Benefits of VFD (VSD) Systems

A variable speed drive is a piece of equipment that regulates the speed and rotational force, or torque output, of
an electric motor.

Energy Savings for VFD Systems

AC motor-driven applications that do not require full speed can save energy by controlling the motor with a
variable speed drive. Energy cost saving with variable torque can be significant, often paying for the cost of VFD
within a matter of months. In variable torque applications such as fans and blowers, the torque required varies
roughly with the square of the speed, and the horsepower required varies roughly with the cube of the speed,
resulting in a large reduction of horsepower for even a small reduction in speed. The motor will consume only
25% as much power at 63% speed than it will at 100% speed. This is referred to as the Affinity Laws, which
define the relationships between speed, flow, torque, and horsepower.

Extended Equipment Life and Reduced Maintenance

Single-speed starting methods start motors abruptly, subjecting the motor to a high starting torque and to current
surges that are up to 10 times the full-load current. Variable speed drives, on the other hand, gradually ramp the
motor up to operating speed to lessen mechanical and electrical stress, reducing maintenance and repair costs,
and extending the life of the motor and the driven equipment. Soft starts, or reduced-voltage soft starters (RVSS),
are also able to step a motor up gradually, but drives can be programmed to ramp up the motor much more
gradually and smoothly, and can operate the motor at less than full speed to decrease wear and tear. Variable
speed drives can also run a motor in specialized patterns to further minimize mechanical and electrical stress.
For example, an S-curve pattern can be applied to a conveyor application for smoother decel/accel control, which
reduces the backlash that can occur when a conveyor is accelerating or decelerating.

Tighter Process Control

VFDs provide some unique advantages relative to other motor control options that lead to tighter process control.
Full-voltage (across the line) starters can only run the motor at full speed, and soft starts and reduced voltage
soft starters can only gradually ramp the motor up to full speed, and back down to shutdown. Variable speed
drives, on the other hand, can be programmed to run the motor at a precise speed, to stop at a precise position,
or to apply a specific amount of torque. In fact, modern AC variable speed drives are very close to the DC drive in
terms of fast torque response and speed accuracy. However, AC motors are much more reliable and affordable
than DC motors, making them far more prevalent.

Most drives used in the field utilize Volts/Hertz type control, which means they provide open-loop operation.
These drives are unable to retrieve feedback from the process, but are sufficient for the majority of variable
speed drive applications. Many open-loop variable speed drives do offer slip compensation though, which
enables the drive to measure its output current and estimate the difference in actual speed and the setpoint (the
programmed input value). The drive will then automatically adjust itself towards the setpoint based on this
estimation.

Most variable torque drives have PID capability for fan and pump applications, which allows the drive to hold the
setpoint based on actual feedback from the process, rather than relying on an estimation. A transducer or
transmitter is used to detect process variables such as pressure levels, liquid flow rate, air flow rate, or liquid
level. Then the signal is sent to a PLC, which communicates the feedback from the process to the drive. The
variable speed drive uses this continual feedback to adjust itself to hold the setpoint.

High levels of accuracy for other applications can also be achieved through drives that offer closed-loop
operation. Closed-loop operation can be accomplished with either a field-oriented vector drive, or a sensorless
vector drive. The field-oriented vector drive obtains process feedback from an encoder, which measures and
transmits to the drive the speed and/or rate of the process, such as a conveyor, machine tool, or extruder. The
drive then adjusts itself accordingly to sustain the programmed speed, rate, torque, and/or position.[5]
VFD types
All VFDs use their output devices (IGBTs, transistors, thyristors) only as switches, turning them only on or off.
Using a linear device such as a transistor in its linear mode is impractical for a VFD drive, since the power
dissipated in the drive devices would be about as much as the power delivered to the load.

Drives can be classified as:

 Constant voltage
 Constant current
 Cycloconverter

In a constant voltage converter, the intermediate DC link voltage remains approximately constant during each
output cycle. In constant current drives, a large inductor is placed between the input rectifier and the output
bridge, so the current delivered is nearly constant. A cycloconverter has no input rectifier or DC link and instead
connects each output terminal to the appropriate input phase.

The most common type of packaged VF drive is the constant-voltage type, using pulse width modulation to
control both the frequency and effective voltage applied to the motor load.

VFD system description

A variable frequency drive system generally consists of an AC motor, a controller and an operator interface.

VFD motor
The motor used in a VFD system is usually a three-phase induction motor. Some types of single-phase motors
can be used, but three-phase motors are usually preferred. Various types of synchronous motors offer
advantages in some situations, but induction motors are suitable for most purposes and are generally the most
economical choice. Motors that are designed for fixed-speed operation are often used. Certain enhancements to
the standard motor designs offer higher reliability and better VFD performance, such as MG-31 rated motors.[8]

VFD controller
Variable frequency drive controllers are solid state electronic power conversion devices. The usual design first
converts AC input power to DC intermediate power using a rectifier or converter bridge. The rectifier is usually a
three-phase, full-wave-diode bridge. The DC intermediate power is then converted to quasi-sinusoidal AC power
using an inverter switching circuit. The inverter circuit is probably the most important section of the VFD,
changing DC energy into three channels of AC energy that can be used by an AC motor. These units provide
improved power factor, less harmonic distortion, and low sensitivity to the incoming phase sequencing than older
phase controlled converter VFD's. Since incoming power is converted to DC, many units will accept single-phase
as well as three-phase input power (acting as a phase converter as well as a speed controller); however the unit
must be derated when using single phase input as only part of the rectifier bridge is carrying the connected load.

As new types of semiconductor switches have been introduced, these have promptly been applied to inverter
circuits at all voltage and current ratings for which suitable devices are available. Introduced in the 1980s, the
insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) became the device used in most VFD inverter circuits in the first decade
of the 21st century.[10][11][12]

AC motor characteristics require the applied voltage to be proportionally adjusted whenever the frequency is
changed in order to deliver the rated torque. For example, if a motor is designed to operate at 460 volts at 60 Hz,
the applied voltage must be reduced to 230 volts when the frequency is reduced to 30 Hz. Thus the ratio of volts
per hertz must be regulated to a constant value (460/60 = 7.67 V/Hz in this case). For optimum performance,
some further voltage adjustment may be necessary especially at low speeds, but constant volts per hertz is the
general rule. This ratio can be changed in order to change the torque delivered by the motor.[13]

In addition to this simple volts per hertz control more advanced control methods such as vector control and direct
torque control (DTC) exist. These methods adjust the motor voltage in such a way that the magnetic flux and
mechanical torque of the motor can be precisely controlled.

The usual method used to achieve variable motor voltage is pulse-width modulation (PWM). With PWM voltage
control, the inverter switches are used to construct a quasi-sinusoidal output waveform by a series of narrow
voltage pulses with pseudosinusoidal varying pulse durations.[10][14]

Operation of the motors above rated name plate speed (base speed) is possible, but is limited to conditions that
do not require more power than the nameplate rating of the motor. This is sometimes called "field weakening"
and, for AC motors, means operating at less than rated volts/hertz and above rated name plate speed.
Permanent magnet synchronous motors have quite limited field weakening speed range due to the constant
magnet flux linkage. Wound rotor synchronous motors and induction motors have much wider speed range. For
example, a 100 hp, 460 V, 60 Hz, 1775 RPM (4 pole) induction motor supplied with 460 V, 75 Hz (6.134 V/Hz),
would be limited to 60/75 = 80% torque at 125% speed (2218.75 RPM) = 100% power.[15] At higher speeds the
induction motor torque has to be limited further due to the lowering of the breakaway torque of the motor. Thus
rated power can be typically produced only up to 130...150% of the rated name plate speed. Wound rotor
synchronous motors can be run at even higher speeds. In rolling mill drives often 200...300% of the base speed
is used. Naturally the mechanical strength of the rotor and the lifetime of the bearings also limit the maximum
speed of the motor. Consulting the motor manufacturer is recommended if more than 150% speed is required by
the application.

PWM VFD Output Voltage Waveform

An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD controller. The main microprocessor
programming is in firmware that is inaccessible to the VFD user. However, some degree of configuration
programming and parameter adjustment is usually provided so that the user can customize the VFD controller to
suit specific motor and driven equipment requirements.
VFD operator interface
The operator interface provides a means for an operator to start and stop the motor and adjust the operating
speed. Additional operator control functions might include reversing, and switching between manual speed
adjustment and automatic control from an external process control signal. The operator interface often includes
an alphanumeric display and/or indication lights and meters to provide information about the operation of the
drive. An operator interface keypad and display unit is often provided on the front of the VFD controller as shown
in the photograph above. The keypad display can often be cable-connected and mounted a short distance from
the VFD controller. Most are also provided with input and output (I/O) terminals for connecting pushbuttons,
switches and other operator interface devices or control signals. A serial communications port is also often
available to allow the VFD to be configured, adjusted, monitored and controlled using a computer.

VFD operation
When an induction motor is first connected to a full voltage supply, it draws several times (up to about 6 times) its
rated current. As the load accelerates, the available torque usually drops a little and then rises to a peak while
the current remains very high until the motor approaches full speed.

By contrast, when a VFD starts a motor, it initially applies a low frequency and voltage to the motor. The starting
frequency is typically 2 Hz or less. Thus starting at such a low frequency avoids the high inrush current that
occurs when a motor is started by simply applying the utility (mains) voltage by turning on a switch. After the start
of the VFD, the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a controlled rate or ramped up to accelerate the
load without drawing excessive current. This starting method typically allows a motor to develop 150% of its rated
torque while the VFD is drawing less than 50% of its rated current from the mains in the low speed range. A VFD
can be adjusted to produce a steady 150% starting torque from standstill right up to full speed.[18] Note,
however, that cooling of the motor is usually not good in the low speed range. Thus running at low speeds even
with rated torque for long periods is not possible due to overheating of the motor. If continuous operation with
high torque is required in low speeds an external fan is usually needed. The manufacturer of the motor and/or the
VFD should specify the cooling requirements for this mode of operation.

In principle, the current on the motor side is in direct proportion to the torque that is generated and the voltage on
the motor is in direct proportion of the actual speed, while on the network side, the voltage is constant, thus the
current on line side is in direct proportion of the power drawn by the motor, that is U.I or C.N where C is torque
and N the speed of the motor (we shall consider losses as well, neglected in this explanation).
  n stands for network (grid) and m for motor
 C stands for torque [Nm], U for voltage [V], I for current [A], and N for speed [rad/s]

We neglect losses for the moment:

 Un.In = Um.Im (same power drawn from network and from motor)
 Um.Im = Cm.Nm (motor mechanical power = motor electrical power)
 Given Un is a constant (network voltage) we conclude: In = Cm.Nm/Un That is "line current (network) is
in direct proportion of motor power".

With a VFD, the stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting sequence. The frequency and voltage
applied to the motor are ramped down at a controlled rate. When the frequency approaches zero, the motor is
shut off. A small amount of braking torque is available to help decelerate the load a little faster than it would stop
if the motor were simply switched off and allowed to coast. Additional braking torque can be obtained by adding a
braking circuit (resistor controlled by a transistor) to dissipate the braking energy. With 4-quadrants rectifiers
(active-front-end), the VFD is able to brake the load by applying a reverse torque and reverting the energy to the
network.

Power line harmonics

While PWM allows for nearly sinusoidal currents to be applied to a motor load, the diode rectifier of the VFD
takes roughly square-wave current pulses out of the AC grid, creating harmonic distortion of the power line input,
especially in the current waveform. When the VFD load size is small and the available utility power is large, the
effects of VFD systems slicing small chunks out of the AC grid generally go unnoticed. Furthermore, in low
voltage networks the harmonics caused by single phase equipment such as computers and TVs are such that
they are partially cancelled by three-phase diode bridge harmonics.

However, when either a large number of low-current VFDs, or just a few very large-load VFDs are used, they can
have a cumulative negative impact on the AC power waveform available to other utility customers in the same
grid.

When the utility voltage becomes misshapen and distorted, the losses in other loads such as normal AC motors
are increased. This may in the worst case lead to overheating and shorter operating life. Also substation
transformers and compensation capacitors are affected, the latter especially if resonances are aroused by the
harmonics.

In order to limit the voltage distortion, the owner of the VFDs may be required to install filtering equipment to
smooth out the irregular waveform. Alternatively, the utility may choose to install filtering equipment of its own at
substations affected by the large amount of VFD equipment being used. In high power installations decrease of
the harmonics can be obtained by supplying the VFDs from transformers that have different phase shift.[19]

Furthermore, it is possible, instead of the diode rectifier, to use a transistor circuit similar to that which controls
the motor. This kind of rectifier is called an active infeed converter in IEC standards. However, manufacturers call
it by several names such as active rectifier, ISU (IGBT Supply Unit), AFE (Active Front End) or four quadrant
rectifier. With PWM control of the transistors and filter inductors in the supply lines, the AC current can be made
nearly sinusoidal. Even better attenuation of the harmonics can be obtained by using an LCL (inductor-capacitor-
inductor) filter instead of single three-phase filter inductor.

An additional advantage of the active infeed converter over the diode bridge is its ability to feed back the energy
from the DC side to the AC grid. Thus no braking resistor is needed and the efficiency of the drive is improved if
the drive is frequently required to brake the motor.

Application considerations
Transmission line effects
The output voltage of a PWM VFD consists of a train of pulses switched at what is called the carrier frequency.
Because of the rapid rise time of these pulses, transmission line effects of the cable between the drive and motor
must be considered. Since the transmission-line impedance of the cable and motor are different, pulses tend to
reflect back from the motor terminals into the cable. The resulting voltages can produce up to twice the rated line
voltage for long cable runs, putting high stress on the cable and motor winding and eventual insulation failure.
Increasing the cable or motor size/type for long runs and using 480V or 600V motors instead of 230V will help
offset the stresses imposed upon the equipment due to the VFD. (Modern 230v single phase motors are not
affected). At 460 V, the maximum recommended cable distances between VFDs and motors can vary by a factor
of 2.5:1. The longer cable distances are allowed at the lower Carrier Switching Frequencies (CSF) of 2.5 kHz.
The lower CSF can produce audible noise at the motors. For applications requiring long motor cables VSD
manufacturers usually offer dv/dt filters that decrease the steepness of the pulses. For very long cables or old
motors with insufficient winding insulation, more efficient sinusoidal filters are recommended. Expect the older
motor's life to shorten. Purchase VFD rated motors for the application.

Motor bearings
Further, the rapid rise time of the pulses may cause trouble with the motor bearings. The stray capacitance of the
windings provides paths for high frequency currents that pass through the motor shaft and bearings. If the
voltage between the shaft and the shield of the motor exceeds a few volts the stored charge is discharged as a
small spark. Repeated sparking causes erosion in the bearing surface that can be seen as a fluting pattern. In
order to prevent sparking the motor cable should provide a low impedance return path from the motor frame back
to the inverter. Thus it is essential to use a cable designed to be used with VSDs.

In big motors a slip ring and brush can be used to provide a bypass path for the bearing currents. Alternatively,
isolated bearings can be used.

The 2.5 kHz and 5 kHz CSFs cause fewer motor bearing problems than the 20 kHz CSFs. Shorter cables are
recommended at the higher CSF of 20 kHz. (The minimum CSF for synchronize tracking of multiple conveyors is
8 kHz.)

The high frequency current ripple in the motor cables may also cause interference with other cabling in the
building. This is another reason to use a motor cable designed for VSDs that has a symmetrical three-phase
structure and good shielding. Furthermore, it is highly recommended to route the motor cables as far away from
signal cables as possible.[22]

Available VFD power ratings

Variable frequency drives are available with voltage and current ratings to match the majority of 3-phase motors
that are manufactured for operation from utility (mains) power. VFD controllers designed to operate at 110 V to
690 V are often classified as low voltage units. Low voltage units are typically designed for use with motors rated
to deliver 0.2 kW or 0.25 horsepower (hp) up to several megawatts. For example, the largest ABB ACS800 single
drives are rated for 5.6 MW.[23] Medium voltage VFD controllers are designed to operate at 2,400/4,162 V (60
Hz), 3 kV (50 Hz) or up to 10 kV. In some applications a step up transformer is placed between a low voltage
drive and a medium voltage load. Medium voltage units are typically designed for use with motors rated to deliver
375 kW or 500 hp and above. Medium voltage drives rated above 7 kV and 5,000/10,000 hp should probably be
considered to be one-of-a-kind (one-off) designs.[24]

Medium voltage drives are generally rated amongst the following voltages : 2.3 kV, 3.3 kV, 4 kV, 6 kV, and 11 kV.
The in-between voltages are generally possible as well. The power of M.V. drives is generally in the range of 0.3
to 100 MW; this involves a range of several different types of drives using different technologies.

Dynamic braking
Using the motor as a generator to absorb energy from the system is called dynamic braking. Dynamic braking
stops the system more quickly than coasting. Since dynamic braking requires that the rotor be moving, it
becomes less effective at low speed and cannot be used to hold a load at a stopped position. During normal
braking of an electric motor, the electrical energy produced by the motor is dissipated as heat inside of the rotor,
which increases the likelihood of damage and eventual failure. Therefore, some systems transfer this energy to
an outside bank of resistors. Cooling fans may be used to protect the resistors from damage. Modern systems
have thermal monitoring, so if the temperature of the bank becomes excessive, it will be switched off.[25]
Regenerative variable-frequency drives
Regenerative AC drives have the capacity to recover the braking energy of a load moving faster than the
designated motor speed (an overhauling load) and return it to the power system.

Line regenerative variable frequency drives, showing capacitors (top cylinders) and inductors attached, which
filter the regenerated power.

Cycloconverters and current-source inverters inherently allow return of energy from the load to the line, while
voltage-source inverters require an additional converter to return energy to the supply.[26]

Regeneration is only useful in variable-frequency drives where the value of the recovered energy is large
compared to the extra cost of a regenerative system,[26] and if the system requires frequent braking and starting.
An example would be conveyor belt drives for manufacturing, which stop every few minutes. While stopped, parts
are assembled correctly; once that is done, the belt moves on. Another example is a crane, where the hoist
motor stops and reverses frequently, and braking is required to slow the load during lowering. Regenerative
variable-frequency drives are widely used where speed control of overhauling loads is required.

Brushless DC motor drives

Much of the same logic contained in large, powerful VFDs is also embedded in small brushless DC motors such
as those commonly used in computer fans. In this case, the chopper usually converts a low DC voltage (such as
12 volts) to the three-phase current used to drive the electromagnets that turn the permanent magnet rotor.

Note: The affinity laws are valid only under constant efficiency conditions. When an impeller diameter
is cut it increases the radial clearance between the impeller and the volute. This results to increased
losses due to recirculation.  Changes in pump speed, up or down, using a VFD results in similar
changes in recirculation losses, as well as changes in operating efficiency.

The affinity laws are most commonly used to derive energy-savings estimates from vsd-controlled
devices in comparison with other types of control devices. However, the affinity laws are the frequent
subject of debates. The argument is that in an actual situation, the energy savings of a fan or a pump
with vsd control are not proportional to the cubic relationship of the speed.

Many individuals argue that it is more of a square relationship, to be conservative. Others would use a
2.x exponent, where 0 = x = 9. The value of x depends on the user, and is often based on the
experience of the engineer doing the calculations. There are not hard facts to justify the figure, and
there is no consensus on what the exponent should be.