Understanding Filmmaking: Production Process

1) The idea
Making a film takes years and involves hundreds of people, but all films start with a moment of inspiration, when
someone thinks that would make a great film.

Remakes – remakes of existing films and adaptations of plays and TV/radio

productions are becoming increasingly common. Remaking something that
already exists adds a level of security to the production and makes it easier to
define the market. This can be helpful in attracting financial banking. The risk is
that audiences will not respond as strongly to an idea that they have heard before
Real life events – a surprising number of films are based on ‘real life events’. True
1) Sources of stories can capture the imagination of modern audiences, and producers are
inspiration always on the lookout for ‘filmable’ real life events. Interesting true stories can be
Inspiration is all around found in magazines, biographies, non-fiction, personal experiences or through a
us, in newspapers, chance meeting. Having an eye for a good story is a vital skill for any filmmaker
books, plays, films and Original ideas – original ideas are the most valuable commodity in the filmmaking
even a casual business. Ideas could come from a moment of inspiration, a chance conversation
conversation with a friend, or a dream etc. Protecting the idea is crucial, and film producers
often take out errors and omissions insurance which cover them if they are sued
for libel, slander, breach of copyright and the like
Adaptations –books often inspire successful films, and a successful book can
generate publicity and deliver an audience for a film that will guarantee a return
on the investment

Producers are always looking for a great idea for a film, something that they
believe will attract audiences. The producer will acquire the rights to a story, an
adaptation, or in some cases an original script, or might just have a great idea.
They may identify a completed script that they think will sell.
Once they have identified an idea that they will sell, it is their job to make this
2)Producer idea into a reality, first by developing the project further, and then by getting it
Wherever the idea made and released. They do not handle the financial side of the filmmaking, but
comes from, it is the are often the creative and commercial driving force behind the whole project.
producer who decides The first thing that a producer needs is someone to turn their inspirational idea
to make this ‘great idea’ into something tangible that they can finance – a treatment and a pitch. Their first
into a reality task is to attract a good writer and a good director to the project. If the script has
already been written, the producer will either work with the original writer to
improve it, or else acquire the rights and employ another writer to develop it
further. A respected writer can help attract other talented people to the project,
including a director.

The creative film of a development of a film always involves a director sooner or

later, and often their involvement begins very early in the process. In some cases
a director may have an idea for a film, and will approach a producer to take the
project forward, although it is more common for a producer to approach a
3)Director director.
A director can visualize a The Director will work with the Producer to develop the film into something that
script and make it a can be filmed. The quality and past work of the Director will become a key selling
reality: they know how point for the Producer to attract financial banking later on, so it is essential that
to take a story and put it the Producer secures a Director with a good reputation.
onto the screen Directors usually have agents. They act on behalf of the Director to get the best
deal in return for their time and skills. And then they take a percentage cut.
Directors’ agents need something to work with though, about previous films they
have made and information about awards they have won for past work.

4)Writer The relationship between the Producer, Writer and Director is the key creative
The writer defines and triangle in the film business. Writers themselves will usually have an idea for a
film and will have a script or treatment already written. The majority of the time
 clarifies the idea, the though, the Producer approaches the Writer and brings them on board to write
plot and the characters, the film they want to make. Producers (and Executives at studios) have clear ideas
and turns it into of what they are looking for from a writer.
something tangible

5)Treatment A treatment is the description of key events and people in the film. It should be
The writer will then well written in a style that fits the genre of the film (for example, if the film is a
write a treatment, a one thriller, the treatment should be more exiting to read, if the film is a comedy, the
page description of the treatment should make you smile). It should give the reader of what makes the
main story and film unique and interesting to watch.
characters of the film

One-liner – this is a one sentence description of the film. Writing one liners is a
useful skill to acquire. The UK Film Council run a regular competition for
development funding based on one-liners, called ’25 Words or Less’.
Genre – this helps other people to understand what the style and content of the
film are going to be like. American screenwriters are much more accustomed to
writing in genres than writers in the UK. UK producers and agents are always on
the lookout for good genre scripts in the country.
Market – (sometimes called ‘target audience’). This answers the vital questions
for filmmakers and financiers. If the answer is too vague, it might sound too
6)Pitch
specific and false. It needs to be a realistic description involving at least the
A pitch contains all the
following categories: sex, age, race, education, religion, political affiliation, media
information the
use habits, economic status/income, size of family, marital status, geographic
producer needs in order
location.
to sell the idea to
People attached – this consists of a list of people attached to the project at this
financiers to commission
stage, plus their credits. At this stage it is unlikely to run to more than the Writer,
a script
Producer and Director. The quality of the people attached is perhaps the most
important factor in attracting financiers.
Rough budget – this gives the reader an idea of what the film will cost to make.
Establishing a budget early on is crucial, and the Producer, Writer and Director
must all agree what the maximum budget is and work within those limitations
from the beginning.
Brief synopsis – this expands a little on the one-liner, for people who want more
detail of the film.

2) Development Finance
The next step in the development in the project is to turn the rough idea into a final script ready for production.
This costs money.

1)Pitching the project Turning the idea into a finished script can take a long time to get right, and time
The producer uses the costs money. Funding is needed to support the Writer, the Producer and
treatment and pitch, sometimes the Director during this process. This money is called Development
plus their powers of Funding. The Producer goes to potential funders and ‘pitches’ the project to
persuasion, to get them, hoping that they will believe in the idea and invest money to develop it
money to develop a further.
script The producer can invest in the development themselves (or through their own
production company). If they can afford to do this, they can retain all the rights to
the resulting package themselves. This is a great benefit to the Producer and to
the project as a whole, especially when it comes to financing the production
proper. However, this production is also very high risk, because there is no
 external verification of the inspirational idea. Creative control is all very well, but
commercial money from an audience-facing, market-driven investor (including
broadcasters like the BBC) is the best endorsement that the film will sell. Deep
pockets and strong nerves are required in film development.

If the Producer can persuade the production company that the film is going to
make profits, they may offer development money to develop a script. In return for
this development money, the production company asks for the right (but no the
obligation) to take the outcome of the development process (the package) and to
be involved in the making of the film. This level of involvement in the making
process can vary from full funding (the production company puts up a full budget
2)Production
in return for a big percentage in future profits from the film), to part funding (the
Companies production company puts up some of the budget for a smaller percentage).
The producer Because their getting involved early in the process, the production company can
approaches film usually insist on receiving a disproportionally large percentage of future profits.
production companies Only a very small percentage of films that are developed (around 1%) are actually
for development money, made, so most production companies operate a slate of projects (a number of
but they have projects of films developing in parallel). That way, by negotiating favourable amount of deals
their own on each project, one big win will pay for lots of unmade scripts.
Companies that operate in this way usually have a Head of Development of even a
team of Development Executives to develop the projects on their slate. This is a
very competitive area of work, as there are fewer people working in development
than ever in the UK.

The Sales Company – sale companies sometimes provide development money for
projects which they feel are particularly marketable. In return, the sales company
will ask for the right to sell the film to distribution companies in some or all
territories, and to take a percentage of the resulting revenue. This is good for the
Producer, as it shows their inspirational idea is so potentially profitable that a
hard-nosed commercial organisation is prepared to part with cash. The Producer
can then tell other investors that the film already has the first part of the
mechanism in place to get it in front of audiences.
The Broadcaster – in return for development money, a Broadcaster will ask for
the rights to show the film on certain of their television channels. These might be
3)Sales, Distribution,
free TV channels like BBC1, subscription channels like Sky Movies, or pay-per-view
Broadcast films.
The producer can offer Investment from Broadcasters is a good sign that the idea will attract an audience.
the future sales and The Producer will also be able to tell other investors that the film already has the
broadcast rights to the third part of the mechanism in place to get the film seen.
film in return for money The Distribution Company – Distribution Companies are vital if the film is to reach
to develop the script its audience. In return for development money, the Distribution Company will ask
for the right to distribute the film to Exhibitors (cinema owners), Retailers, Rental
Companies and Broadcasters. The Distribution Company will also take a
percentage of the resulting revenue.
Securing money from a Distribution Company represents a real endorsement that
the idea is marketable and will make money for the Distributors, either in the
cinema or in alternative formats. The Producer will also be able to tell other
investors that the film already has the second part of the mechanism in place to
get in front of audiences.

4)Public Investment Public Funding Bodies

The producer can also The UK Film Council operates a limited Development Fund designed to foster
apply to a public talent and improve the quality and variety of scripts in the UK. There are also
funding body such as the similar funds available at regional national level, from organisations such as Sgrin,
UK Film Council for a Scottish Screen, the Northern Ireland Film Commission and the Nine English
development grant Regional Screen Agencies (RSAs). These are development agencies charged with
building vibrant and sustainable media sectors within the nations and regions of
the UK, and encouraging public access to film culture. There are also several other
smaller organizations offering development funds to projects within film and
other media.
Public bodies such as the UK Film Council still operate in the commercial world,
but will only invest in films that they believe have an audience. Many public
 funding schemes are tied into particular strategic goals, such as diversity or
promotion of a particular religion.

The private investor

There are many private investors in the UK and internationally with the financial
5)Private Finance resources needed to fund the development of a script. Persuading them to invest
The producer can even is the difficult part. Again, this is where having a great idea becomes vital. If an
pitch the film to private individual is prepared to invest in a film at such an early stage, they will usually
investors, in the hope demand a lot in return. In return for putting up the development money, the
that they will support investor gets the right (but not the obligation) to take the outcome of the
the project development process (the package) and to be involved in the making of the film.

The Development Deal - The Producer has managed to get a development deal. It
includes an agreement from the sales, distribution and broadcast companies they
met earlier, and from the Film Council, to provide money to get the film
developed. In return, they give away some rights over the project. They have to
work closely with these sources of development funding now to keep everyone
happy.
The Writer’s Agent - Writers have agents who represent them in their dealings
6)Tying down the
with the Directors and Producers. The agent is a salesperson, who acts on behalf
writer of the Writer to get the best deal for the writing (and their percentage cut).
The producer can even Writers with a great idea still need to get their work to a Producer and convince
pitch the film to private them to make their film, and pay them to develop it. Agents are the people who
investors, in the hope can help them achieve this. Also, if a Producer is looking for a Writer to develop
that they will support their idea, they will often go to an agent and get advice on who would suit the
the project job. Agents are therefore very important people in the film business, and along
with Producers are the key filters of writing talent in the UK.
Writers’ agents need something to work with, like previous scripts that have been
filmed, or samples of their writing. Writers can’t get an agent without good
quality work to show evidence of their talents. And before an agent can help a
Writer sell an inspirational idea, they need a treatment and a pitch.

3) Script Development
With develop finance secured, it is down to the writer to deliver the product that the producer and financiers want

Common Understanding
The Writer and Producer are still working very closely together at this stage to
shape the script, and it’s crucial for the success of the project they are both
1)Synopsis ‘making the same film’. This means that they must share a common
First, the writer understanding of what kind of film they are making, not only in terms of genre
produces a synopsis, and and target audience, but also of budget.
he and the producer The Producer needs to manage this overactive imagination to make sure the
agree, or not, on the key Writer creates a script that fits with the budget they think can secure to make it.
scenes and events in the Similarly, good scriptwriters must have a good understanding of how to write to a
film budget, and the most experienced with have detailed knowledge about how
much the scenes will cost to film.

Step outline The Step Outline

There are as many ways The step outline contains short written descriptions of all the scenes that will
of writing as there are eventually make up the script, detailing the action in much more detail and
writers, but most writers showing where scene breaks will occur. Each step describes important plot events
 and significant development to the main characters. This stage is a juggling act,
where the Writer plans the overall structure and pacing of the film. Writers will
create a step outline to often set out the different steps of cards, so that they can change the order of
plan their script scenes and try different structures to see what works best before writing the final
outline. A step outline for a feature is usually around 10 pages long.

The First Draft

Film scripts, whether first draft or final draft, don’t just contain dialogue, but also
the actions and events that will be seen on screen, and sometimes transitions
between scenes. Screenwriting is about far more than what the characters say:
writers must understand how to tell a story visually, to show events actually
taking place rather than people talking about the. Writing for the scene is a
unique and specialist discipline, quite unlike any form of writing, and the very best
writers command huge respect – and huge fees – in the industry. Screenwriters at
the top of their profession are in fact often brought in to rescue or ghost-write a
script that is in difficulty – provided the Producer can afford them.
Drafts All the scripts that the Writer produces must be fully formatted in the standard
Part of the writer’s fee is way that everyone in the industry expects. The terminology used, page layout,
conditional on delivery font, even paper size have been standardised for years, and the Writer must
of the first draft. This can follow them exactly. These conventions exist to enable the script to be turned
be the hardest part of into a film in the easiest way possible, by breaking out action, dialogue, character
screenwriting names, props, and so on, scene by scene. Before the shoot, the Writer’s draft will
be turned into a shooting script, where these elements are expanded to allow the
production team to schedule and set-up each scene to be shot.
Writing a first draft is complex and very challenging, and all writers have different
approached and methods. However they work, they all need to end up with the
same result – a script that effectively describes what will appear on the screen. To
achieve this, the Writer will often need to work alone, sometimes for weeks or
even months, to hammer out the first draft script. This is the hardest part of the
screenwriting process, but also the most satisfying.

Revisions
Once the writer and
producer are happy, the
Same as drafts ^
draft is sent to the
financiers, all of whom
will have their own ideas
Once the Director, the Producer and the Writer have all approved the script, it
Final Draft becomes the final draft. This is the script that is taken forwards to the next stage
When everyone is happy of the process, so for the Writer, this is the finished product. There may be
with the script, it is rewrites required during packaging, financing or pre-production, but these may be
locked off and becomes done by the Director, Producer or another writer. In the majority of cases, the
a final draft. Then the Writer’s involvement in the project is now at an end. The Director is formally
writer gets paid attached to the project and will take the creative lead on it from now on.

The Producer (often with the help of the Director and the Writer) will write a Sales
Sales Treatment Treatment based on the Final Draft script. A sales treatment is a synopsis
The final stage of the designed to sell the film to potential financiers. It is an advert for the script, and
script development uses more emotive language than the Writer’s original synopsis. It focuses on the
process is the creation of key selling points of the story, including intriguing characters, interesting plot
a sales treatment twists, and big set pieces or scenes with a particular ‘wow’ factor.
 4) Packaging
With the script complete, the director and producer decide how they want to film it, and who they will employ to
help them.

What is packaging? The Rough Budget

The producer and First, the Producer takes the sales treatment and the final draft script and comes
director must now up with a rough budget, based on the initial very rough budget. It is an estimate of
‘package’ the script into roughly how much funding they can expect to secure for the script, and where
a full commercial they intend to secure for the script, and where they intend to channel it to make
preposition, ready for the film sell. This enables them to choose suitably priced ‘above the line’ talent.
financing
The Stars – stars are commercial assets, and are crucial in attracting funding to a
film. The bigger the star, the higher the ‘above the line’ costs, as their fees can be
huge. But if the stars are right, it can make the difference between getting the film
made or not, and between the finished film going on to be a commercial success
or a failure. Some stars are known as Green Light Names (people with sufficient
clout in the industry or at the box office to secure financing for a film). There are
very few such stars in the UK.
The Cast
Producers usually contact actors via their agents. Actors’ agents take a percentage
One common way to
of their earnings and hence make sure that the work they do either pays well now
make the film more
or raises their profile (to improve future earning capacity). If an actor is asked to
commercial is to attach
get involved at this stage of the process, the agent will negotiate their fee should
well known stars to the
the film get made. This is usually made up of a lump sum, plus a percentage of the
script
Producer’s net. Percentages of future revenues (Producer’s net) that the Producer
gives away at this stage to lure people into the package are called ‘talent points’.
The Package - the Producer’s assistant collects the elements of the package for
the Producer. At the moment, they only have the final draft script, the sales
treatment and a rough budget, to which they hope to add headshots of the film’s
main stars.

The Editor – a top Editor can transform a film. Getting a well known named Editor
on boards early can help persuade potential financiers that the finished product
will be an enjoyable film.
The Production Designer – Like the DoP, the Production Designer is incredibly
important for the visual appearance of the film, since they design all the sets and
objects seen in the film and work with other departments to keep a consistent
vision for the production. If the Director manages to get a good designer on
The Heads of
board, potential financiers will be assured the film will look ‘right’.
Department (HODS) The Director of Photography – the Director of Photography is an extremely
Respected, commercially important figure in the film. They, with the Production Designer, Costume,
successful Heads of Location, are responsible for giving the film the distinctive look that will make it a
Department carry success. They can transform a script with their pictures, and if they work well with
considerable clout of the Director, the images they create can define the whole film, both critically and
knowledgeable commercially.
financiers The Package – the Producer’s assistant is poised to add the credits of the lists of
the Heads of Departments to the final draft script, the sales treatment, the rough
budget and a list of attached stars. HODs will want ‘talent points’ at this stage,
which means they negotiate a fee or percentage of profits in return for agreeing
to be attached. The HODs, stars, Director, Writer and Producer are collectively
known as the ‘above the line’ talent.

The Line Producer – before they can pitch for funding, the Producer needs to
know how much time and money the film will take to make. To do this she gets
helps from a Line Producer. The Line Producer is effectively a logistical expert,
hired by the Producer and reporting only to her. His main responsibilities are to
supervise the budget, hire the crew, approve purchase orders and make sure all
departments are doing their respective jobs within the budget, and most
importantly that the schedule is met. At this stage, his job is to help the Producer
 decide how much money to raise by creating a draft schedule and a high-level
budget.
The Budget – film budgets are long spreadsheet documents that itemise in huge
Detailed budget and detail the money that the Producer intends to spend on making and finishing the
film. At this stage, there is a limit to the amount of detail in the budget, but the
production schedule
Producer must have a good idea at this stage of how they will spend a financier’s
To turn the film into a
money. Some things are undecided at this stage, but these are noted as
proper business
contingencies. Its not completed until the film is fully financed.
preposition, the
A key part of the budget is insurance costs, since all productions must be insured
producer must know
against public liability, loss of shooting days, and other eventualities. The
how much it will actually
Producer must obtain a quote at this stage from a film insurance specialist to
cost to make
insure the eventual production. The insurers will look through every detail of the
production and give advice on which insurance is required. Stunk work, special
effects, exotic locations or use of animals will increase premiums, and so too will
certain casting decisions, since the health of the actors can be a risk for a
production. They will also consider other factors, such as insuring true stories in
case the real-life characters sue for libel. Film insurers are extremely powerful
people in the film business.
The Production Schedule – before any money can be raised, the Producer must
decide exactly what they film will cost to make, and to do this she must work out
how long it will take to shoot and finish. The production schedule is a complex
chart that shows which people need to do what, for how long, and where, in
order to get the film made. It is difficult to plan everything at this stage, so this
document remains in draft state until funding, cast and crew have all been
finalised.
The Package – the package now comprises the final draft script, the sales
treatment, and lists of attached stars and HOD credits. With the creative side of
the proposal complete, now the financial side must be added.

The Finance Plan – the finance plan is the Producer’s plan of how to raise finance
for the film. It will list the people and organization that the Producer intends to
approach with the project. This is a very sensitive document. The Producer
doesn’t want anyone to feel that they’re bottom of the list and have only been
approached for finance because everyone else has rejected the idea.
Finance plan and
The Recoupment Schedule – this is an estimate of how the film will make money.
recoupment schedule It will list estimates of revenue from all likely sources: cinema, broadcast, DVD and
Potential investors will merchandise. As the package, including attached stars and crew, changes, so will
want to know the the finance plan and the recoupment schedule and getting them all to work out
producer plans to raise properly is a juggling act.
the money, and how she The Package – the package is almost done at this stage and the Producer’s
plans to pay them back assistant is holding almost the complete package. The final draft script, the sales
treatment, the list of attached stars and HOD credits, and the budget and
production schedule are all now included. The final documents need adding and
the package will be complete.

The final elements of the package are now in place. The packaged film has a final
draft script, a sales treatment, a list of attached stars and HODs, a detailed
The ‘complete’
budget, a production schedule, a finance plan and a recoupment schedule.
package The Producer must now present this package to a number of potential funders to
The producer has get money to make the film. Who they approach will depend on past experiences,
packaged’ the film into a but a good producer must know who to go to for funding. It is more likely that
viable commercial potential funders will want to make changes to the package, but now for at least,
preposition, now it’s the Producer is ready to negotiate with the money men.
time to think what The Producer then has to do the hardest part of the filmmaking, namely sell the
people think of it package to financiers and film studios.
 5) Financing
Filmmaking is an expensive business, and the producer must secure enough funding to make the film to the highest
standard possible

Attracting Investment
This is a very competitive business and the Producer is up against a huge number
The Market
of other producers, some with similar packages. This is where their contacts and
Financiers can be
powers of persuasion become really important. The Director may also be able to
anywhere in the world.
help, especially if they are well known in the industry already.
To secure the
The film finance marketplace is international, and to maximise the chances of
investment they need to
getting the funding she needs, the Producer must travel. Different countries offer
make the film. The
a variety of tax-breaks to those who fund films, so the Producer needs to be
producer must travel
aware of these laws when deciding which countries to approach.

The Investors
There are three main potential sources of investment for a film:
- Private finance – there are a surprising number of private individuals
willing to invest in film projects. Some are just looking for an interesting
project to spend their money on, but many are hard-nosed business
people with a good understanding of how the industry works. The money
they invest is very high risk, but the returns can be huge. Producers with
wealthy contacts able to invest in their projects will have the edge over
their competitors.
- Co-productions – the majority of production companies worldwide are
reluctant to act as the sole investor in a film project. Many are too small
Investment to afford the full financing of the film, but most just don’t want the risk.
Private individuals, Instead, they will identify a project that fits their demographic, and enter
production companies into a partnership with the other production company, with both sharing
and public bodies all the costs, the risks and the profits of the production. The most common
invest in films. The kind of co-production is international co-production, and in return each
producers lawyer draws take exclusive rights to sell the finished film in their respective countries.
up contracts to seal the International co-productions have become increasingly popular in recent
deals years, particularly in Europe, often involving companies from five or
more different countries all coming together to realise an idea that they
believe will be commercially viable in each of their respective markets.
- Public Investment – in the UK there are various sources of public money
available for production funding. Organisations such as the UK Film
Council, the Regional Screen Agencies and BBFC Films are responsible for
channelling investment into film projects that have commercial or artistic
merit, or serve the public interest. Although the availability of such funds
changes yearly, there is usually money available if the Producer knows
where to look.

Pre-sales The Sales Company – in return for finance, the sales company will want the right
The producer can also to sell the film to distribution companies in some or all territories, and to take a
raise money from ‘pre- percentage of the resulting revenue. If the sales company was involved at the
sales’ selling the rights development phase, they may have the right of first refusal to fund the film and
to the film before it has get a good percentage of revenues. The Producer will be pleased to get a sales
even been made company involved at this stage, as it will improve the finished film’s chance of
being sold to distributors.
The Broadcaster – in return for providing finance, a Broadcaster will ask for the
right to play the finished film on certain of their television channels (after it has
 finished in the cinemas and has had a short time in the rental market).
The Distributor – in return for providing finance, the distribution company will ask
for first refusal on the right to distribute the film to cinemas, retailers, rental
companies and broadcasters. This means that, rather than getting a percentage of
revenues in the future, the distribution company has effectively bought the
finished film before it’s finished and will get all the revenues that result from
distribution in specified territories. They have the option to refuse this right if the
film doesn’t turn out as good as they’d hope though.
If a distribution company was involved at the development phase, they may have
the right of first refusal to finance the film and will get a good percentage of
revenues. The Producer will be pleased to get a distribution company involved at
this stage, as it will improve the finished films chance of being sold to exhibitors.

The Banker
There are departments of banks that specialise in film finance. They regard films
as business propositions, and have expertise in the risks of film investment and
who to invest in. Banks will back a range of films with a range of risk levels, to try
Banks and Gap
to even out returns, rather than focus in particular on funding one film.
Funding Like any other investor, in return for their investment, the Bank will ask for a
There are departments share of future revenues generated by the film, and will charge interest. However,
of banks that specialise they may also offer their services to help to manage the production budget and to
in film finance. They arrange all the necessary money transfers that making a film involves. Having a
could invest in bank involved in the production can make things a lot easier for the Producer.
commercial projects, Banks sometimes offer Gap Funding. This is effectively a loan to cover a shortfall
and also offer loans between the money raised so far and the total budget. This can be useful for the
Producer, but interest rates are usually pretty high and the loan is paid off first
before other financiers see any money.

The Insurer
Studio financed movies do not usually require completion bonds, because a studio
takes the films financial risk, but the vast majority of independent films need
completion bonds before they can go into production. Completion bonds are
guarantees that if the production runs out of money, the bond issuer (usually an
insurance company) supplies the necessary funds to complete the film.
Completion Bonds Completion bonds are usually required by investors and banks to protect their
Most financiers insist investment: they need to be sure they will get a finished product for their money.
that a completion bond The New Cinema Fund at the UK Film Council requires that any film it backs has a
is in place before they completion bond in place.
agree to invest. This is Film insurance is one of the most complex parts of the film business, and
insurance for the insurers have a great deal of power. The completion guarantor will impose
production numerous conditions on the Producer, including restrictions on cast and crew,
and will monitor the production from start to finish to ensure it stays on schedule.
If the Producer makes a claim and the bond is invoked, the guarantor may assume
control over the production and be in a recoupment position superior to all the
other investors.
Companies like Film Finances specialise in film production insurance.

Green Light Film packaging is very complicated, and no two films are financed in the same
One all the essential way. Financiers will impose conditions on the Producer as part of the deal. They
funding and insurance is may want to make changes to the package, bring in their own preferred cast and
secured, the film gets crew, or even demand rewrites to the script. Sometimes investors may even
the ‘green light’ demand contradictory changes, or insist changes that alter the fundamental basis
of the film. These changes may be unacceptable to the stars or the Head of
Department, who may also have conditions of their own. They may even be
unacceptable to the Producer, and in some cases projects can change hands
entirely at the financing stage. The majority of films never get beyond this stage
and are shelved or abandoned before financing is complete.
It is the Producer’s job to manage these complex relationships in parallel,
negotiate the deals and bring everything together at the same time. They have to
protect the creative and commercial vision, whilst still being flexible enough to
satisfy the investors and secure the money they need for production.
Every film is developed, packaged and financed differently and there is no set
 template to follow.

6) Pre-production
With the financing secured, the full cast and crew are hired, and detailed preparation for the shoot begins.

The Casting Director – the casting director will need to start to shortlist actors for
all the roles required by the script
The Editor – the Editor will take on the responsibility of choosing the people that
will be required once the film movies into post production. During pre-production
the Editor will work with the Director to make sure that the transitions described
in the shooting script will work on the screen. The Head of Sound needs to be
hired too so that they can work out what complexities might arise during the
shoot, and who they need to hire.
The Head of Sound – during pre-production, the Head of Sound is responsible for
hiring his team of Sound Recordists and Boom Operators. They will discuss the
sound of design of the film with the Director and Producer.
The Director of Photography – the DoP has a lot to plan at this stage of
The kick-off meeting filmmaking. They have to work with the Production Designer and the Director to
Once all the Heads of make sure that everyone is clear about what style of film to shoot. Also the
Department are hired, schedule is most affected by the DoP’s camera placement and theirs and the
the shooting script is Director’s shot and lighting choices. At this stage, the DoP and Director (taking
circulated and pre- into account budget restraints) will decide about the shooting format – i.e. which
production begins in cameras and which stock.
earnest The Production Designer – the Production Designer is a very busy person during
pre-production. They need to hire an entire team to make sure that all the sets
are designed and that the Construction Department builds them to specification,
and oversee all the props and other objects seen in the film. They also work with
the locations chosen fit with their designs or can accommodate their set
constructions.
The 1st Assistant Director – as they are responsible for keeping the film on
schedule, the 1st AD will be present during pre-production to help the Producer,
the Line Producer and the Production Manager to plan the shoot.
The Line Producer – the Line Producer is responsible for managing every person
and issue during the making of a film. Line Producers only work on one film at a
time and will work very closely with the Producer from now on.

The Casting Director identifies possible cast members partly through past
Casting
experience, but also by placing adverts in acting publications and viewing show-
The casting director,
reels, headshots and CVs. The Casting Director will show actors’ show-reels to the
with the director and
Director and the Producer – hoping to find a past performance that they think
producer, begins the
would work well in this film. They will also arrange auditions (which are called
longest process of
meetings if the actor is well-known). Most of the cast of the film will be required
identifying and casting
to audition and possibly to screen-test to get their roles.
the actors
Storyboarding The Storyboard Artist
Storyboards are the Most films will employ a storyboard artist to draw each key scene in the way that
blueprints for the film, it will eventually be filmed. Storyboard artists are experts at quick sketches which
where every shot is give an impression of the eventual shot, including motion and camera moves.
planned in advance by They usually also understand story telling and filmmaking techniques and can
the director and the DOP advise the Director and the DoP on shot choice.
(direction of
 photography)
The set model – models will often be made of sets to ensure that everyone knows
what the finished product should look like. They also enable the Director and the
camera team to visualize their shots more clearly and will assist the storyboarding
process.
The Production Designer – the Production Designer works with the Set Designer
and the Construction Team to create artificial sets that suit the needs of the
production, based on the storyboards and set models. The Construction Manager
oversees the building of sets, and must tread the fine line between making it look
real and keeping it cost-efficient. They manage the team of set builders, riggers
and so on, which on high-budget productions can be over 100 people.
The Art Director – the Art Director and the Art Department take the designs from
the Production Designer and create every detail of the look of the film. They
Production Design decorate the sets built by the Construction Department, and are also responsible
The production designer for the objects that will be seen in the frame, such as set decorations and props.
plans every aspect of In some cases they will make these objects themselves, but often they are
how the film will look, sourced and specially bought for the production and customised if necessary.
and hires people to The Location Manager – not all sets on films are purpose-built, and some of the
design and build each production process will take place on location. The Location Manager and their
part assistants will scout for locations that fit the design of the production and work
with the Producer, Director and Production Designer to decide which ones to use.
They deal with authorities and property owners to get all the necessary permits
and secure the location. From paying landlords, to dealing with the public, to
keeping the locations clean during the short, they have a huge and varied job, and
usually have a lot of assistance on big productions.
The Construction Manager – the Construction Manager oversees the building of
the film sets, based on the models, storyboards and the Set Designers schematics.
They must tread the fine line between making the sets look real on screen, and
keeping their construction cost-efficient. They manage the Construction Team of
set builders, riggers and other specialists, which on high-budget productions can
be over 100 people.

The Special Effects – a large number of shots in films are achieved using special
effects, both physical and digital. Each effects shot is modelled to ensure that it
will look realistic, and it is decided which elements of the shot will be achieved
digitally and which with live action. The physical effects are then designed far in
advance of the shoot to give the special effects teams time to prepare each one.
Effects shots are planned in much more detail than normal shots to make
absolutely certain that enough good quality footage will be obtained from each
one. If anything is missed at this stage, there may not be enough budget to
correct mistakes and the whole shot could be wasted.
Special Physical Effects – models, animatronics, pyrotechnics and other
Special Effects
traditional techniques are used to obtain live footage which can be carefully
Planning edited, composited and digitally enhanced in post production. The Special Effects
Effects shots are planned Supervisor and their team of technicians build everything required for the shoot,
in much more detail from hydraulics to miniatures, including all the small effects like handheld gadgets
than normal shots, and and moving set elements. The most elaborate special effects can take teams of
can take months to technicians many months to prepare, partly to get rid of the effect on camera, but
design and build also to ensure the effect is achieved safely.
The Visual Effects Supervisor – the Visual Effects Supervisor is responsible to the
Director for planning and designing all the special effects needed in the film. They
have to discuss with the Director and the Production Designer what effects are
needed and decides how these can be best achieved, whether through physical
effects or digitally in post production. They must have a good understanding if
every technique available if he is to create something that works on screen within
the budget he is given. They will monitor every effects shot during the production
to make sure he is getting the footage he needs for the post production phase.

The Production Accountant – the Production Accountant is responsible for

managing the film’s finances. Film productions are usually registered as separate
The Production Unit trading companies so that the complex financial structures and liabilities can be
The first assistant managed more easily. All funding is paid into one central account, and all
production staff are employed by this company for the duration of the shoot. The
 Production Accountant is responsible for the financial management of this
production company, and produces regular reports to the Producer, Line
Producer, financiers and completion bond insurers.
The Production Manager – the Production Manager is the Producer’s executive
officer. They deal with day-to-day money issues and are responsible for balancing
and supervising all the administrative and technical details of the production,
budgeting and scheduling, and managing the activities of the entire crew.
The Line Producer – the Line Producer deals with the Producer and the financiers.
During pre-production they must:
director, the line - work out and write the schedule
producer and the - arrange contract for equipment hire and personnel
production manager - insurance
make up the key logistic There are various types of insurance but at least some will be required, depending
triangle of the on the country of filming: employers liability insurance/negative insurance
production (protects against additional costs due to damage or loss of stock)/props and sets
insurance (protects locations and hired props)/hired equipment insurance.
The 1st Assistant Director – the 1st AD deals with the crew and
makes sure that they are on schedule, and to assist them in that
they will hire the rest of the staff that are needed during
production. This will include 2nd and 3rd Ads and Runners.
Together they will:
- work out and write the shot plans for each day (with the Director)
- determine the equipment required (with the DoP and other HODs).

7) The Shoot
A large film production can involve hundreds of people, and it is a constant struggle to keep it on schedule and
budget

1st Day of Principle The Production Office – is the main contract for the production as a whole. Led by
Photography the Production Manager, the office is responsible for all the requirements of the
This is the key moment shoot, fielding calls, taking deliveries, hiring equipment, distributing paperwork,
in film production, paying wages and so on. Any problems with the production that cannot be
shooting begins, funding resolved on set will be dealt with here.
is released, and the The Gaffer – the Gaffer sets up lighting to get the proper effect for the scene.
producer is very satisfied They must make sure that there is sufficient power available to light the scene as
the DoP wishes.
The Insurers – the completion bond insurance monitor the progress of the
production at all times checking it is on schedule and that all liabilities are
covered. They receive daily progress reports but will also make periodic visits to
locations and the set to protect their interests. If they are concerned, they may
stay on set and demand meetings with production staff to resolve issues, and in
extreme circumstances can even take over the running of the production.
The Producer – the Producer will usually be around on the first day of the shoot,
to check that everything runs smoothly, although the production team will have
everything under control. The Producer will oversee the production throughout
the shoot, resolve major problems, and keep the Insurers and Investors happy
until the shoot is complete.
The Camera Team – the DoP and Camera Team are responsible for getting the
pictures in the can. They will usually watch a couple of rehearsals of the action to
set marks and prepare focus movements – then they will let the Director know
that they are ready for a take.
The Construction Team – constructing the sets is a long and arduous process, and
can involve huge teams of people working for months before the shoot actually
begins. Once production begins, there will still be construction workers on hand
to fix minor problems and check the safety of the sets they have built.
The Production Designer – the Production Designer will often be present at the
shoot to ensure that their vision of how the set/location will look is realised
properly. They will liaise with the DoP and Director to make sure their work is
shown in the best possible light.
The Stars – the film’s stars prepare for a scene involving a shooting. The hair,
make-up and costume departments have final checks to make sure that nothing is
out of place and all is well ready for shooting.
The Property Manager – (often called the Props Master) checks that the antique
table being used in the shoot is not getting damaged. Otherwise he’ll have to pay
a big deposit to the hire company. Although some props will be made especially
for the film, the majority are sourced and bought for the production team by a
specialist production buyer.
The Sound Team – the Sound Team are responsible for recording high quality
sound during the shoot. It they fail, it can mean additional expenses for ADR –
dialogue replacement in post-production.
The Unit Stills Photographer – although film cameras produce very high quality
moving images, when they are frozen to make a still, they are not as clear as
photos from a stills camera. If the film is going to be well-marketed later, the unit
publicist needs high quality still photos for use in newspapers, magazines, posters
and DVD covers. Failure to organize such a simple thing now might cost the film
millions in lost publicity later. The Unit Stills Photographer has to tip-toe around
the rest of the Camera Department, trying to get good skills while not getting in
the way of takes.
Electronic Press Kit (EPK) – some larger productions will also hire an EPK crew to
film the production process. This footage can then be sent to TV journalists to
gain publicity for the film, and also forms the basis for the ‘making of’
documentaries that appear on TV and as DVD extras.
The Director / 1st AD – the Director is the ‘eye’ of the audience, deciding which
pictures will best communicate the story. Directors work closely with all the other
department heads to provide a unified vision of how the finished project is going
to look, and most importantly, they must ensure that he gets top performances
out of the actors.
Directors have a lot of creative power over the production. A bad Director can
ruin a great script, and a great Director can save a bad one. They also determine
the mood of the set. Uncomfortable sets with disgruntled crew can produce a bad
product. The Director also works with the Actors, fine-tuning their performances
so that they fit with the unified vision of the film.
Every director has their own approach to the shoot, and although there are
standard practices, every film production is different. Some directors will shoot
each scene chronologically, but most will shoot out of sequence to save time and
money. Often, there will be the last minute decisions taken to compress or move
the schedule due to unforeseen circumstances. A lot of these decisions are
dependent on the Financiers and Completion Bond, who must put their trust in
the Director to get them the product they want for the budget available.
The 2nd AD - the 2nd AD warns the other Star that they are required in on hour on
set.
The 3rd AD – the 3rd AD is briefing with the extras to prepare them for a crowd
scene that’s coming up. Crowd management is a vital skill on a film set: if people
wander off they could delay the production or even injure themselves and others.
The Caterers – since the early days of Hollywood, film productions have employed
caterers to feed their cast and crew. The reason for this is that people on set work
incredibly hard, sometimes for 12-15 hours without a break. This is because time
is money on set, and with so many people involved it is vital to keep them all in
the right place to eliminate delays. By feeding the cast and crew, the caterers
ensure that everyone stays on set and no-one goes wandering off, which could
delay shooting and cost the production thousands of pounds.
Health and Safety – film sets can be dangerous places. Productions must take
responsibility for the welfare of their cast and crew at all times, and Health and
Safety Supervisors have the task of making sure they are doing so. The production
will hire health and safety specialists, either part-time or full-time, to oversee
 health and safety on set and on location. Studios often employ their own health
and safety people to protect their interests by making sure the productions that
use their facilities do so legally.
Health and Safety Supervisors check all aspects of the production, including
inspecting all the sets, hiring scaffolding, inspectors to run weekly checks during
construction, and even surveying buildings on location. They advise on the safest
ways of doing things to avoid the possibility of accidents, and also look after the
safety of the general public. In the event of an accident, or of someone on set
becoming unwell, a Unit Nurse is on standby to take appropriate action. In large
productions, the scale of the first aid operation may be quite extensive to support
the hundreds of people employed on and off the set.

The Director of Photography – the Director of Photography (DoP) is the head of

the Camera Department, and is ultimately responsible for how the film is shot.
The Camera Department works from the shooting script and from the storyboards
to decide on the best camera position, movement and lens for each shot. They
work very closely with the Director to ensure that each sequence communicates
to an audience exactly what the Director intends.
The Camera Operator – the Camera Operator operates the camera (although the
DoP may also operate). They are responsible for catching all the “action” and for
making sure that it is usable. At the end of each day, the film is processed and
‘dailies’ are returned to keep the tabs on visual quality during production.
The Focus Puller – the Camera Operator works with a Focus Puller. They are
purely responsible for keeping the key element in the frame in focus and for
Camera
shifting between elements in the frame. The Focus Puller has one of the most
The camera department
responsible jobs on the entire set: if the camera is out of focus, the shot is
is responsible for getting
unusable and everyone else’ work is wasted.
all the footage that the
The Clapper Loader – the Loader takes unexposed films from its canister and
director and editor need
loads it into magazines. These then slot onto the camera. It is a stressful job for
to tell the story
the steady-handed. Any slight glimmer of light that hits the film at the wrong time
can ruin a reel – and that can cost hours of filming. An hour of filming with a full
crew and cast can be very expensive. Often the Loader will also write and operate
the clapperboard, which gives the Editor information about which shot is which.
Camera Assistants - Larger productions, especially big-budget Hollywood films,
may have specialist Camera Assistants who are responsible for managing,
assembling and maintaining the cameras. Film cameras are complex and
sometimes temperamental things. Camera assistants constantly clean lenses,
check batteries and generally allow the DoP and the Operator to concentrate on
filming rather than worrying about the mechanics. On smaller productions, this
will be done by the Clapper Loader.

The Gaffer – the Gaffer is usually a trained electrician responsible for lighting the
action under instructions from the DoP and the Director. Film lights are very
power-hungry and only the small ones are operable from normal mains electric
circuits. The Gaffer must not only arrange to get light where it is wanted, but must
also manage the huge potential risks of having highly-rated electricity cables on
set – possibly in the rain.
The Best Boy – the Best Boy is the chief assistant to the Gaffer.
Lighting and Sound The Make-Up Designer – the Make-Up Designer and their department are
Once the lighting and responsible for the make-up and hair styling required to give the actors the
sound are set up and necessary look on film. They are also responsible for prosthetics (any effects that
hair and make-up have are supposed to look like part of the character such as fake limbs/fake noses/wigs
been checked, the shot etc).
can begin The Boom Operator – the Boom Operator is responsible for holding the
microphone as close as possible to the sound without getting it in shot.
The Armourer – Armourers are licensed to carry and operate weapons for use in
films. This is a specialist and highly trained job, and they must make sure not only
that no-one gets hurt by the firearms being used, but also that none of the
valuable camera and other equipment is damaged. It is illegal to have a working
gun on a film set without an armourer present, and the very best charge a
premium services due to the huge responsibilities they bear.

The Actors, as the only members of the film personnel that will be seen by the
 public, have a lot of responsibility to make the film a success. Actors need to
Acting
create a plausible world and pretend that they are not surrounded by hordes of
In the midst of all this
crew. Some Directors insist that consist that actors should have a considerable
commotion, the actors
rehearsal period before shooting. Others expect the actor to turn up and perform
must create an
cold. Either way, they need to be given time and kept away from any stresses that
emotional world and
arise in other departments so that it doesn’t affect their performance.
draw the audience into it
The Visual Effects Supervisor – they have to ensure that the shot foes according
to the pre-production plans. It is important to make sure the shot goes according
to plan, as they only have one shot to take.
Special Effects Supervisor – every special effect on set is the responsibility of the
Special Effects Supervisor and their team. This involves anything which has
moving parts onset. It is the responsibility of the Special Effects Team to ensure
that all these elements work when they are supposed to, as they are supposed to,
and with minimum risk of injury to cast and crew.
The Stunt People – stunt people are paid to take risks. They will get as close as
Special Physical
they can to explosions without getting seriously hurt to add authenticity to the
Effects shot. Stunt doubles are used extensively in high-budget films for any situation
Every special effect is where injury is a possibility. The reason for this is that if actors, particularly the
carefully constructed stars, are injured, the production could be delayed while they recover – at a cost
and must be filmed with of thousands of pounds. Often the insurers of the production will insist that no
minimum risk of injury risks are taken with the welfare of the main actors, and will even stipulate what
to cast and crew they can and can’t do, on and off set. Stunt people are not subject to the same
restrictions.
Health and Safety – whenever special effects are involved, health and safety is an
obvious consideration. For health and safety reasons, any moving or interactive
element on a set is classed as a physical effect. The Visual Effects Supervisor and
Health and Safety experts will check the operation of all such elements to
guarantee the safety of cast and crew. Failure to do so, could lead to the
production being shut down.

Runners – Runners’ jobs range from making tea, to delivering cans of film from
the set to the lab to be processed. They are responsible for doing what they are
asked to do quickly without any question. They don’t simply do whatever anyone
on set asks them to do: in fact, they can get into a lot of trouble if they are away
from their post. Most runners have specific tasks or areas of responsibility.
The Assistant Directors – the Assistant Directors support the Director by ensuring
that everything is running smoothly on set. Essentially they all help the Director
Chain of Command communicate with the cast and crew to accomplish everything that needs to be
Film productions are run done on schedule. Often there are four Ads: the 1 st, 2nd, 3rd and an AD-in-training.
with military precision, if On large US productions there may also be a Crowd Controller to assist with larger
they fall behind scenes. Communication is a key part of their roles and is critical to the success of
schedule, the financiers their team, and ultimately the shoot. Good ADs are valuable people in the film
and investors may step business, and they very best are in great demand.
in The Line Producer – the Line Producer is basically the representative of the
Producer on set. The Producer may not be on set much as they need to support
the Director by keeping the financial side of the film healthy, and by solving the
emergencies that always arise during a shoot. The Line Producer will deal with
every problem they can and keep the Producer informed about the state and
progress of the production.

8) Post Production
Post production usually starts before the shoot, as soon as the first ‘rushes’ (raw footage and sound) are available

The Editor – editors are extremely important in the filmmaking process. They
effectively remake the film in the edit suite.
The Assistant Editor – the Assistant Editor compiles the sequences of the film into
an ‘assembly’ so that the Director and Editor can see if the scene is working, then
they work on a ‘rough cut’. Sound recorded on the set and other temporary
sounds, such as music and effects are added (temp sound) to give the Editor and
Director a general idea of how the film will end up looking and sounding.
This process usually takes a number of weeks and can involve input from the
Rough Cut Financiers and, of course, from the Producer. The Producer will work with any
As the processed attached Distribution and Sales companies at rough cut stage to turn the film into
footage comes in, the a product that will sell. When everyone is happy that they have a marketable
editor assembles it into product, the Editor stops altering the assembly of the sequences and they have a
scenes and creates a ‘fine cut’ which is also called a ‘picture lock’. The process of marketing the film can
narrative sequence for then begin in earnest while post production continues.
the film The Rushes – post production often starts during the shoot, as film is processed
daily and the Editor assembles the scenes while the Director is shooting. The
rushes from a film are taken to the lab where they are processed and turned into
a roll of negative. Lab costs for processing, at this point and throughout post
production, can be extremely high.
The Negatives – the negatives are usually transferred onto video tapes in a
process known as telecine. There are digitised into a non-linear computer edit
suite as digital video files.

The Foley Artist – Foley recording is the recording of custom sound effects during
post production in the same way that dialogue is dubbed. The term comes from
the name of its inventor. Foley artists are famed for using unusual objects to
create the sounds they need.
The Sound Editor – once all the necessary sound tracks are recorded, the final
sound mix can be created. A Sound Editor arranges all the tracks as accurately as
possible to the locked picture. Rough sound levels are also set at this stage.
Automated Dialogue Recording (ADR) – the dialogue recorded during the shoot
may be below the required quality. In these cases, dialogue is re-recorded over
the scenes by the original actors in a dubbing studio. This process is done in
addition to or as a substitution for Location Sound. The term ADR was originally
Post production
used to cover up the fact that dubbing had been used in the film’s credits.
sound Music – the Composer works with the Director to write instrumental music (and
Once the picture is occasionally songs) for the film. They are responsible for realising the Director’s
locked, the sound musical visions and working closely with the Director to ensure that the music
department works on that is written and recorded satisfies the Director’s needs for the film.
the audio track laying, In many cases, existing songs may be used in a film. In these cases, the film’s
creating and editing Producer or Music Supervisor may handle relations with the songwriter’s
every sound publisher, recorder company or the songwriter.
The Music Supervisor works with the Director to choose, and negotiating risks to
use existing music in films, working with record companies, composers and other
parties who are involved in the music for a film, and managing the overall musical
budget and production for a project.
A songwriter may have already worked with the Director or Music Supervisor to
write songs (the songwriter may or may not employ another individual to write
the lyrics) to be used in a film. Original music can be a useful marketing tool when
the film is released, since a hit single from the soundtrack can provide valuable
publicity for the film itself.

Supervising Post Production – the Producer keeps a close eye on the post
production process to ensure they are getting a product that they can sell to
audiences and film buyers. During post, they negotiate with potential distributors
to buy the rights to the product, so that as soon as the film is finished, they will be
ready to promote and release it. These potential buyers will have their own
opinions about how the film should look and the story it should tell, and there is
Digital effects and still a great deal of negotiation to be done. So, while the Director is concentrating
 titles on bringing their creative vision to the screen, the Producer may have other ideas.
Digital effects are added The Credits – when the picture edit is nearing completion, the films credits will be
by specialist effects added by a digital compositor. There are two kinds of credits: “front titles” and
compositors, and titles “rear titles”. The font title credits are the most prestigious and are reserved for
and credits are added in key above the line talent and influential financiers. They are often found at the
a compositing suite end of the film, but will be in a different format, normally one name on screen at
a time. A front title credit is often stipulated in the contracts of key cast and crew.
Those not fortunate to have front title credits are included in the rear titles, which
cover every credited member of the development, production and post
production teams.
Digital Effects – digital effects are the fastest growing sector of the UK film
industry, and most films today contain a number of digital effects. These can be
pure CGI (Computer Generated Imagery) or compositing: inserting computer
generated images into live action footage and layering of multiple photographic
and/or CGI elements together. Specialists in this area charge a lot for their
services, but their work can transform a film. In the majority of cases budget
limitations prevent this kind of tinkering and digital effects are used only for key
scenes like set-piece action sequences.

The Telecine Operator – (often known as the Colourist) is the person that makes
Grade and colour all the shot look as though they belong visually to the same film. The DoP will
The final stage of the often work with the Colourist to ensure that look of the film is what was intended
picture edit is to adjust by the Director. In a grade, a Colourist tweaks the colours and contrast to make
the colour and establish the film look smooth and uniform (or to add mood).
the fine aesthetic of the Picture lock will usually happen before the grade starts and once the financiers
film are happy with the fine cut. It always happens before the final mix.

The Final Mix – the output of the mixing process is called the “final mix”, which
means all the various tracks of sound in the film have been mixed at their
appropriate levels and synchronised with the sound. In practice though, the final
mix is a whole array of different final mixes, including the 5:1 surround sound mix
for theatrical release and DVD, international formats, alternative versions, and
stereo mixes for the broadcast master. Also a mix is done which removes the
dialogue and retains only the music and effects. This is called the M&E (music and
effects) mix will go to different territories to have different dialogue language
dubbed onto it.
Final mix The Dolby 5.1 Mix – to allow the film to be shown in multiplex cinemas and on
After picture lock, the DVD, the final mix is usually separated and mixed into six channels for a Dolby 5.1
rough sound mix goes to mix (or eight channels for 7.1). This allows the Sound or Dubbing Mixer to take
a dubbing theatre where advantage of surround sound and to ‘place’ certain sounds in the theatre.
the sound mixer sets the The Sound Mixer – film is an “audio visual” medium and is not just about moving
final levels pictures: sound is vital to the overall quality of the finished film. Poor sound
design can destroy the impact of even the best visual sequences, whilst
atmospheric and engaging sound can overcome the limitations of low-quality
visuals. Once picture lock is established, the Sound (or Dubbing) Mixer puts the
final touches to the film’s soundtrack to make sure the film is engaging and
professional as possible.
The Broadcast Mix – this has just two channels (as most TV’s just have 2
speakers). Also, the levels of the mix will be set to comply with broadcast
standards (and to make sure that the film is quieter than the adverts).

Final cut The Final Cut – once final cut is agreed, the film is ready for duplication. The
After the final cut the sound mix is synchronised with the picture and attached to the edge of the
film reaches ‘full lock’. It negative (‘synch and edge’). This creates a master print from which all duplicates
is now finished and are made. The number of prints required at this stage will depend on the release
ready for duplication but strategy and the number of territories the film is to be released in. This is up to
who gets the final cut? the Producer to negotiate with the Distributors, and while all this has been going
they have been at hard work selling the film.
In some cases, cuts and alterations to films such as edits made for TV or in-flight
entertainment can sacrifice a filmmakers’ original intent. This is bad news for all
those who see filmmaking as primarily a creative industry. However, filmmaking is
a big, expensive business, and this means compromise is a necessity. Without the
 revenues generated by these commercial channels, film budgets would be
smaller, bringing other constraints to bear on future filmmakers.
The Producer – the Producer has a lot of negotiating to do to secure the final cut
of the film. although some directors and other key people may have control of the
final cut in their contracts, in the vast majority of cases it is the Investors and any
attached Distribution and Sales companies who decide whether they have a final
cut or not. For them, and for the Producer, having final cut is a necessity to ensure
that the film they have paid for is commercially viable. If the product isn’t right,
they won’t see a return on their investment.
The Director – the vast majority of directors do not have final cut on their films.
However, the investors counter that it is a business necessity. Films labelled with
‘Director’s Cut’ give the directors an opportunity to show their full work. It also
enables them to make more money for the investors in the process.

9) Sales
While the film is still in post, the producer is out selling it. But they cant sell it directly to the public themselves; they
need a distributor

The Rights Contract – if a Film Sales company has already financed the film’s
development or production, they get first refusal on the rights to sell it to
distributors. Because they put the money up front, they get a better deal than
companies coming in at this stage, which means if the film is a hit they could
make millions in added profits. If they turn down these rights (because they think
they film wont sell), the Producer has a huge amount of work to do to get a Sales
Agent on board.
The same situation applies for Distribution companies who funded the
production. If they turn down the distribution rights, of if they only hold the rights
in a few countries worldwide, the Producer faces months of research and hard
work to get another distribution deal. This is where their initial assessments of the
film’s market, and the recoupment schedule, come into play again.
Selling the Product The Producer – the Producer now has a product that can be sold. But the process
To help her sell the film of getting this product to the general public is complex and time-consuming and
to distributors, the requires a lot of specialist knowledge. This isn’t something the Producer can do
producer secures the alone: they need help from Film Distributors. Distributors are film marketing
services of a sales agent, companies who specialise in releasing films and marketing them to the public. If
a specialist in film sales the film is ever to be seen, the Producer must now secure contracts with the
Distributors for as many territories as they can, and negotiate as good a deal as
they can in each. At this point, the most important audience for the film is the film
industry itself.
The Sales Agent – the Sales Agent is a key person in the commercial success of
any film. Sales Agents operate between the Producer and the Distributor, helping
them to assess products, estimating their value and negotiating distribution deals.
The Sales Agent must know the market inside out. They must also know the
buyers and the types of deal he can structure. Persuading a sales agent to sell the
film is the Producer’s first task, and with an agent on board the sales process
becomes a lot easier.

The Trailer Cutting a successful trailer is an art in itself. It must sell the key elements of the
To help sell the film, a film to the right audiences as defined at the packaging stage without giving too
trailer is made to show much away. This trailer must showcase the value of the film to an industry
busy film buyers the audience, but in practice it may also be used as the cinematic trailer. It should
most marketable aspects show the selling points of the film and what’s unique in the film. It should also
 leave a viewer in no doubt about what the film will be like.
At this stage, the Producer may commission the trailer to help sell the film, which
is often called a promo. As soon as a Distribution company is attached, they will
of the film
commission their own trailers and TV spots as part of their overall marketing
strategy, but this promo trailer will often form the basis.

The Sales Pack – the sales pack contains the key information and marketing
materials needed to sell the film to Distributors. It holds information about the
cast and crew, a synopsis of the finished film and information about likely target
audiences. It is similar to the package used to attract finance the production, but
contains additional materials that are specifically relevant to the film’s
distribution and marketing. It will include a ‘one-sheet’ which contains the key
information about the film and a still on one sheet of paper. The film will be
Sales Toolkit competing with many others for distribution, so the more tools a Producer can
The producer and the give the Sales Agent, the more chance it has of being sold.
sales agent collect The Trailer – the completed trailer is a key part of the sales pack. A version is
everything they will printed on film for exhibition in screening rooms to groups of buyers. It is also
need to sell the film to duplicated onto DVDs for the Producer to give out to buyers and other interested
distributors or influential people. A number of DVD copies of the film are also made from the
master print to help the sales process. The Producer can use them to show
interested buyers more of the film if they liked the trailer.
The Sales Report – the Sales Agent will produce a number of reports to estimate
how the film will perform in the box office. These are effectively detailed sales
estimates which involve taking the Producer’s recoupment schedule and doing
more detailed projections.

The Competition – it is vital to have a distinguishable product because the

marketplace is very crowded. As the distance between the theatrical and DVD
Taking the film to release shrinks it is becoming increasingly difficult to sell films to cinemagoers –
market and Distributors know this. To overcome this problem and show the Distributor
The market is saturated that her film will sell, the Producer must try to generate ‘buzz’ around it: if she
with films, so the can get people in the industry talking about her film, she will jump to the head of
producer must go to the queue.
great lengths to attract There are various things that the Producers and Sales Agents try to put their
attention for their film ahead of the competition. Critical acclaim is important at this stage, as this is
product seen as a good indicator that the film is high quality. Audience enthusiasm is also
good, as it provides evidence that people will go and see the film if it is released.

Hot Property – by getting people in the industry talking about the film, the
Screenings Producer has turned it into a hot property.
The market is saturated The Stars – distributors are always looking for what’s marketable about a film,
with films, so the and stars are the most marketable part of any film package. Star names virtually
producer must go to guarantee awareness of a film with the public, which makes marketing it much
great lengths to attract easier. This is why stars are always contracted from the outset to do promotional
attention for their work – and why they are paid so much for their services.
product
The Distribution Deal
The Producer negotiates a contract with a Distributor for the rights to distribute
Deals the film across certain territories. ‘Territories’ mostly means countries, but in
The producer now has a some cases a territory is one or more countries with a similar language and
hot product , and can culture. The distributors will acquire full rights to market and sell the film in those
negotiate good deals countries, including negotiating deals with cinemas. Once the film has been sold
with distributors around to distributors, the film is no longer the responsibility of the Producer in those
the world territories. Now the marketing process begins in earnest.
 10) Marketing
As the finishing touches are being made to the film post, the distributors plan their strategy and begin to market it

The Marketing Team – the Distribution Company has a team of marketing

specialists who will market the film to the public. They must identify the best
audience for the film, and find the ‘hook’ – the unique selling point that will make
it stand out in a crowded marketplace. They work out the value of this audience
at the box office, draw up projections of how it will perform, and set an
appropriate marketing budget for launching it.
They key to marketing is to know the audience and give them what they want.
Since the film has already been made, changing the product is out of the question,
so Distributors are choosy about the films they acquire. Some films will just gain
audiences without the distributor doing anything exceptional. But it is the
Marketing Team’s responsibility to make sure that the film performs as well as it
possibly can. If there is an audience out there for that film, they must find them,
and persuade them to go and see it. If marketed correctly, good films can even
become the most sough-after thing: a ‘must-see’ film.
The Marketing Team Marketing Method – films are products like any others, and make their way down
To help sell the film to a supply chain. At this stage, advertising companies and PR agencies will get
distributors, the involved. These companies are experts in using the various marketing channels
producer secures the available to them to sell the film.
services of a sales agent, Marketing channels are divided into two types: ‘above-the-line’ and ‘below-the-
a specialist in film sales line’. Above-the-line marketing includes trailers, TV spots and poster campaigns,
including materials distributed via cinemas. It is the most direct way to reach an
audience. Below-the-line marketing is more subtle, involving indirect forms of
publicity such as press coverage, product tie-ins and merchandising. This publicity
is especially valuable to films, since they build word-of-mouth more effectively
than straightforward advertising. Product licensing for toys and games is
especially popular, since it not only provides publicity for the film, but also
another lucrative source of revenue.
Whatever techniques are employed to sell the film, the Distributor will oversee
the whole process and will commission and produce all the publicity and
advertising for the film, including all the materials used by the cinemas. They plan
an integrated strategy, bringing all their resources, contacts and skills to bear on
the launching the film with the maximum possible impact.

The Audience The PR Agency – film marketing is big business, and in recent years has involved
Knowing the audience is more and more sophisticated techniques. There are several established film
essential, and the market research companies in the UK and US, who specialise in researching which
marketing team runs types of people respond best to a film, and why. The data they gather can be used
test screenings to see by the Marketing Team to determine what the hooks for the products are, and
how the film is received who they should be aiming it at. By carefully segmenting the potential audience
for the film, the Marketing Team can be much more targeting in their approach,
and ensure that the right people hear about the film at the right time.
Word-of-mouth marketing firms often invite key audience groups to free
screenings to start generate heat. The individuals give feedback of these films and
profiles are constructed, so they can identify the types of people who respond
best to the film. then, by ensuring that only those types of people see the film
before its release, they can minimise negative word-of-mouth and create
‘evangelists’ for the film, increasing popular anticipation for it.
Audience response – film marketing is all about word-of-mouth. The cinema
release of a film is effectively a launch event, and the Marketing Team will try to
create ‘heat’ around the film to make sure that it is hugely anticipated before its
release – and that it will continue to sell after it. Creating positive word-of-mouth
 is all about getting the right people talking about the film at the right time.
Building a campaign is usually a race against the clock to make the audience
aware of the film, make them want to see it, and make them tell their friends to
see it too. If the Marketing Team can’t find this audience and get them talking
about the film before the launch, it will disappear without trace. Conversely, if
word-of-mouth is generated too early it can dissipate before the film opens.

Above-the-line Marketing – film campaigns benefit from having very high

marketing budgets (and profit margins) compared to other products. However,
Advertising the competition is so fierce that poor advertising is not only ineffective but can
The potential audience even be damaging. Weak or mixed messages will confuse audiences, who will
for the film is targeted tend to ignore it and filter out further marketing about it. Poorly-targeted
with posters, cinema advertising can make the wrong people aware of the film, and will generate
trailers, TV spots and negative word-of-mouth which could destroy the film’s reputation before it is
other marketing even released. Market research is done with the potential audience on all posters
materials and other marketing collateral to make sure that money spent on advertising is
not wasted.

Film Journalism
The public appetite for films is vast, and a whole section of the media has been
built on popularity of cinema. A good critical reception, popular interest,
appearances by stars on chat shows and at premieres, or even just a big
distribution budget can get the film nationwide press and broadcast coverage.
Production unit stills, EPK footage and other publicity assets can all be used to
generate media interest in the film, so it is vital that the Producer can set aside
money in the original budget for the collection of these assets.
Press and Media
Media coverage is not just about getting free advertising: it’s about getting the
Coverage product endorsed by a third party. Positive media attention is the best way to
Television, radio, generate good word-of-mouth about any film. For example, certain UK and
newspapers and international journalists have been identified by the industry as particularly
magazines can all help influential in shaping the popular opinion about a forthcoming release, and are
create positive word-of- therefore given privileged information. At the other end of the spectrum, some
mouth/press about a PR companies organise press days for student newspapers, with the aim of
film generating positive word-of-mouth amongst those very targeted groups.
Film publicists use the media to generate word-of-mouth. They try to reduce
negative publicity and ensure that the messages in the media fit in with the
overall campaign for the film’s launch. Distributors will usually engage a separate
film publicity company to handle this work for them, as it requires extremely
specialist skills. These companies build up close relationships with the media and
know exactly how to generate the right coverage for their products.

Internet Marketing
In the information age, the consumer, the consumer is bombarded with
information, opinion and advertising on a constant basis, and it becomes harder
and harder for a film to get noticed. Fortunately, digital technologies have also
The Internet and new presented many new opportunities for film distributors to market their product in
Marketing Models more targeted and cost-efficient ways. By advertising through specialist digital
The birth of digital television channels and the internet, distributors can only target only those
media and the internet people who are most relevant to their marketing objectives, rather than wasting
has flooded the world money on nationwide advertising that will be ignored by most of the people who
with information but see it.
also made niche This is particularly relevant for low-budget filmmakers, who for the first time are
marketing possible in a position to market their films to audiences with only minimum spend on
marketing costs. As the costs of digital film production fall, and digital exhibition
becomes more widespread, the time of profitable low budget filmmaking is
becoming a distinct possibility.

Package Selling – the relationship between distributors and exhibitors is a big

business. Exhibitors are always looking for films that will bring in large numbers,
and many are dependant on the large blockbusters to bring in revenues. This puts
the larger distributors in a more powerful position.
To get as many of their films shown as possible, the larger distributors often offer
 Selling the film to a package to exhibitors. Because of this, the smaller UK distribution companies
Exhibitors start at a disadvantage and may find it hard to get their films onto as many
In order to get the film screens. This is where critical acclaim, press attention and audience popularity can
to audiences, the be so vital in getting a film shown.
distributor must The Cinema Programmer – cinemas employ specialist staff who watch all the
negotiate a deal with the films available and plan their exhibition schedule. These people are called
cinemas to screen it Programmers, and they are the key decision-makers in the exhibition world. The
Programmer selects the right mix of programming for the venue, responding to
local audience interests. They choose which films they want to show based on
what they think their audience will want to see. If the Programmer feels a film is
right for their market, the Exhibitor and the Distributor strike a deal to determine
how many screens the film will open on and how much the distributors will get
paid.
The Marketing Budget – the marketing budget is determined by the expected
level of ticket receipts from a film: the higher the expectation of success, the
higher the marketing budget. For the exhibitor, this works the other way around
too: if a film is due to open on hundreds of screens around the country (and
world), the cinemas will expect a vast marketing budget to be associated with it to
guarantee that these cinemas are filled. If the distributor is investing a lot in
marketing the film, this will make it more valuable for the exhibitors. This is
particularly true for the largest multiplexes, which must fill hundreds of screens
every week.

11) Exhibition
Cinema exhibition is still the primary channel for films to reach their audiences, and box office success equals
financial success

The Stars
Fame really helps to sell films. Stars have royal fan bases following their careers
religiously, regardless of marketing. The top stars can guarantee that a film will do
business, but even lesser-known stars will attract publicity and generate hype. The
The Premiere biggest stars are those who can ‘open’ a film – guarantee that it will do well in its
A high-profile, star- opening weekend – of which there are only six or seven in the world. However,
studded premiere is they can’t say anything after the opening weekend, since word-of-mouth will
used to launch the film destroy it within only a few days of release.
to the public with an ‘Star power’ can extend beyond actors as well, and big-name directors, writers
explosion of media and producers can all bring an audience to a film. Writer-directors are the most
coverage common type of behind-the-camera stars, and they are hugely respected within
the film industry and the public. There are even production companies like
Working Title and Pixar that are well-known brands and retain great popularity
with the fans for the types of film they are associated with making.

UK Cinemas The Audience – although the British public tend not to visit the cinema as often as
The UK has more than the American public, cinemas remain the most important market for any film, as
3,500 cinema screens, success at the box office can guarantee increased revenues in subsequent
although not all are “windows” (DVD sales and rentals, hospitality, broadcast, product licensing).
British owned, or show Major films with a mass appeal are played by large, county-wide exhibitors, whilst
British films smaller films can benefit from the network of local and specialist cinemas across
the UK. The presence of these cinemas can ensure that even films with a very
niche market can reach their audience and make a profit. For example, foreign
language films usually open in fewer screens than those in English. However Hindi
movies actually account for more than a third of all films released in the UK.
 The Projectionists – behind the scenes, exhibitors employ teams of skilled
projectionists and technical staff that are trained to show the film exactly as it was
intended to be seen. They make sure the film reaches the audience in exactly the
form the Director, the Colourist, the Sound Mixer and so on designed it.

Distributing the prints

Hundreds of copies of the film are produced by the distributors, and these prints
are then rented by the exhibitors who are screening the film. Specialist logistics
companies transport these 35mm film prints to cinemas throughout the UK. This
is a niche area of logistics and is dominated by a few companies, most of whom
have specialised in this area of work for many years. Many logistics companies
such as DHL will have a specialist film transport department, such is the scale of
this operation.
Making so many prints requires substantial investment from the distributors,
and they will often try to reduce their costs by making a smaller number of prints
and releasing the film in waves. If the film is released on different dates in
different territories, a small number of prints can be used in each territory, and
Prints and Logistics then shipped onto the next territory and so on. This is the main reason why many
Distributors supply the films are released in the UK and Europe some months after their US release: to
exhibitors with prints of save the distributors money on reproduction costs.
the film. The more In recent years, the digital revolution has been transforming distribution in two
screens the film is shown key ways. Firstly, growth in piracy has led distributors increasingly towards ‘day-
on the more prints are and-date’ releases, in which the film is released in all territories simultaneously.
needed This requires a great deal of investment and is usually reserved for big
blockbusters, but the trend is becoming more common. Secondly, the
development of digital data storage and transmission via the internet has made
digital film distribution a serious possibility for the future. The UK Film Council is
now encouraging and funding many UK cinemas to invest in digital projectors,
through its Digital Screen Network programme. It is estimated that 50% of the UK
and US cinemas will be capable of digital projection by 2010, meaning that
distributors of low budget features will be able to distribute their films digitally at
a greatly reduced cost. In the future, the notion of distributors transmitting
electronic ‘prints’ of their films directly to cinemas around the world is only a few
years away.

Box Office
Performance Data about film attendance is collected continuously, and used by the cinemas to
Distributors supply the decide which films to cancel and which to prolong. If a film is underperforming,
exhibitors with prints of cinemas simply cannot afford to risk losing valuable income waiting for a film to
the film. The more become popular. Slow-burners do not flourish well in the cinema market. In fact,
screens the film is shown some films that flopped in the cinemas can find their audience on DVD and make
on the more prints are a healthy profit some years after their initial release.
needed

Revenues The box office gross is just the starting measure for what everyone involved will
The exhibitors take their make from the film. Producers can check these reports to figure out how roughly
share of the box office how much they will make, but in reality most of this money will go back to the
receipts, after which the Exhibitors who screen the film, and the Distributor to pay for the marketing costs.
distributors recoup their
marketing costs
In theory, films that do well at the box office will make a profit. In reality though,
even if the film is a hit the costs of marketing and exhibiting it mean that the
Producer is unlikely to see profits once the Exhibitor and Distributor have been
Recoupment paid. Instead, the profits for the film will come from the other distribution
‘windows’ such as DVD sales and broadcast. The Distributors will use the
Once the distributors
theatrical release of the film as a launch-pad from which to sell the film across
have been paid, the
these alternative formats – and without the large overheads of exhibition, the
financiers can recover
profit margins for these windows is far greater.
their investments, as laid
This progression through the different formats currently takes years, although
out in the recoupment
growing concerns about piracy are forcing all these windows closer and closer
schedule
together. As the profits begin to appear, they will be channelled back to the
production accounts department, who begin the long process of repaying the
 film’s financiers. This process is complex and must be done in the strict order of
priority laid down in the recoupment schedule during the film’s financing. The
length of time it takes to sell the film in all the available windows means that it
may be several years before all the investors receive their money – and even
longer before the Producer can get paid.

12) Other Windows

A successful run in cinemas makes the film a sought-after product, which can then be sold through other more
lucrative channels

The In-flight Movie – in-flight entertainment and hotel pay-per-view channels are
Hospitality the first way in which films are sold after their cinema release. Usually films will
‘Hospitality’ sales for screen in these windows whilst they are still showing in cinemas. This can be a
hotel channels and in- very lucrative window and is highly sought-after by distribution companies, and
flight entertainment can only the most successful films will be sold here. Larger distributors in possession
bring in millions in of biggest blockbusters are in position to negotiate better deals and to sell them
additional revenue in packages with less popular films.

DVD and Video – the huge amount of DVD purchases transformed film
distribution. Where previously the cinema was regarded as the primary source of
DVD and Video revenue for a production, now theatrical release is seen as a platform from which
UK audiences spend to gain the more lucrative sales on DVD. Many films that failed at the box office
more on DVD’s than on can recover their costs and more through DVD sales.
cinema tickets, so The UK is the best market for DVD sales in the world per head of population,
success on DVD can and frequently brings in more revenue for a film in this window than the US.
compensate for box Increasingly, films that failed in cinemas are finding their audience on DVD
office failure instead, and in some instances have even been re-released in theatres on the
back of this success.

The Broadcast rights – the third window through which the film can be sold is pay-
TV, which includes subscription channels as well as pay-per-view. The pay-TV
Broadcast companies’ function in a similar way to the Exhibitors and once again larger
Television is the final Distributors can sell packages of several films to them on the back of one big hit.
source of revenue. Once all the other windows have been exhausted, the film will be sold to
Rights are sold terrestrial TV. If a Broadcast company put up money towards the production, they
separately for pay-TV will have first option on the broadcast rights. If the film is a big hit, they will even
showings and terrestrial get these rights for a lot less than they would otherwise have had to pay, and the
broadcast risk they took in supporting the production will have been paid off.

The game of the film The growing popularity and sophistication of electronic games is seen in some
Rights for computer quarters as a threat to the future of the film industry. Their fan-base is growing all
games and other the time, and already many big-names releases are rivalling films in terms of
product licenses can be profile and market share. More concerning for film producers is that advertisers
extremely lucrative have increasingly their use of product placement within games, which threatens
sources of additional to displace film advertising as the most prestigious in the entertainment world.
revenue In response to this, increasing numbers of big-name films are licensed to
computer games developers to create products based on that film. The marketing
budget and hype surrounding the cinema release works to promote the game and
generates revenue for the company and the film itself, so everyone is happy. In
this way, filmmakers hope to turn computer games into an opportunity rather
than a threat.
 Only when the gross revenue is in the supply chain, and the Exhibitor, the
Distributor and all the Investors have been repaid, does the Producer get anything
Profit? at all. If the deals struck at the financing stage were not favourable the Producer
Once a film has made a may not get back much money, even if the film is a big hit. Once the money starts
profit, the producer and to come back to the production, the Producer must use this money to pay
key creative people can anything owed by the production to the other ‘talent points’ in the film, such as
reap their rewards the Writer and the Director. Only then do the people involved in the production
start getting shares of the film’s success.

Perpetuity – the final income from a film is never known. Because of the way film
financing works, the Producer must submit accounts for the production for years
after the film has been released, and income from distribution continues in
The end? perpetuity. Many distributors will buy the full distribution rights to films from the
The final income from a people that originally made them, to build up a back catalogue of products. They
film is never known. can use these rights to create a sustainable income for their businesses by re-
Distribution continues in releasing old films on DVD and selling them to broadcasters. The film may even be
perpetuity, and it may re-released in cinemas in the future.
even be re-released in Poverty – even if the film has made a healthy profit, it may be years before the
the future Producer sees any actual money – if at all. However, Producers trade on their
reputations, and a Producer can be a big hit and negotiate higher fees and cut
better deals with financiers on their next project. If their next film is a hit, they can
make a lot more money.