Basic Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer Concept

1. A creamery must cool 11,350 kg of milk received each day from 30°C to 3°C in 3 hours. What
must be the capacity of the refrigerating machine? Take the specific heat of milk as 3.92 kJ/kg -
K. If the compressor in the above case operates 8 hours per day with surplus refrigeration
accumulated in brine storage tanks, what must the capacity be?

2. Cold salt brine at — 2°C is used in a packing plant to chill food slabs from 40°C to 3.4°C in 18
hours. Determine the weight of brine required to cool 100 food slabs of 225 kg each if the final
temperature of brine is 1.7°C, Given:

Specific gravity of brine = 1.05

Specific heat of brine = 3.77 kJ/kg-K

Specific heat of food slabs = 3.15 kJ/kg-K

3. A cold-storage room has inside dimensions of 12 m × 7.5 m × 3 m. The overall coefficient of heat
transfer through the walls and ceiling is 0.55 W/m 2-K and for the floor is 2.2 W/m 2-K. The inside
temperature is to be maintained at —5°C. If the outside air is at 45°C and the air adjacent to the
floor is at 30°C, determine the capacity of the refrigerating unit.

4. 10 kg of air at 65°C and 3.5 bar expands reversibly and polytropically to 5 bar. The index of
expansion is n = 1.25. Find the final temperature, work done, heat transferred and change of
entropy.

5. Air at 3.5 bar and 30°C flows at the rate of 0.5 kg/s through an insulated turbine. If the air delivers
11.5 HP to the turbine blades and the change in kinetic energy is negligible, at what temperature
does the air leave the turbine?

6. A fluid expands from 3 bar and 150°C to 1 bar in a nozzle. The initial velocity is 90 m/s. The
isentropic efficiency is likely to be 0.95. Estimate the final velocity assuming the fluid to be steam
and air.

7. R 22 saturated liquid at 35°C is throttled to a pressure corresponding to a temperature of 5°C.

determine the extent of flashing of the liquid into vapor

8. The exterior wall of a house is made of 10 cm of common brick (k = 0.7 W/m 2-K) followed by a
3.79 cm layer of gypsum plaster (k = 0.48 W/m 2-K), what thickness of thermocole insulation (k =
0.037 W/m2-K) should be added to reduce the heat loss or gain through the wall to 25%?
9. Find the overall heat transfer coefficient between water and oil if the water flows through a
copper pipe 1.8 cm ID and 2.1 cm OD while the oil flows through the annulus between the copper
pipe and a steel pipe. The water and oil side film heat transfer coefficients are 4600 and 1250
W/m2-K respectively. The fouling factors on the water and oil sides may be taken as 0.0004 and
0.001 m2-K/W respectively. The thermal conductivity of the tube wall is 330 W/m-K.

10. In an R134a condenser of a domestic refrigerator, having wire-and-tube construction, Ao/Ai = 12.
Heat transfer coefficient of refrigerant condensing inside tubes is hi = 1950 W/m2-K. Heat transfer
coefficient by natural convection of air outside tubes is ho = 19.5 W/m2-K. Air enters at 35°C and
leaves at 43°C. Heat to be rejected in the condenser is 180 W. Determine the outside tube surface
area.

11. Water at 120°C and a pressure of 250 kPa passes through a pressure-reducing valve and then
flows to a separating tank at standard atmospheric pressure of 101.3 kPa.
(a) What is the state of the water entering the valve (subcooled liquid, saturated liquid, or vapor)?
(b) For each kilogram that enters the pressure-reducing valve, how much leaves the separating
tank as vapor?

12. Air flowing at a rate of 2.5 kg/s is heated in a heat exchanger from -10 to 30°C. What is the rate
of heat transfer?

Reversed Carnot Principles

13. A refrigerator has working temperatures in the evaporator and condenser coils of —30 and 35°C
respectively. What is the maximum possible COP of the refrigerator? If the actual refrigerator has
a refrigerating efficiency of 0.75, calculate the refrigerating effect in kW and TR per kW of power
input.

14. A reversed Carnot cycle has a COP for cooling of 4. If the power consumption of the cycle is 7.5
kW, determine the refrigerating capacity of the machine in TR.

15. A Carnot refrigerator operates with Freon 12 as a refrigerant condensing at 50°C and evaporating
at —15°C. Find its COP using the Carnot expression as well as the properties of Freon 12. Also,
determine the power consumption per ton of refrigeration.

16. Determine the power consumption of a domestic refrigerator if its refrigerating capacity is 0.125
TR. It is operating in an ambient of 40°C. Temperature in the freezer must be maintained at -5°C.
COP of the system is half the Carnot COP. Assume suitable condensing and evaporating
temperatures.
17. The overall volume compression ratio of a reversed Carnot cycle working with air as refrigerant is
10. The temperature limits of the cycle are 40°C and 0°C.
 Determine:

(i) the pressure, volume, and temperature at each point of the cycle,
(ii) the work done in the cycle,
(iii) the refrigerating effect, and
(iv) the COP of the cycle.

18. A Carnot refrigeration cycle absorbs heat at ~12°C and rejects it at 40°C.
(a) Calculate the coefficient of performance of this refrigeration cycle.
(b) If the cycle is absorbing 15 kW at the -1 2°C temperature, how much power is required?
(c) If a Carnot heat pump operates between the same temperatures as the above refrigeration
cycle, what is the performance factor?
(d) What is the rate of heat-rejection at the 40°C temperature if the heat pump absorbs 15 kW
at the -12°C temperature?

19. If in a standard vapor-compression cycle using Refrigerant 22 the evaporating temperature is -5°C
and the condensing temperature is 30°C, sketch the cycle on pressure-enthalpy coordinates and
calculate:
(a) the work of compression (kJ/kg)
(b) the refrigerating effect (kJ/kg)
(c) the heat rejected in the condenser (kJ/kg)
(d) the coefficient of performance

20. A refrigeration system using refrigerant 22 is to have a refrigerating capacity of 80 kW. The cycle
is a standard vapor-compression cycle in which the evaporating temperature is -8 C and the
condensing temperature 42°C.
(a) Determine the volume flow of refrigerant measured in cubic meters per second at the inlet
to the compressor.
(b) Calculate the power required by the compressor.
(c) At the entrance to the evaporator, what is the fraction of vapor in the mixture expressed
both on a mass basis and a volume basis?

21. In the vapor-compression cycle a throttling device is used almost universally to reduce the
pressure of the liquid refrigerant.
(a) Determine the percent saving in net work of the cycle per kilogram of refrigerant if an
expansion engine could be used to expand saturated liquid Refrigerant 22 isentropically from
35°C to the evaporator temperature of 0°C. Assume that compression is isentropic from
saturated vapor at 0°C to a condenser pressure corresponding to 35°C.
(b) Calculate the increase in refrigerating effect in kJ/kg resulting from use of the expansion
engine.
22. A Refrigerant 22 vapor-compression system includes a liquid-to-suction heat exchanger in the
system. The heat exchanger warms saturated vapor coming from the evaporator from -10 to 5°C
with liquid which comes from the condenser at 30°C. The compressions are isentropic in both
cases listed below.
(a) Calculate the coefficient of performance of the system without the heat exchanger but
with the condensing temperature at 30°C and an evaporating temperature of -10°C.
(b) Calculate the coefficient of performance of the system with the heat exchanger.
(c) If the compressor is capable of pumping 12.0 L/s measured at the compressor suction,
what is the refrigeration capacity of the system without the heat exchanger?
(d) With the same compressor capacity as in (c), what is the refrigeration capacity of the
system with the heat exchanger?

23. An ammonia compressor has a 5 percent clearance volume and a displacement rate of 80 L/s and
pumps against a condensing temperature of 40°C. For the two different evaporating temperatures
of -10 and 10°C, compute the refrigerant flow rate assuming that the clearance volumetric
efficiency applies.

24. The catalog for a refrigerant 22, four-cylinder, hermetic compressor operating at 29 rev/s, a
condensing temperature of 40°C, and an evaporating temperature of -4°C shows a refrigerating
capacity of 115 kW. At this operating point the motor (whose efficiency is 90 percent) draws 34.5
kW. The bore of the cylinders is 87 mm and the piston stroke is 70 mm. The performance data are
based on 8°C of subcooling of the liquid leaving the condenser. Compute:
(a) the actual volumetric efficiency, and
(b) the compression efficiency.

25. Compute the maximum displacement rate of a two-vane compressor having a cylinder diameter of
190 mm and a rotor 80 mm long with a diameter of 170 mm. The compressor operates at 29 rev/s.

26. A two-stage centrifugal compressor operating at 60 r/s is to compress Refrigerant 11 from an

evaporating temperature of 4°C to a condensing temperature of 35°C. If both wheels are to be of
the same diameter, what is this diameter?

Refrigeration Compressors

27. A 15 TR Freon 22 vapor-compression system operates between a condenser temperature of 40°C

and an evaporator temperature of 35°C.
(a) Determine the compressor discharge temperature
(b) Theoretical piston displacement and power consumption of the compressor per ton of
refrigeration.
28. A simple saturation ammonia compression system has a high pressure of 1.35 MPa and a low
pressure of 190 kPa. Find per 400,000 kJ/h of refrigerating capacity, the power consumption of
the compressor and COP of the cycle.

29. A Freon 22 refrigerating machine operates between a condenser temperature of 40°C and an
evaporator temperature of 35°C. Calculate the increase (percent) in the theoretical piston
displacement and the power consumption of the cycle:
(a) If the evaporator temperature is reduced to 0°C.
(b) If the condenser temperature is increased to 44°C.

30. In a vapor compression cycle saturated liquid Refrigerant 22 leaving the condenser at 40°C is
required to expand to the evaporator temperature of 0°C in a cold storage plant.

(a) Determine the percentage saving in net work of the cycle per kg of the refrigerant if an
isentropic expander could be used to expand the refrigerant in place of the throttling device.
(b) Also, determine the percentage increase in refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant as a result
of the use of the expander. Assume that compression is isentropic from saturated vapour state at
0°C to the condenser pressure.

31. An ammonia refrigeration system operates between the saturated suction temperature of -20°C
and saturated discharge temperature of 40°C. Compare the COP of the cycle using wet
compression with that of the cycle using dry compression.
Assume that the vapor leaving the compressor is saturated in the case of wet compression, and the
vapor entering the compressor is saturated in the case of dry compression. The refrigerant leaves
the condenser as saturated liquid.

32. A standard vapor compression cycle using Freon 22 operates on simple saturation cycle at the
following conditions:

Refrigerating capacity 15 TR
Condensing temperature 40°C
Evaporating temperature 5°C
Calculate:
(a) Refrigerant circulation rate in kg/s.
(b) Power required by the compressor in kW.
(c) Coefficient of performance.
(d) The volume flow rate of the refrigerant at compressor suction.
(e) Compressor discharge temperature.
(f) Suction vapor volume and power consumption per ton of refrigeration.
33. An ammonia refrigeration plant operates between a condensing temperature of 40°C and an
evaporating temperature of -10°C. The vapor is dry at the end of compression. Only the following
property values are given:
Compressor suction state: h1 = 1450.7 kJ/kg
Compressor discharge state: h2 = 1551.1 kJ/kg
Condenser exit state: h3 = 390.6 kJ/kg
Calculate the theoretical COP of the cycle

34. An R134a machine operates at —15°C evaporator and 35°C condenser temperatures. Assuming a
simple-saturation cycle, calculate the volume of the suction vapor and power consumption per ton
of refrigeration and COP of the cycle. Calculate the same if the system has a regenerative heat
exchanger with the ‘suction vapor leaving at 20°C from the heat exchanger.

35. What would be the necessary bore and stroke of a single-acting four-cylinder, 350 rpm ammonia
compressor working on simple saturation cycle between 35°C condenser and —15°C evaporator
temperatures and developing 15 TR. Given specs for the compressor:
Stroke-to-bore ratio = 1
Volumetric Efficiency = 70%

36. A simple saturation cycle using Freon 22 is designed for a load of 100 TR. The saturated suction
and discharge temperatures are 5°C and 40°C respectively, calculate the following:
(a) The mass flow rate of the refrigerant
(b) The COP and isentropic horsepower
(c) The heat rejected in the condenser

37. A commercial refrigerator using Isobutane operates on the simple saturation cycle with saturated
suction and discharge temperature of -25°C and 55°C respectively.

(a) Calculate the COP and power required to run the compressor per ton of refrigeration.
(b) If the liquid is subcooled by 10°C in the condenser, calculate the COP and the power required
per ton of refrigeration.
(c) If the liquid is further subcooled in a regenerative heat exchanger with superheating of the
vapor by 30°C, what is the increase in COP and decrease in power required?

38. An ammonia ice plant operates on simple saturation cycle at the following temperatures.
Condensing temperature: 40°C
Evaporating temperature: -15°C

It produces 10 tons of ice per day at -5°C from water at 30°C. Determine:
(a) Capacity of the refrigeration plant.
(b) Mass flow rate of refrigerant.
 (c) Isentropic discharge temperature.
(d) Compressor dimensions (bore and stroke) if its volumetric efficiency is assumed as 65%. The
compressor is to run at 1400 rpm. Take stroke-bore ratio (L/D) as 1.2.
(e) Horsepower of the compressor if its adiabatic efficiency is taken as 85% and mechanical
efficiency as 95%.
(f) Theoretical and actual COP.

39. A Refrigerant 22 vapour compression system meant for food freezing operates at 40°C
condensing temperature and -35°C evaporating temperature. Its compressor is capable of
pumping 30 L/s of vapour at suction.

(a) Calculate the COP of the system and its refrigerating capacity.
(b) If a regenerative heat exchanger is installed which allows suction vapour to be heated by 30°C
with liquid from the condenser at 40°C to be cooled correspondingly, what is the new COP and
refrigerating capacity?

40. A domestic refrigerator uses R 134a as refrigerant and operates between evaporator and
condenser temperatures of -25°C and 55°C in an ambient of 43°C. The liquid leaves the
condenser at 43°C. It is further subcooled to 32°C in a regenerative heat exchanger in which the
vapor from the evaporator is heated to 32°C. The compressor displacement volume is 4.33 cm3.
Calculate the refrigerating capacity and power consumption of the refrigerator if the volumetric
efficiency of the compressor can be taken as 0.68, and its adiabatic efficiency 0.85. Also, find the
compressor discharge temperature. The compressor is directly coupled to a motor running at 2900
rpm.

Refrigeration Condensers

41. An air-cooled condenser is to reject 70 kW of heat from a condensing refrigerant to air. The
condenser has an air-side area of 210 m2 and a U value based on this area of 0.037 kW/m 2 - K; it
is supplied with 6.6 m3/s of air, which has a density of 1.15 kg/m 3. If the condensing temperature
is to be limited to 55°C, what is the maximum allowable temperature of inlet air?

42. An air-cooled condenser has an expected U value of 30 W/m2 - K based on the air-side area. The
condenser is to transfer 60 kW with an airflow rate of 15 kg/s entering at 35°C. If the condensing
temperature is to be 48°C, what is the required air-side area?

43. A refrigerant 22 system having a refrigerating capacity of 55 kW operates with an evaporating

temperature of 5°C and rejects heat to a water-cooled condenser. The compressor is hermetically
sealed. The condenser has a U value of 450 W/m 2 - K and a heat-transfer area of 18 m 2 and
receives a flow rate of cooling water of 3.2 kg/s at a temperature of 30°C. What is the condensing
temperature?
44. Calculate the mean condensing heat-transfer coefficient when Refrigerant 12 condenses on the
outside of the horizontal tubes in a shell-and-tube condenser. The outside diameter of the tubes is
19 mm, and in the vertical rows of tubes there are, respectively, two, three, four, three, and two
tubes. The refrigerant is condensing at a temperature of 52°C, and the temperature of the tubes is
44°C.