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CSE PE Exam Review:

Final Control Elements
EN00W5 Version 1.4
© 2011
Standards
Certification
Education and Training
Publishing
Conferences and Exhibits

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 1
 Seminar Logistics

• Seminar materials
– Downloadable presentation
– Question and Answer session (audio and email)
– Survey
– Earn 1 Professional Development Hour (PDH)
• Seminar length
– 60 minute presentation
– Three 10-minute question and answer sessions

Audio Instructions

• As a participant, you are in a “listen-only” mode.

• You may ask questions via the internet, using your keyboard,
at any time during the presentation. However, the presenter
may decide to wait to answer your question until the next Q&A
Session.
• If you have audio difficulties, press *0.

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 2
 Audio Instructions for Q&A Sessions

• Questions may be asked via your telephone line.

• Press the *1 key on your telephone key-pad.
• If there are no other callers on the line, the operator will
announce your name and affiliation to the audience and
then ask for your question.
• If other participants are asking questions, you will be placed
into a queue until you are first in line.
• While in the queue, you will be in a listen-only mode until
the operator indicates that your phone has been activated.
The operator will announce your name and affiliation and
then ask for your question.

Introduction of Presenter

• Gerald Wilbanks, P.E. Vice President of

Documentation and Engineering Services in
Birmingham, Alabama has over 40 years of
experience in engineering, management,
consulting, and design in heavy industry. He is a
registered professional engineer in 4 states, a
member of NSPE, ASQ, and an International
Former President (1995) of ISA. Gerald is a
graduate of Mississippi State University with a
Bachelors Degree in Electrical Engineering and
was recognized as the Engineer of the Year in
1991 by the Engineering Council of
Birmingham. He is a Distinguished Engineering
Fellow of Mississippi State University and is a
Life Fellow member of ISA. He has served as
an instructor in many courses, seminars, and
other educational sessions for ISA and in his
own business.

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 3
 Key Benefits of Seminar

• Identify areas of focus for more effective studying to assist with

passing the PE examination
• Discuss process control valves
• Identify control valve sizing and application
• Determine dynamic system functions of a control valve
• Final Control Elements (Domain III) represents 16 questions or
20% of the CSE PE exam

Typical Control Loop

Manipulated Controlled
Variable Variable
Process

Final Control Sensor

Element Set Point
Transmitted
Signal
Signal Based on
Error or Deviation
and Effects of Controller Transmitter
Control Modes

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 4
 Section 1: Control Valve Types
and Characteristics

• Definition and Description

• Terminology
• Applications
• Types of control valves
• Characteristics of body types
• Components

Schematic of a Typical Control Valve

SIGNAL FROM
CONTROLLER
DIAPHRAGM

STEM

PLUG

SEAT RING

MANIPULATED FLOW

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 5
 Valve in Control Loop

PROCESS

COOLER

TIC
WATER MAIN

Control Valve Types

• Globe
• Gate
• Diaphragm
• Pinch
• Angle body
• Ball
• Butterfly
• Plug

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 6
 Actuators

• Spring diaphragm
• Piston
• Electrohydraulic
• Electromechanical
• Forces
• Applications

Diaphragm Actuator - Air to Close

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 7
 Electrohydraulic Actuators - A and D

• Advantages
– High output capability
– High actuator stiffness
– Excellent throttling ability
– Fast stroking speed
• Disadvantages
– High cost
– Complexity and maintenance difficulty
– Large size and weight
– Fail-safe action only with accessories

Electromechanical Actuators - A and D

• Advantages
– Compact
– Very high stiffness
– High output capability
– No need for air
• Disadvantages
– High cost
– Fail-safe usually dependent on battery
– Limited duty cycle
– Slow stroking speed

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 8
 Split Range With Positioners

From Controller ATO 3 to 9 psig

Split Range Valves can
be used when both
precise low and high
flowrates must be
controlled
ATO 9 to 15 psig

Split Range Valves can

be used for pressure
control when an inert
gas is fed into the vessel
ATO 9 to 15 psig ATC 3 to 9 psig and also vented
Process

Control Valve Test Flow Loop

P1 P2

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 9
 Cv Equation for Liquid Flow

• Q = Flow (gpm)
• Gf = Specific gravity
• ∆P = Inlet pressure - outlet pressure
• ∆P = P1 - P2

Non-Linear System

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 10
 Pressure Drop

75 gpm 450 gpm

Characteristics

• Quick Opening
– Rapid increase in flow capacity when valve begins to open
– Rate of change decreases as travel increases

• Linear
– Flow rate proportional to amount of travel
– Change in flow rate is constant with valve travel

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 11
 Characteristics (cont’d)

• Equal Percentage
– Change in flow rate is always proportional to the flow rate just before
the change in valve position is made
– Rate of change in flow increases with increased travel
– At low % opening, low changes in flow rate
– At high % opening, high changes in flow rate

• Modified Percentage (modified parabolic)

– Throttling action at low % opening
– Almost linear after approximately first 20% of opening

Inherent Flow Characteristics

QO

MP

EP

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 12
 Equal Percentage

• A flow characteristic in which equal increments in the

valve opening cause a constant percentage increase in
Cv

% Open 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Cv 5.0 7.5 11.25 16.88 25.32
Cv Change 2.5 3.75 5.625 8.44

R = Valve Rangeability
M = Valve % Open

Linear

• Responds to input signal in a uniform fashion over the

operating range with unchanging dynamics
• A flow characteristic in which equal increments in valve
opening cause equal increment changes in Cv

% Open 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Cv 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0
Cv Change 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

M = Valve % Open

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 13
 Process Gain

The relationship of the input signal change and

the resulting process change is the process gain

% Process Change
--------------------------
% Signal Change

Rangeability and Turndown

• Rangeability
– Max. controllable flow/min. controllable flow
or
– Required Cv Max./required Cv min.

• Turndown
– Max. flow/min. controllable flow

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 14
 Equal Percentage Valves

P 100
Percentage of total
90
system pressure drop
Percent of Max. Flow at Constant System

80
across valve at
70
maximum flow
60
conditions with valve
50
1 2 3 4 5 6 wide open
1: 2%
40
2: 5%
30 3: 10%
20 4: 20%
10
5: 50%
6: 100% (Valve only)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Controlled Flow: % Max CV

1: 14-100% approx. 7:1

2: 10-100% approx. 10:1
3: 7-100% approx. 15:1
4: 4-100% approx. 25:1
5: 2-100% approx. 50:1

Linear Valves

Percentage of total
100 system pressure drop
P

90 across valve at
Percent of Max. Flow at Constant System

80
1 2 3 4 5
maximum flow
70 conditions with valve
60 wide open
50 1: 5%
40
2: 10%
3: 20%
30
4: 50%
20 5: 100% (Valve only)
10

0
Controlled Flow: % Max CV
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1: 40-100% approx. 2.5:1
2: 30-100% approx. 3.3:1
3: 22-100% approx. 4.6:1
4: 14-100% approx. 7.0:1
5: 10-100% approx. 10:1

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 15
 Flashing

Pressure Profile across Valve Body

P1
INLET

Vapor
Pressure

OUTLET
P2 Pressure at Vena
Contracta

Flashing

• Flashing occurs when valve outlet pressure is below the liquid

vapor pressure
• The outlet stream is part liquid and part vapor
• Can cause sizing and mechanical problems
• Avoiding the problem:
– Minimizing downstream piping by locating the valve orifice so that it
discharges directly into the receiving vessel

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 16
 Cavitation Defined

• A two-stage phenomenon of liquid flow involving the formation

of vapor bubbles and their subsequent collapse
• The implosion of the vapor bubbles results in noise and can
cause extreme damage to the valve
• Under severe cavitating conditions, extremely hard control
valve components have failed in a matter of hours

Cavitation

Pressure Profile across the Valve Body

Inlet P1

Outlet P2
Vapor
Pressure

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 17
 Avoiding Cavitation

• Use anti-cavitation valves

• Select high FL type trim
• Relocate valve to a point of higher static pressure
• Place an additional restrictor downstream
• Size valve properly
• Place valves in series
• (Note: Selecting a hardened trim will only prolong the service)

Relative Noise Levels

• Threshold of hearing 0 dBA

• Electric clock 20 dBA
• Cocktail party 65 dBA
• Vacuum cleaner (10’) 70 dBA
• Power mower (3’) 95 dBA
• Threshold of PAIN 125 dBA
• Rock band 130 dBA

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 18
 Review of Key Points

• Valve body style determines proper applications

• Valve actuator is selected based on application and utilities
available
• Each valve style has different flow characteristics
• Pressure and temperature considerations will determine
flashing or cavitation of the fluid
• Each valve style has specific flow capacity ratings for specific
sizes
• Control valves are the primary final control element

Live Question and Answer Session

• During Q&A, questions may be asked via your telephone line.

• Press the *1 key on your telephone key-pad.
• If there are no other callers on the line, the operator will announce
your name and affiliation to the audience and then ask for your
question.
• If other participants are asking questions, you will be placed into a
queue until you are first in line.
• While in the queue, you will be in a listen-only mode until the
operator indicates that your phone has been activated. The
operator will announce your name and affiliation and then ask for
your question.

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 19
 Section 2: Control Valve Sizing

• Definitions and Terms

• Equation Development
• Valve Flow Coefficient
• Sizing and Selection
• Valve Types and Applications

Control Valve Sizing

• For liquid service

• For gas and steam service
• Bench set
• Manual vs. computer

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 20
 Cv - Valve Flow Coefficient

• The number of U.S. gallons of water at 600F which will pass

through a given restriction, per minute, with a pressure drop
of one psi
• The following equation is used for volumetric flowrate

Where:
Q = Flow thru valve in gpm
P1 = Inlet pressure in psia
P2 = Discharge pressure in psia
Gf = Flowing specific gravity
Fp = Piping reduction factor (dimensionless)

Critical Flow on Liquids

When Pvc is lower than Pv (Vapor Pressure) the fluid will
flash and possibly choke the valve. Flashing and/or
cavitation occurs Critical flow occurs when
:

The following equation is used for critical flow:

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 21
 Gas Cv Equations

Gas Volumetric Flow Rate can be determined from

following equation:

Q = Flow in scfh
Gg = Specific gravity at 600F, 14.7 psia
Z = Gas compressibility factor
x = Valve pressure drop ratio (P1 - P2)/P1
xT = Limit of x in critical flow provided by mfg.
FK = Ratio of specific heats of gas and air
T1 = Temperature in 0R

Fully Choked Flow

XT

Flow

X = Pressure drop ratio factor

XT = Point of fully choked flow

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 22
 Valve Sizing for Steam

• Valves in steam service can be sized by entering the

steam physical properties into the gas equation
• For saturated, dry steam, the following simplified
equation can be used and will provide better than 5%
accuracy

• Superheat compensation can be obtained from the

equation
Cv (superheated) = (1 + 0.0007 TSH ) Cv (saturated)

TSH = Degrees of superheat in 0F

Steam Valve Sizing Equation

Plant Equation:

Where: W is in pounds per hour.

•Sw = specific weight (pounds per cubic foot)
•P1 = psia

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 23
 Steam Valve Sizing

When a certain condition exists, the following equation may be

used:

This is true when

Sizing Equations: Sub-Critical Flow

Liquid

Gas/Vapor
(Volume)

Gas/Vapor
(Weight)

Superheated
Steam

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 24
 Which Valve Do I Need?

• Performance (ability to control well)

• Installation and effects on environment
• Maintainability and long-term cost

Review of Key Points

• Control valves are rated by flow coefficients

• The flow capacity of a valve is based on the Cv, the pressure drop
across the valve, fluid temperature, and fluid properties
• Control valves must be sized per application by hand or computer
• Specific valve styles are suited to unique fluid characteristics

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 25
 Live Question and Answer Session

• During Q&A, questions may be asked via your telephone line.

• Press the *1 key on your telephone key-pad.
• If there are no other callers on the line, the operator will announce
your name and affiliation to the audience and then ask for your
question.
• If other participants are asking questions, you will be placed into a
queue until you are first in line.
• While in the queue, you will be in a listen-only mode until the operator
indicates that your phone has been activated. The operator will
announce your name and affiliation and then ask for your question.

Section 3: Pressure Relief Devices

• Relief Valve Definitions

• Terminology
• Physical Details
• Applications
• Sizing Practices
• Installation Considerations

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 26
 Relief Valve Definitions

• Relief Valve: Relieves upstream pressure in proportion to

that pressure.
• Safety Valve: Relieves upstream pressure with rapid full
opening or POP action.
• Safety Relief Valve: Either of the above, but to protect
personnel and equipment by preventing excessive
pressure buildup.

Relief Valve Terminology

• Operating Pressure – Normal vessel or system working

pressure.
• MAWP – Maximum Allowable Working Pressure that is
permissible for design.
• Set Pressure – Inlet pressure to which the valve is set to
operate.
• Rated Capacity – Flow at given % over pressure permitted
by code.
• Operating vs. Set Pressure Differential – Best if 10% or 25
psi Minimum.

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 27
 Relief Valve Cutaway

Relief Valve Sizing

• Steam Application:

• Where:

– Ac = Area of valve nozzle (square inches)

– W = Flow in lbs per hour
– P1 = Rated flowing pressure (psia)
– Ksh = Superheat correction
– Kn = Napier Factor (only for >1580 psi)
– Kb = Back Pressure Factor (normally 1)
– Kd = Coefficient of orifice discharge

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 28
 Sizing Example

• A 150 PSIG (nominal) Steam Header

• Inlet valve capacity = 50,000 PPH
• Wide open capacity = 100,000 PPH
• MAWP = 180 PSIG Set Pressure = 165 PSIG
• Steam Temperature = 440 Deg. F

P1 = 1.1 (P) + 14.7 = 1.1 (165) + 14.7 = 196 PSIA

Ksh = .98 Kd = .855
Kb = 1.0 Kn = 1.0

Relief Valve Sizing Example

• Ac = 11.82 square inches

• ASME has defined orifice sizes that are available from all
manufacturers
• D is the smallest and T is the largest of the 17 sizes
• Orifice Q has an area of 12.85 square inches and will be the
selected orifice in a 6”x8” valve
• The flange rating should match the flanges for the piping
specs.

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 29
 Installation Considerations

• Close couple to pipe or vessel

• Use same size inlet pipe as valve inlet
• Use Same size outlet pipe or larger when needed
• No isolation valves on inlet or outlet
• Allow for large reaction forces and thermal stresses in
outlet piping
• Check noise level of vent stack exit
• Vent pipe must have rain hood and drain

Review of Key Points

• Relief valves are part of the overall safety system

• A primary concern is the determination of the capacity required
for the safety valve
• Safety relief valves are installed to protect equipment from over
pressure and the resulting damage

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 30
 Live Question and Answer Session

• During Q&A, questions may be asked via your telephone line.

• Press the *1 key on your telephone key-pad.
• If there are no other callers on the line, the operator will
announce your name and affiliation to the audience and then ask
for your question.
• If other participants are asking questions, you will be placed into
a queue until you are first in line.
• While in the queue, you will be in a listen-only mode until the
operator indicates that your phone has been activated. The
operator will announce your name and affiliation and then ask for
your question.

How Many People Are at Your Site?

• Poll Slide
• Click on the appropriate number indicating the number of
people that are at your site.

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 31
 Sample Exam Question - #1

• A control valve is to be sized for the following conditions:

Liquid flow, 50 GPM, specific gravity = .81, inlet pressure of
240 psig, with a pressure drop of 10 psi. The required flow
coefficient for the valve will most nearly be:

A. 10.4
B. 14.2
C. 22
D. 35.5

Sample Exam Question - #2

• A control valve is to be sized for the following conditions:

Saturated steam at a maximum flow rate of 30,000 pounds
per hour and an upstream pressure of 40 psia. P2 will be 30
psia according to the flow sheet and physical piping
arrangement. The required flow coefficient for the valve will
most nearly be:

A. 260
B. 540
C. 760
D. 198

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 32
 Sample Exam Question - #3

• A relief valve is needed for a supply steam header in a plant. It

is determined the maximum relief capacity needed is 100,000
pounds per hour with a set pressure of 165 psig for a maximum
allowable working pressure of 180 psia. The steam temperature
is 440 degrees F giving a superheat correction factor of .98. The
calculated orifice area for the relief valve is most nearly equal to:

A. 8.2 sq. in.

B. 11.8 sq. in.
C. 4.4 sq. in.
D. 14.4 sq. in.

Sample Exam Question - #4

• In a gas flow control loop, the control valve has the following process
conditions:
Inlet Pressure (P1) = 65 psig
Outlet Pressure (P2) = 15 psig
Gas Temperature = 140 degrees F
Gas Molecular Weight = 40
If only the open flow area (X) of the valve increased, which of the following best
describes how the mass flow (F) would change?
A. F2 = F1 (X1/X2) ½
B. F2 = F1 (X2/X1) ½
C. F2 = F1 (X2/X1)
D. F2 = F1 (X2/X1) 2

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 33
 Related Courses from ISA

• Sizing, Selecting, and Applying Process Control Valves (EI30)

• All ISA courses are available any time as on-site training

• For more information: www.isa.org/training or (919) 549-8411

Other Related Resources from ISA

• Control Valve Primer, 3rd Edition (H. D. Baumann) from ISA Press
• Control Systems Engineering Study Guide, 4th Edition from ISA Press
• Fisher Control Valve Handbook, 2nd Edition
• ISA75.01.01-2002 – Flow Equations for Sizing Control Valves

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 34
 Other Related Resources from ISA

• ISA Membership is just $100 per year, which includes free

membership in two Technical Divisions (a $20 value) - one
from each Department: Automation and Technology and
Industries and Sciences.

– For more information: http://www.isa.org/membership/meminfo or

(919) 549-8411

ISA Certifications

• Certified Automation Professionals ® (CAP ®)

– www.isa.org/CAP
• Certified Control Systems Technician® (CCST®)
– www.isa.org/CCST

• Please visit us online for more information on any of these

programs, or call (919) 549-8411.

© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 35
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© 2011, ISA
EN00W5 (1.4) 36