Figure 6-1.—C1assification system of memory.

described as containing 65,536 bits; or,

alternately, it maybe called an “8K by 8” memory. Most computer memory sires are described as a specific number
of words. It is assumed that the word size is geared to the particular computer that is used with the memory.
Computer memory sizes are given in K increments, or roughly 1,000 word blocks. The exact size of a lK block is
1,024, which is 2 . Access time —Access time is a measure of the time required to read from or write the data
10

to a particular address in the memory. It is the interval from the instant at which a request for data is initiated until
the data is available for use. It can range from a few nanoseconds (ns) to microseconds (µs). Destructive
readout —When data is read from memory, the stored data is extracted (removed) from memory and in the
process the data is erased in the source. Because the data is lost, the process is referred to as destructive readout. If it
is desired to restore the same data at the same storage location, the word must be rewritten after reading. Read/write
memory such as a core memory is an example of destructive readout. Non-destructive readout —If the data in a
memory is not destroyed in the reading process, the system has non-destructive readout. This means the data
can be read over and over again without being rewritten. A flip-flop is an example of nondestructive readout.
Sensing the output voltage (reading) from a given side of a flip-flop generally does not change the state of the flip-
flop and the stored data is retained. Volatile memories —Volatile memories are memories that lose their contents
when thepower is turned off. A semiconductor memory is an example. Nonvolatile memories —Nonvolatile
memories are memories that do not lose their contents when power is removed. Core memory is an
example. MEMORY ORGANIZATION Memory organization is two-fold. First we discuss the
hardware (physical) organization, then the internal architecture. The type of computer and its size do not reflect the
type of memories that the computer uses. Some computers have a mixture of memory types. For example, they may
use some type of magnetic memory (core or film) and also a semiconductor memory (static or dynamic). They also
have a read-only memory which is usually a part of the CPU. Memory in a computer can vary from one or more
modules to one or more pcb’s, depending on the computer type. The larger mainframe computers
use the modular arrangement, multiple modules (four or more), to make up their memories. Whereas,
minicomputers and microcomputers use chassis or assemblies, cages or racks, and motherboard or backplane
arrangements. Minis and micros use multiple components on one pcb or groups of pcb’s to form the
memory. 6-2

THE GENERTIONS OF COMPUTER

THE GENERTIONS OF COMPUTER

1st Generation Computers

The first generation computers used vaccum tubes for circuits and magnetic drums for memory.They
were very expensive to operate and occupied lots of space. They produced enormous heat which
sometimes can cause malfunctionning of the computer.The inputs were paper tapes and punched
cards and output was in printed text.They used magnetic Drums as Memory.These allowed the
computer to solve 1 problem at a time.

2nd Generation Computers

The second generation computers witnessed replacement of vaccum tubes by transistors.These
were small compared to vaccum tubes.They were fast,Efficent and cheap.They also produced
enormous heat ehich sometimes can cause malfunctioning o the computer.They used magnetic core
technology as memory.Input was based on Punched card and the output was print outs.

During this generation Many high level programmes were developed such as early versions of
COBOL and FORTRAN.They moved from use of machine language to assembly languages.

3rd Generation Computers

The third generation computers witnessed replacement of transistors by intergrated chips.The

transistors were made smaller in size and placed in silicon chips.These Very fast, reliable, cheap
and efficent.They use keyboards and monitors as Input and output devices.

The Operating system was developed in this Period.These allowed the computer to solve many
problems at the same time.

4th Generation Computers

The Fourth generation computers witnessed replacement of intergrated chips by

Microprocessor.thousand of intergrated chips were built into a single silicon chip.All these Computer
were,But they became more powerfull with introduction of processors like core 2 duo,quad core etc..
These Computers Could be linked together, they led to the formation of Networks and Internet.

5th Generation Computers

I hope so that this is correct or Not.These computer are based on artificial intelligence ,are still at
their developmental stage.They hope to bridge the gap between computing and thinking...

These are the generation of computer as far as i know......

Computers are classified according to their data processing speed, amount of data that they can
hold and price. Generally, a computer with high processing speed and large internal storage is
called a big computer. Due to rapidly improving technology, we are always confused among the
categories of computers.

Depending upon their speed and memory size, computers are classified into following four main
groups.

1. Supercomputer.
2. Mainframe computer.
3. Mini computer.
4. Microcomputer.

1. Supercomputer
Supercomputer is the most powerful and fastest, and also very expensive. It was developed in
1980s. It is used to process large amount of data and to solve the complicated scientific
problems. It can perform more than one trillions calculations per second. It has large number of
processors connected parallel. So parallel processing is done in this computer. In a single
supercomputer thousands of users can be connected at the same time and the supercomputer
handles the work of each user separately. Supercomputer are mainly used for:

The supercomputers are used in large organizations, research laboratories, aerospace centers,
large industrial units etc. Nuclear scientists use supercomputers to create and analyze models of
nuclear fission and fusions, predicting the actions and reactions of millions of atoms as they
interact. The examples of supercomputers are CRAY-1, CRAY-2, Control Data CYBER 205 and
ETA A-10 etc.

2. Mainframe Computers

Mainframe computers are also large-scale computers but supercomputers are larger than
mainframe. These are also very expensive. The mainframe computer specially requires a very
large clean room with air-conditioner. This makes it very expensive to buy and operate. It can
support a large number of various equipments. It also has multiple processors. Large mainframe
systems can handle the input and output requirements of several thousand of users. For example,
IBM, S/390 mainframe can support 50,000 users simultaneously. The users often access then
mainframe with terminals or personal computers. Tere are basically two types of terminals used
with mainframe systems. These are:

) Dumb Terminal
Dumb terminal does not have its own CPU and storage devices. This type of terminal uses the
CPU and storage devices of mainframe system. Typically, a dumb terminal consists of
monitor and a keyboard (or mouse).

ii) Intelligent Terminal

Intelligent terminal has its own processor and can perform some processing operations. Usually,
this type of terminal does not have its own storage. Typically, personal computrers are used as
intelligent terminals. A personal computer as an intelligent terminal gives facility to access data
and other services from mainframe system. It also enables to store and process data locally.

he mainframe computers are specially used as servers on the World Wide Web. The mainframe
computers are used in large organizations such as Banks, Airlines and Universities etc. where
many people (users) need frequent access to the same data, which is usually organized into one
or more huge databases. IBM is the major manufacturer of mainframe computers. The examples
of mainframes are IBM S/390, Control Data CYBER 176 and Amdahl 580 etc.

3. Minicomputers
These are smaller in size, have lower processing speed and also have lower cost than mainframe.
These computers are known as minicomputers because of their small size as compared to other
computers at that time. The capabilities of a minicomputer are between mainframe and personal
computer. These computers are also known as midrange computers.
The minicomputers are used in business, education and many other government departments.
Although some minicomputers are designed for a single user but most are designed to handle
multiple terminals. Minicomputers are commonly used as servers in network environment and
hundreds of personal computers can be connected to the network with a minicomputer acting
as server like mainframes, minicomputers are used as web servers. Single user minicomputers
are used for sophisticated design tasks.

The first minicomputer was introduced in the mid-1960s by Digital Equipment Corporation
(DEC). After this IBM Corporation (AS/400 computers) Data General Corporation and Prime
Computer also designed the mini computers.

4. Microcomputer
The microcomputers are also known as personal computers or simply PCs. Microprocessor is
used in this type of computer. These are very small in size and cost. The IBM’s first
microcomputer was designed in 1981 and was named as IBM-PC. After this many computer
hardware companies copied the design of IBM-PC. The term “PC-compatible” refers any
personal computer based on the original IBM personal computer design.

The most popular types of personal computers are the PC and the Apple. PC and PC-compatible
computers have processors with different architectures than processors in Apple computers.
These two types of computers also use different operating systems. PC and PC-compatible
computers use the Windows operating system while Apple computers use the Macintosh
operating system (MacOS). The majority of microcomputers sold today are part of IBM-
compatible. However the Apple computer is neither an IBM nor a compatible. It is another
family of computers made by Apple computer.

Personal computers are available in two models. These are:

1. Desktop PCs
2. Tower PCs

A desktop personal computer is most popular model of personal computer. The system unit of
the desktop personal computer can lie flat on the desk or table. In desktop personal computer, the
monitor is usually placed on the system unit.

Another model of the personal computer is known as tower personal computer. The system unit
of the tower PC is vertically placed on the desk of table. Usually the system unit of the tower
model is placed on the floor to make desk space free and user can place other devices such as
printer, scanner etc. on the desktop. Today computer tables are available which are specially
designed for this purpose. The tower models are mostly used at homes and offices.

Microcomputer are further divided into following categories.

1. Laptop computer
2. Workstation
3. Network computer
 4. Handheld computer

1. Laptop computer

Laptop computer is also known as notebook computer. It is small size (85-by-11 inch notebook
computer and can fit inside a briefcase. The laptop computer is operated on a special battery and
it does not have to be plugged in like desktop computer. The laptop computer is portable and
fully functional microcomputer. It is mostly used during journey. It can be used on your lap in an
airplane. It is because it is referred to as laptop computer.

The memory and storage capacity of laptop computer is almost equivalent to the PC or desktop
computer. It also has the hard dist, floppy disk drive, Zip disk drive, CD-ROM drive, CD-writer
etc. it has built-in keyboard and built-in trackball as pointing device. Laptop computer is also
available with the same processing speed as the most powerful personal computer. It means that
laptop computer has same features as personal computer. Laptop computers are more expensive
than desktop computers. Normally these computers are frequently used in business
travelers.

2. Workstations

Workstations are special single user computers having the same features as personal computer
but have the processing speed equivalent to minicomputer or mainframe computer. A
workstation computer can be fitted on a desktop. Scientists, engineers, architects and graphic
designers mostly use these computers.

Workstation computers are expensive and powerful computers. These have advanced processors,
more RAM and storage capacity than personal computers. These are usually used as single-user
applications but these are used as servers on computer network and web servers as well.

3. Network computers

Network computers are also version of personal computers having less processing power,
memory and storage. These are specially designed as terminals for network environment. Some
types of network computers have no storage. The network computers are designed for network,
Internet or Intranet for data entry or to access data on the network. The network computers
depend upon the network’s server for data storage and to use software. These computers also use
the network’s server to perform some processing tasks.

In the mid-1990s the concept of network computers became popular among some PC
manufacturers. As a result several variations of the network computers quickly became available.
In business, variations of the network computer are Windows terminals, NetPCs and diskless
workstations. Some network computers are designed to access only the Internet or to an Intranet.
These devices are sometimes called Internet PCs, Internet boxes etc. In home some network
computers do not include monitor. These are connected to home television, which serves as the
output devices. A popular example of a home-based network computer is Web TV, which
enables the user to connect a television to the Internet. The Web TV has a special set-top box
used to connect to the Internet and also provides a set of simple controls which enable the user to
navigate the Internet, send and receive e-mails and to perform other tasks on the network while
watching television.

Network computers are cheaper to purchase and to maintain than personal computers.

4. handheld computer

In the mid 1990s, many new types of small personal computing devices have been introduced
and these are referred to as handheld computers. These computers are also referred to as Palmtop
Computers. The handheld computers sometimes called Mini-Notebook Computers. The type of
computer is named as handheld computer because it can fit in one hand while you can operate it
with the other hand. Because of its reduced size, the screen of handheld computer is quite small.
Similarly it also has small keyboard. The handheld computers are preferred by business traveler.
Some handheld computers have a specialized keyboard. These computers are used by mobile
employees, such as meter readers and parcel delivery people, whose jobs require them to move
from place to place.

The examples of handheld computers are:

1. Personal Digital Assistance

2. Cellular telephones
3. H/PC Pro devices

1. Personal Digital Assistance (PDAs)

The PDA is one of the more popular lightweight mobile devices in use today. A PDA provides
special functions such as taking notes, organizing telephone numbers and addresses. Most PDAs
also offer a variety of other application software such as word processing, spreadsheet and games
etc. Some PDAs include electronic books that enable users to read a book on the PDA’s screen.

Many PDAs are web-based and users can send/receive e-mails and access the Internet. Similarly,
some PDAs also provide telephone capabilities.

The primary input device of a PDA is the stylus. A stylus is an electronic pen and looks like a
small ballpoint pen. This input device is used to write notes and store in the PDA by touching the
screen. Some PDAs also support voice input.

2. Cellular phones

A cellular phone is a web-based telephone having features of analog and digital devices. It is also
referred to as Smart Phone. In addition to basic phone capabilities, a cellular phone also provides
the functions to receive and send e-mails & faxes and to access the Internet.

3. H/PC Pro Devices

H/PC Pro dive is new development in handheld technology. These systems are larger than PDAs
but they are not quite as large as typical notebook PCs. These devices have features between
PDAs and notebook PCs. The H/PC Pro device includes a full-size keyboard but it does not
include disk. These systems also have RAM with very low storage capacity and slow speed of
processor.