K. Byrappa T. Ohachi (Eds.

Crystal Growth
Technology

With 309 Figures and 45 Tables

123
Professor Kullaiah Byrappa Professor Tadashi Ohachi
University of Mysore Doshisha University
P.B. No. 21, Manasagangotri Department of Electrical Engineering
Mysore – 570 006, India Kyoto, Japan
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

Series Editors:
Professor Dr. Walter Michaeli
Institut für Kunststoffverarbeitung, Pontstrasse 49
52062 Aachen, Germany
Professor Dr. Hans Warlimont
Institut für Festkörper- undWerkstoffforschung e.V., Helmholtzstrasse 20
01069 Dresden, Germany
Professor Dr. Eicke Weber
University of California, Materials Science and Mineral Engineering
587 Evans Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720-1760, USA

Copyright 2003 by William Andrew Inc., Norwich, New York

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DEDICATION

This book has been dedicated to:

Professor C.N.R. Rao, FRS

President, JNCASR
Bangalore, India
FOREWORD

Approximately fourteen years ago I was privileged to attend a conference in Japan

whose title now escapes me, but whose scope covered a broad spectrum of modern
technology. One lecturer has stood out in my memory over the years. He was Dr.
Sekimoto, a Japanese businessman and eminent scientist whose specialty was in
the field of communications. In his career at NEC he became President and finally
Chairman of the Board. At the Conference I was particularly impressed by the
content of one of his slides on which the following prophetic handwritten phrase
occurred, “Who dominates materials dominates technology.” The message was
true and unambiguous then and history has simply emphasized its significance.
The ability to dominate materials requires an in-depth knowledge of the science
and technology of crystal growth since crystals, especially single crystals have in-
creasingly become a vital necessity in modern technology. How this domination is
achieved is what this book is about. Crystal Growth is a universal phenomenon in
the field of materials. It has a long history but a significant impetus, which accel-
erated its evolution from “a substance potting art” to a science in its own right,
was the invention of the transistor in 1948, and the subsequent need for high pu-
rity semiconductor single crystals. As a result crystal growth has developed into a
core discipline in materials science.
The evolution of our knowledge of crystal growth requires not only scientific
understanding, but the driving force of applied technology which so often provides
a significant influence in highlighting our lack of scientific knowledge and the
need for a more refined science and indeed the development of new concepts. It is
the knowledge of this balanced scientific evolution which Professor Byrappa and
Professor Ohachi, the editors have achieved in the selection of critically important
materials and technologies.
Both editors have international reputations in crystal growth. Professor Byrappa
is an expert in the field of hydrothermal growth and is well-known for his work on
the growth of complex coordination compounds especially in the field of phos-
phates, silicates, germinates and vanadates. He has carried out extensive pioneer-
ing work in the scientific application of physical chemistry and thermodynamics
to the role of solution media, and the elucidation of the mechanisms of crystal
growth in this difficult field. Such work has been at the forefront of knowledge,
which has transformed the growth of many very difficult crystals from an empiri-
cal art to a controlled engineering science.
Professor Ohachi has extensive experience in the study of crystal growth
mechanisms especially in the field of semiconductors and has been a leading fig-
VIII Foreward

ure in unraveling the mechanisms involved in the growth of GaAs by MBE. He is

an expert in the field of ionic conduction in solids and has pioneered many funda-
mental studies in this more exotic field of crystal growth including the crystal
growth of silver from silver chalcogenides using solid-state ionics. His work for
the crystal growth community is also extensive. He has just been appointed Presi-
dent of the Japanese Association of Crystal Growth and held a pivotal position as
Secretary of the recent combined International Conferences on Crystal Growth
and Vapor Growth and Epitaxy (ICCG-13/ICVGE-11) held at Doshisha Univer-
sity, his Alma Mater. In this connection one must mention the role of Professor
Nishinaga, one of the authors, who was Co-Chair of the ICCG-13/ICVGE-11
Conference. He was President of the International Organization of Crystal growth
for the last six years and has just been appointed President of Toyohashi Univer-
sity of Technology.
Crystal growth now embraces an immense field of materials and technologies,
which could not be covered in-depth by any one book. Nevertheless the present
selection of chapters does provide a comprehensive coverage, which has suc-
ceeded in advancing our knowledge of the latest developments in crystal growth.
For this purpose the editors have commissioned a fine selection of authors who are
leading authorities in their respective fields of crystal growth. In broad terms the
coverage deals with electronic materials and optical materials.
The basic science involved in vapor and solution growth provides an excellent
initial introduction for advancing the role of fundamental science in our under-
standing of crystal growth. Also fundamental to our scientific understanding of
hydrothermal growth is the need for detailed modeling with intelligent engineer-
ing. This is now possible thanks to advances in our knowledge of solution chem-
istry, phase equilibria and applied thermodynamics.
One must not miss the significance of the morphology of crystals, which is well
reviewed in connection with mineral crystals. The observation of growth spirals
on the surface of crystals was important evidence used by the late Professor Sir
Charles Frank in his discovery the role dislocations can play in crystal growth.
The electronic materials discussed involve the III-Vs, the Zn chalcogenides,
diamond and SiC as well as essential thermal modeling that is needed for achiev-
ing the effective growth of this difficult material. The oxides include families of
materials related to lead zirconate titanate (PZT), the perovskites, the vanadates,
bismuth germanate, and lithium niobate. Also, quartz and a range of high tem-
perature non-linear optical materials including the borates as well as BiSrCaCu
and related superconducting compounds are discussed in depth. A very welcome
addition is that of the hydroxyapatite materials involved in biocrystallisation,
which are important in bone development. Also, recent ideas on the growth of
nano crystals are highlighted. A chapter on gemstones enhances the variety of
materials and their compelling interest.
In order to achieve the successful crystal growth of these materials a whole
range of different technologies are needed, they include vertical crystal pulling,
CVD, sublimation and epitaxial growth for MOCVD and MBE. The oxides illus-
trate the full extent of the difficulties that can be encountered in crystal growth and
the wide range of technologies needed to overcome them. In addition to the
 Foreward IX

growth technologies mentioned above laser assisted vapor deposition, hydrother-

mal growth solution, as well as flux and Verneuil growth are discussed.
The value of this interesting book lies not just in the increased scientific under-
standing of crystal growth, which one gains but in the extensive knowledge which
is presented on the wide variety of technologies required to achieve application-
quality crystal properties of an ever increasing range of crystals for modern tech-
nology. The reader is cordially invited to explore and assess the crucial role and
significance of crystal growth in the various technologies for him or herself.

J.B. Mullin
U.K.
PREFACE

Crystals are the unacknowledged pillars of modern technology. Crystal growth

can be regarded as an ancient subject, owing to the fact that the crystallization of
salt and sugar was known to the ancient Indian and Chinese civilizations. The
subject of crystal growth was treated as part of crystallography and never had an
independent identity until the last century. The fundamentals of crystal growth
were entirely bestowed upon the morphological studies of the naturally occurring
crystals. Thus began the scientific approach for this subject during the 17th cen-
tury by Kepler, followed by quite a few others like Nicolous Steno, Descartes,
Bartholinus, etc. This type of morphological study slowly led to the understanding
of the atomistic process of crystal growth. Recent bursting research on nanostruc-
tured materials depends on the crystal growth theory and technology.
In the early 20th century, crystal growth evolved as a separate branch of sci-
ence and several theories from Kossel, Donnay-Harker, Volmer and Burton, Ca-
brera and Frank (BCF), etc., were proposed. Although the science of crystal
growth originated through the explanations of Nicolous Steno in 1669, the actual
impetus to this field began after the BCF theory was formulated and also when
there was a great demand for crystals during World War II. Professor H. Scheel
has dealt with the subject of historical development of crystal growth remarkably
in the first volume of Hydrothermal Crystal Growth, edited by D.T.J. Hurle. Since
there are other books dealing with similar topics, the present book omits the his-
torical aspects and basic techniques of crystal growth and focuses extensively on
the techniques of current importance.
The editors conceived the idea of publishing a volume that covers both theory
and practice together, containing all the latest developments in the area of crystal
growth. The book deals mainly with the crystals of commercial value with an em-
phasis on the science of their growth.
There are 17 chapters in this book, beginning with a chapter by Professor Ichiro
Sunagawa dealing with the growth history of mineral crystals as seen from their
morphological features as a key to the understanding of essential points of funda-
mental growth. The editors are lucky to have contributions from the most eminent
crystal growers like Professors T. Nishinaga, S. Naritsuka, T. Inoue, H. Komatsu,
I. Sunagawa, M. Hosaka, V. Lantto, and a host of others in spite of their busy
schedules. The topics have been selected based on their current significance in this
frontier area of technology and thus there is a wide range of topics including mod-
eling of crystal growth and thermochemical calculations which in turn lead to the
intelligent engineering of the crystal growth processes. We have a perfect blend of
XII Preface

senior crystal growers with the upcoming talents of the recent generation. The
range of crystals included in this book varies from electronic, electro-optic, pie-
zoelectric, ferroelectric, jewelry, to bioelectric fields. Furthermore, techniques like
MOCVD, hydrothermal, laser assisted, CVD, flux, melt, etc., dealing with the ac-
tual process of crystal growth are discussed.
We hope that this book will be highly valuable to the entire crystal growth
community and remain as an important source for crystal growers, beginners and
specialists alike. The editors greatly acknowledge the help and cooperation ex-
tended by each and every author in this book. Our special thanks go to Professor
Brian Mullin for penning the foreword for this book. Also, thanks to our esteemed
friends like Prof. Masahiro Yoshimura of Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan;
Prof. Richard E. Riman of Rutgers University, NJ, USA; Prof. Jan Bart of DSM,
The Netherlands; Prof. H. Klapper, Germany; Prof. J.N. Sherwood, UK; Prof.
D.T.J. Hurle, UK; Prof. H. Scheel, Switzerland; Prof. T. Nishinaga, Japan; Prof.
H. Komatsu, Japan; Dr. R. Fornari, Italy; Prof. M. Dudley, USA; Dr. David Bliss,
USA; Prof. K. Sato, Japan; Prof. T. Duffar, France; Prof. Derek Palmer, UK; Prof.
Keshra Sangwal, Poland; Prof. Rafael Rodriguez Clemente, Spain; Prof. Salvador
Gali, Spain, and many others who have helped us directly or indirectly for the suc-
cessful completion of this useful volume. Also, our indebted thanks to our family
members Dr. K.T. Sunitha Byrappa, Mr. Shayan M. Byrappa, Mr. Nayan M.
Byrappa, Mrs. Michiko Ohachi, Mr. Shinobu Ohachi, and daughters Kyoko and
Keiko for their patience and cooperation.
Lastly, our thanks to all those from William Andrew and Springer publications
associated with the production of this book, especially to Kathy Breed, Keith
Stein, Brent Beckley, Jim Willis, and Nanette Anderson.

June 2002
Editors
K. Byrappa
T. Ohachi