles and r + s is minimal. If r = 1,
then we have p1 ∼ q1 · · · qs . Since p1 is irreducible, this implies that s = 1, which contradicts
62 Chapter 3. Integral domains

the assumption that the factorizations are distinct. An analogous argument shows that we
cannot have s = 1. Thus we may assume that r, s ≥ 2. Since p1 | q1 · · · qs , we must have
p1 | qj for some j since p1 is prime by assumption. Relabeling if necessary, we may assume
that p1 | q1 . Since q1 is irreducible, this implies that p1 ∼ q1 . Thus p2 · · · pr ∼ q2 · · · qs are
distinct factorizations, contradicting the minimality of r + s
Example 3.1.27. The ring R of Example 3.1.24 is not a UFD since it does not satisfy the
ACCP.
The remainder of this section is devoted to the proof of the important result that if R is
a UFD, then so is R[x] (see Theorem 3.1.33). Before proving this, we will need to define a
few terms and prove some preliminary results.
Definition 3.1.28 (Content, primitive polynomial). Suppose R is a UFD and f (x) ∈ R[x] \
{0}. Then the content of f (x) is the gcd of the nonzero coefficients of f and is denoted
c(f (x)). We say that f (x) is a primitive polynomial if c(f (x)) ∼ 1.
Example 3.1.29. In Z[x], c(12 + 6x + 9x4 ) = 3. However, in Q[x], c(12 + 6x + 9x4 ) = 1 (of
course, it is also 3, since 1 and 3 are associates in Q). Thus 12 + 6x + 9x4 is primitive in
Q[x] but not in Z[x].
Lemma 3.1.30. Let R be a UFD and let f (x) ∈ R[x] \ {0}.
(a) f (x) can be written as f (x) = c(f (x))f1 (x), where f1 (x) ∈ R[x] is primitive.
(b) If a ∈ R \ {0}, then c(a(f (x))) = ac(f (x)).
(c) If f (x) is irreducible and deg f (x) ≥ 1, then f (x) is primitive.
Proof. The proof of this lemma is left as Exercise 3.1.4.
The following theorem is a generalization of Theorem 2.2.15
Theorem 3.1.31 (Gauss’ Lemma). Suppose R is a UFD and f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x] \ {0}. Then
c(f (x)g(x)) = c(f (x))c(g(x)).
In particular, the product of primitive polynomials is primitive.
Proof. Write f (x) = c(f (x))f1 (x) and g(x) = c(g(x))g1 (x), where f1 (x), g1 (x) are primitive.
Then
c(f (x)g(x)) ∼ c(c(f (x))c(g(x))f1 (x)g1 (x)) ∼ c(f (x))c(g(x))c(f1 (x)g1 (x))
by Lemma 3.1.30. PmThus, it suffices to prove
Pn the iresult when f (x) and g(x) are primitive.
i
Let f (x) = i=0 ai x and g(x) = i=0 bi x . Suppose that p is a prime dividing the
coefficients of f (x)g(x). Let r be the smallest integer such that p - ar and s be the smallest
integer such that p - bs . The coefficient of xr+s in f (x)g(x) is
cr+s = a0 br+s + a1 br+s−1 + · · · + ar+s−1 b1 + ar+s b0 .
Since p divides a0 , . . . , ar−1 and b0 , . . . , bs−1 , p divides every term of cr+s except for the term
ar bs . However, since p | cr+s , either p divides ar or p divides bs . This contradiction completes
the proof.
3.1. Unique factorization domains 63

Proposition 3.1.32. Suppose R is a UFD and let F be its field of quotients. We regard R
as a subring of F in the usual way (see Section 1.2). Suppose p(x) is a primitive element of
R(x). Then p(x) is irreducible in R[x] if and only if it is irreducible in F [x].

Proof. First suppose that p(x) is irreducible in F [x]. Let p(x) = f (x)g(x) be a factorization
in R[x]. If deg f (x), deg g(x) ≥ 1, then this is a nontrivial factorization in F [x], which
contradicts the fact that p(x) is irreducible in F [x]. Thus we can assume, without loss of
generality, that deg f (x) = 0. Hence f (x) = u ∈ R. Then, since p(x) is primitive, we have

1 ∼ c(p(x)) = c(f (x)g(x)) = c(f (x))c(g(x)) = uc(g(x)).

Hence u is a unit in R and so the factorization p(x) = f (x)g(x) is trivial in R[x]. Hence p(x)
is irreducible in R[x].
Now suppose p(x) is primitive and irreducible in R[x] and p(x) = f (x)g(x) in F [x]. Let
a and b be the products of the denominators of the coefficients of f (x) and g(x) respectively.
Then f1 (x) := af (x) and g1 (x) := bg(x) are in R[x] and

abp(x) = f1 (x)g1 (x)

is a factorization in R[x]. Thus, by Gauss’ Lemma (Theorem 3.1.31), we have

ab ∼ abc(p(x)) = c(abp(x)) = c(f1 (x)g1 (x)) ∼ c(f1 (x))c(g1 (x)). (3.1)

Now write f1 (x) = c(f1 (x))f2 (x) and g1 (x) = c(g1 (x))g2 (x), where f2 (x) and g2 (x) are
primitive in R[x]. Thus

abp(x) = f1 (x)g1 (x) = c(f1 (x))c(g1 (x))f2 (x)g2 (x).

Therefore, by (3.1), we have p(x) ∼ f2 (x)g2 (x) in R[x]. Since p(x) is irreducible in R[x], this
implies that either f2 (x) or g2 (x) is a unit in R[x] (hence a unit in R). If f2 (x) = u ∈ R× ,
then

af (x) = f1 (x) = c(f1 (x))f2 (x) = c(f1 (x))u =⇒ f (x) = a−1 c(f1 (x))u ∈ F [x]× .

Similarly, if g2 (x) ∈ R× , then g(x) ∈ F [x]× .

Theorem 3.1.33. If R is a UFD, then so is R[x].

Proof. Let p(x) be a nonzero polynomial in R[x]. If p(x) is a constant polynomial, then it
must have a unique factorization since R is a UFD. Now suppose that p(x) is a polynomial
of positive degree in R[x]. Let F be the field of fractions of R, and let

p(x) = f1 (x)f2 (x) · · · fn (x)

be a factorization of p(x) in F [x], where each fi (x) is irreducible in F [x]. Choose ai ∈ R such
that ai fi (x) is in R[x] (e.g. take ai to be the product of the denominators of the coefficients
of fi (x)). Then, for i = 1, . . . , n, let bi = c(ai fi (x)) ∈ R, so that ai fi (x) = bi gi (x), where
gi (x) is a primitive polynomial in R[x]. Since gi (x) = abii fi (x), the polynomials fi (x) and
64 Chapter 3. Integral domains

gi (x) are associates in F [x]. Thus, since fi (x) is irreducible in F [x], so is gi (x). Then, by
Proposition 3.1.32, each gi (x) is irreducible in R[x]. Now, we have

a1 · · · an p(x) = b1 · · · bn g1 (x) · · · gn (x). (3.2)

Since g1 (x) · · · gn (x) is primitive, we have

a1 · · · an c(p(x)) = c(a1 · · · an p(x)) = c(b1 · · · bn g1 (x) · · · gn (x)) = b1 · · · bn .

Thus a1 · · · an divides b1 · · · bn . Therefore, dividing both sides of (3.2) by a1 · · · an , we have

p(x) = ag1 (x) · · · gn (x), where a ∈ R. Since R is a UFD, we can factor a as c1 · · · ck , where
each of the ci ’s is irreducible in R (hence in R[x]). Thus we have proven the existence of
factorizations into irreducibles.
We will now show the uniqueness of such factorizations. Let

p(x) = a1 · · · am f1 (x) · · · fn (x) = b1 · · · br g1 (x) · · · gs (x)

be two factorizations of p(x), where all of the factors are irreducible in R[x]. By Proposi-
tion 3.1.32, each of the fi (x)’s and gi (x)’s is irreducible in F [x]. The ai ’s and the bi ’s are
units in F . Since F [x] is a UFD by Theorem 2.2.31, we have n = s.
Now rearrange the gi (x)’s so that fi (x) and gi (x) are associates in F [x] for i = 1, . . . , n.
Then there exist c1 , . . . , cn and d1 , . . . , dn in R such that (ci /di )fi (x) = gi (x) or, equivalently,
ci fi (x) = di gi (x). The polynomials fi (x) and gi (x) are primitive; hence, ci and di are
associates in R. Thus, a1 · · · am = ub1 · · · br in R, where u is a unit in R. Since R is a unique
factorization domain, m = s. Finally, we can reorder the bi ’s so that ai and bi are associates
for each i. This completes the uniqueness part of the proof.

Corollary 3.1.34. If R is a UFD, then so is R[x1 , . . . , xn ]

Proof. This follows by an easy induction using Theorem 3.1.33 and the fact that

R[x1 , . . . , xn ] = (R[x1 , . . . , xn−1 ])[xn ].

Remark 3.1.35 (Noetherian and artinian rings). A commutative ring that satisfies the as-
cending chain condition on ideals (the analogue of the ACCP, but where we do not specify
that the ideals are principal) is called a noetherian ring. A commutative ring that satisfies
the descending chain condition on ideals is called an artinian ring. Artinian rings are also
noetherian (but not vice versa). Noetherian and artinian rings are important classes of rings,
but we will not study these classes of rings (per se) in this course. In noncommutative rings,
one can talk of left and right noetherian (or artinian) rings.
3.1. Unique factorization domains 65

Exercises.
3.1.1. Prove Theorem 3.1.3.

3.1.2. Prove Lemma 3.1.5.

3.1.3. Prove Proposition 3.1.20.

3.1.4. Prove Lemma 3.1.30.

3.1.5 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.1.3]). In the ring Z(i) of Gaussian integers, show that

(a) (2 + i) ∼ (1 − 2i),
(b) (1 + 2i) 6∼ (2 + i).

3.1.6 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.1.6]). Show that an integral domain is a field if and only if a ∼ b for all
a 6= 0 6= b.
√ √
3.1.7 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.1.8]). Find the units in Z( −3). Hint: Use N (a + b −3) = a2 + 3b2 as
in Example 3.1.13.

3.1.8 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.1.10]). In each case, determine whether p is irreducible in Z(i):

(a) p = 11
(b) p = 2 − i
(c) p = 5
(d) p = 7 − i
√
3.1.9 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.1.12]). In each case, determine whether p is irreducible in Z( −5):
√
(a) p = 6 + −5
(b) p = 7
(c) p = 29
√
(d) p = 2 − 3 −5.
√
3.1.10 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.1.13]). In each case, show that p is irreducible in Z( −5) but is not a
prime.
√
(a) p = 2 + −5
√
(b) p = 1 + 2 −5
√
3.1.11 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.1.14]). In each case,
√ determine whether p is irreducible in Z( −3).
2 2
Hint: Use the norm function N (m + n −3) = m + 3n .
√
(a) p = 3 + 2 −3
66 Chapter 3. Integral domains

√
(b) p = 2 + 3 −3
(c) p = 5
(d) p = 7
√ √
3.1.12 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.1.15]). Show that 1 + −3 is irreducible in Z( −3) but is not prime.

3.1.13 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.1.16]). Let p ∼ q in the integral domain R.

(a) Show that p is irreducible if and only if q is irreducible.

(b) Show that p is prime if and only if q is prime.

3.1.14 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.1.19]). A commutative ring is said to satisfy the descending chain con-
dition on principal ideals (DCCP) if ha1 i ⊇ ha2 i ⊇ · · · in R implies that an ∼ an+1 ∼ · · · for
some n ≥ 1. Show that an integral domain R satisfies the DCCP if and only if R is a field.

3.1.15 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.1.23]). If S is a UFD and R is a subring of S, if R necessarily a UFD?

Justify your answer.

3.1.16 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.1.27]). Show that

gcd(a, gcd(b, c)) ∼ gcd(gcd(a, b), c)

whenever all the gcds exist in R. Moreover, show that this common value is gcd(a, b, c).

3.1.17 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.1.36]). Show that if an integral domain R satisfies the ACCP and
lcm(a, b) exists for all a, b 6= 0 in R, then R is a UFD. Hint: If p | ab, p irreducible, consider
m ∼ lcm(a, p). Use the fact that m | ap and m | ab. (Of course, you must justify this fact
in order to use it.)

3.1.18. Suppose R is an integral domain and a, b ∈ R \ {0}. Show that gcd(a, b) exists if and
only if lcm(a, b) exists. Furthermore, show that if they exist, we have gcd(a, b) lcm(a, b) ∼ ab.

3.1.19 (Bonus problem). Let p(x) ∈ Z[x]. Assume that for every root α ∈ C of p(x) we have
|α| = 1. Prove that p(x) | (xm − 1) for some m > 0.

3.2 Principal ideal domains

Definition 3.2.1 (Principal ideal domain). An integral domain R is called a principal ideal
domain (PID) if every ideal of R is principal (i.e. generated by a single element).

Example 3.2.2. By Proposition 1.3.6 and Theorem 2.3.1, the rings Z and F [x] (where F is a
field) are PIDs. Any field is also a PID since its only ideals are h0i and h1i, which are both
principal.

Theorem 3.2.3. Every PID is a UFD.

3.2. Principal ideal domains 67

Proof. Suppose R is a PID. By Theorem 3.1.26, it suffices to show that every irreducible
element of R is prime and that R satisfies the ACCP.
Suppose p ∈ R is irreducible and p | ab in R. Let I be the ideal Ra + Rp. Then, since R
is a PID, we have I = hdi for some d ∈ R. Thus d | a and d | p. Since p is irreducible, this
implies that d ∼ p or d ∼ 1. If d ∼ p, then p | a (since d | a). On the other hand, if d ∼ 1,
then 1 ∈ I. Thus there exist r, s ∈ R such that ra + sp = 1. Then rab + spb = b. Since
p | ab, this implies that p | b. Hence p is prime.
It remains to show that R satisfies the ACCP. Suppose
ha1 i ⊆ ha2 i ⊆ · · · .
S∞
Let A = i=1 hai i. Then A is an ideal of R (exercise). Thus, since R is a PID, we have
A = hai for some a ∈ R. Then a ∈ hai i for some i. Hence hai i = hai = A and so han i = A
for n ≥ i. So R satisfies the ACCP.
The converse of Theorem 3.2.3 is false, as the following example illustrates.
Example 3.2.4. The ring Z[x] is a UFD (by Theorem 3.1.33) but not a PID since, for example,
the ideal
I = h2, xi := {a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn | a0 ∈ 2Z, a1 , . . . , an ∈ Z}
is not a principal ideal (Exercise 3.2.2).
Remark 3.2.5. The fact that Z is a PID, while Z[x] is not, shows that the analogue of
Theorem 3.1.33 for PIDs does not hold.
Theorem 3.2.6. If R is a PID, then the gcd of any nonzero elements a1 , . . . , an ∈ R exists
and it can be written in the form d = r1 a1 + · · · + rn an for some r1 , . . . , rn ∈ R.
Proof. Let I = ha1 , . . . , an i := ha1 i + · · · + han i. Since R is a PID, we have I = hdi for
some d ∈ R. Then d = r1 a1 + · · · + rn an for some r1 , . . . , rn ∈ R by the definition of
I. Since a1 , . . . , an ∈ hdi, we have d | ai for all i. Furthermore, if c | ai for all i, then
c | (r1 a1 + · · · + rn an ) and so c | d. Thus d ∼ gcd(a1 , . . . , an ).
Theorem 3.2.7. Suppose R is a PID and p ∈ R, p 6= 0, p 6∈ R× . Then the following
statements are equivalent:
(a) p is a prime element.
(b) hpi is a prime ideal.
(c) hpi is a maximal ideal.
Proof. (a) ⇒ (b): Suppose p is a prime element and ab ∈ hpi. Then p | ab, which implies
that p | a or p | b. Thus a ∈ hpi or b ∈ hpi. Thus hpi is a prime ideal.
(b) ⇒ (c): Suppose hpi is a prime ideal. Then p is prime since
p | ab =⇒ ab ∈ hpi =⇒ a ∈ hpi or b ∈ hpi =⇒ p | a or p | b.
Thus p is irreducible by Theorem 3.1.12. Now suppose hpi ⊆ hqi ( R. Then q | p. Since
hqi =
6 R, we have q 6∼ 1. Since p is irreducible, this implies that p ∼ q. Thus hpi = hqi.
(c) ⇒ (a): Suppose hpi is a maximal ideal. Then it is a prime ideal by Corollary 1.3.20.
Hence, by the above, we see that p is prime.
68 Chapter 3. Integral domains

Example 3.2.8. In Z[x], the ideal hxi is prime but hxi ( h2, xi ( Z[x] and so this ideal is not
maximal. Thus Z[x] is not a PID (see Example 3.2.4).

Example 3.2.9. Let F be a field. In F [x, y], the ideal hxi is prime, but hxi ( hx, yi ( F [x, y].
Thus F [x, y] is not a PID. However, F [x, y] is a UFD by Corollary 3.1.34.

Proposition 3.2.10. Suppose R is a PID and a1 , . . . , an ∈ R \ {0}.

(a) d ∼ gcd(a1 , . . . , an ) if and only if ha1 i + ha2 i + · · · + han i = hdi.

(b) m ∼ lcm(a1 , . . . , an ) if and only if ha1 i ∩ ha2 i ∩ · · · ∩ han i = hmi.

Proof. Part (a) follows from Theorem 3.2.6. The proof of part (b) is left as Exercise 3.2.9.

Exercises.
S∞
3.2.1. Show that if I1 ⊆ I2 ⊆ · · · is a chain of ideals in a ring R, then I := i=1 Ii is an ideal
of R.

3.2.2. Show that h2, xi ⊆ Z[x] is not a principal ideal (see Example 3.2.4).

3.2.3 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.2.1]). Is every subring of a PID again a PID? Justify your answer.

3.2.4 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.2.2]). If F is a field, show that F [x, y] is a UFD that is not a PID. Hint:
Consider {f (x, y) | f (0, 0) = 0}.
√
3.2.5 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.2.4]). Is Z( −5) a PID? Justify your answer.

3.2.6 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.2.5]). If R is a PID and A 6= 0 is an ideal of R, show that R/A has a
finite number of ideals, all of which are principal.

3.2.7 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.2.6]). (a) Is every prime ideal of a PID maximal? Justify your answer.
(b) Show that every ideal A 6= R in a PID R is contained in a maximal ideal of R.

3.2.8 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.2.8]). Let p ∈ Z be a prime number and define

nm  o
Z(p) = ∈ Q  p does not divide n .

n
(a) Show that Z(p) is an integral domain (called the localization of Z at p) and find the
units.
(b) If A 6= 0 is an ideal of Z(p) , show that A = hpk i, where k ≥ 0 is the smallest integer
such that pk ∈ A. Hint: If 0 6= m ∈ Z, then m = pr d, where r ≥ 0 and p does not
divide d.
(c) Show that Z(p) is a PID with exactly one maximal ideal.
3.3. Euclidean domains 69

3.2.9. Prove Proposition 3.2.10(b).

3.2.10 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.2.10]). Let R be a ring such that Z ⊆ R ⊆ Q. Show that R is a PID.
Hint: If I is an ideal of R, consider A = Z ∩ I.

3.2.11 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.2.12]). Suppose ω ∈ C satisfies ω 2 ∈ Z and ω 2 < 0. Show that
Z(ω) = {a + bω | a, b ∈ Z} has finitely many units.

3.2.12 (Bonus problem). Suppose R is an integral domain and a, b ∈ R \ {0}. Show that
gcds exists in R if and only if lcms exist. Furthermore, show that if they exist, we have
gcd(a, b) lcm(a, b) ∼ ab for all a, b ∈ R.

3.3 Euclidean domains

Definition 3.3.1 (Division algorithm, divisor function). If R is an integral domain, we say
that R has a division algorithm if there exists a map ν : R \ {0} → N (called a divisor
function) such that, for all a, b ∈ R with b 6= 0, there exist q, r ∈ R with

a = qb + r and either r = 0 or ν(r) < ν(b).

Definition 3.3.2 (Euclidean domain). An integral domain R is called a euclidean domain

if it has a divisor function ν : R \ {0} → N that satisfies the following condition:

a, b ∈ R \ {0} =⇒ ν(ab) ≥ ν(a). (3.3)

Such a divisor function is called a euclidean valuation (or euclidean function).

Remark 3.3.3. The function

(
k if k > 0,
ν : Z \ {0} → N, ν(k) =
2|k| if k < 0.

is a divisor function that does not satisfy (3.3).

However, Condition (3.3) is actually superfluous in the following sense. Any integral
domain R that has a division algorithm possesses a euclidean valuation (i.e. a divisor function
satisfying (3.3)). Indeed, if ν is a divisor function for R, then

ν 0 (a) = min ν(ra), a ∈ R,

r∈R\{0}

is a euclidean valuation on R. See [Rog71] for details.

Examples 3.3.4. (a) The ring Z is a euclidean domain with euclidean valuation ν : Z → N,
ν(n) = |n|.
(b) For any field F , the ring F [x] is a euclidean domain with euclidean valuation ν : F [x]\
{0} → N, ν(f (x)) = deg f (x) (see Theorem 2.1.12).

Theorem 3.3.5. Every euclidean domain is a PID (and hence a UFD).

70 Chapter 3. Integral domains

Proof. Suppose R has a euclidean valuation ν, and let I be an ideal of R. If I is the zero
ideal, then it is clearly principal. So we assume I 6= {0}. Choose b ∈ I \ {0} with ν(b)
minimal. We claim that I = hbi. Since b ∈ I, we have hbi ⊆ I. So it remains to show that
I ⊆ hbi. Suppose a ∈ I. Then we have
a = qb + r where r = 0 or ν(r) < ν(b).
Then r = a − bq ∈ I and so, by the minimality of ν(b), we must have r = 0. Thus a = qb
and so a ∈ hbi.
Lemma 3.3.6. The ring Z(i) of gaussian integers is a euclidean domain, hence a PID and
a UFD.
Proof. (See [Jud12, §18.2, Example 8].) For a, b ∈ Z, define ν(a + bi) = a2 + b2 = |a + bi|2 .
We claim that ν is a euclidean valuation on Z(i).
Let z, w ∈ Z(i) \ {0}. Then ν(zw) = |zw|2 = |z|2 |w|2 = ν(z)ν(w). Since ν(z) ≥ 1 for
every nonzero z ∈ Z(i), we have ν(zw) ≥ ν(w).
Next, we must show that for any z = a + bi and w = c + di in Z(i) with w 6= 0, there
exist elements q and r in Z(i) such that z = qw + r with either r = 0 or ν(r) < ν(w). We
can view z and w as elements in Q(i) = {p + qi | p, q ∈ Q}, the field of fractions of Z(i).
Observe that
c − di
zw−1 = (a + bi) 2
c + d2
ac + bd bc − ad
= 2 + 2 i
c + d2 c +d2  
n1 n2
= m1 + 2 + m2 + 2 i
c + d2 c + d2
 
n1 n2
= (m1 + m2 i) + 2 2
+ 2 i
c +d c + d2
= (m1 + m2 i) + (s + ti)
in Q(i). In the last steps we are writing the real and imaginary parts as an integer plus a
proper fraction. That is, we take the closest integer mi such that the fractional part satisfies
|ni /(c2 + d2 )| ≤ 1/2. For example, we write
9 1
=1+
8 8
15 1
=2− .
8 8
Thus, s and t are the “fractional parts” of zw−1 = (m1 + m2 i) + (s + ti). We also know that
s2 + t2 ≤ 1/4 + 1/4 = 1/2. Multiplying by w, we have
z = zw−1 w = w(m1 + m2 i) + w(s + ti) = qw + r,
where q = m1 + m2 i and r = w(s + ti). Since z and qw are in Z(i), r must be in Z(i).
Finally, we need to show that either r = 0 or ν(r) < ν(w). However,
1
ν(r) = ν(w)ν(s + ti) ≤ ν(w) < ν(w).
2
3.3. Euclidean domains 71

Remark 3.3.7. It is not easy to find examples of PIDs that are not euclidean domains,
√ but
1



such rings exist. The first such example was given by T. Motzkin in 1949: Z 2 1 + −19
is a noneuclidean PID.

Summarizing some of the results proven in this chapter, we have the following chain of
class inclusions:

commutative rings ) integral domains ) UFDs ) PIDs ) euclidean domains ) fields.

Exercises.
3.3.1 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.2.7]). Show that the following conditions are equivalent for an integral
domain R:

(a) R is a field,
(b) R[x] is euclidean,
(c) R[x] is a PID.

3.3.2 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.2.9]). Let Z(p) be as in Exercise 3.2.8. Show that Z(p) is a euclidean
domain where, for each a 6= 0 in R, ν(a) = k where hai = hpk i. Indeed, show that ν(ab) =
ν(a) + ν(b) for all a 6= 0, b 6= 0 in Z(p) and that, if a + b 6= 0, then ν(a + b) ≥ min{ν(a), ν(b)}.
√ √
3.3.3 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.2.15]). (a) Show that Z( 3) is euclidean with ν(m + n 3) = |m2 −
3n2 |.
√ √
(b) If a = 4 + 5 3 and b = 1 + 3, write a = qb + r, where r = 0 or ν(r) < ν(b).
√ √
3.3.4 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.2.16]). Show that Z( −3) is not euclidean with ν(m+n √ −3) = m2 +3n2 .
In other words, show that ν is not a euclidean valuation. Hint: Try a = 1 + −3 and b = 2.

3.3.5 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.2.18]). (a) If F is a field, show that F is euclidean.

(b) If the mapping ν is constant in a euclidean domain R, show that R is a field.

3.3.6 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.2.22]). Assume R is a euclidean domain in which ν(a+b) ≤ max{ν(a), ν(b)}
whenever a, b, and a + b are nonzero. Show that q and r are uniquely determined in the
division algorithm.

3.3.7 ([Nic12, Ex. 5.2.23]). Suppose that a euclidean domain R has a unique maximal ideal
P . By Theorem 3.3.5, we can write P = hpi for some p ∈ R.

(a) Show that P consists of the nonunits of R; that is, a is a nonunit if and only if p | a.
Hint: Exercise 3.2.7.
(b) Show that every ideal A 6= {0} of R has the form A = hpk i for some k ≥ 0.
Chapter 4

Fields

In this chapter we delve into the theory of fields. One of our motivating ideas will be roots
of polynomials. We have seen many examples of polynomials f (x) ∈ F [x], where F is a
field, that do not factor completely into linear factors. However, we will see that it is always
possible to enlarge the field F so that f (x) does completely factor. Furthermore, we will
see that, up to isomorphism, a unique minimal such field exists, called the splitting field of
f (x). This construction will also allow us to completely classify all finite fields. A reference
for the material in this chapter is [Jud12, Ch. 21].

4.1 Brief review of vector spaces

In this section we give a very brief review of the definition of a vector space over a field
and some important results on vector spaces. For more details, see [Sav]. Throughout this
section, F will denote a field.

Definition 4.1.1 (Vector space). A vector space over F is an abelian group V (written
additively and whose operation is called vector addition) together with a scalar multiplication
F × V → V , (a, v) 7→ av, such that

• a(v + w) = av + aw for all a ∈ F and v, w ∈ V .

• (a + b)v = av + bv for all a, b ∈ F and v ∈ V .
• a(bv) = (ab)v for all a, b ∈ F and v ∈ V .
• 1v = v for all v ∈ V .

Example 4.1.2. The set F n := {(a1 , . . . , an ) | ai ∈ F ∀ i} is a vector space over F with

componentwise vector addition and the usual scalar multiplication.

Example 4.1.3. Any ring R such that F is a subring of R is vector space over F . For example,
C is a vector space over R (and over Q).

Definition 4.1.4 (Subspace, linear combination, linear dependence, span, basis). Suppose
V is a subspace over F . If W ⊆ V and W is also a vector space over F (under the restricted
operations), then W is a called a subspace of V .

72
4.1. Brief review of vector spaces 73

If v1 , . . . , vn ∈ V , then a linear combination of v1 , . . . , vn is an element of V of the form

c1 v1 + · · · + cn vn , where c1 , . . . , cn ∈ F .
The vectors v1 , . . . , vn ∈ V are called linearly dependent if there exist c1 , . . . , cn ∈ F , with
at least one of the ci nonzero, such that c1 v1 + · · · + cn vn = 0. If v1 , . . . , vn are not linearly
dependent, then they are called linearly independent.
If v1 , . . . , vn ∈ V , then Span{v1 , . . . , vn } := {c1 v1 + · · · + cn vn | c1 , . . . , cn ∈ F }. We write
SpanF when we wish to emphasize the field in question. We say V is spanned (or generated )
by v1 , . . . , vn if V = Span{v1 , . . . , vn }.
We say v1 , . . . , vn is a basis for V (over F ) if

(a) V = SpanF {v1 , . . . , vn }, and

(b) v1 , . . . , vn are linearly independent.

Theorem 4.1.5. Let V be a vector space over F . Suppose that

(a) V = Span{v1 , . . . , vn } for some v1 , . . . , vn ∈ V , and

(b) the vectors w1 , . . . , wm ∈ V are linearly independent.

Then m ≤ n.

Corollary 4.1.6. If v1 , . . . , vn and w1 , . . . , wn are two bases of a vector space V over F ,

then m = n.

Definition 4.1.7 (Dimension). A vector space V over F is called finite dimensional if it

has a finite basis. The number of elements of such a basis is called the dimension of V (over
F ) and is denoted dim V , or dimF V when we wish to emphasize the field F . If V does not
have a finite basis, we say it is infinite dimensional .

Example 4.1.8. The vectors 1, i form a basis of C over R. Thus dimR C = 2. The vector 1 is
a basis of C over C, so dimC C = 1. The space C[x] is infinite dimensional over C with basis
1, x, x2 , x3 , . . . .

Theorem 4.1.9. Let V 6= {0} be a finite-dimensional vector space.

(a) Every linearly independent subset of V can be extended (i.e. enlarged) to a basis.
(b) Every spanning set of V has a subset which is a basis of V .

Exercises.
4.1.1 (Bonus problem). Show that R is infinite dimensional as a vector space over Q.
74 Chapter 4. Fields

4.2 Field extensions

We know many examples of fields that are subfields of larger fields. In this section, we will
examine these inclusions of fields and some of their important properties.

Definition 4.2.1 (Field extension, finite extension). A field extension is a pair of fields
F ⊆ E. We say that F is a subfield of E and that E is an extension of F . If E, as a vector
space over F , is finite dimensional, then E is called a finite extension of F , and dimF E is
denoted by [E : F ].

Example 4.2.2. We have that R ⊆ C is a finite extension, but Q ⊆ R is not a finite extension
(see Exercise 4.1.1).

Theorem 4.2.3. Let F ⊆ E be a finite extension and [E : F ] = n. If u ∈ E, then there

exists a nonzero polynomial f (x) ∈ F [x] such that f (u) = 0 and deg f (x) ≤ n.

Proof. Consider the elements 1, u, u2 , . . . , un ∈ E. Since dimF E = n, this list of n + 1

elements must be linearly dependent by Theorem 4.1.5. Thus, there exist a0 , a1 , . . . , an , with
at least one ai 6= 0, such that a0 + a1 u + · · · + an un = 0.

Definition 4.2.4 (Algebraic, transcendental). Let F ⊆ E be a field extension. An element

u ∈ E is called algebraic over F if f (u) = 0 for some nonzero polynomial f (x) ∈ F [x]. If
u ∈ E is not algebraic over F , then it is called transcendental over F . If every element of F
is algebraic over E, then we say F ⊆ E is an algebraic extension.

Example 4.2.5. We see that R ⊆ C is an algebraic extension since a + bi, a, b ∈ R, is the root
of x2 − 2ax + a2 + b2 .
√
Example 4.2.6. (a) The real number 3 2 is algebraic over Q since it is a root of x3 − 2.
p √
(b) The real number 5 + 2 is algebraic over Q since it is a root of x4 − 10x2 + 23.
√ √
(c) The real number 2 − 3 is algebraic over Q since it is a root of x4 − 10x2 + 1.

Remark 4.2.7. Since the set of polynomials with integer (or rational) coefficients is coun-
table and each polynomial has a finite number of roots, the set of real numbers that are
algebraic over Q is countable. Therefore, there are uncountably many real numbers that are
transcendental over Q.

It follows from Remark 4.2.7 that Q ⊆ R is not an algebraic extension. This also follows
from the next theorem.

Theorem 4.2.8 (Hermite 1873, Lindemann 1882). The real numbers e and π are transcen-
dental over Q.

Definition 4.2.9 (Field generated by elements). If F ⊆ E is a field extension and u1 , . . . , un ∈

E, then \
F (u1 , . . . , un ) := K.
K field
F ⊆K⊆E
u1 ,...,un ∈K
4.2. Field extensions 75

In other words, F (u1 , . . . , un ) is the smallest subfield of E containing F and u1 , . . . , un . (See

Exercise 4.2.2.) It is called the field generated by u1 , . . . , un over F .
Example 4.2.10. We have R(i) = C and Q(i, −i) = Q(i) = {a + bi | a, b ∈ Q}.
√ √
Example 4.2.11. We have Q( 2) = {a + b 2 | a, b ∈ Q} (as a subfield of R or C) since the
right hand side is contained in the left hand side and the right hand side is a field. Thus this
notation matches our previous notation (see Example 1.2.9).
It follows from Theorem 4.2.3 that all finite extensions are algebraic. If F ⊆ E is an
algebraic extension,
√ is√ necessarily true that [E : F ] < ∞? The answer is no since, for
it √
example, Q ⊆ Q( 2, 2, 4 2, . . . ) is an algebraic extension, but is not a finite extension See
3

Exercise 4.2.16.
Lemma 4.2.12. Let F ⊆ E be a field extension and u, v ∈ E. Then F (u)(v) = F (u, v).
Proof. We have \ \
F (u)(v) = K and F (u, v) = K.
F (u)⊆K⊆E F ⊆K⊆E
v∈K u,v∈K

Now, if K satisfies F (u) ⊆ K ⊆ E and v ∈ K, then it satisfies F ⊆ K ⊆ E and u, v ∈ K.

So F (u)(v) ⊇ F (u, v). On the other hand, if K satisfies F ⊆ K ⊆ E and u, v ∈ K, then
F (u) ⊆ K and v ∈ K. So F (u)(v) ⊆ F (u, v).
Corollary 4.2.13. Let F ⊆ E be a field extension and u1 , . . . , un ∈ E. Then for every
1 ≤ k ≤ n − 1, we have F (u1 , . . . , uk )(uk+1 , . . . , un ) = F (u1 , . . . , un ).
Proof. This follows from Lemma 4.2.12 by induction.
Remark 4.2.14. Corollary 4.2.13 implies that F (u1 , . . . , un ) can be constructed via a chain
of simple extensions:
F (u1 , . . . , un ) = F (u1 )(u2 ) · · · (un ).
Definition 4.2.15 (Minimal polynomial, degree). Let F ⊆ E be a field extension and u ∈ E
be algebraic over F . The minimal polynomial of u over F is the nonzero monic polynomial
m(x) ∈ F [x] of smallest degree such that m(u) = 0. The degree of u over F , denoted
degF (u), is the degree of m(x).
√
Examples 4.2.16. (a) Consider the field extension R ⊆ C and the element i = −1 ∈ C.
Then m(x) = x2 + 1 and degR (i) = 2.
√
(b) Consider the field extension Q ⊆ R and the element 3 2 ∈ R. Then m(x) = x3 − 2
and degQ (m(x)) = 3. How do we know that m(x) is the monic polynomial of minimal degree
√ √
such that m( 3 2) = 0? Suppose f (x) ∈ Q[x] with f ( 3 2) = 0. Let d(x) = gcd(f (x), x3 − 2)
(in Q[x]). Then

d(x) = a(x)f (x) + b(x)(x3 − 2) for some a(x), b(x) ∈ Q[x].

√
Thus d( 3 2) = 0 and so d(x) 6= 1. Since d(x) | (x3 − 2) and x3 − 2 is irreducible by the
Eisenstein Criterion, we therefore have d(x) = x3 − 2. Thus (x3 − 2) | f (x).
76 Chapter 4. Fields

(c) Suppose F ⊆ E is a field extension and u ∈ F . Then the minimal polynomial of u is

x − u and degF (u) = 1. In fact, degF (u) = 1 if and only if u ∈ F .

Theorem 4.2.17. Let F ⊆ E be a field extension and u ∈ E be algebraic over F with

minimal polynomial m(x) ∈ F [x]. Then the following statements hold:

(a) m(x) is irreducible in F [x].

(b) For every f (x) ∈ F [x], we have f (u) = 0 ⇐⇒ m(x) | f (x).
(c) m(x) is uniquely determined by u.

Proof. (a) Suppose m(x) = a(x)b(x) in F [x]. Then 0 = m(u) = a(u)b(u) and so a(u) = 0
or b(u) = 0. Suppose, without loss of generality, that a(u) = 0. Then, by the minimality of
deg m(x), we must have deg a(x) = deg m(x). Hence b(x) ∈ F × (since it is nonzero and has
degree zero). So m(x) is irreducible.
(b) Clearly, if m(x) | f (x), then f (u) = 0. Now suppose that f (u) = 0. Let d(x) =
gcd(f (x), m(x)). Then d(x) is an F [x]-linear combination of f (x) and m(x). So d(u) = 0,
hence d(x) 6= 1. Thus d(x) = m(x) (since d(x) is a monic divisor of m(x), which is irreducible
by the above). Therefore m(x) = d(x) | f (x).
(c) Suppose m0 (x) is another minimal polynomial for u. Then, by the above, we have
m(x) | m0 (x) and m0 (x) | m(x). Since m(x) and m0 (x) are both monic, this implies that
m(x) = m0 (x).

p √
Example 4.2.18. Let’s find the minimal polynomial of u = 1 + 3 over Q. We have

(u2 − 1)2 = 3 =⇒ u4 − 2u2 − 2 = 0.

Thus the minimial polynomial of u divides x4 −2x2 −2 by Theorem 4.2.17(b). Since x4 −2x2 −2
is irreducible (apply the Eisenstein Criterion with p = 2), it must be the minimal polynomial
of u.

Theorem 4.2.19. Let F ⊆ E be a field extension, u ∈ E be algebraic over F and d =

degF (u).

(a) F (u) = {a0 + a1 u + · · · + ad−1 ud−1 | a0 , . . . , ad−1 ∈ F }.

(b) 1, u, . . . , ud−1 is a basis of F (u) over F . In particular, [F (u) : F ] = degF (u).
(c) F (u) ∼ = F [x]/hm(x)i, where m(x) is the minimal polynomial of u over F .

Proof. Set θ : F [x] → E, θ(f (x)) = f (u). Then θ is a ring homomorphism since it is the
composition of the ring homomorphisms
ϕu
F [x] ,→ E[x] −→ E,

where ϕu is the evaluation map at u. Since

θ(f (x)) = 0 ⇐⇒ f (u) = 0 ⇐⇒ m(x) | f (x) ⇐⇒ f (x) ∈ hm(x)i,

4.2. Field extensions 77

we have ker θ = hm(x)i. We also see that

im θ = {a0 + a1 u + · · · + ad−1 ud−1 | ai ∈ F } (4.1)

since
f (x) ∈ F [x] =⇒ f (x) = m(x)q(x) + r(x)
for some r(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + ad−1 xd−1 , ai ∈ F . Thus f (u) = r(u) = a0 + · · · + ad−1 ud−1 .
By the First Isomorphism Theorem (Theorem 1.4.15), we have im θ ∼ = F [x]/hm(x)i.
Since m(x) is irreducible and F [x] is a PID, the ideal hm(x)i is maximal by Lemma 3.1.16
and Theorem 3.2.7. Thus im θ is a field by Corollary 1.3.19.
We claim that im θ = F (u). We have u ∈ im θ and F ⊆ im θ, so F (u) ⊆ im θ. By (4.1),
we also have im θ ⊆ K for every field K such that F ⊆ K ⊆ E with u ∈ K. Hence
im θ ⊆ F (u).
Finally, if 1, u, . . . , ud−1 were linearly dependent, then we would have deg m(x) < d, which
is a contradiction. Hence 1, u, . . . , ud−1 is a basis of F (u) over F .

Example 4.2.20. Let u = 2 − i. Let’s describe the multiplication in Q(u). We have

(u − 2)2 = (−i)2 = −1 =⇒ u2 − 4u + 5 = 0.

Let m(x) = x2 −4x+5. Since m(x) has degree two and has no rational roots, it is irreducible
over Q. Thus m(x) is the minimal polynomial of u over Q. Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.19,
we have
Q(u) = {a + bu | a, b ∈ Q}.
Since u2 = 4u − 5, the multiplication in Q(u) is given by

(a1 + b1 u)(a2 + b2 u) = a1 a2 + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 )u + b1 b2 u2 = (a1 a2 − 5b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 + 4b1 b2 )u.

Corollary 4.2.21. Let F ⊆ E be a field extension. If u, v ∈ E have the same minimal

polynomial, then F (u) ∼
= F (v).
√ √ √ √
Example 4.2.22. We have Q( 3 2) √ = {a 0 + a 1
3
2 + a 2
3
4 | a0 , a
√ 1 , a2 ∈ Q}
√ and Q( 3
2) ∼
=
3
Q[x]/hx − 2i. Furthermore, [Q( 3
2) : Q] = 3. We also have Q(ζ 3
2) ∼
= Q( 3
2) for any ζ ∈ C
3
√3
√3
satisfying ζ = 1, since 2 and ζ 2 have the same minimal polynomial.
√ √
Example 4.2.23. Note that Q ⊆ Q( n 2) ⊆ R and the minimal polynomial of n 2 over Q
is xn − 2 (using the Eisenstein Criterion with p = 2). Thus [R : Q] is not finite (see
Exercise 4.1.1).

Theorem 4.2.24 (Multiplication Theorem). Let F ⊆ E ⊆ K be field extensions.

(a) If e1 , . . . , em is a basis of E over F and k1 , . . . , kn is a basis of K over E, then

{ei kj }1≤i≤m, 1≤j≤n is a basis of K over F .
(b) [K : F ] < ∞ if and only if [K : E] < ∞ and [E : F ] < ∞.
(c) If [K : F ] < ∞, then [K : F ] = [K : E][E : F ].
78 Chapter 4. Fields

Proof. (a) Let v ∈ K. Then

n n m
!
X X X X
v= ci ki , ci ∈ E =⇒ v = dij ej ki = dij ej ki , dij ∈ F.
i=1 i=1 j=1 1≤i≤n
1≤j≤m

Thus {ei kj }1≤i≤m, 1≤j≤n spans K over F . Since

!
X X X X
fij ei kj = 0 =⇒ fij ei kj = 0 =⇒ fij ei = 0 ∀ j =⇒ fij = 0 ∀ i, j,
i,j j i i

we see that the set {ei kj }1≤i≤m, 1≤j≤n is linearly independent over F .
(b) If [K : F ] < ∞, then [K : E] < ∞ since any basis for K over F is a spanning set for
K over E. Also [E : F ] < ∞ since E is a subspace of K (over F ). The reverse implication
follows from part (a).
(c) This follows from part (a).

Corollary 4.2.25. Let F ⊆ E be a field extension, let u ∈ E be algebraic over F , and let
v ∈ F (u). Then v is also algebraic over F and degF (v) | degF (u).

Proof. We have F ⊆ F (v) ⊆ F (u). Since [F (u) : F ] is finite, so is [F (v) : F ]. Hence v is

algebraic by Theorem 4.2.3. Thus

degF (u) = [F (u) : F ] = [F (u) : F (v)][F (v) : F ] = [F (u) : F (v)] degF (v).
√
Example 4.2.26. Let u = 3 2. Then Q ⊆ Q(u2 ) ⊆ Q(u) and so, by Corollary 4.2.25, we have
[Q(u2 ) : Q] | 3. Since Q(u2 ) 6= Q, we must have [Q(u2 ) : Q] = 3 and so [Q(u) : Q(u2 )] = 1.
Thus Q(u) = Q(u2 ). √
Note, however, that if u = 4 2, then Q(u2 ) ( Q(u) since [Q(u) : Q] = 4, but [Q(u2 ) :
Q] = 2.

Lemma 4.2.27. Let F ⊆ E be a field extension. If u, v ∈ E are algebraic over F , then uv

and u + v are algebraic over F .

Proof. We have F ⊆ F (u) ⊆ F (u, v) = F (u)(v). Since v is algebraic over F , it is also

algebraic over F (u). Thus [F (u, v) : F (u)] < ∞. We also have [F (u) : F ] < ∞. Therefore,
by the Multiplication Theorem (Theorem 4.2.24), we have that [F (u, v) : F ] < ∞ (since u
is algebraic over F ). Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.3, any element of F (u, v) is algebraic over
F . In particular, u + v and uv are algebraic over F .
√ √
Example 4.2.28. Let’s find the minimal polynomial of u = 2 + 5 over Q. First note that
√ √
u2 = 7 + 2 10 =⇒ u2 − 7 = 2 10 =⇒ (u2 − 7)2 = 40 =⇒ u4 − 14u2 + 9 = 0.

Thus, if we set f (x) = x4 − 14u2 + 9, we have f (u) = 0. Is this the monic polynomial of
minimal degree with this property?
4.2. Field extensions 79

Note that √ √ √ √
( 2 + 5)3 = 17 2 + 11 5.
Thus,
√ 1 √ √ √ √  √ √
2= ( 2 + 5)3 − 11( 2 + 5) ∈ Q( 2 + 5).
6
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Therefore
√ √ we also have 5 = ( 2 + 5) − 2 ∈ Q( 2 + 5). It
√ follows
√ that √ 2,√ 5) ⊆
Q(
Q( 2 + 5). Since√the reverse
√ inclusion
√ is obvious, we √
√ have√Q( 2 + 5) = Q(√ 2, 5).
Note that degQ ( 2 + 5) = [Q( 2 + 5) : Q] = [Q( 2, 5) : Q]. Now, [Q( 2) : Q] = 2
√ √ √ √
(since x2 − 2 is irreducible).
√ We claim that [Q( 2, 5) :√Q( 2)] = √ 2. Note that 5 is a
root of x2 − 5 ∈ Q( 2)[x], so the minimal polynomial of 5 over Q( 2) divides x2 − 5. It
suffices to show that this polynomial
√ is irreducible. Since it is of degree two, it is enough to
show that it has no roots in Q( 2). But, for a, b ∈ Q, we have
√ √ 5 − a2 − 2b2 √
(a + b 2)2 = 5 =⇒ a2 + 2b2 + 2ab 2 = 5 =⇒ = 2
2ab
√
(or a = 0 or b√= 0, which would contradict the fact that 5 is irrational) which contradicts
the fact that 2 is irrational. Therefore we have
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
degQ ( 2 + 5) = [Q( 2 + 5) : Q] = [Q( 2 + 5) : Q( 2)][Q( 2) : Q] = 2 · 2 = 4.

So f (x) is indeed minimal.

√ √ √ √
Remark 4.2.29. In Example 4.2.28, we showed that Q( 2 + 5) = Q( 2, 5). In fact,
one can show that if F is a field of characteristic zero and u, v are algebraic over F , then
F (u, v) = F (w) for some w ∈ F (u, v). This is called the Primitive Element Theorem. See
Exercise 4.2.17.
Theorem 4.2.30. A field extension F ⊆ E is finite if and only if E = F (u1 , . . . , un ), where
each ui ∈ E is algebraic over F .
Proof. First suppose that E = F (u1 , . . . , un ), where each ui ∈ E is algebraic over F . Consi-
der the chain of extensions

F ⊆ F (u1 ) ⊆ F (u1 , u2 ) ⊆ · · · ⊆ F (u1 , . . . , un ).

For i = 1, . . . , n, the element ui is algebraic over F (u1 , . . . , ui−1 ) (we interpret this to be F
if i = 1) since it is algebraic over F . Thus [F (u1 , . . . , ui ) : F (u1 , . . . , ui−1 )] is finite. It then
follows from the Multiplication Theorem (Theorem 4.2.24) that [E : F ] is finite.
Now suppose that F ⊆ E is a finite extension. We prove the result by induction on
d = [F : E]. If d = 1, then F = E and we are done. So assume d > 1. Choose u ∈ E \ F .
Then [F (u) : F ] > 1. Thus, by the Multiplication Theorem (Theorem 4.2.24), we have
[E : F ]
[E : F (u)] = < [E : F ].
[F (u) : F ]
Thus, by the inductive hypothesis, we have E = F (u)(u1 , . . . , un ) = F (u, u1 , . . . , un ) for some
u1 , . . . , un ∈ F (u). The elements u, u1 , . . . , un are algebraic over F by Theorem 4.2.3.
80 Chapter 4. Fields

Theorem 4.2.31. If F ⊆ E ⊆ K are fields, then F ⊆ K is an algebraic extension if and

only if both F ⊆ E and E ⊆ K are algebraic extensions.

Proof. If F ⊆ K is an algebraic extension, then all elements of K are algebraic over F , hence
over E. Also, all elements of E, being also elements of K, are algebraic over F . So F ⊆ E
and E ⊆ K are both algebraic extensions.
Now assume that F ⊆ E and E ⊆ K are algebraic extensions. Let u ∈ K. Since
E ⊆ K is algebraic, there exists a nonconstant f (x) ∈ E[x] such that f (u) = 0. Let
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + am xm (so a0 , . . . , am ∈ E) and consider the chain of field extensions

F ⊆ F (a0 , . . . , am ) ⊆ F (a0 , . . . , am , u).

Then we have [F (a0 , . . . , am , u) : F (a0 , . . . , am )] ≤ deg f (x) < ∞. Furthermore, since F ⊆ E

is algebraic, we have [F (a0 , . . . , am ) : F ] < ∞ by Theorem 4.2.30. Thus [F (a0 , . . . , am , u) :
F ] < ∞ by the Multiplication Theorem (Theorem 4.2.24). Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.3, u
is algebraic over F .

Remark 4.2.32. The extension Q ⊆ Q(π) is not algebraic.

√ √ √
Example
√ 4.2.33. Let’s
√ find the minimal polynomial of 4 2 over Q( 2). Let f (x) = x2 − 2 ∈
Q( 2)[x]. Then f ( 4 2) = 0. Now consider
√ √4
Q ⊆ Q( 2) ⊆ Q( 2).
√ √
We have [Q( 4 2) : Q] = 4 since x4 − 2 is irreducible
√ √over Q. Also, [Q( 2) : Q] = 2
2 4
since
√ x − 2 is
√ √ irreducible over Q. Thus [Q( 2) : Q( 2)] = 2. Now,
√ we clearly have
4 4 √ 4
Q( 2) = Q( 2)( 2). By Theorem 4.2.19(b), we thus have degQ( 2) ( 2) = 2. Thus f (x) is
√ √
the minimal polynomial of 4 2 over Q( 2).
√ √
Remark 4.2.34. It follows from the above example that x2 − 2 is irreducible in Q( 2)[x].

Exercises.
Throughout these exercises, F is a field.
p √
4.2.1. Show that 3 + 5 is algebraic over Q.

4.2.2. Show that the intersection in Definition 4.2.9 is in fact a field. More generally, show
that if F is a field, then the intersection of an arbitrary collection of subfields of F is a field.

4.2.3 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.2.3]). In each case, decide whether u is algebraic or transcendental over
F and prove it.
√
(a) u = π, F = Q(π)
√
(b) u = π, F = Q
4.2. Field extensions 81

(c) u = π 2 , F = Q
(d) u = 1 + π, F = Q

4.2.4 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.2.5]). If u ∈ C, u ∈

/ R, show that C = R(u).

4.2.5. For each of the following, find the minimal polynomial of u over F .
p √
(a) u = 3 + 6, F = Q.
p √
(b) u = 5 + 5, F = Q.
√
(c) u = 2 − i, F = Q( 3).
√
4.2.6. Find the minimal polynomials of u = 5 + i over R and over Q.

4.2.7 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.2.9]). Show that F (u, v) = F (u) if and only if v = f (u) for some f ∈ F [x].
√ √ √ √
4.2.8. Prove that Q( 3 + 7) = Q( 3, 7) and give an explicit basis for this field over Q.

4.2.9 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.2.12]). In each case, find a basis of E over Q.

√
(a) E = Q( 3 2)
(b) E = Q(1, −i)
√ √
(c) E = Q( 3, 3 3)
√ √
(d) E = Q( 2, 3)
√ √
(e) E = Q( 3, 15)
√ √
(f) E = Q( 2, 3 3)

4.2.10 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.2.13]). In each case, find [E : F ].

√ √ √
(a) E = Q( 3 + 5), F = Q( 3)
√ √ √
(b) E = Q( 3, 15), F = Q( 5)
√
(c) E = Q( 3 + i), F = Q(i)
√ √ √
(d) E = Q( 3 3, 2), F = Q( 2)

4.2.11 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.2.21]). Let F ⊆ E be fields, and let u, v ∈ E be algebraic over F of
degrees m, n.

(a) Show that [F (u, v) : F ] ≤ mn.

(b) Show that, if m and n are relatively prime, then [F (u, v) : F ] = mn.
(c) Is the converse to (b) true? Justify your answer.

4.2.12 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.2.24]). Show that [Q(π) : Q(π 3 )] is finite and give a basis of Q(π) over
Q(π 3 ).

4.2.13 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.2.26]). (a) If u2 is algebraic over F , show that u is algebraic over F .
82 Chapter 4. Fields

(b) If f (u) is algebraic over F for some f ∈ F [x], f ∈

/ F , show that u is algebraic over F .

4.2.14 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.2.28]). Let F ⊆ E be fields and let u, v ∈ E. If u + v is algebraic over
F , show that v is algebraic over F . Hint: Treat the case that u is transcendental separately.

4.2.15. Let F ⊆ E be a field extension that is not algebraic. Show that E contains a subring
isomorphic to F [x].
√ √ √
4.2.16 (Bonus problem). Show that Q ⊆ Q( 2, 3 2, 4 2, . . . ) is an algebraic extension, but
is not a finite extension.

4.2.17 (Bonus problem). Assume that char F = 0. Let F ⊆ E be an algebraic extension and
α1 , . . . , αn ∈ E. Prove that there exists a β ∈ E such that F (α1 , . . . , αn ) = F (β).

4.3 Splitting fields

We know that, if F is a field, then a polynomial f (x) ∈ F [x] may not have any roots in F ,
but may have roots in some extension E of F . In this section, we will discuss this idea in
further detail.

Theorem 4.3.1 (Kronecker’s Theorem). If F is any field and f (x) ∈ F [x] is a nonconstant
polynomial, then there exists an extension F ⊆ E such that f (x) has a root in E.

Proof. Let p(x) ∈ F [x] be irreducible such that p(x) | f (x) (note that such a p(x) exists
since F [x] is a UFD). Then set E = F [t]/hp(t)i. Since p(t) is irreducible and F [t] is a
PID, the ideal hp(t)i is maximal by Lemma 3.1.16 and Theorem 3.2.7. Thus E is a field
by Corollary 1.3.19. We also have F ⊆ E (viewing the elements of F as the classes of the
constant polynomials). Since f (t) ∈ hp(t)i, we have f (t) = 0 in E.

Example 4.3.2. The polynomial f (x) = x3 + x + 1 ∈ Z2 [x] does not have a root in Z2 . Since
f (x) has degree three, this implies that f (x) is irreducible. Then f (x) has a root in the field

E = Z2 [t]/hf (t)i = {a0 + a1 s + a2 s2 | a0 , a1 , a2 ∈ Z2 },

where s denotes the image of t in E. In fact, f (x) factors completely in E[x]:

f (x) = (x + s)(x2 + sx + (1 + s2 )) = (x + s)(x + s2 )(x + s + s2 ).

Definition 4.3.3 (Splitting field). Let F be a field and f (x) ∈ F [x] be a nonconstant
polynomial. An extension F ⊆ E is called a splitting field of f (x) over F if

(a) f (x) = a(x − u1 ) · · · (x − un ), a, u1 , . . . , un ∈ E, and

(b) E = F (u1 , . . . , un ).

When (a) holds, we say that f (x) splits over E (or in E[x]).

Example 4.3.4. In Example 4.3.2, E is a splitting field of x3 + x + 1 ∈ Z2 [x] over Z2 .

4.3. Splitting fields 83

√
Example
√ 4.3.5. We have that Q( 2) is a splitting field of x2 − 2 ∈ Q[x] over Q, whereas
Q( 4 2) is not.

Example 4.3.6. If f (x) = x − a, a ∈ F , then F is a splitting field of f (x) over F .

√
Example 4.3.7.
√ We have that Q( −1) is a splitting field of x2 + 1 over Q, but not of x2 + 2.
However, R( −1) is a splitting field of x2 + 1 over R and is also a splitting field of x2 + 2
over R.

Theorem 4.3.8. Let F be a field and f (x) ∈ F [x] be a nonconstant polynomial. Then there
exists a splitting field E of f (x) such that [E : F ] ≤ n!, where n = deg f (x).

Proof. We prove the result by induction on n. If n = 1, then E = F and we are done. Now
assume n > 1. Set E1 = F [t]/hp(t)i where p(x) is an irreducible polynomial dividing f (x).
Then f (x) has a root in E1 and so we have

f (x) = (x − a)g(x) for some g(x) ∈ E1 [x], a ∈ E1 .

Since deg g(x) ≤ n − 1, by the induction hypothesis, g(x) has a splitting field E over E1 such
that [E : E1 ] ≤ (n − 1)!. Since [E1 : F ] = deg p(x) ≤ deg f (x) = n, we have

[E : F ] = [E : E1 ][E1 : F ] ≤ n · (n − 1)! = n!.

Example 4.3.9. Let’s find a splitting field E of f (x) =√x4 √

− 2x2 − 3 ∈ Q[x] and find [E : Q].
Since f (x) = (x2 − 3)(x2 + 1), we have that E = Q( 3, −1) is a splitting field. Consider
the field extensions √ √ √
Q ⊆ Q( −1) ⊆ Q( −1, 3) = E.
√
We have [Q( −1) : Q] = 2 since x2 + 1 is irreducible in Q[x]. Also,
√ √ √
[Q( −1, 3) : Q( −1)] = 2
√ √ √
since x2 − 3 is irreducible in Q( −1)[x] (because 3 6∈ Q( −1)). So [E : Q] = 4.

Example 4.3.10. Let’s find a splitting field E of f (x) = x3 − 5 ∈ Q[x] and find [E : Q]. We
have √ √ √
x3 − 5 = (x − 5)(x − ω 5)(x − ω 2 5), ω = e2πi/3 .
3 3 3

√ √ √ √ √ √
So E = Q( 3 5, ω 3 5, ω 2 3 5) = Q( 3 5, ω). Consider the extensions Q ⊆ Q( 3 5) ⊆ Q( 3 5, ω).
Since x3 − 5 is irreducible over Q by the Eisenstein criterion with p = 5, we have
√
[Q( 5) : Q] = deg(x3 − 5) = 3.
3

√ √
Since Q( 3 5) ( Q( 3 5, ω), we have
√
3
√3
2 ≤ [Q( 5, ω) : Q( 5)] = deg m(x), (4.2)
√
where m(x) is the minimal polynomial of ω in Q( 3 5)[x]. Now, ω is a root of x3 −1. Recalling
the difference of cubes factorization x3 − a3 = (x − a)(x2 + ax + a2 ), we have

x3 − 1 = (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1).
84 Chapter 4. Fields

Since ω is not a root of the first factor, it is a factor of the second. Thus, the degree of the
minimal polynomial is at most two. Since, by (4.2), it is at least two, it must be equal to
two (and m(x) = x2 + x + 1). Thus
√3
√3
√3
[E : Q] = [Q( 5, ω) : Q( 5)][Q( 5) : Q] = 2 · 3 = 6.
Example 4.3.9 illustrates the fact that the degree of a splitting field of a polynomial (over
the base field) can be strictly greater than the degree of the polynomial.
Example 4.3.11. Let’s find a splitting field E ⊇ Q for f (x) = x3 − 1 and find [E : Q]. We
have
x3 − 1 = (x − 1)(x − ω)(x − ω 2 ), ω = e2πi/3 .
Thus E = Q(1, ω, ω 2 ) = Q(ω). Now x3 − 1 = (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1). Since ω is not a root of
the first factor, it is a root of the second. Because the roots of x2 + x + 1 are not rational,
this polynomial is irreducible over Q. Thus x2 + x + 1 is the minimal polynomial of ω over
Q. Hence [Q(ω) : Q] = 2.
A natural question to ask is whether or not splitting fields are unique. Our next goal in
this section is to show that they are unique up to isomorphism.
Suppose F ⊆ R and F̄ ⊆ R̄, where F and F̄ are fields that are subrings of the rings
R and R̄, respectively. If σ : F → F̄ is a ring homomorphism, then a ring homomorphism
σ̂ : R → R̄ is said to extend σ if σ̂(a) = σ(a) for all a ∈ F . In other words, the following
diagram commutes (where the vertical maps are inclusions):
σ̂
R −−−→ R̄
x x
 
 
σ
F −−−→ F̄
Example 4.3.12. Suppose σ : F → F̄ is an isomorphism of fields. For f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · +
an xn ∈ F [x], define f σ (x) := σ(a0 ) + σ(a1 )x + · · · + σ(an )xn ∈ F̄ [x]. Then the mapping
F [x] → F̄ [x], f (x) 7→ f σ (x), is a ring isomorphism that extends σ (Exercise 4.3.1).
Suppose p(x) is a monic irreducible polynomial in F [x]. Then pσ (x) is monic in F̄ [x] (since
σ(1) = 1) and is irreducible (exercise). Consider the composition of ring homomorphisms
f (x)7→f σ (x)
F [x] −−−−−−−→ F̄ [x]  F [x]/hpσ (x)i,
where the second map is the quotient homomorphism. It is easy to show that the kernel of
this composition is hp(x)i. Thus, by the First Isomorphism Theorem (Theorem 1.4.15), we
have an induced ring isomorphism
ϕ : F [x]/hp(x)i → F̄ [x]/hpσ (x)i, ϕ(f (x)+hp(x)i) = f σ (x)+hpσ (x)i for f (x) ∈ F [x]. (4.3)
Theorem 4.3.13. Suppose σ : F → F̄ is an isomorphism of fields and p(x) ∈ F [x] is monic
and irreducible. Let u be a root of p(x) in an extension field E ⊇ F and let v be a root of
pσ (x) in an extension field Ē ⊇ F̄ . Then there is a unique isomorphism
F (u) → F̄ (v), f (u) 7→ f σ (v), f ∈ F [x],
that extends σ and maps u to v.
4.3. Splitting fields 85

Proof. Since p(x) is monic and irreducible, it is the minimal polynomial of u over F . As
in the proof of Theorem 4.2.19, we have a ring isomorphism F (u) ∼ = F [x]/hp(x)i given by
f (u) 7→ f (x) + hp(x)i. Similarly, F̄ [x]/hpσ (x)i ∼
= F (v). Composing these isomorphisms with
the isomorphism (4.3), we have
∼
= ∼
= ∼
=
F (u) −→ F [x]/hp(x)i − → F̄ [x]/hpσ (x)i −→ F̄ (v),
f (u) 7→ f (x) + hp(x)i 7→ f (x) + hp (x)i 7→ f σ (v).
σ σ

Thus the composite map F (u) → F̄ (v), f (u) 7→ f σ (v) is an isomorphism. Taking f (x) = x,
we see that this map sends u to v. Considering elements of F as a constant polynomials, we
also see that the map extends σ.

Example 4.3.14. Let’s consider Theorem 4.3.13 in the special case that F = F̄ . Let p(x) ∈
F [x] be a monic irreducible polynomial of degree n and let u and v be two roots of p(x) in
extension fields E ⊇ F and Ē ⊇ F respectively. Then the map

σ̂ : F (u) → F (v), σ̂(a0 + a1 u + · · · + an−1 un−1 ) = a0 + a1 v + · · · + an−1 v n−1 ,

is an
√ isomorphism F (i.e. σ̂(a) =√a for all a ∈ F ) and maps u to v. For example
that fixes √
√
Q( 3 5) ∼
= Q(e2πi/3 5) since 5 and e2πi/3 5 are both roots of the irreducible polynomial
3 3 3

x3 − 5 ∈ Q[x].

The following theorem shows that splitting fields are unique.

Theorem 4.3.15. Suppose σ : F → F̄ is an isomorphism of fields and let f (x) ∈ F [x] be a

nonconstant polynomial. If E ⊇ F is a splitting field for f (x) and Ē ⊇ F̄ is a splitting field
for f σ (x), then there is an isomorphism E → Ē that extends σ.

Proof. We prove the result by induction on n = deg f (x) = deg f σ (x). If n = 1, then E = F
and Ē = F̄ , so σ itself has the desired properties.
Now assume n > 1. Let p(x) be a monic irreducible divisor of f (x). Let u ∈ E be a root
of p(x) and let v ∈ Ē be a root of pσ (x). By Theorem 4.3.13, σ extends to an isomorphism
τ : F (u) → F̄ (v) such that τ (u) = v.
ψ
E −−−→ Ē
x x
 
 
τ
F (u) −−−→ F̄ (v)
x x
 
 
σ
F −−−→ F̄
Write
f (x) = a(x − u)g(x), g(x) ∈ F (u)[x], deg g(x) = n − 1.
Then we have

f σ (x) = f τ (x) = σ(a)(x − v)g τ (x), g τ (x) ∈ F̄ (v)[x], deg g τ (x) = n − 1.

86 Chapter 4. Fields

It follows that Ē is a splitting field for g τ (x) (since it is a splitting field for f σ (x)). We also
have that E is a splitting field for g(x) (since it is a splitting field for f (x)). Thus, by the
induction hypothesis, there is an isomorphism ψ : E → Ē that extends τ and hence extends
σ.
Recall that the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra states that every polynomial in C[x]
splits. In the remainder of this section, we discuss this property of fields.
Theorem 4.3.16. If F is a field, then the following conditions are equivalent:
(a) Every nonconstant polynomial in F [x] has a root in F .
(b) Every irreducible polynomial in F [x] has degree one.
(c) Every nonconstant polynomial in F [x] splits in F [x].
(d) If F ⊆ E is an algebraic extension, then E = F .
Proof. (a) ⇒ (b): This follows immediately from the Factor Theorem (Theorem 2.1.21).
(b) ⇒ (c): Since F [x] is a UFD, every polynomial is a product of irreducibles, hence a
product of degree one polynomials by (b).
(c) ⇒ (d): If u ∈ E, let f (x) ∈ F [x] be a nonzero polynomial such that f (u) = 0 (such
a polynomial exists since F ⊆ E is an algebraic extension). Then f (x) in nonconstant and
so, by (c),
f (x) = a(x − b1 )(x − b2 ) · · · (x − bn ) for some a, b1 , . . . , bn ∈ F.
Since f (u) = 0, we have u = bi for some i. Thus u ∈ F .
(d) ⇒ (a): Suppose f (x) ∈ F [x] is nonconstant. By Theorem 4.3.1, we can find a root u
of f (x) in some extension field E. Thus F ⊆ F (u) is an algebraic extension (since it is finite
by Theorem 4.2.19). Thus F (u) = F by (d) and so u ∈ F .
Definition 4.3.17 (Algebraically closed). A field is algebraically closed if it satisfies the
conditions of Theorem 4.3.16.
Example 4.3.18. The field C of complex numbers is algebraically closed.
Proposition 4.3.19. Suppose F ⊆ E is a field extension. Let
A = {u ∈ E | u is algebraic over F }.
Then A is a subfield of E and so is an algebraic extension of F .
Proof. For any u, v ∈ A, the field F (u, v) is a finite field extension of F by Theorem 4.2.30.
Thus, all elements of F (u, v) are algebraic over F by Theorem 4.2.3. So F (u, v) ⊆ A. In
particular, u + v, uv, −u ∈ A. Furthermore, if u 6= 0, then u−1 ∈ A. So A is a field.
Definition 4.3.20 (Algebraic closure). If F ⊆ E is a field extension, then the field A in
Proposition 4.3.19 is called the algebraic closure of F in E.
If F is a field, a field extension F ⊆ E is called an algebraic closure of F if E is an algebraic
extension of F and E is algebraically closed. (Note the subtle difference in terminology—here
the closure is not in any larger field.)
4.3. Splitting fields 87

Proposition 4.3.21. Suppose F ⊆ E is a field extension and E is algebraically closed. Then

the algebraic closure of F in E is itself algebraically closed.

Proof. Let A = {u ∈ E | u is algebraic over F } be the algebraic closure of F in E. Suppose

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn

is a nonconstant polynomial in A[x]. Then f (x) ∈ E[x] and so f (x) has a root u in E. Let
K = F (a0 , a1 , . . . , an ). Then [K : F ] is a finite extension by Theorem 4.2.30, since each
ai ∈ A, and so is algebraic over F . Furthermore [K(u) : K] is finite because u is algebraic
over K. Thus [K(u) : F ] is finite and hence algebraic. Since u ∈ K(u), it follows that u
is algebraic over F . Thus every noncontant polynomial in A[x] has a root in A. So A is
algebraically closed.

Definition 4.3.22 (Field of algebraic numbers). The field of algebraic numbers is

A = {u ∈ C | u is algebraic over Q}.

By Proposition 4.3.21, A is an algebraic closure of Q.

Example 4.3.23. We see from Example 4.2.23 that A is an algebraic extension of Q that is
not finite.

Theorem 4.3.24. Every field F has an algebraic closure E ⊇ F . Furthermore, if Ē ⊇ F is

another algebraic closure, then there is an isomorphism σ : E → Ē that fixes F .

The proof of Theorem 4.3.24 requires Zorn’s Lemma and will be omitted.

Exercises.
4.3.1. Prove that the map f (x) 7→ f σ (x) defined in Example 4.3.12 is a ring isomorphism.

4.3.2. Show that the splitting field of any nonconstant polynomial in R[x] is either R or C.

4.3.3. Find the splitting field of x4 − 8x2 + 15 ∈ Q[x].

4.3.4 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.3.1]). In each case, find the splitting field E of f over Q and find [E : Q].

(a) f = x3 + 1
(b) f = x4 + 1
(c) f = x4 − 6x2 − 7
(d) f = x6 + 2x3 − 3

4.3.5 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.3.2]). (a) Find the splitting field of f = x4 − 2x3 − 7x2 + 10x + 10 over
Q.
88 Chapter 4. Fields

(b) Find the splitting field of f = x4 + x3 + 2x2 + x + 1 over Q.

4.3.6 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.3.4]). In each case, find the splitting field E of f over F and factor f
completely in E.

(a) f = x3 + 1, F = Z2
(b) f = x3 + 1, F = Z3
(c) f = x3 + x2 + 1, F = Z2
(d) f = x3 − x + 1, F = Z3
(e) f = x4 − x2 − 2, F = Z3
(f) f = x4 + x3 + x + 1, F = Z2

4.3.7 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.3.5]). Show that x2 − 3 and x2 − 2x − 2 have the same splitting field.

4.3.8 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.3.6]). (a) Is C the splitting field of some polynomial over Q? Justify
your answer.
(b) If f ∈ R[x] is nonconstant, show that R or C is a splitting field of f over R.

4.3.9 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.3.7]). Let f = gh in F [x], where g and h are nonconstant. If E is a
splitting field of f over F , show that g splits in E[x].

4.3.10 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.3.8]). Let E ⊇ F be a splitting field of f over F . If [E : F ] is prime,

show that E = F (u) for some u ∈ E (that is, E is a simple extension of F ).

4.3.11 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.3.9]). Let f and g be polynomials in F [x]. Show that f and g are
relatively prime in F [x] if and only if they have no common root in any extension E ⊇ F .

4.3.12 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.3.15]). Let f and g be monic and irreducible in F [x] with relatively
prime degrees. If u is a root of g in some extension field E ⊇ F , show that f is irreducible
over F (u). Hint: Use Kronecker’s Theorem (Theorem 4.3.1) to find a field K ⊇ E in which
f has a root v. Apply Exercise 4.2.11 to show that f is the minimal polynomial of v over
F (u).

4.3.13 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.3.18]). If E ⊇ F is an algebraic extension of fields and every polynomial
in F [x] splits over E, show that E is algebraically closed. Hint: Use Theorem 4.2.31.

4.3.14 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.3.19]). Show that π is not algebraic over the field A of algebraic numbers.

4.3.15 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.2.33]). Let F ⊆ E be fields and let A be the algebraic closure of F in
E. If u ∈ E, u ∈/ A, show that u is transcendental over A.

4.4 Finite fields

In this final section, we look at finite fields. In particular, we will completely classify them
up to isomorphism.
4.4. Finite fields 89

Suppose F is a finite field. Then its additive group is finite and thus, by Lemma 1.1.19,
its characteristic is positive. Thus, by Proposition 1.2.12, its characteristic is a prime number
p. Therefore, by Theorem 1.4.20, Zp ⊆ F (the map ι : Zp ,→ F , ι(k̄) = k · 1 is an injective
ring homomorphism).
Theorem 4.4.1. If F is a finite field, then |F | = pn for some n, where p = char F .
Proof. Since F is a finite field, [F : Zp ] is finite. If n = [F : Zp ], then F ∼
= (Zp )n as a vector
space and the result follows.
Theorem 4.4.2. Let p be a prime number and let F ⊇ Zp be a splitting field of f (x) =
n
xp − x ∈ Zp [x]. Then |F | = pn .
n
Proof. Let S = {a ∈ F | ap − a = 0}. We will prove that Zp ⊆ S and S is a field (hence
S = F ). Fermat’s Little Theorem implies that for any integer k, k p ∼
= k mod p. Thus, for
all k̄ ∈ Zp , we have 
n
 n−1 p n−1 n−2
k̄ p = k̄ p = k̄ p = k̄ p = · · · = k.
Therefore Zp ⊆ S.
Now,
p  
p
X p
a, b ∈ S =⇒ (a + b) = ai bp−i = ap + bp .
i
i=0
Therefore
n n−1 n−1
 2  n−2
2 p n n
(a + b)p = ((a + b)p )p = (ap + bp )p = ap + b p = · · · = ap + bp = a + b.
Thus a + b ∈ S. So S is closed under addition. Also
n n n n
a ∈ S =⇒ (−a)p = (−1)p ap = (−1)p a = −a,
since if p > 2, then p is odd, and if p = 2, then −1 = 1.
We also have
n n n
a, b ∈ S =⇒ (ab)p = ap bp = ab =⇒ ab ∈ S,
and  pn
1 1 1 1
a ∈ S, a 6= 0 =⇒ = pn = =⇒ ∈ S.
a a a a
Thus S is a field and so S = F .
It remains to find |F | = |S|. In F [x] we have
f (x) = (x − a1 )m1 (x − a2 )m2 · · · (x − ar )mr , r = |S|, a1 , . . . , ar distinct.
If we can show that m1 = m2 = · · · = mr = 1, then it will follow that r = pn . Assume,
towards a contradiction, that mi > 1 for some i. Then f (x) = (x − ai )2 g(x) for some
g(x) ∈ F [x]. Thus f (ai ) = 0 and
f 0 (x) = 2(x − ai )g(x) + (x − ai )2 g 0 (x)
(using the usual rules of differentiation: the derivative is F -linear and the derivative of xn
n
is nxn−1 ). Thus f 0 (ai ) = 0. However, since f (x) = xp − x, we have f 0 (x) = −1, which is
never zero. This contradiction completes the proof.
90 Chapter 4. Fields

Theorem 4.4.3. If F is a field with pn elements, where p = char F , then F is a splitting

n
field of f (x) = xp − x.
n
Proof. We have |F × | = pn − 1. Thus, by Lagrange’s Theorem, we have ap −1 = 1 for all
n
a ∈ F × . Thus ap = a for all a ∈ F and so every element of F is a root of f (x).
Since deg f (x) = pn , f (x) has at most pn roots in F . Thus
pn = |F | ≤ # of roots of f (x) ≤ pn .
Therefore, F is the set of all roots of f (x). In particular, it is a splitting field of f (x).
Corollary 4.4.4. If p is a prime number and n ≥ 1, then, up to isomorphism, there exists
a unique field with pn elements.
Proof. This follows from Theorems 4.4.3 and 4.3.15.
Definition 4.4.5 (Galois field). The unique field with pn elements is called the Galois field
of order pn and is denoted GF(pn ).
Theorem 4.4.6. (a) If K ⊆ GF(pn ) is a subfield, then K ∼
= GF(pm ), where m | n.
(b) If m | n, then GF(pn ) has a unique subfield of pm elements (which is therefore isomor-
phic to GF(pm )).
Proof. (a) We have
[GF(pn ) : K][K : Zp ] = [GF(pn ) : Zp ] = n =⇒ [K : Zp ] | n.
Since m = [K : Zp ], the result follows.
m
(b) If K ⊆ GF(pn ) is a subfield with |K| = pm , then K is the splitting field of xp − x
by Theorem 4.4.3 and hence is unique. It remains to prove existence. Note that
m 2m m m m
ap = a =⇒ ap = (ap )p = ap = a.
n m
Continuing in this manner, we see that ap = a. Thus xp − x splits in GF(pn ). Set
m
E = {u ∈ GF(pn ) | u is a root of xp − x}.
m
Then |E| = pm because the roots of xp − x are distinct. Furthermore, E is a field as in the
proof of Theorem 4.4.2.
Example 4.4.7. The lattice of subfields of GF(p24 ) is as follows:
GF(p24 )

GF(p8 ) GF(p12 )

GF(p4 ) GF(p6 )

GF(p2 ) GF(p3 )

GF(p)
4.4. Finite fields 91

Theorem 4.4.8. Suppose F is a field. If G is a finite subgroup of F × , then G is cyclic.

Proof. Let G be a finite subgroup of F × with n elements. By the Fundamental Theorem of

Finite Abelian Groups (from MAT 2143),

G∼
= Zpe11 × · · · × Zpek .
k

for some (not necessarily distinct) primes pi such that n = pe11 · · · pekk . Let m be the least
common multiple of pe11 , . . . , pekk . Then G contains an element of order m (the product of
generators of the cyclic factors above). Since every α in G satisfies αm = 1, we see that
every element of G is a root of xm − 1. Since xm − 1 has at most m roots in F , n ≤ m. On
the other hand, we know that m ≤ |G|; therefore, m = n. Thus, G contains an element of
order n and must be cyclic.

Corollary 4.4.9. The multiplicative group of all nonzero elements of a finite field is cyclic.

Definition 4.4.10 (Primitive element, primitive root of unity). If F is a finite field, then
a generator for F × is called a primitive element of F . If a (possibly infinite) field F has a
multiplicative subgroup G of order n, then a generator of G (which exists by Theorem 4.4.8)
is called a primitive nth root of unity in F . For example, e2πi/n is a primitive nth root of
unity in C for each n ≥ 2.

Exercises.
Throughout these exercises, F denotes a field.

4.4.1 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.4.1]). Find a primitive element for the following fields:
(a) Z11
(b) Z13
(c) GF(8)
(d) GF(9)

4.4.2 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.4.3]). Explain why Z2 [x]/hpi and Z2 [x]/hqi are isomorphic if p = x3 +
x2 + 1 and q = x3 + x + 1.

4.4.3 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.4.4]). If p is prime, draw the subfield lattice of the following fields:
(a) GF(p12 )
(b) GF(p30 )
(c) GF(p8 )

4.4.4 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.4.5]). Find a primitive element of GF(16) and use it to write down all
the subfields.
92 Chapter 4. Fields

4.4.5 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.4.12]). Let F be a field in which F × is cyclic. Prove that F is finite.

4.4.6 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.4.17]). Let f be a nonconstant polynomial in F [x]. Show that f has no
repeated root in any splitting field over F if and only if f and f 0 are relatively prime in F [x].

4.4.7 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.4.18]). (a) Show that a monic irreducible polynomial f in F [x] has no
repeated root in any splitting field over F if and only if f 0 6= 0 in F [x].
(b) If char F = 0, show that no irreducible polynomial has a repeated root in any splitting
field over F .

4.4.8 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.4.19]). If char F = p, show that a monic irreducible polynomial f in F [x]
has a repeated root in some splitting field if and only if f = g(xp ) for some g ∈ F [x]. Hint:
Exercise 4.4.7.

4.4.9 ([Nic12, Ex. 6.4.20]). Show that no finite field F is algebraically closed. Hint: Apply
Exercise 4.4.6 to f = xq+1 + 1, where q = |F |.
Index

ACCP, 60 direct product of rings, 5

algebraic closure, 86 division, 56
algebraic element, 74 of polynomials, 35
algebraic extension, 74 Division Algorithm, 35
algebraic numbers, 87 division algorithm, 69
algebraically closed, 86 division ring, 11
ann(X), 22 divisor function, 69
annihilator, 22 domain, 11
artinian ring, 64
Eisenstein Criterion, 45
ascending chain condition on ideals, 64
endomorphism, 25
ascending chain condition on principal ideals,
epimorphism, 25
60
equality of polynomials, 33
associates, 56
euclidean algorithm, 46
automorphism, 25
euclidean domain, 36, 69
inner, 25
euclidean function, 36, 69
basis, 73 euclidean valuation, 69
evaluation, 37
c(f (x)), 62 Evaluation Theorem, 36
center, 8 extending a ring homomorphism, 84
centralizer, 10 extension, 74
characteristic, 7 F(X, R), 5
Chinese Remainder Theorem, 27 Factor Theorem, 37
coefficient, 33 factorization, 56
commutative ring, 4 proper, 43
constant coefficient, 34 trivial, 56
constant polynomial, 34 field, 11
content, 62 field extension, 74
cyclotomic polynomial, 45, 48 field generated by elements, 75
field of fractions, 15
DCCP, 66
field of quotients, 15
degree
finite dimensional, 73
of a polynomial, 34
finite extension, 74
of an element in a field extension, 75
First Isomorphism Theorem, 26
descending chain condition, 66
Frobenius homomorphism, 25
descending chain condition on ideals, 64
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, 86
difference of elements in a ring, 6
dimension, 73 Galois field, 90

93
94 Index

Gauss’ Lemma, 43, 62 monomorpihsm, 25

gaussian integers, 8 Multiplication Theorem, 77
are a euclidean domain, 70 multiplicative inverse, 5
gcd, 59 multiplicity of a root, 38
general ring, 4
general ring homomorphism, 24 N, 3
GF(pn ), 90 nilpotent, 7
greatest common divisor, 59 noetherian ring, 64
of polynomials, 46 nonassociative ring, 5
group of units, 6 norm, 57

homomorphism opposite ring, 9

of general rings, 24
PID, 66
of rings, 24
polynomial, 33
ideal, 16 function, 33
zero, 17 polynomial ring, 5
idempotent, 7 prime element, 57
identity element, 4 prime ideal, 18
image, 25 primitive element, 91
indeterminate, 32 Primitive Element Theorem, 79
infinite dimensional, 73 primitive polynomial, 62
inner automorphism, 25 primitive root of unity, 91
integral domain, 11 principal ideal, 17
irreducible, 57 principal ideal domain, 66
polynomial, 41 proper factorization, 43
isomorphic rings, 8, 25 proper ideal, 16
isomorphism, 8, 25
quaternions, 13
kernel, 25
R× , 5
Kronecker’s Theorem, 82
rational function, 15
lcm, 59 Rational Roots Theorem, 38
leading coefficient, 34 reducible polynomial, 41
least common multiple, 59 reduction modulo p, 43
left ideal, 23 relatively prime, 55
Lie algebra, 5 Remainder Theorem, 37
linear combination, 73 ring, 4
linearly dependent, 73 automorphism, 25
linearly independent, 73 endomorphism, 25
localization, 68 epimorphism, 25
homomorphism, 24
maximal ideal, 20 isomorphism, 25
minimal polynomial, 75 monomorphism, 25
Modular Irreducibility Test, 44 of polynomials, 33
monic polynomial, 34 ring isomorphism, 8
Index 95

root of a polynomial, 38

scalar multiplication, 72
Second Isomorphism Theorem, 31
simple ring, 17
skew field, 11
span, 73
split, 82
splitting field, 82
subfield, 74
subring, 7
Subring Test, 7
subspace, 72
subtraction in a ring, 6

Third Isomorphism Theorem, 31

transcendental element, 74

UFD, 58
unique factorization domain, 58
unit, 5
unity, 4

vector addition, 72
vector space, 72

Zn , 5
zero divisor, 11
zero ideal, 17
zero polynomial, 34
zero ring, 5
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