0% found this document useful (0 votes)

134 views

Ce6401 PDF

This document provides a syllabus, aim, objectives, and lesson plan for a course on construction materials. The syllabus covers 5 units that will be taught over 45 periods. The aim is to study materials commonly used in construction and their properties, as well as concrete mix design principles. The lesson plan provides topics to be covered in each unit, along with the required hours and cumulative hours. The objectives are to introduce various construction materials, study advanced concrete types and applications, and impart knowledge on material properties, quality control testing, and hands-on learning activities. Textbooks and references are also listed.

Uploaded by

Prithiv D Cruzz

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

134 views

Ce6401 PDF

Uploaded by

Prithiv D Cruzz

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 143

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.

net

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

**Note: Other Websites/Blogs Owners Please do not Copy (or) Republish

this Materials, Students & Graduates if You Find the Same Materials with
EasyEngineering.net Watermarks or Logo, Kindly report us to
[email protected]

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Table of Contents

SL.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

1 syllabus i

2 Aim and objective ii

3 Detailed lesson plan iii

4 UNIT 1

PART – A 1

PART – B 4

ww PART – C 16

w
5

.Ea
UNIT 2

PART – A 24

syE PART – B 27

ngi
PART – C 43

6 UNIT 3
nee
PART – A
rin 50

PART – B

PART – C g.n
53

7 UNIT 4 et
PART – A 82

PART – B 85

PART – C 103

8 UNIT 5

PART – A 111

PART – B 113

PART – C 122

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI-25

SYLLABUS COPY
REGULATION 2013

CE6401 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS LTPC:3003

OBJECTIVES:
 To introduce students to various materials commonly used in civil engineering
construction and their properties.
UNIT I STONES – BRICKS – CONCRETE BLOCKS 9
Stone as building material – Criteria for selection – Tests on stones – Deterioration and
Preservation of stone work – Bricks – Classification – Manufacturing of clay bricks – Tests
on bricks – Compressive Strength – Water Absorption – Efflorescence – Bricks for special
use – Refractory bricks – Cement, Concrete blocks – Light weight concrete blocks.
UNIT II LIME – CEMENT – AGGREGATES – MORTAR 9
Lime – Preparation of lime mortar – Cement – Ingredients – Manufacturing process – Types

ww
and Grades – Properties of cement and Cement mortar – Hydration – Compressive strength
– Tensile strength – Fineness– Soundness and consistency – Setting time – Industrial
byproducts – Fly ash – Aggregates – Natural stone aggregates – Crushing strength – Impact

w
strength – Flakiness Index – Elongation Index – Abrasion Resistance – Grading – Sand
Bulking.
UNIT III
.Ea
CONCRETE 9
Concrete – Ingredients – Manufacturing Process – Batching plants – RMC – Properties of

syE
fresh concrete – Slump – Flow and compaction Factor – Properties of hardened concrete –
Compressive, Tensile and shear strength – Modulus of rupture – Tests – Mix specification –
Mix proportioning – BIS method – High Strength Concrete and HPC – Self compacting

UNIT IV TIMBER AND OTHER MATERIALS ngi

Concrete – Other types of Concrete – Durability of Concrete.
9

nee
Timber – Market forms – Industrial timber– Plywood – Veneer – Thermacole – Panels of
laminates – Steel – Aluminum and Other Metallic Materials – Composition – Aluminium
composite panel – Uses – Market forms – Mechanical treatment – Paints – Varnishes –
Distempers – Bitumens.
UNIT V MODERN MATERIALS
rin 9

g.n
Glass – Ceramics – Sealants for joints – Fibre glass reinforced plastic – Clay products –
Refractories – Composite materials – Types – Applications of laminar composites – Fibre

et
textiles – Geomembranes andGeotextiles for earth reinforcement.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Varghese.P.C, “Building Materials”, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2012.
2. Rajput. R.K., “Engineering Materials”, S. Chand and Company Ltd., 2008.
3. Shetty.M.S., “Concrete Technology Theory and Practice”, S. Chand and Company
Ltd.,2008.
4. Gambhir.M.L., “Concrete Technology”, 3rd Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Education, 2004
5. Duggal.S.K., “Building Materials”, 4th Edition, New Age International , 2008.

REFERENCES:
1. Jagadish.K.S, “Alternative Building Materials Technology”, New Age International, 2007.
2. Gambhir. M.L., & Neha Jamwal., “Building Materials, products, properties and systems”,
Tata McGraw Hill Educations Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2012.
3. IS456 – 2000: Indian Standard specification for plain and reinforced concrete, 2011
4. IS4926–2003 : Indian Standard specification for ready–mixed concrete, 2012
5. IS383–1970: Indian Standard specification for coarse and fine aggregate from natural
Sources for concrete, 2011 6. IS1542–1992: Indian standard specification for sand for
plaster, 2009

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS
Department of Civil Engineering
Name of the Subject& Code: CE6401 & CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

AIM OF THE SUBJECT:

 To study various materials commonly used in civil engineering construction

and their properties.
 To study the concrete mix design principles and also to find the mix ratio for
various grades using BIS methods.
 To study the application of modern materials commonly used in civil
engineering construction and their properties.

ww
Course objective

w
 Demonstrate desirable work habits.

.Ea
 Appreciate and demonstrate high standards of workmanship.
 Improve construction layout skills.

syE
 Identify plumbing tools and materials.
 Develop and apply basic skills in plumbing work.

ngi
 Identify electrical wiring tools and materials.
 Develop and apply basic skills in electrical wiring work.
Course outcome
 nee
To cover in-detail commonly used modern construction materials.

rin
To study various advanced types of concretes, their characteristics and


applications.
g.n
To introduce special kinds of formworks and foundations for towers and


machines.
To understand special issues related high rise buildings, low cost housing
and modular construction.
et
 To understand various boring techniques.
 To expose students to the various building and general construction
products and their associated quality, durability, warrantees, and availability.
 To impart knowledge of various types of properties, uses, and variety of
materials important in construction.
 To expose students to various quality control aspects of the civil
engineering materials by performing different lab test on materials.
 To provide hands-on, research, and collaborative activities to vary and
deepen the study of construction materials.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Detailed Lesson Plan

Name of the Subject& Code: CE6401 &
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Hours Cumulative
Sl. Topic / Portions to be Books
Unit Required Hrs
No Covered Referred
/ Planned
1 Stone as building material – 1
1. 1 TB1,RB2
Criteria for selection
2. 1 Tests on stones 1 2 TB1,RB2
1 Deterioration and Preservation of 1 3 TB1,RB2
3.
stone work
4. 1 Bricks – Classification 1 4 TB1,RB2
5. 1 Manufacturing of clay bricks 1 5 TB1,RB2

ww
6.
1 Tests on bricks Compressive
Strength – Water Absorption –
Efflorescence
1 6 TB1,RB2

7.
8.
9.
w 1
1
1
Bricks for special use

.Ea
Refractory bricks
Cement Concrete blocks – Light
weight concrete blocks.
1
1
1
7
8
9
TB1,RB2
TB1,RB2
TB1,RB2

10. 2
mortar syE
Lime – Preparation of lime 1 10 TB1,RB2

ngi
2 Cement – Ingredients, 1 11 TB1,RB2
11.
Manufacturing process
12. 2 Types and Grades – 1 12 TB1,RB2
13. 2 Properties of cement and
Cement mortar – Hydration nee 1 13 TB1,RB2

14.
2 Compressive strength – Tensile
strength – Fineness– Soundness
1
rin
14 TB1,RB2

g.n
and consistency – Setting time
2 Industrial byproducts – Fly ash – 1 15 TB1,RB2
15. Aggregates – Natural stone

16. 2

2
aggregates
Crushing strength – Impact
strength
Flakiness Index – Elongation
1

1
16

17
TB1,RB2

TB1,RB2
et
17. Index – Abrasion Resistance
18. 2 Grading – Sand Bulking. 1 18 TB1,RB2
3 Concrete – Ingredients – 1 19 TB3,RB3
19.
Manufacturing Process
20. 3 Batching plants 1 20 TB3,RB3
3 RMC – Properties of fresh 1 21 TB3,RB3
21.
concrete
3 Slump – Flow and compaction 1 22 TB3,RB4
22.
Factor
3 Properties of hardened concrete 1 23 TB3,RB4
– Compressive, Tensile and
23. shear strength – Modulus of
rupture –
24. 3 Tests 1 24 TB3,RB4

iii

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

3 Mix specification – Mix 1 25 TB3,RB4

25.
proportioning – BIS method
3 High Strength Concrete and HPC 1 26 TB3,RB4
26.
– Self compacting Concrete
3 Other types of Concrete – 1 27 TB3,RB4
27.
Durability of Concrete.
28. 4 Timber – Market forms 1 28 TB1,RB2
29. 4 Industrial timber– Plywood 1 29 TB1,RB2
30. 4 Veneer – Thermacole 1 30 TB1,RB2
31. 4 Panels of laminates 1 31 TB1,RB2
4 – Steel – Aluminum and Other 1 32 TB1,RB2
32. Metallic Materials
33. 4 Composition 1 33 TB1,RB2
4 Aluminium composite panel – 1 34 TB1,RB2
34. Uses
4 Market forms – Mechanical 1 35 TB1,RB2

ww
35.

36. 4
treatment
Paints – Varnishes – Distempers 1 36 TB1,RB2

37.
38.w 5
5
5
– Bitumens.
Glass

.Ea
Ceramics
Sealants for joints – Fibre glass
1
1
1
37
38
39
TB1,RB1
TB1,RB1
TB1,RB1
39.
40.
41.
5
5
Clay products
Refractories
syE
reinforced plastic
1
1
40
41
TB1,RB1
TB1,RB1

42.
5 Composite materials – Types –
Applications of laminar ngi 1 42 TB1,RB1

43. 5
composites
Fibre textiles nee 1 43 TB1,RB1
44.
45.
5
5
Geomembranes
Geotextiles for earth
1
1
rin
44
45
TB1,RB1
TB1,RB1
reinforcement.

g.n
et

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

UNIT 1
STONE-BRICK-CONCRETE BLOCKS
PART – A 2 marks)

1. List any four tests on stones.Apr/May 2015

 Attrition test
 Crushing test
 Freezing and thawing test

ww 
Hardness test
Impact test

w.E
Microscopic test
2. What do you mean by lightweight concrete blocks? Nov/Dec2015

asy
Light weight concrete brick it is also called as Autoclaved Aerated


concrete.

En
It is a light weight, precast building material that simultaneously provides

gin
structures, insulation, and fire resistance.
3. How are rocks classified?
 Igneous rocks eer
 Sedimentary rocks
ing
 Metamorphic rocks
4. List the characteristics to be considered in selection of stones. .ne
may/june 2016 Nov/Dec2015
1. Crushing strength 5. Fracture
t
2. Appearance 6. Density
3. Durability 7.Easiness of dressing
4. Fire resistance
5. What are the tests for bricks?
1. Absorption test 2. Crushing strength test
3. Hardness test 4. Shape and size test
5. Soundness test 6. Test for presence of soluble salts

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

6. Define water absorption.

 It is defined as the ability of a material to absorb and hold the water. Water
absorption can be expressed in terms of percentage of weight or percentage of
volume of that material.
7. What are the methods of quarrying stones?
1.Digging or excavating 2.Heating
3. Wedging 4. Blasting
8. What are the classification of bricks?
1. First class bricks 2. Second class bricks

ww 3. Third class bricks

5. Under burnt or pilla bricks
4. Over burnt or Jhama bricks

w.E
9. What are the uses of stone in construction?


Masonry
Pavementsasy
 Flooring
En


Facing work in buildings
Concrete aggregates gin
10. Classify bricks according to their use.
eer


Common bricks
ing
Engineering bricks special bricks for carrying heavy loads)
 Facing bricks
.ne


Fire bricks
Specials special shapes)
t
11. List the tests made on bricks.
 Compressive strength
 Water absorption
 Efflorescence
 Hardness
 Soundness.
 Structure

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

12. Classify minerals based on abrasion.

 Talc
 Gypsum
 Calcite
 Apatite
 feldspar
 Quartz
 Diamond.

ww
13. What is Preservation of stones?
 It is the preventing process of stones from deterioration by external agencies.

w.E
14. Name any four preservatives used in the preservation of stones?


Coal tar
Linseed oil asy
 Paint
En


Paraffin
gin
eer
Alum soap solution

15. What is the standard size of a brick?

19cm x 9cm x 9cm WITHOUT MORTAR) ing
16. list the different types of refractory bricks. may/june 2016
.ne
Silica bricks
Magnesite bricks
Dolomite brick
t
Bauxite brick
High alumina brick
17. Define the term Efflorescence.Apr/May 2015
The soluble salts if present in the bricks cause white deposit on the surface of
bricks which is called as efflorescence.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

PART B 13 marks

1. Write short notes on deterioration defects) of stones and

preservation of stones? Nov/Dec 2015)
The following are the main causes for deterioration of stones:
1. Alternate wetting and drying.
2. Alternate freezing and thawing.
3. Deleterious substances present in the air such as in the atmosphere near the
seashores and industrial areas.

ww
4. Living organisms, growth of vegetation like seedlings of banyan trees that grow

w.E
from droppings of birds) and living worms or bacteria that live in the stone can
cause decay.

asy
Movement of chemicals between materials. This occurs when lime stones and
sandstones are used together. The granular limestone can absorb magnisium

En
5. sulphate present in other rocks if they are used adjacent to the other.

gin
6. Nature of mortar. If the mortar has chemicals, they can affect the stonework.

eer
7. Temperature variation. Large variations of temperature and alternate heating
and cooling can cause expansion and contraction which cause cracking of
stone.
ing
.ne
8. Waterfalls and rainfalls. Falling of water from great heights or falling of water
containing chemicals like rainwater absorbing gases from the atmosphere
can cause deterioration of stones.
9. Winds blowing for a long time can over deserts contain sand and dust, which
t
passing over the stones for a long lime can cause their deterioration.
Preservation of stones
There are two aspects to be considered under this heading. Firstly, the precautions to
be taken before and during the construction of stonework and secondly, the steps to
be taken after the stonework has been completed.
I. Precautions during Construction
The precautions to be taken during the construction are the following:
The type and size of stones selected should be good. Only compact and
4

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

durable stones should be selected for construction. The size of these stones should
be as large as possible to minimize the number of joints. The stones should be well
seasoned and washed clean before they are used. The construction should be up to
the required specifications. The stones should be placed on their natural beds and
the joints completely filled with mortar so that there is no cavity. External renderings
like pointing is preferred for exposed stones. Otherwise, it should be plastered with
high -quality plaster.
II. Methods of Preservation of Completed Stonework
Stonework after construction also needs careful attention if they are to be

ww
preserved in their natural condition. The art of preserving ancient stone statues in
museums consists of special techniques and is a specialised subject. For preserving

w.E
stonework in buildings which tend to deteriorate with time, we usually resort to

asy
coating the stone with one of the following preservatives.
a Linseed oil. Raw linseed oil is light in colour while boiled linseed oil is dark

En
and hence discolour the stone.

gin
b Solution of alum and soap. Alum and soap in 40 to 60 proportions
respectively dissolved in water can be applied on the stone to act as a
protective coating.
eer
ing
c) Solution of barium hydroxide Baryta. If the decay is due to CaSO 4 ,

then this treatment is effective. The reaction is as follows

.ne
d BaOH) 2 + CaSO4 = BaSO4 + CaOH) 2

a. The barium sulphate is insoluble and the CaOH) 2

absorbs carbon
t
dioxide and gives strength to the stonework.
Paraffin. It is used alone or dissolved in naphtha as a paint medium. However it may
changes the colour of the stone.
Paint. Painting preserves the stone but changes the colour of the stone. If applied
under pressure, it can till the pores in the stone. The paint should be neutral and
should not react with the stone. Modern colourless paints are also available.
coal tar. Even though it is listed as a preservative, it is a highly objectionable material
to be used as it completely changes the colour of the stone. The chemicals in

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

coal tar may not also suit some types of stones.

III. Conservation of Granite
As there are a large number of art works and monuments made of granite in this
world, a large amount of research has gone into methods of conservation of granite.
In general the following three methods are commonly used depending on the state
of existence of the granite work to be made good:
Consolidation using consolidates
Injection using injection materials
2. Explain physical tests on stones.

ww
Physical tests on stones:

w.E
Building stones are to be tested for the following tests:
1. Absorption test

asy
2. Smith's test
3. Toughness test
4. Moh's scale of hardness test
En
5. Acid test
6. Crystallization test gin
7. Attrition test
eer
8. Crushing test
9. Freezing and thawing test for cold countries) ing
10. Hardness test
.ne
11. Impact test
12. Microscopic test
SIMPLE FIELD TESTS:
t
i. Absorption test This is a simple test that should be done on all stones. It
consists of keeping a sample of rock of about 50 gm in distilled water and
finding the water absorbed in 24 hours. It should not exceed 0.6 per cent.
ii. Smith's test This test is to determine the deterioration of stones when
immersed in water. A sample of the stone is placed in distilled water in a
glass vessel and vigorously stirred. It is kept in water for at least 24 hours. If
the water turns muddy, then the stone contains earthy substances. Some

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

very consolidated sands which look like sandstones simply slump under water
in this test. We should ensure that all stones we use pass this test.
iii. Toughness test. Hit the stone with a hammer and find how tough it is to
break it with the hammer.
iv. Mohr's scale of hardness test. One simple way of describing strength of
stones is in terms of hardness of the surface. We scratch the stone with a
penknife and classify hardness by Moh's scale of hardness. It is based on the
relative abrasiveness of minerals the softest being talc and the hardest
diamond, the scale being divided into 10 scales as shown below:

ww 1. Talc
3.Calcite
2.Gypsum
4.Fluorspar

w.E 5.Apatite 6.Orthoclase feldspar

asy
7.Quartz 8.Topaz
9.Diamond

En
Acid test This is to test the presence of poorly weathering calcium carbonates in

gin
sandstones. The test consists of placing a cube of the stone weighing about 50 to 100
gm in one per cent hydrochloric acid for 7 days. A good building stone should be free

eer
from powder formation on the surface of the cube and the sharp edges should not be
broken up after the above immersion.
v. ing
Crystallization test This test consists in immersing a sample of stone cubes of

.ne
say 40mm in 14 per cent sodium sulphate solution for two hours and th en drying
it in an oven at 100°C. This procedure is repeated for at least five times. The loss
of weight and the presence of cracking are noted. There should not be any visible
defect formed, and the loss in weight should be minimal.
t
LABORATORY TESTS:
i. Attrition test as described under coarse aggregates). This is carried out in a
Deval testing machine.
ii. Crushing test This test consists of finding the compressive strength of a stone
cube 40 mm in size in a compression -testing machine. The rate of loading used
is 140 kg per cm- per minute.
iii. Freezing and thawing test. This test is applicable to the regions where the

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

temperature can go below the freezing point. It consists of keeping a specimen of

the stone in water for 24 hours and then freezing it at —12°C for 24 hours. It is
then thawed. This is repeated at least seven times after which the specimens are
carefully examined for any damage.
iv. Hardness test This test is different from the attrition test. Here, we use the
Dorry's testing machine. A cylinder of 25 mm of the rock is rubbed against a steel
disc sprinkled with coarse sand. The specimen is given a pressure of 1.25 kg.
After 1000 revolutions, the loss in weight is determined.

ww
Coefficient of hardness =
20 loss of weight in gm

w.E
asy
3
v. Microscopic test In this test, thin sections of the stone are taken and placed

En
under the microscope to study its grain size, mineral constituents and
presence of harmful materials.
gin
3. Describe the various tests on bricks. Nov/Dec 2015
eer
TESTS FOR BRICKS
The tests to be made on bricks ing
1. Compressive strength
.ne
2. Water absorption
3. Efflorescence
4. Dimensional tolerance
t
5. Hardness
6. Soundness.
7. Structure
1. Compressive strength. Five bricks are taken at random and their dimensions are
measured to 1 mm accuracy. They are, then, immersed in water of 25°C to 29°C for
24 hours. The surplus moisture is allowed to drain and the frog. if any. is filled with
mortar 1:3 1 cement, 3 clea n coarse sand 3 mm and down. It is kept under a jute

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

bag for another 24 hours after which it is immersed in clean water for three days. At
the time of testing, these bricks are removed from water, wiped dry of any trace of
moisture and placed with the flat surface horizontal and mortar- filled face up
between three plywood sheets each of 3 mm thickness plaster of Paris may also be
used to ensure uniform surface.
The load is applied at the rate of 140 kg/cm 2 per minute till the failure of the
specimen takes place as indicated by the needle of the testing machine turning
back. Average of the five test values is reported. While finding the average, any
single value obtained as compressive strength which is higher than the upper value

ww
of the class of the bricks tested, should be taken only as the upper limit of the class.
Values less than 20% below the average value should be discarded. The average

w.E
value should not be less than the specified value.

asy
2. Water absorption. Five bricks are taken for test. They are allowed to dry in an

En
oven at110' to 115° C till they attain a constant weight which usually takes place in

gin
48 hours. They are then allowed to cool at room temperature, which generally takes

4 to 6 hours without a fan and 2 to 3 hours with a fan blowing on it and weight W 1 is

measured. eer
ing
3. Efflorescence. This test should he conducted in a well -ventilated room at 18-

.ne
30°C.Average value on five samples taken at random is to he reported. The brick is
placed vertically in a dish 30 cm x 20 cm approximately in size with 2.5 cm
immersed in distilled water. The whole water is allowed to be absorbed by the brick
and evaporated through it. After the bricks appear dry, a similar quantity of water is
t
placed in the dish, and the water is allowed to evaporate as before. The brick is to
be examined after the second evaporation and reported as follows:

a Nil. When there is no perceptible deposit of salt.

b Slight. When not more than 10 per cent of the area of brick is covered with salt.
c) Moderate. When there is heavy deposit covering up to 50% of the area of the
brick but unaccompanied by powdering or flaking of the surface.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

d Heavy. When there is heavy deposit covering more than 50% of the area of the
brick accompanied by powdering or flaking of the surface.
e Serious. When there is a heavy deposit of salts accompanied by powdering
and/or flaking of the surface and this deposition tends to increase in the repeated
wetting of the specimen.
Bricks for general construction should not have more than slight -to –moderate
efflorescence.
4. Dimensional tolerance. Twenty whole bricks are selected at random to
checkmeasurement of length, width, height, etc. These dimensions are to be

ww measured in one or two Variations in dimensions are allowed only within narrow
limits, ±3 % for class one and ±8% for other classes.
5.
w.E
Hardness. A scratch is made on the surface of the brick with the finger

asy
nail. In a goodbrick, no impression will be left on the surface

En
4. Write the Criteria for Selection of Stone? May/June2016)

gin
The essential requirements of building stones used for structural work are given below

Strength
eer
ing
Ordinarily, the strength of a stone is not of primary importance, as very often the
loads to which it is subjected in a structure are much below its permissible
crushing strength .ne
Durability t
Stones should possess a natural durability to withstand the destructive effects of
various agents continuously operating on them. In fact, the life of a structure
depends upon the durability of the materials with which it is built. The durability of
a stone depends upon the relation between its chemical composition and that of
the atmospheric surroundings. The texture of the stone also influences its
durability. Crystalline homogeneous and close-grained varieties of stones with a
dense structure should be selected for good works. The surface of a freshly

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

broken stone should be uniform in texture, colour and hardness. Porous stones
or those containing patches of soft or objectionable materials are liable to
disintegrate quickly.

Cost
An important consideration in the selection of building stone is its cost. Other
things being equal, the cost of a stone depends upon the ease with which it can
be quarried out, the proximity of the quarry to the place of use, and the
transportation facilities available. The subsequent cost of dressing a stone,

wwbefore it is placed directly in the structure, should also be low.

w.E
Appearance
In the case of the stone used for face work, where appearance is a primary

asy
factor, its colour and ability to receive polish is an important factor.

Hardness
En
gin
The stone used in floors, pavements and aprons of bridges, should be able to

eer
resist the abrasive forces caused due to wear and friction. Hardness of stones
can be tested by the Mohr’s scale of hardness in the laboratory and in the field by

ing
scraping the surface with a sharp knife. A hard stone will not show any scratches.

Toughness .ne
Building stones should also be tough enough to withstand stresses developed
due to vibrations of machinery and moving loads over them. The stones used in
t
the construction of roads should be hard as well as tough.

Specific Gravity and Weight

The stones used for the construction of dams, weirs, barrages, docks and
harbours should be of a heavier variety. In case of dams and roof coverings,
lighter varieties of stones are preferred. The specific gravity of good building
stones should be between 2.4 and 2.8.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Porosity and Absorption

A good stone should not be porous, rain water, enter the pores which is generally
acidic, Chemical Composition of Stone Limestone and weak sandstone are
relatively less durable than a good sandstone, granite or gneiss. Air and water,
containing carbon dioxide, seriously affect limestone. Iron pyrites also tend to
disintegrate stones; excess iron oxide or carbonate in stones develops rust in the
presence of moisture; presence of clay affects the efficiency of the cementing
materials; soda and potash also have a disintegrating effect; all varieties of mica
are soft and are readily decomposed by exposure to atmosphere. Stones with

ww silicates as the cementing material will weather better than those with calcareous
or ferruginous binding material.

Texture
w.E
asy
The texture of a stone indicates the arrangement of its constituent minerals.

En
Good building stone should be homogeneous in structure. Stones with
homogeneous and crystalline texture are hard and compact and superior to non-

gin
crystalline and open-texture varieties. Generally, igneous and metamorphic rocks

eer
such as granite, trap and gneiss are hard and compact. Sandstone, limestone
and some of the metamorphic rocks are porous. Amorphous rocks like glass,

ing
flint, etc. have a fused texture and are hard and compact.

5. List the Classification of Bricks .ne

First Class Bricks
1. These are thoroughly burnt and are of deep red, cherry or copper colour.
t
2. The surface should be smooth and rectangular, with parallel, sharp and
straight edges and square corners.
3. These should be free from flaws, cracks and stones.
4. These should have uniform texture.
5. No impression should be left on the brick when a scratch is made by a finger
nail.
6. The fractured surface of the brick should not show lumps of lime.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

7. A metallic or ringing sound should come when two bricks are struck against
each other.
8. Water absorption should be 12–15% of its dry weight when immersed in cold
water for 24hours. The crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 10
N/mm2. This limit varies with different Government organizations around the
country.
Uses:
First class bricks are recommended for pointing, exposed face work in masonry
structures,

ww
Flooring and reinforced brick work.
Second Class Bricks are supposed to have the same requirements as the first class

w.E
ones except that

asy
1. Small cracks and distortions are permitted.
2. A little higher water absorption of about 16–20% of its dry weight is allowed.

En
3. The crushing strength should not be less than 7.0 N/mm2.
Uses:
gin
Second class bricks are recommended for all important or unimportant hidden masonry

eer
works and centering of reinforced brick and reinforced cement concrete RCC)
structures.
ing
Third Class Bricks are underburnt. They are soft and light-coloured producing a dull
sound when struck against each other. Water absorption is about 25 per cent of dry
.ne
weight.
Uses :It is used for building temporary structures.
Fourth Class Bricks are overburnt and badly distorted in shape and size and are brittle
t
in nature.
Uses: The ballast of such bricks is used for foundation and floors in lime concrete and
road metal.
On Strength
The Bureau of Indian Standards BIS has clas sified the bricks on the basis of
compressive strength.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Classification of Bricks based on Compressive Strength IS: 1077

Class Average compressive strength not less than

N/mm2
35 35.0
30.0 30.0
25.0 25.0
20.0 20.0
17.5 17.5

ww 15.0 15.0
12.5
10.0 w.E 12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0 asy 7.5
5.0
3.5 3.5
En
gin
Notes: 1. The burnt clay bricks having compressive strength more than 40.0 N/mm 2 are

eer
known as heavy duty bricks and are used for heavy duty structures such as bridges,

ing
foundations for industrial buildings, Multistorey buildings, etc. The water absorption of
these bricks is limited to 5 per cent.
2. Each class of bricks as specified above is further divided into subclasses A and B
.ne
based on tolerances and shape. Subclass-A bricks should have smooth rectangular
faces with sharp corners and uniform colour. Subclass-B bricks may have slightly t
distorted and round edges.
On the Basis of Use
Common Brick is a general multi-purpose unit manufactured economically without
special reference to appearance. These may vary greatly in strength and durability and
are used for filling, backing and in walls where appearance is of no consequence.
Facing Bricks are made primarily with a view to have good appearance, either of
colour or texture or both. These are durable under severe exposure and are used in
fronts of building walls for which a pleasing appearance is desired.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Engineering Bricks are strong, impermeable, smooth, table moulded, hard and
conform to defined limits of absorption and strength. These are used for all load bearing
structures.
On the Basis of Finish
Sand-faced Brick has textured surface manufactured by sprinkling sand on the inner
surfaces of the mould.
Rustic Brick has mechanically textured finish, varying in pattern.
On the Basis of Manufacture
Hand-made: These bricks are hand moulded.

ww
Machine-made: Depending upon mechanical arrangement, bricks are known as wire-

w.E
cut bricks—bricks cut from clay extruded in a column and cut off into brick sizes by
wires; pressed-bricks—when bricks are manufactured from stiff plastic or semi-dry clay

asy
and pressed into moulds; moulded bricks—when bricks are moulded by machines
imitating hand mixing.
On the Basis of Burning
En
gin
Pale Bricks are underburnt bricks obtained from outer portion of the kiln.

eer
Body Bricks are well burnt bricks occupying central portion of the kiln.
Arch Bricks are overburnt also known as clinker bricks obtained from inner portion of
the kiln.
ing
On the Basis of Types
.ne
Solid: Small holes not exceeding 25 per cent of the volume of the brick are permitted;
alternatively, frogs not exceeding 20 per cent of the total volume are permitted.
Perforated: Small holes may exceed 25 per cent of the total volume of the brick.
t
Hollow: The total of holes, which need not be small, may exceed 25 per cent of the
volume of the brick.
Cellular: Holes closed at one end exceed 20 per cent of the volume.
Note: Small holes are less than 20 mm or less than 500 mm 2 in cross section.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

PART – C (15 MARKS

1. With neat sketches explain in detail about the Manufacturing process
of Bricks. May/June2016) Apr/May2015)
Bricks are manufactured by moulding clay in rectangular moulds or blocks) of
uniform size and then drying and burning these blocks.
1. Preparation of clay
2. Moulding
3. Drying

ww 4. Burning
Additives in the Manufacture of Bricks

w.E
Certain additives such as fly ash, sandy loam, rice husk ash, basalt stone dust,
etc. are often Required not only to modify the shaping, drying and firing

asy
behaviour of clay mass, but also to help conserve agricultural land and utilise

 En
waste materials available in large quantities.
These additives should, however, have a desirable level of physical and chemical

gin
characteristics so as to modify the behaviour of clay mass within the optimum

eer
range without any adverse effect on the performance and durability.
Fly Ash: A waste material available in large quantities from thermal power plants can

ing
be added to alluvial, red, black, marine clays, etc. The fly ash contains amorphous
glassy material,
earths. .ne
magnetite, etc. and shows a chemical composition similar to brick

 These silicates also help towards strength development in clay bodies on firing,
when mixed in optimum proportion depending on the physio-chemical and plastic
t
properties of soils to be used for brick making. .
Sandy Loam: Addition of sandy loam is often found effective in controlling the drying
behaviour of highly plastic soil mass containing expanding group of clay minerals.
Sandy loam should preferably have a mechanical composition as specified below. The
material should, however, meet the other requirement as well.
Rice Husk Ash: The ash should preferably have un burnt carbon content in the range
of 3–5% and

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

should be free from extraneous material. It can be used with plastic black red soils
showing excessive shrinkage.
Basalt Stone Dust: Basalt stone occurs underneath the black cotton soil and its dust is
a waste product available in large quantity from basalt stone crushing units. The finer
fraction from basalt stone units is mixed with soil mass to modify the shaping, drying
and firing behaviour of bricks. The dust recommended for use as an additive with brick
earth should be fine passing 1 mm sieve, free from coarse materials or mica flakes
and should be of non-calcitic or dolomitic origin.
Operations Involved in Manufacturing of Clay Bricks

ww
Preparation of Brick Earth
It consists of the following operations.

w.E
Unsoiling: The soil used for making building bricks should be processed so as to be

asy
free of gravel,
coarse sand practical size more than 2 mm, lime and kankar p articles, organic matter,

En
etc. About 20 cm of the top layer of the earth, normally containing stones, pebbles,

gin
gravel, roots, etc., is removed after clearing the trees and vegetation.
Digging: After removing the top layer of the earth, proportions of additives such as fly

eer
ash, sandy loam, rice husk ash, stone dust, etc. should be spread over the plane

ing
ground surface on volume basis. The soil mass is then manually excavated, puddled,
watered and left over for weathering and subsequent processing. The digging operation
should be done before rains.
.ne
Weathering: Stones, gravels, pebbles, roots, etc. are removed from the dug earth and
the soil is heaped on level ground in layers of 60–120 cm. The soil is left in heaps and
exposed to weather for at least one month in cases where such weathering is
t
considered necessary for the soil.
 This is done to develop homogeneity in the mass of soil, particularly if they are
from different sources, and also to eliminate the impurities which get oxidized.
Blending: The earth is then mixed with sandy-earth and calcareous-earth in suitable
proportions to modify the composition of soil. Moderate amount of water is mixed so as
to obtain the right consistency for moulding. The mass is then mixed uniformly with
spades.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 Addition of water to the soil at the dumps is necessary for the easy mixing and
workability, but the addition of water should be controlled in such a way that it
may not create a problem in moulding and drying. Excessive moisture content
may effect the size and shape of the finished brick
Tempering: Tempering consists of kneading the earth with feet so as to make the mass
stiff and plastics(by plasticity, we mean the property which wet clay has of being
permanently deformed without cracking.
 It should preferably be carried out by storing the soil in a cool place in layers of
about 30 cm thickness for not less than 36 hours. This will ensure homogeneity

ww in the mass of clay for subsequent processing. For manufacturing good brick,
tempering is done in pug mills and the operation is called pugging.
Moulding w.E
asy
It is a process of giving a required shape to the brick from the prepared brick earth.
Moulding may be carried out by hand or by machines. The process of moulding of

En
bricks may be the soft-mud hand moulding, the stiff -mud machine moulding or the

gin
dry process moulding using maximum 10 per cent water and forming bricks at higher
pressures).

eer
Fire-brick is made by the soft mud process. Roofing, floor and wall tiles are made

ing
by dry-press method. However, the stiff-mud process is used for making all the
structural clay products.
Hand Moulding:
.ne
 Hand moulding is further classified as ground moulding and table moulding
Ground Moulding: In this process, the ground is levelled and sand is sprinkled on it.
The moulded
t
bricks are left on the ground for drying. Such bricks do not have frog and the lower brick
surface becomes too rough.
 To overcome these defects, moulding blocks or boards are used at the base of
the mould. The process consists of shaping in hands a lump of well pugged
earth, slightly more than that of the brick volume. It is then rolled into the sand
and with a jerk it is dashed into the mould.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Table Moulding: The bricks are moulded on stock boards nailed on the moulding table.
Stock boards have the projection for forming the frog. The process of filling clay in the

ww
mould is the same as explained above. After this, a thin board called pallet is placed
over the mould.
 w.E
The mould containing the brick is then smartly lifted off the stock board and

asy
inverted so that the moulded clay along with the mould rests on the pallet. The
mould is then removed as explained beforeand the brick is carried to the drying
site.
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
Machine
t
Moulding can be done by either of the following processes:
Plastic Method: The pugged, stiffer clay is forced through a rectangular opening of
brick size by means of an auger. Clay comes out of the opening in the form of a bar.
The bricks are cut from the bar by a frame consisting of several wires at a distance of
brick size. This is a quick and economical process.
Dry-press Method: The moist, powdered clay is fed into the mould on a mechanically
operated press, where it is subjected to high pressure and the clay in the mould takes

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

the shape of bricks. Such pressed bricks are more dense, smooth and uniform than
ordinary bricks. These are burnt carefully as they are likely to crack.
Drying
Green bricks contain about 7 – 30% moisture depending upon the method of
manufacture. The object of drying is to remove the moisture to control the shrinkage
and save fuel and time during burning.
 The drying shrinkage is dependent upon pore spaces within the clay and the
mixing water. The addition of sand or ground burnt clay reduces shrinkage
,increases porosity and facilities drying. The moisture content is brought down to

ww about 3 per cent underexposed conditions within three to four days. Thus, the
strength of the green bricks is increased and the bricks can be handled safely.

w.E
Burning

asy
The burning of clay may be divided into three main stages.

En
Dehydration 400 –650°C): This is also known as water smoking stage. During
dehydration,
gin
1 The water which has been retained in the pores of the clay after drying is driven off
and the clay loses its plasticity.
eer
2 Some of the carbonaceous matter is burnt
3 A portion of sulp hur is distilled from pyrites. ing
4 Hydrous minerals like ferric hydroxide are dehydrated
.ne
5 The carbonate minerals are more or less decarbonated. Too rapid heating causes
cracking or bursting of the bricks.
Vitrification—To convert the mass into glass like substance — the temperature ranges
t
from 900–1100°C for low melting clay and 1000–1250°C for high melting clay. Great
care is required in cooling the bricks below the cherry red heat in order to avoid
checking and cracking.
Burning in Clamp or Pazawah: The bricks and fuel are placed in alternate layers. The
amount of fuel is reduced successively in the top layers. Each brick tier consists of 4–5
layers of bricks. Some space is left between bricks for free circulation of hot gasses.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

After 30 per cent loading of the clamp, the fuel in the lowest layer is fired and the
remaining loading of bricks and fuel is carried out hurriedly.
Kiln Burning: The kiln used for burning bricks may be underground, e.g. Bull’s trench
kiln or over ground ,e.g. Hoffman’s kiln. These may be rectangular, circular or oval in
shape. When the process of burning bricks is continuous, the kiln is known as
continuous kiln.
e.g. Bull’s trench and Hoffman’s kilns
Intermittent Kiln: The example of this type of an over ground, rectangular kiln.
After loading the kiln, it is fired, cooled.

ww
Intermittent Kiln
unloaded and then the next loading is done. Since the walls and sides get cooled during

w.E
reloading and are to be heated again during next firing, there is wastage of fuel.

asy
Continuous Kiln: The examples of continuous kiln are Hoffman’s kiln and Bull’s trench
Kiln In a continuous kiln, bricks are stacked in various chambers wherein the bricks

En
undergodifferent treatments at the same time.

gin
2. Enumerate the characteristics to be considered in selection of
stone.
eer
ing
Characteristics to be considered in selection of stones:

.ne
The desirable qualities depend on the use of the stone. Hard stones are used
for heavy engineering works like building quay walls. Many types of stones are used
as aggregates for concrete. Stones like marbles are used for appearance. Now, we t
will deal with the important general properties to took for.

1. Crushing strength. The following are the ultimate strengths of some of the
common types of stones as compared to 15 to 20 N/mm 2 for ordinary concrete.
a Igneous rocks
2
Granite 80 to 150 N/mm
2
Basalt 150 to 200 N/mm
Trap 300 to 350 N/mm 2

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

b Metamorphic rocks
2
Gneiss 200 to 350 N/mm
Slate 75 to 200 N/mm 2
c) Sedimentary rocks
2
Limestone 50 to 60 N/mm
2
Sandstone 50 to 70 N/mm
Shale 1 to 10 N/mm 2
d Other types
Laterite 2 to 3 N/mm 2

ww Most of the stones have more than the required compressive strength for
masonry, compared to hand -made bricks available in India with a strength of only 2

w.E
to 10 N/mm2.clip

asy
2. Appearance. Appearance is very important for stones used for decorative Works
and the facing work of buildings.

En
3. Density. It should be dense. Its specific gravity should he greater than 2.7

gin
4. Durability. This property is very important, especially when used in exposed
conditions,

eer
5. Easiness of dressing. This property depends on its usage. Stones used for

ing
tacitly, work should have easiness to get dressed to the required texture.
6. Fire resistance. Argillaceous stones like lime stones resist fire better than the

.ne
stones containing quartz which explodes on heating. Thus, limestone resists fire up
to 800°C.whereas granites with quartz minerals can stand only up to 600°C.
7. Fracture. The grains should be well cemented and sharp if we examine a
fractured surface.
t
8. Impact resistance. It is a measure of toughness of the stone. An impact test
value of 19 is good and a value below 13 shows bad quality of stone
9. Hardness. This test gives resistance against wear as in road works. Hardness
greater than17 is good and less than 14 is considered as poor .
10. Resistance to wear. Resistance to wear is indicated by attrition test. It is also
an important quality for use as coarse aggregate in concrete. For a good facing
stone, its value can be as low as 3. However, for use as coarse aggregate a much

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

higher value is needed.

11. Seasoning. Many type of stones fresh from the quarry contain moisture quarry
sap.They can be dressed easily at freshly quarried stage. Such stones should be
dressed and kept apart for some time for the moisture to evaporate before they are
used. For example, laterite is a special stone which require good seasoning. When
quarried, it is soft, and it hardens only when exposed to the atmosphere. The iron
compounds get oxidized and gives it the necessary strength. Hence, laterite should
always be dressed as soon as it is quarried and stored away from rain for some time
before it is used on the works.

ww
12. Texture. It should have a pleasing texture and should be free from cracks and
cavities.

w.E
13. Water absorption. For durability the percentage of absorption should be less than
0.6 percent. Otherwise, in exposed situations, water can seep into the stone and leach
out the salts.
asy
En
Weathering. It should weather well as shown by its use in similar types of old buildings
in which they have weathered well.

gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

UNIT 2

LIME-CEMENT-AGGREGATES-MORTAR

PART A 2marks
1. List the physical tests on Cement.
 Fineness test
 Consistency test
 Soundness test

ww Setting time test

2. What is hydration of cement?
 w.E
Hydration of cement is a chemical reaction that happens when cement is

asy
introduced to water and it produces heat. In very massive construction, this effect
can raise the temperature of concrete as much as 50°C. In such cases, we

En
should use low—heat cements or adopt cooling methods.
3. Define flakiness index.
 gin
The flakiness or elongation index of an a aggregate is defined as the percentage

eer
weight of particles in the given aggregate which has its length greater than 1.8

ing
times and its least dimension thickness) is less than 3/5 or 0.6 times its mean
dimension.
4. What is Impact test?
.ne
 This test is for aggregates in concrete that undergoes impact as in runways in
airports. Materials passing through 12.5 mm and retained as 10 mm are tilled in
the standard cylinder in three layers, each layer tamped with 25 strokes of an
t
iron rod. A hammer weighing 14 kg is dropped from a height of 380 mm 15 times
and the resulting material is sieved through a 2.36 mm I.S. sieve. The
percentage fine is the aggregate impact test value.
5. Write notes on Abrasion test.
 This test is for the stones used in road construction. We use the Deval's abrasion
testing machine or the Los Angeles abrasion machine for this purpose. It should
not be more than 16 per cent for a good aggregate.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

6. What is curing? State its importance.

It is absolutely essential that moisture should be present in the initial stages for the
development of strength of cement. This process of supplying moisture environment is
known as curing. Thus, curing of the products of cement is very important in all the
works connected with cement like construction of masonry. Plastering, concreting. etc.

7. What is White cement and where is it used?

 White cement is made from chalk or limestone or shelllime free from impurities
and white clays like china clay free from oxides of iron, manganese, etc. White

ww cement is very much used for making of mosaic tiles, coloured cements, etc.
8.What are the types of cement produced in India?

 w.E
Ordinary portland cement OPC)
Portland pozzolana cement PPC)

asy
9.What are the IS specifications of Cement?

 En
Ordinary portland cement OPC) in 3 grades
Grade 33 IS 269-1989 designated as C-33
 Grade 43 — IS 8112-1989 designated as C-43
gin


Grade 53 — IS 12269-1987 designated as C-53
eer
Portland pozzolana cement PPC) a mixture of OPC and Pozzolanas)
 IS 1489 Pan 0 -1991 flyash -based
ing


IS 1489 Part II -1991 calcined clay -based
.ne


Sulphate -resisting cement—IS 12330-1988
Portland slag cement—IS 455-1989 PSC)
Low -heat cement—IS 12600-1989
t
 Rapid -hardening cement—IS 8041-1990
10. List the tests conducted on aggregates. Nov/Dec2015
 Particle Size,grading shape and flakiness 3tests)
 Organic impurities
 Moisture content
 percent fines value
 Water absorption and specific gravity

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 Aggregate crushing value

 Aggregate impact value
11.Define mortar.
 The mortar is a paste like substance prepared by adding required
amount of water to a dry mixture of sand or fine aggregate with
some binding material like clay, lime or cement.
12.What are the types of mortars?
1.Mud mortar
2.Lime mortar

ww 3.Gauged mortar

w.E
13. What are the normal ingredients of cement Apr/May 2015
Lime 60-70%

asy
Silica – 17 – 25%
Alumina 3 – 8%
Iron – oxide 0.5 – 5%
En
Calcium sulphate 3 – 4%
Magnesia 1 – 3% gin
Sulphur tri-oxide 1-3%
eer
Alkalis 0.4 – 1.3%
14. Define Elongation index Apr/May 2015 ing
.ne
The elongation index iscalculatedas the total weight of the material retained on
the various length gauges, expressed as a percentage of the weight of the
sample gauged.
15. Write the setting time of cement Nov/Dec2015
t
Initial setting time -30minutes
Final setting time -10 hours.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

PART B 13marks

1. Explain the types of cement produced in India.

TYPES OF CEMENT PRODUCED IN INDIA

 Ordinary portland cement OPC) and Portland pozzolana cement PPC),
the latter being a mixture of Portland cement and 15 to 35% pozzolanas,
are the types of cements prescribed in India. Even though formerly it was
mandatory in India to indicate on the cement bags the nature of its contents

ww OPC or PPC) nowadays this is not legally necessary. Only the grade of the

 w.E
cement is marked on the bag.
Most cements sold in India is portland cement mixed with various

asy
proportions of pozzolanes like flyash.

En
I. Ordinary portland cement OPC) in 3 grades

gin
a Grade 33 IS 269-1989 designated as C-33
b Grade 43 — IS 8112-1989 designated as C-43

eer
c) Grade 53 — IS 12269-1987 designated as C-53

ing
2. Portland pozzolana cement PPC) a mixture of OPC and Pozzolanas)

a IS 1489 Pan 0 -1991 flyash -based

.ne
b IS 1489 Part II -1991 calcined clay -based
3. Sulphate -resisting cement—IS 12330-1988
4. Portland slag cement—IS 455-1989 PSC)
t
5. Low -heat cement—IS 12600-1989
6. Rapid -hardening cement—IS 8041-1990
7. Concrete sleeper -grade cement—IS T40-1985
8. Coloured cement—White Cement—IS 8042-1989
9. Oil well cement—IS 8229-1986
10. Hydrophobic cement -1S 8043-1991
11. Masonry cement—IS 3466-1988

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

12. High -alumina cement—IS 6452-1989

14. Super sulphated cement—IS 6909-1990 Expansive cement
15. Quick -setting cement.
The more important types of cement are the following:
1. Ordinary Portland cement OPC) . About 70% of cement produced in India was
of this category and in 3 grades, viz. Grade 33, 43 and 53 as already stated above.
However pure portland cement is generally not marketed nowadays in bags.
2. Portland pozzolana cement PPC). This type of cement is the most common
type available now in the market and is made by blending 10 to 25% reactive

ww
pozzolana like flyash or calcined clay with OPC. Addition of pozzolana makes
cement sensitive to curing and PPC requires longer curing than OPC. This type

w.E
PPC) is also available in three grades.

asy
3. Sulphate -resisting Portland cement SRPC or SRC).
 This kind of cement is produced in small quantities in India. It is special OPC

En
with less than 5% C3A and are superior in resistance against sulphates.

 gin
Cements called Birla Coastal comes in this category.
They should not be confused with super sulphated cements SSC) made

eer
from blast furnace slag, calcium sulphate and small quantities of OPC. SSC

ing
is not recommended for use in places with temperatures above 40°C as in
India.
 IS 456-2000 recommends that where chlorides is encountered along with
.ne

sulphate in foundation soil or ground water, OPC with C 3A content 5 to 8 per
cent is desirable to be used instead of super sulphate-resisting cement.
Alternately, Portland slag cement having more than 50% slag or a blend of
t
OPC and slag cement which has been found to be of good performance is
recommended.
4. Portland blast furnace slag cement or Portland slag cement BFSC or
PSC).
 This type of cement constitutes about 10% of cement produced in India. The
slag forms 25 to 60`1 of the cement. Every ton of cast iron produces about
0.3 tons of blast furnace slag which can be used in the cement industry.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 During its setting, the CaOH) 2 liberated by OPC hydration acts as an

activator for the slag. They are also less costly than OPC.
 Even though it is equated with OPC, it behaves more like PPC and has lower
heat of hydration and better sulphate resistance At present, the BFSC cement
produced in India is only Grade -33 and there arc proposals to make Grade -
43 cements with 45 -70% slag content.
 Blast furnace slag cement with more than 50% slag has good sulphate
resistance too.
5.Hydrophobic cement.

ww In places of high rainfall and humidity, normal cement tends to set when

w.E
stored due to moisture present in the atmosphere By grinding the cement
clinker with a water-repellent film forming substance like oleic acid, a water-

asy
repellent film is formed around cement particles during the manufacturing
itself.

En
This prevents setting of cement during storage. During mixing with

gin
aggregates, this film is broken and cement behaves as ordinary cement.
6. Blended cement

eer
For economy, a mixture of Portland cement, blast furnace slag and flyash is

ing
allowed to be used in some countries. It is known as blended cement. This
type of cement is not marketed in India.

.ne
2. Description of physical tests on Cement. or Soundness test of
cement May/June 2016) Nov/Dec 2015)
t
DESCRIPTION OF PHYSICAL TESTS IS 4031: PARTS 1 TO 11

 The physical tests are specified in Parts Ito 11 of IS.

We shall briefly deal with some of the main laboratory
physical tests in the following sections.
 The concerned Indian Standards should be consulted

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

for details of these tests. In engineering college

laboratories, only physical tests are carried out.
Test for Fineness
 The first requirement is that 90% of cement should pass IS 90 microns. Indian
Standards also specifies fineness test by Blaine's Air -permeability method as
described in IS 4031-1968. The principle is based on the relation between the
rate of flow of air through a cement bed and the surface area of the particles
comprising the cement bed of a given porosity.
 The finer the cement the more the surface area and less the porosity in the

ww permeability test. The Blane's apparatus is shown in Fig.

Test for Normal or Standard Consistency
 w.E
Many tests for cements like soundness, setting time are to be carried out with

asy
cement to which water required to produce what is called the "normal
consistency". Normal consistency is determined by the apparatus called
Vicars needle.
En

gin
It is the consistency at which the Vicat plunger G of 10 mm diameter and 50
mm length will penetrate 33-35 mm within 3 to 5 minutes of mixing. The test

eer
procedure is to carry out at least three trial experiments by mixing the cement

ing
with distilled water varying from about 24 to 27 per cent of the weight of
cement.

.ne
Test for Soundness
 The soundness test is an indication of excess of lime caused by inadequate
burning of cement or excess of magnesia or sulphates. Excess of these
t
substances is harmful and thus. not allowed in cements. The following two
types of tests are used for testing for soundness
a Le Chatelier's test using Le Chatelier's apparatus
Le Chatelier's test shows unsoundness due to lime only. Unaerated cement
paste at normal consistency is first tested for expansion. If the test results does
not satisfy

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

ww
 Vicat apparatus with various plungers a 10 mm dia needle for normal
consistency b q mm square needle for initial set c) 5 mm dia needle for final

w.E
set. requirement of 10 mm expansion, another test shall be made after

asy
aeration of the cement by spreading of the sample to a depth of 75 mm at a
relative humidity of 50 to 80% for 7 days. The expansion in this aerated

 En
cement test should not be more than 5 mm.

gin
The apparatus used Cement pastes with normal consistency is filled into the
mould. After covering both sides with glass, it is first placed in water of
temperature 24 to 35°C for 24 hours.
eer

ing
It is taken out and the distance between pointers is measured. The mould is
then placed in water and the water is heated to the boiling point in 30
minutes.
.ne
 The boiling of water is continued for one hour. The mould is then removed
and after cooling, the distance between the points is again measured. t

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Autoclave test.
 Autoclave test is another test used sensitive for soundness ot cement. It is to
both lime and magnesia. All the cement having magnesia content more than 3
per cent is to be tested for soundness by this test with unaerated cement.
 The test consists of heating bars made of cement paste with water of normal
consistency and measuring its expansion. Effect of unsoundness of cement
does not appear in the field for a considerable period of time. hence, these
accelerated tests are needed to determine them.
 In autoclave test, we use higher pressure and temperature to accelerate the

ww reactions. The autoclave expansion of unaerated cement should not be more

w.E
than 0.8 per cent and that of aerated cement not more than 0.6 percent.

 asy
Test for Setting Time
The setting time is also determined by the Vicat's needle on cement paste of

En
normal consistency. For this test, we use a 1 mm square needle needle C).

 gin
For this needle, the time to penetrate 33-35 mm is taken as initial setting time.
For final setting time, we use special needle F which has a diameter of 5

eer
mm and the time at which this needle will not penetrate more than 0.5 mm is


taken as the final set.
ing
False set happens when the ratio of the penetration of the Vicat's C needle

.ne
after 300 seconds to the penetration in 20 seconds is less than 1/2. In such
cases the test has to be repeated. The temperature of water and test room
should be 27 ± 2°C. t
Compressive Strength
 Compressive strength of cement is a very important test. Compressive strength
of cement is determined from cubes of face 50 cm 2 in area 7.06 cm cubes)
made of cement mortar with one part of cement and three parts of standard
sand conforming to IS 650 -1966 by weight and water corresponding to 25%
normal consistency plus three per cent of the combined weight of the cement
and sand P/4 + 3.0 per cent weight of cement and sand.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 The average cube strength of three samples is taken as the test value.
Strengths in 3, 7 and 28 days are to be reported. Usually 555 gm of sand and
185 gm of cement are used for the test. The procedure can be described as
follows:

1. 555 gm of standard sand and 185 gm of the given cement enough to make
three standard cubes are mixed with water equal to 0.25 normal consistency
plus three per cent of the combined weight of the cement and sand to a
uniform mix 1:3 mortar with a water cement ratio of 0.4 is also specified for

ww this test.
2. The mortar is placed in the standard 7.05 cm size cubes and compacted in a

w.E
3. vibrating machine for 2 minutes The former method of ramming has now

asy
been standardized by the vibrating machine.
4. The moulds, with the mortar, is placed under a damp gunny bag or cabin for

En
24 hours for the cement mortar to set.

gin
5. The cubes are removed after 24 hours and submerged in clean water for
curing for 3. 7 or 28 days.

eer
6. The cubes are tested in sets of three after 3 days and 7 days and 28 days

ing
after drying the specimen with a cloth. The strengths should conform to the
specified.

.ne
Heat of Hydration IS 4031-1968
 Hydration of cement is a chemical reaction and it produces heat. In very
massive construction this effect can raise the temperature of concrete as
t
much as 50°C. In such cases, we should use low—heat cements or adopt
cooling methods.
 This test is, hence, required only as a check for low_ heat cements. It is made
by the principle of determining heat gain as in physics experiments; the test is
carried out by a Calorimeter. Low heat cements should satisfy the following
criteria.
a In 7 days, heat generated should not be more than 65 calories per gram of

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

cement.
b In 28 days, heat generated should not be more than 75 calories per gram of
cement
Chemical Composition Tests Test for LSF
 The Lime Saturation Factor or LSF is the most important factor. It is
determined by applying the following formula to the various constituents of the
given cement.
Tests for Tensile Strength
 This test was once used as a routine test for cement but has been

ww discontinued as test for cement, but is used for testing mortars .For this test,
briquettes are made from 1:3 cement mortar using standard sand and water

w.E
of 8 per cent the weight of cement and sand. They are cured and the 3 -day

 asy
and 7 -day tensile strengths are reported.
It is generally specified that the 3 - day tensile strength should not be less

En
than 2 N/mm- and the 7 -day strength not less than 2.5 N/mm 2.briquettes are

gin
tested in a special briquette –testing machine. The shape of briquettes for
cement mortar test It has an area of 25.4 x 25 mm or 1 x 1 inch, compared to
38 x 38 mm for test on lime mortar.
eer
ing
3. Explain sampling and testing of aggregates. May/June 2016)
Nov/Dec 2015) .ne
SAMPLING AND TESTING OF AGGEGATES
t
The routine and other tests usually prescribed on coarse aggregates are as
follows:

1. Routine tests
a Particle Size,grading shape and flakiness 3tests)
b Organic impurities
c) Moisture content
d Percent fines value

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

e Water absorption and specific gravity

2. Other special tests
a Aggregate crushing value
b Aggregate impact value
c) Aggregate abrasion value
d Bulk density and void ratio
DESCRIPTION OF ROUTINE TESTS
 Of the above tests, only the first five tests are specified as mandatory and
important in many specifications like CPWD specification 77. These are

ww briefly described below:

Particle Size, Shape and Flakiness IS 2386 -1963: Part I

w.E
1. Test for particle size. This is carried out in the field by sieve analysis. The

asy
results are plotted as a grading curve as already shown for sand.
2. Tests for shape. Aggregates are classified according to their shape as follows:
a Rounded
En
b) Irregular or partly -rounded
c Angular gin

d) Flaky
eer
ing
The shape of aggregates becomes important in case of high strength high
performance concrete where very low water -cement ratios are to be used.

.ne
In such cases, cubical –shaped aggregates are preferred for better workability.


Improved makes of crushers such as Hydrocone crushers, Barma rock or Rock
VSI crushers, give better products than ordinary jaw crushers.
The laboratory test for shape is known as test for flakiness or elongation index.
t

Apparatus to test flakiness of coarse aggregates

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 Test for elongation index flakiness). The flakiness or elongation index of an

aggregate is defined as the percentage weight of particles in the given
aggregate which has its length greater than 1.8 times and its least
dimension thickness) is less than 3/5 or 0.6 times its mean dimension.
1 Take sufficient quantity of the aggreg ate and sieve it through the different standard
sizes of sieve shown in Table 8.3 into fractions. Each fraction should be tested for
flakiness.
2 Each fraction is gauged in turns through the hole of dimension of thickness 0.6 times
and of length 1.8 times the mean size of the aggregate.

ww
3 The total amount passing through the various gauges is weighed to an accuracy of
0.1% of the weight of the sample.

w.E
4 Flakiness index is the total weight of the material passing through the gauges of

asy
various thickness expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample
taken.

En
5 British specifications limit this index to 50 for natural aggregate and 40 for crushed

gin
coarse aggregate. For wearing surfaces like roadwork, we may adopt a lower
value.

eer
Test for Organic Impurities, Clay Content and Percentage Fines

ing
The same test as described for fine aggregate sand can be used for coarse aggregate
also. The clay content and percentage fines can be found by immersing the aggregate
in water and examining the suspended particles in the water.
.ne
MEASURE OF STRENGTH OF AGGREGATES
As discussed earlier, the three tests that deal with the strength of aggregates are
t
1 Ten percent fineness value
2 Aggregate crushing value
3 Aggregate crushing strength
 Of these, the ten per cent fineness value is considered a good test for weak aggregates
while the crushing value is considered good for general aggregates. As already stated,
crushing strength gives only the strength of the parent rock.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

4. List the composition of Portland cement.

COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND CEMENT

 The cementing properties of cement develop due to chemical reaction of the
above— mentioned compounds.
 Depending on the raw materials, type of firing, etc., the proportion of these
various constituents can be made to differ and the resulting product will also give
differing properties. Of all the main constituents of cement, C 3 S and CA control
the setting and early strengths and heat of hydration.

ww
 The compound GIS is responsible for strength at longer ages. C3A also

w.E
generates higher heat than other compounds. Increase in C 3 S results in higher
long-term strength and high heat of hydration. If C3 A and C 4 AF are kept low,

 asy
then the resistance to chemicals such as sulphates is increased.
Portland cement itself is produced in different types by varying the proportions of
the constituents of cement
En
gin
eer
ing
1. We should note the difference between setting of lime and setting of .ne
cement. Cement after its final set can set strong under water. Whereas the
cementing property of lime depends on its exposure to air, the cementing property of
t
Portland cement is due to the chemical reaction between its various constituents in
the presence of moisture
2. It is absolutely essential that moisture should be present in the initial stages
for the development of strength of cement. This process of supplying this kind of
environment is known as curing. Thus, curing of the products of cement is very
important in all the works connected with cement. like construction of masonry.
Plastering, concreting.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

3. The total percentage of C 2 S and C A S in all types of Portland cements is

around 70 percent, so that even though the strength development of two cements at
early stages may be different, the final strength obtained after long periods of time
may not be different. However, removal of formwork, prestressing of concrete
depends to a large extent on the early strength of concrete.

4. When producing low -heat Portland cement the percentage of C 2 S is

increased and that of C A S and C 3 A is decreased.
5. This type of cement is of particular use in construction of dams, massive

ww
foundation, etc. to reduce the production of heat.

w.E
6. Reducing C 3 A increases. Sulphate resistance but the 7 day and 28 day

asy
strengths also get lowered as compared to the ordinary Portland cement. Sulphate -
resisting Portland cement has less than 5% C 3 A. This type of cement is
recommended for sewer works.
En
gin
7. Rapid hardening cements compared to ordinary cements have more or less

eer
the same composition except that the latter is more finely ground and may

ing
sometimes contain higher percentage of C 3 S. The increased fineness increases
the 7 day strength.

.ne
WHITE CEMENT


White cement is very much used for making of mosaic tiles, coloured cements.
White cement is made from chalk or limestone or shelllime free from impurities
t
and white clays like china clay kaoline clay free from oxides of iron,
manganese.
 Shelllime is on ideal raw material. In some factories, oil is used instead of coal
as fuel. Grinding is also done in a special mill to avoid iron oxide.
 White cement is the base for all coloured cements.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

5. How do you perform the compression strength of cement mortar?

Also explain the procedure for fineness of cement. Apr/May 2015)

Mortar Compressive Strength

Importance:

Cement is usually subjected to compressive stresses when used in the form of

concrete or mortar.

ww
Mortar is a mixture of cement and sand in a specified ratio on which the strength of

w.E
the mortar depends. If the mortar is weak then also its compressive strength is very low
but if the mortar is a strong one then its compressive strength is also very high.

asy
The mixture of sand and cement in water is generally weak in tension and is strong in

En
compression that is why when the concrete is subjected to tensile forces then it is

gin
provided with steel rods in area of tension that is why it is then called as reinforced
concrete. Therefore it is obvious the mortar will be strong in compression as
compared to tension.
eer
ing
Mortar is generally used for brick masonry and plastering. In first case the mortar is
subjected to very high compressive loads such as the load of the wall above it,
.ne
therefore it is very much necessary to test the mortar for its compressive strength. For
this purpose required cement-sand mixture is prepared before its use and after
certain period of curing it is tested. The strength of the mortar depends upon the
t
fineness of cement, the gradation of sand and the most important factor which water-
cement ratio.

If any one of the above factors is not according to the ASTM-Standard then the
strength of mortar is badly effected.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

The standards of ASTM are provided for different ratios of mixture with which the test
results are compared and then decided for its use. These values are taken when the
mortar is just removed from curing.

Apparatus and Samples:

For conducting compressive on mortar required ratio mixture is prepared and then it is
molded in cubical moulds of two inch sides length. At least six cubes are prepared and
then tested with the help of UTM and average of its strength is taken into account.

ww
The apparatus used is described briefly below:

w.E
UTM: Universal Testing Machine

asy
“A machine which is designed to perform tension, compression, shear and bend test
is called universal testing machine i.e. UTM”.

En
gin
The universal testing machine mainly consists of two parts:

eer
 One part of UTM is called the straining unit. In this unit stress is applied on the
steel bar.

ing
 The other part is called the load measuring machine. In this unit the load
applied is measured electronically and also it will give the peak value.
 The UTM also have a compression additional setup. For compressive test the .ne
machine is fitted with the compression unit which consists of two round plates
between which the test cube is placed.
t
 In addition to these two units there are certain accessories such as for griping
the test piece, recorders, bending table etc.

 Fine aggregate. sand.

 Cementing material. cement.
 Clean water.
 5/8” tampering rod.
 UTM Universal Testing Machine)

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Procedure:

i. First of all, we have to prepare a mixture of cement and sand having ratio
of: 1:3. That is one part of cement and three parts sand. We take the weight of
cement equal to 200 grams and therefore the weight of sand equal to 300
grams. This will make a 1:3 mortar.
ii. Then we have to calculate the amount of water for this ratio according to the
ASTM standards. This is 10% of the weight of total aggregate.
iii. After calculation of weights make a homogeneous mixture of dry ingredients,

ww
iv.
and then add water carefully to make a paste.
Now, take the two inch cube mould and clean them thoroughly from inside and if

w.E
possible also apply some oil to the inner surface so that during removal of
mould the cubes are not damaged. Also fix them tight so that during compaction

asy
it is easy to compact.
v.
En
Then fill one third of the mould with mortar and press it with the help of a 5/8
inch, round-ended, tampering rod. It should be tampered 25 times.
vi.
gin
Then fill the second one-third potion of mould, and also tamper it 25 times with

vii.
the help of tampering rod.
eer
At last fill the remaining one-third portion, and also tamper it 25 times.
viii.
ing
Adopting the same procedure make six cubes of mortar so that it is easy to take

ix.
the average of their strengths.
For the upper surface to be smooth work it with float. .ne
x. Then keep it in open air for one day and after this cure three of them for three
days and the remaining three for six days by keeping them in water.
t
xi. After curing of the cubes take them out of the moulds carefully and then bring
them for test by UTM.
xii. Now place the test specimen in the compression test apparatus of UTM.
xiii. Select suitable range for the UTM loading unit. Usually the loading range is
given up to 20 or 40 tons.
xiv. Now carefully start the machine and start applying load automatic. Apply force to
the test specimen continuously and uniformly throughout the compression test.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

xv. As the load is applied on the cube it will develop cracks after certain load.
xvi. Discontinue the application of load when the cube has been crushed or just
cracks are developed in it.
xvii. Take out the cube and clean the compression plate surface for next test.
xviii. Continue the above procedure for the remaining cubes.
xix. Note down the crushing load for each cube separately and then multiply the load
with 2204 so that it is converted to pounds.
xx. Then divide each crushing load value by the area of cross section of cube
which in this case is 4 in2. This will give the compressive strength of each cube

ww
xxi.
which may vary in value.
Then take the average of these values by summing them dividing them by

w.E
number of cubes. This will be the compressive strength of that mortar

asy
6. Add a note on the process of hydration of cement.May/June2016)

En
The hydration of cement can be thought of as a two-step process. In the first step,

gin
called dissolution, the cement dissolves, releasing ions into the mix water. The mix

eer
water is thus no longer pure H2O, but an aqueous solution containing a variety of ionic
species, called the pore solution. The gypsum and the cement minerals C 3S and C3A

ing
are all highly soluble, meaning that they dissolve quickly. Therefore the concentrations

.ne
of ionic species in the pore solution increase rapidly as soon as the cement and water
are combined. Eventually the concentrations increase to the point that the pore solution
is supersaturated, meaning that it is energetically favorable for some of the ions to
combine into new solid phases rather than remain dissolved. This second step of the
t
hydration process is called precipitation. A key point, of course, is that these new
precipitated solid phases, called hydration products, are different from the starting
cement minerals. Precipitation relieves the supersaturation of the pore solution and
allows dissolution of the cement minerals to continue. Thus cement hydration is a
continuous process by which the cement minerals are replaced by new hydration
products, with the pore solution acting as a necessary transition zone between the two
solid states

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

ww Figure : Schematic of the rate of hydration or heat evolution as a function of

w.E
asy
En
gin
time
eer
ing
Figure : Typical development of the degree of hydration and compressive
strength of a Type I portland cement over time
.ne
PART – C (15 MARKS
t
1. Explain manufacture of Portland cement. Nov/Dec 2015)
MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT
 The specifications laid down by Bureau of Indian Standard BIS — IS : 269-4989
the manufacture of Portland cement are as follows;
 The above mentioned specification of the process of Portland cement
manufacture passes through several distinct stages which are enumerated
as follows.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 Usually, therefore, cement factories are located closest to the limestone

deposits with the clay or shale deposits located nearby. Cement is consumed
more in urban and industrial areas and facilities to transport cement from
factories to these areas become an important factor in the location of cement
plants.
 Equally important are facilities to transport the heavy machinery needed for the
plant. Generally, however, the occurrence of limestone deposits is the main factor,
the Test site of cement plant will be at the source of good limestone deposites close
to the existing railway lines.
i.
ww
Preparation of raw materials. The rocky terrain of calcareous materials and
argillaceous materials are cleared of overburden. In order to remove the rock mass

w.E
from its existing position, it is loosened first.
ii.
asy
A tremendous energy is produced and the resultant gases try to escape into the air
by path of least resistance causing fragmentation of the rock mass. Using power

En
shovel, dragline or other suitable excavating equipments, fragmented rocks are

gin
easily removed and carried to the crushing mill at cement plant where the rocks are
crushed to the extent to be ready for mixing operation.
iii.
eer
Grinding & Mixing of Raw Materials. The grinding and mixing of the raw material

ing
Calcareous materials in the form of limestone or chalk and argillac eous materials in
the form of clay or shale can be done either in water or in a dry condition, hence the
names WET or DRY process, respectively. The choice of method depends also
.ne
upon hardness of the raw materials used and on their moisture content.

WET PROCESS
t
 In the wet process limestone brought from the querries is crushed to smaller
fragments passing through various crushers. Finally the broken rock particles of
required size dispersed in water in a wash mill.
 The wash mill is a circular pit with revolving radial arms carrying rakes which
break up the lumps of solid matter. The clay is also broken up and mixed with
water, usually in a similar wash mill.
 These two mixtures from the respective storage basin are now pumped into wet

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

grinding mills to make SLURRY. The slurry is a liquid of creamy consistency with
the water content between 35 to 50 percent.
 The slurry is pumped into slurry tanks or basins where it is kept in an agitated
conditions by means of rotating arms or blowing compressed air from the bottom
to prevent settling of limestone and clay particles.
 The slurry is tested by the experienced cement chemists to achieve the required
chemical composition and final adjustments can be made by blending slurries
from different storage tanks, sometimes using an elaborate system of blending
tanks.

ww
Finally the corrected slurry is stored in the final storage tank and kept in

w.E
homogeneous conditions by the agitation of slurry.

DRY PROCESS


asy
In the dry process, the raw materials are crushed dry and fed in the correct

En
proportions into a grinding mill, where they are dried and reduced in size to a fine


powder.
gin
eer
The dry powder, called RAW MEAL, is then pumped to a blending silo and corrected
for its right chemical composition and mixed by means of compressed air. The

ing
aerated materials powder tends to behave almost like liquid and in about one hour
of aeration, a uniform mixture is obtained.
.ne

SEMI -DRY PROCESS

In the semi -dry process, the blended meal of dry process is further sieved and fed
t
into a rotating disc called GRANULATOR.
 A quantity of water weighing about 12% of the meal is added to make the blended
meal into PELLETS. This is done to permit air flow for exchange of heat for further
chemical reactions of formation of cement clinkers.
BURNING
 Raw mix, in the form of either slurry with 36% moisture or in the form of dry raw mix
or in the terms of nodules with 10 to 12% moisture, is now ready to be fed to the

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

burning equipment called KILN. Kiln used in India is mostly of rotary type not in shaft
type.
 A Rotary kiln is a long slender horizontal steel cylinder lined with fire bricks and
rotating at a speed of about 1 rpm revolution per minute.
 The thickness of iron plate of rotary kiln as about 18 to 20 mm.
 The kiln is aligned with a slope of about 4 percent, so that due to the rotation of the
kiln, the material fed at the upper end of the kiln is transported to the lower end
because of gravity.
 In the wet process, the long rotary kiln is equipped with integral or external heat

ww
recuperating systems at the feed end, while in the dry process, it may be either a

w.E
long rotary kiln fitted with integral heat recuperating system at the feed end or short
rotary kiln with external suspension pre -heaters cyclone type at the feed end.


asy
In the semi - dry process. however, it is a short rotary kiln with a travelling grate
heat exchanger at the feed end. 

En
The slurry in fed in at the upper end of the kiln while the pulverised coal is blown at

 gin
the lower end of the kiln, where the temperature reaches about 1500 to 1650°C.
The coal selected for the purpose must not have too high ash content. In India only

eer
glade I coal 22 to 25 percent ash content is used. Better grade coal has to be used


for better quality reasons.
ing
In addition to coal, natural gas or furnace oil can also be used for burning purpose.

.ne
But, natural gas is scarce in India and is not used for the manufacture of the cement.
Furnace oil also is very costly and it is not generally used except if the manufacture of
white cement. t
The slurry, in its movement down the kiln because of the gravity, encounters a
progress higher temperature. In the evaporating zone up to 250°) water from the
slurry is driven off.
Next it reaches the calcination zone 700 — 1200°C), G0 2 is liberated, further on,
the dry material undergoes a series of chemical reactions until finally, in the
clinkering zone up to1500 to 1650°C) some 20 to 30 percent of the material
becomes liquid and the lime, silica and alumina recombine. The mass then fuses
into balls of 3 to 25 mm in diameter called CLINKERS.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

ww
w.E
COOLING asy
 En
gin
The clinkers are dropped into another rotary kiln where they are cooled under
controlled conditions. It is important to note that the rate of cooling the clinkers greatly
influences the properties of the cement.

eer
ing
Traditionally cement used to be packed exclusively in jute bags, resulting in a lot
of seepage and wastage from the bag, apart from creating a dust nuisance.
However, now -a - days, jute packaging is being replaced by woven HDPE High
.ne

Density Polyethylene or multi wall paper bags.
In these type of packing, seepage is almost eliminated, particularly in the case of
multi wall paper bags and as a result, dust nuisance is greatly reduced.
t

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
Flow Program of Cement Manufacture Wet Process)

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

UNIT -III

CONCRETE

PART-A 2 MARKS

1. Define workability.Nov/Dec2015
 It is defined as the property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar which
determines the case and homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed,

ww compacted and finished. The degree of ease in working with concrete is called
workability.

w.E
2. What are the factors affecting workability?

asy
1.Quantity of water in the mix
2.Proper grading of the aggregate mix

En
3.Ratio of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate
4.Maximum size of coarse aggregates
5.Method of compaction of concrete. gin
3. List some tests to measure workability.
eer



Slump test
Compacting factor test
ing

Flow test .ne



Vee-Bee test
Kelly ball test
t
4. What are the stages of concrete?
 Fresh concrete
 Hardened concrete
5. What is Fresh concrete?
 The fresh concrete or plastic concrete is the initial stage of concrete period and
it is counted from the mixing stage till it is transported, placed, compacted and
finished in the position.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

6. Define segregation.
 Segregation can be defined as the separation of coarse aggregate from the
main mass of concrete in the plastic stage and it occurs in case of dry mix of
insufficient and non - uniform mixing.
7. What is Water-Cement ratio?
 The water -cement ratio, defined as the ratio of the mass of free water i.e.
excluding that absorbed by the aggregate to that of cement in a mix, is the
most important factor that controls the strength and many other properties of
concrete.

ww  In practice, this ratio lies generally in the range of 0.35 to 0.65, although the

w.E
purely chemical requirement for the purpose of complete hydration of cement
is only about 0.25.

asy
8 .What are the factors affecting proportioning of concrete mixes?
1.Water cement ratio
2.Cement content
En
3.Temperature
4.Age of concrete gin
5.Size, shape and grading of aggregate
eer
6.Curing
9.Define curing of concrete. ing

.ne
Curing is the operation by which moist conditions are maintained on finished
concrete surface, to promote continued hydration of cement.
10.What are the types of concrete used?
 Plum concrete, light weight concrete, air-entrained concrete, no-fines concrete,
t
vaccum concrete, water-proof concrete, reinforced cement concrete, pre-
stressed concrete, cellular or aerated concrete, foamed concrete, pre-cast
concrete.
11. What is a good concrete?
 A good concrete is one in which the ingredients are properly distributed to
make a homogenous mixture and it should not show any sign of segregation
or bleeding.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

12. Define bleeding.

 Bleeding is a form of segregation in which some of water in the mix tends to
rise the surface of freshly placed concrete.
 This is because of the inability of the solid constituents of the mix to hold all
the mixing water in the place when they settle downwards.
13.What are the admixtures?
Admixtures are ingredients other than cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate
to improve the quality of concrete. The addition of an admixture may improve the
concrete with respect to its strength ,hardness, workability, water resisting power.

ww14. List the various operations requires in the production of concrete.

w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

15. Distinguish between HSC and HPC May/June2016Apr/May2015

 For mix made with normal weight aggregates, high strength concrete HSC) is
considered to be the one having a compressive strength in excess of 40 MPa.
 High-performance concrete HPC) is relatively new technology. HPC
originatedin France in 1980, followed by Canada in 1990. In 1989, under the
direction of paul Ziaof North Carolina State University, a major effort in HPC
technology began in the United States with the initiation of the Strategic
Highway Research Program SHRP.
16. What is meant by modulus of rupture?( Apr/May2015

ww An ultimate strength pertaining to the failure of beams by flexure equal to the

bending moment at rupture divided by the section modulus of the beam.

w.E
17. Self-Compacting Concrete Nov/Dec2015

asy
Self-consolidating concrete is a highly flowable type of concrete that spreads into the

En
form without the need of mechanical vibration. Self-compacting concrete is a non-
segregating concrete that is placed by means of its own weight. The importance of self-

gin
compacting concrete is that maintains all concrete’s durability and characteristics,
meeting expected performance requirements.
eer
PART-B (13 MARKS
ing
1. Write in detail about curing? Nov / Dec 2015) .ne
 Cement gains strength and hardness because of the chemical action between
cement and water. This chemical reaction requires moisture, favourable
t
temperature and time referred to as the curing period.
 The variation of compressive strength with curing period Curing of freshly placed
concrete is very important for optimum strength and durability. The major part of
the strength in the initial period is contributed by the clinker compound C3S and
partly by C2S, and is completed in about three weeks.
 The later strength contributed by C2S is gradual and takes long time. As such
sufficient water should be made available to concrete to allow it to gain full

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

strength. The process of keeping concrete damp for this purpose is known as
curing.
 The object is to prevent the loss of moisture from concrete due to evaporation or
any other reason, supply additional moisture or heat and moisture to accelerate
the gain of strength.
 Curing must be done for at least three weeks and in no case for less than ten
days. Approximately 14 litres of water is required to hydrate each bag of cement.
 Soon after the concrete is placed, the increase in strength is very rapid 3 to 7
days) and continues slowly thereafter for an indefinite period.

ww Concrete moist cured for 7 days is about 50 per cent stronger than that which is

w.E
exposed to dry air for the entire period. If the concrete is kept damp for one
month, the strength is about double than that of concrete exposed only to dry air.
Methods of Curing
 asy
Concrete may be kept moist by a number of ways. The methods consist in either

En
supplying additional moisture to concrete during early hardening period by

gin
ponding, spraying, sprinkling, etc. or by preventing loss of moisture from concrete
by sealing the surface of concrete by membrane formed by curing compounds.

eer
Following are some of the prevelent methods of curing.
1. Water Curing
2. Steam Curing ing
3. Curing by Infra Red Radiation:
.ne
4. Electrical Curing
5. Chemical Curing
The Efficiency of Curing
t
 Curing is the name given to procedures used for promoting the hydration of
cement, and consist of a control of temperature and of the moisture movement
from and into the concrete.
 Hydration of cement takes place in capillaries filled with water. By keeping
concrete saturated, loss of water by evaporation from the capillaries is
prevented and loss of water by self desiccation due to the chemical reactions of
hydration of cement from outside. Cuing should be continued until the originally

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

water filled space in the fresh cement paste has been filled by product of
hydration to the desired extent. Curing temperature should be from 23° to 30°C
27°C average.
 The curing must be adequate at favourable temperature for sufficient period
which helps in attaining the maximum strength and other desirable properties.

2. Explain the Factors Affecting Workability

The factors helping concrete to have lubricating effect workability to reduce
internal friction, for helping easy compaction are listed below;

ww a Water content

w.E
b Mix proportion
c) Size of aggregate

asy
d Shape of aggregate
e Surface texture of aggregate
f Grading of aggregate
En
g Use of admixtures.
a Water Content gin

eer
The basic factor affecting the workability is water content which is expressed

ing
in litres of water per cubic meter of concrete. The higher the water content,
higher will be the fluidity of concrete but subject to limitation of water -cement
ratio.
.ne
 More water can be added, provided a correspondingly higher quantity of
cement is also added to keep the w/c ratio same so that the strength of
concrete remains unchanged.
t
b) Mix Proportion
 Aggregate/cement ratio is the inversely proportion to the workability. With
lower aggregate/cement ratio rich concrete, more paste is available to make
the mix cohesive and fatty to give better workability.
 On the other hand, the higher aggregate/cement ratio leaner concrete, less
quantity of paste is available to provide lubrication and thereby lowers
workability.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

c Size of Aggregate
 For the given quantity of water and paste, bigger size of aggregate will give
higher workability because of reduction of total specific surface area and inter
-particle frictional resistance.
d Shape of Aggregate
 The shape of aggregates influences the workability greatly.
Angular/elongated/flaky aggregate makes the concrete very harsh whereas
rounded aggregate enhances the workability in good measure because of
reduction in total specific surface area and inter - particle frictional resistance

ww 
for a given volume or weight.

w.E
This explains the reason why river sand and gravel provide greater workability
to concrete than crushed sand crushed aggregate.

 asy
e Surface Texture of Aggregate
Rough textured aggregate will exhibit poor workability whereas smooth or

En
glossy textured aggregate will impart better workability because of reduction

gin
of inter -particle frictional resistance offered by smooth surface thereby
contributing higher workability.
f Grading of Aggregate
eer

ing
A well graded aggregate has lesser amount of voids in a given volume. Other
factors being constant, if the total voids are less, excess paste is available to
give better lubricating effect.
.ne
 The mixture becomes cohesive and fatty preventing segregation of particles.
Therefore, better is grading, less is the void content and higher is the
workability.
t
g) Properties of Cement
 The workability is also affected by the physical and chemical properties of
cement, but to a much lesser extent.
 Rapid -hardening cement will have reduced workability as compared to
ordinary portland cement because of higher specific surfaces.
h) Use of Admixtures
 The presence and nature of admixtures affect the workability considerably.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

The use of the plasticizers and super plasticizers improve the workability
manifolds.
 Use of air - entraining agents which are normally surface-active, reduces the
internal friction between the particles.
 The air –entraining agents like resin, soap or chemicals introduce a large
number of very minute air bubbles which act as rollers and increase
workability. They decrease bleeding and segregation also.

3. Write in detail about High Strength Concrete and High Performance

ww
Concrete? Nov / Dec 2015)

 w.E
High Strength Concrete
For mix made with normal weight aggregates, high strength concrete HSC) is

 asy
considered to be the one having a compressive strength in excess of 40 MPa.
To produce concrete above this strength more stringent quality control and

En
more care in selection and proportioning of materials are needed.


gin
The tricalcium aluminate component is kept as low as possible <8%.

eer
Most cements used to produce HSC have fineness in the range of 300–
400m2/kg with an exception of high early strength cement for which fineness


should be at least 450 m2/kg.
ing
For HSC a smaller maximum size of coarse aggregate leads to higher
strength. Fine aggregate should have a Fineness Modulus >3. .ne

Reasons for high strength concrete:
The utilization of fine pozzolanic materials in high strength concrete leads to
t
reduction of the size of crystalline compounds.
 Hence there is a reduction of the thickness of interficial transition zone occurs,
thus the disinfection contribute to the strength of concrete
Applications
 Highway bridges long span bridges)
 High rise structure over 30 stories.
 Columns and piles

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 Domes, shells and arches.

HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE
 High-performance concrete HPC) is relatively new technology. HPC originated
in France in 1980, followed by Canada in 1990. In 1989, under the direction of
paul Ziaof North Carolina State University, a major effort in HPC technology
began in the United States with the initiation of the Strategic Highway Research
Program SHRP.
 SHRP defined HPC in terms of strength, low w/c, and freeze/thaw durability.
These early efforts were in response to alarming deterioration rates of the

ww

nation’s roads and bridges. The concept of HPC has certainly evolved with time.

w.E
What exactly is “high performance Various parameters have been attached to
HPC, with high strength being a popular descriptor.

asy
While equating HPC with high strength certainly has some merit, it doesn’t
present a complete or, in some cases, accurate picture. Other properties of the

En
concrete must also be considered, and may even override the strength issue.

gin
Three influences must be considered: the structure in which the concrete will be
used, including support; the environment in which the structure will be placed;

eer
and the type and number of forces to which the structure will be subjected. These

ing
considerations are discussed in detail, before defining HPC.
Characteristics:
 Easy to pump
.ne


Posses good workability
Resistance to crack t
 Electrical resistivity
 Posses good durability
Applications:
 Off – shore structures
 Oil – drilling platforms
 Oil – storage cells
 Pre-stressed concrete shafts

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

4. Explain in detail about Ready Mixed Concrete RMC ?

 Ready mixed concrete RMC) is a concrete, delivered at site or into the
purchaser’s vehicle, in plastic condition and requires no further treatment before
being placed in a position in which it is to set and harden.
 It is a high quality concrete of required grade produced under strictly controlled
conditions in a centralised automatic batching plant and supplied to the customer
in a transit mixer truck for its placement at site.

 The concrete can be mixed either dry at the batching plant, loaded into agitator

ww truck

w.E
mixers and water added during transportation; or it can be mixed wet at the
batching plant, discharged into the agitator truck mixers and transported to site.

asy
The first RMC plant was established in the year 1992 in Pune. At present, RMC
plantsare located in almost all the cities of India.
Admixtures of RMC
En

gin
Generally RMC is transported to sites which are located at long distances from
the batching plants. At the delivery point, concrete should be workable and

eer
plastic. The transit period is sometimes four to five hours.

ing
The ordinary concrete will suffer slump loss due to the time lost in transit and
evaporation of water due to atmospheric conditions such as high temperature.

.ne
Therefore, admixtures will be required to extend the setting time and, retention of


specified slump of concrete.
Super plasticizers are, therefore, used to assure quality, workability, and strength
t
of ready mixed concrete. Two types of admixtures are in use—the high
performance water reducing admixtures and a high range water-reducing super-
plasticizers.
 High performance water reducing admixtures have been specially designed to
retain workability even in high ambient temperature. The examples are conplast
RMC P 333 and conplast RMC P 505.
 The advantages of using high performance water reducing admixtures are:
1. Improved cohesion and reduced bleeding and segregation.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

2. Makes the mix cohesive even if the aggregates are of slightly poor grading.
3. Since chloride free it is safe for use in reinforced and prestressed concrete.
4. Improved workability and workability retention with controlled extended setting
time
and hence ideal for use in hot weather condition.
5. Workability increases without extra water addition.
6. Assists in producing dense, close textured, low permeability concrete thus
enhancing durability.
7. Water reduction helps in improvement of compressive strength at all ages.

ww Advantages of RMC
1. Enhanced quality and durability resulting in lower maintenance costs and

w.E
increased speed of construction.

asy
2. Ready mix concrete is consistently of the same quality and provides a high
quality of construction material; construction time is also reduced.

En
3. It reduces congestion at the site and prevents traffic jams.

gin
4. It hastens infrastructure development and thus provides more employment
opportunities.
5. It is an environmentally safer alternative.
eer
ing
6. With ready mixed concrete, modern construction techniques can be followed.
7. Convenience—Ready Mix Concrete is delivered at the site with minimum
logistical hassles.
.ne
8. Different types of concretes can be made for different applications.
t
5. Explain Properties of Fresh Concrete.

The concrete is a basic prime building material because of various properties

being possessed during its hardened state which starts from the day it attains the full
designed strength to the end of its life. For hardened concrete, the various properties
which need consideration are as follows.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

A STRENGTH
a Compressive strength
bTensile strength
b Flexural strength
c) Shear strength
d Bond strength

B Durability
C) Impermeability

ww D) Dimensional Changes
a Elasticity

w.E
b Shrinkage

asy
c) Creep
d Thermal expansion
e Fatigue
En
E Fire Resistance
gin
Strength of Concrete

eer
ing
The strength of concrete is the most important property as far as structural
designs are concerned. Indirectly, it gives the idea of other properties
Impermeability, durability, wear resistance etc) also.
.ne
 A strong concrete is more dense, compact, impermeable and resistant to
weathering and chemical attacks. Meaning thereby, the strength of concrete
gives an overall idea of its quality.
t
 Strength of concrete is defined as the ability to resist force and for structural
purposes, it is taken as the unit force required to cause rupture which may be
caused by compressive stress, tensile stress, flexural stress, shear stress, bond
stress etc.
Compressive Strength of Concrete
 The compressive strength of concrete is considered the basic character of the
concrete. Consequently, it is known as the CHARACTERISTIC COMPRESSIVE

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

STRENGTH OF CONCRETE fck) which is defined as that value below which

not more than five percent of test results are expected to fall based on IS: 456-
2000. In this definition the test results are based on 150 mm cube cured in
water under temp. of 27 ± 2°C for 28 days and tested in the most saturated
condition under direct compression.
 Other strength viz, direct tensile stress, flexural stress, shear stress and bond
stress also are directly proportional to the compressive stress. Higher is the
compressive stress, higher is other stresses also.
 Not only stresses, other properties for example modulus of elasticity, abrasion

ww and impact resistances, durability are also taken to be related to the

compressive strength, hence, the compressive strength is an index of overall

w.E
quality of concrete.

 asy
Factors Affecting Compressive Strength
Among the materials and mix variables, WATER -CEMENT RATIO is the

En
most important parameter governing the compressive strength. Besides W/C

gin
ratio, following factors also affect the compressive strength.

• The characteristics of cement.

eer
• The characteristics and properties of aggregates.
• The degree of compaction ing
• The efficiency of curing
.ne
• Age at the time of testing.
• Conditions of testing.
Water -Cement Ratio
t
 The water -cement ratio, defined as the ratio of the mass of free water i.e.
excluding that absorbed by the aggregate to that of cement in a mix, is the
most important factor that controls the strength and many other properties of
concrete.
 In practice, this ratio lies generally in the range of 0.35 to 0.65, although the
purely chemical requirement for the purpose of complete hydration of
cement is only about 0.25.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

6. Explain the various specifications for Self Compacting Concrete

SCC Apr/May2015)

Self-Compacting Concrete

Self-consolidating concrete is a highly flowable type of concrete that spreads into the
form without the need of mechanical vibration. Self-compacting concrete is a non-
segregating concrete that is placed by means of its own weight. The importance of self-
compacting concrete is that maintains all concrete’s durability and characteristics,

ww
meeting expected performance requirements.

w.E
In certain instances the addition of super plasticizers and viscosity modifier are added to
the mix, reducing bleeding and segregation. Concrete that segregates loses strength

asy
and results in honeycombed areas next to the formwork. A well designed SCC mix does
not segregate, has high deformability and excellent stability characteristics

En
Self-Compacting Concrete Properties
gin
eer
Self-compacting concrete produces resistance to segregation by using mineral fillers or
fines, and using special admixtures. Self-consolidating concrete is required to flow and

ing
fill special forms under its own weight, it shall be flowable enough to pass through highly
reinforced areas, and must be able to avoid aggregate segregation. This type of
concrete must meet special project requirements in terms of placement and flow. .ne
Self-compacting concrete with a similar water cement or cement binder ratio will usually t
have a slightly higher strength compared with traditional vibrated concrete, due to the
lack of vibration giving an improved interface between the aggregate and hardened
paste.

The concrete mix of SCC must be placed at a relatively higher velocity than that of
regular concrete. Self-compacting concrete has been placed from heights taller than 5
meters without aggregate segregation. It can also be used in areas with normal and
congested reinforcement, with aggregates as large as 2 inches.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Self-Compacting Concrete Uses

Self-compacting concrete has been used in bridges and even on pre-cast sections. One
of the most remarkable projects built using self-compacting concrete is the Akashi-
Kaikyo Suspension Bridge. In this project, the SCC was mixed on-site and pumped
through a piping system to the specified point, located 200 meters away. On this
particular project, the construction time was reduced from 2.5 years to 2 years. This
type of concrete is ideal to be used in the following applications:

 Drilled shafts

ww Columns


 w.E
Earth retaining systems
Areas with high concentration of rebar and pipes/conduits

asy
Self Compacting Concrete Benefits

En
Using self-compacting concrete produce several benefits and advantages over regular
concrete. Some of those benefits are:
gin
 Improved constructability.
eer



Labor reduction.
Bond to reinforcing steel. ing
 Improved structural Integrity. .ne



Accelerates project schedules.
Reduces skilled labor. t
 Flows into complex forms.
 Reduces equipment wear.
 Minimizes voids on highly reinforced areas.
 Produces superior surface finishes.
 Superior strength and durability.
 Allows for easier pumping procedure.
 Fast placement without vibration or mechanical consolidation.
 Lowering noise levels produced by mechanical vibrators.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 Produces a uniform surface.

 Allows for innovative architectural features.
 It is recommended for deep sections or long-span applications.
 Produces a wider variety of placement techniques.

Factors Affecting Self Compacting Concrete

Using self-compacting concrete must not be used indiscriminately. These factors can
affect the behavior and performance of self-compacting concrete:

ww


Hot weather.
Long haul distances can reduce flowability of self-compacting concrete.

w.E
Delays on job site could affect the concrete mix design performance.


asy
Job site water addition to Self-Compacting Concrete may not always yield the

En
expected increase in flowability and could cause stability problems.

Self-Compacting Concrete Special Considerations

gin
eer
Self-compacting concrete can have benefits and will shorten your construction time.
However, special attention should be focused on:
ing
 Full capacity mixer of self-compacting concrete might not be feasible due to
potential spillage along the road, producing environmental and contamination .ne

hazards.
Formwork should be designed to withstand fluid concrete pressure that will be
t
higher than regular concrete.
 Self-Consolidating Concrete may have to be placed in lifts in taller elements.

 Production of SCC requires more experience and care than the conventional
vibrated concrete.

 Self-consolidating concrete can add up to $50 per yards to your construction

costs. This cost will vary among ready-mix concrete producers.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

7. Explain the various tests to be performed on hardened concrete.

Nov/Dec 2015)

Properties of Hardened Concrete

 Early volume change

 Creep Properties
 Permeability
 Stress-Strain Relation

ww
I. Early Volume Change Shrinkage

w.E
What is the problem? >> May result in cracking

Plastic Shrinkage

asy
Due to water loss from fresh paste by evaporation or from suction by dry surface

En


 gin
Volume decrease ~ 1% when the paste is still plastic
How to prevent: control water loss

Drying Shrinkage eer

ing
Due to loss of water and/or cooling.
.ne
 15-30% of dry shrinkage occurs in the first 2 weeks, 65-85% in first year
Can be induced by
– lack of curing
t
– high water-cement ratio
– high cement content
– low coarse aggregate content
– existence of steel reinforcement
 Depends on size and shape of concrete structure
 May be non-uniform due to non-uniform loss of water

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Swelling

May occur if concrete is cured continuously in water after settling. Its effects are
relatively small and does not cause significant problems.

II. Stress-Strain Relation

ww
w.E
asy
 En
Concrete is not perfectly elastic

gin
Rate of loading affects the E value Non -Linear

eer
– Aggregate and cement paste individually show a linear stress-strain, but concrete is
nonlinear
ing
– Why? Micro-cracking between the aggregate and cement paste interface
.ne
 For structural design, we need compressive strength fc) and modulus
elasticity E
t
of

Tests performed on hardened concrete are:

 Compressive strength test most common – DT

 Modulus of Elasticity – NDT
 Split-tension test – DT
 Flexural strength test – DT

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 Rebound hammer test – NDT

 Penetration resistance test – NDT
 Ultrasonic pulse velocity test – NDT
 Maturity test – NDT

II.1. Compressive Strength Test fc’

ww
w.E
asy
En

gin
ASTM C39: cylindrical specimen 6 in. by 12 in.

eer
– For normal-weight concrete: fc’ range is 21 MPa to 34 MPa 3000 psi to 5000 psi

 Compressive strength depends on specimen size ing

– Larger specimens = greater probability for weaker elements, reducing strength .ne
– Larger specimens have less variability and better representation of actual concrete t
II.2. Modulus of Elasticity – Ec

 ASTM C469 – determine the chord modulus.

 3-4 loading steps are needed in this method. Same sample is used.
 A useful relationship with strength
 The range is 14 GPa – 41 GPa 2000 ksi to 6000 ksi

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Poisson’s Ratio

 Also determined using ASTM C469

 Range is between 0.11 to 0.21, depending on aggregate, moisture, age, and
compressive strength

II.3. Split Tension Test

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin

eer
Measures the tensile strength on concrete ASTM C496


ing
Cylinder is subjected to compressive load along vertical diameter at a constant
rate until fatigue
 Failure occurs along vertical diameter due to tension developed in transverse
.ne

direction
Split tension is computed by T = 2p/BLD t
T = tensile strength, MPa psi
p= load at failure, N psi
L = length of specimen, mm in.
D = diameter of specimen, mm in.

 Tensile strength varies from 2.5 MPa to 31 MPa 360 psi to 450 psi, about 10%
of compressive strength

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

II.4. Flexure Strength Test ASTM C78

ww
w.E
asy
 En

Used for measuring Modulus of Rupture MR)

gin
Important test for road and airport concrete pavements

eer
Beam specimen of square x-section is loaded into a 3-point loading apparatus
II.5. Rebound Hammer Test Schmidt Hammer Test
ing
.ne
t

 Non-destructive test performed on hardened concrete

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

– A spring-loaded mass hits the concrete’s surface

– A scale measures how far the mass rebounds
– The higher the rebound, the harder the concrete’s surface, and the greater the

concrete’s strength

 Use a calibration chart graphs supplied to related the rebound to strength

– 10 to 12 reading are performed per specimen

ww The test is used to test the uniformity of the concrete

w.E
II.6. Penetration Resistance Test Windsor Probe Test -A non-destructive test

asy
Gun-like device shoots probes into the concrete’s structure

En
– Performed on each of three holes in a special template.

 An average depth is then found.

gin
– Depth is inversely related to the strength.
eer
– It gives a better estimate than the rebound hammer.
ing
Rebound hammer tests only the surface while penetration resistance test make
measurements into the depth of the sample
.ne
II.7. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test ASTM C597
t

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 Measures the velocity of an ultrasonic wave passing through the concrete

 The length between transducers/the travel time = average velocity of wave
propagation
 It is used to detect discontinuities, cracks and internal deterioration in the
structure of concrete

II.8. Maturity Test ASTM C1074

 Maturity – degree of cement hydration

 Varies with time and temperature

ww
 It is assumed that the strength is a function of maturity for a particular concrete


mixture
w.E
Devices are used to measure the temperature of concrete with time

III. Permeability asy

En
Effects the durability of hardened concrete


gin
Allows water and chemicals to penetrate its surface
 Cause reduced resistance to
eer
– frost ing
– alkali-aggregate reactivity and other chemicals
.ne
– corrosion of steel rebars

 Air voids that affect permeability are obtained from

t
– incomplete consolidation of fresh concrete
– evaporation of mixing water that is not used for hydration of cement

 Increasing the water/cement ratio has strong effects on permeability

· Other factors affecting permeability:

 age of concrete, fineness of cement particles, air entraining agents

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

IV. Creep Properties

Creep – The gradual increase in strain, with time, under sustained load

 Long term process several years)

 Vary with type of structure

– Increased deflection and increased stress in steel

– Gradual transfer of load from concrete to steel
– Losing some of the prestress force in prestressed concrete

ww
w.E
asy PART – C (15 MARKS

En
1. Write down the complete procedure of concrete mix design as per
gin
BIS specifications. Assume necessary data. May/June2016)

Factors to be considered for mix design eer

ing
The grade designation giving the characteristic strength requirement of concrete.

.ne
The type of cement influences the rate of development of compressive strength of
concrete. t
Maximum nominal size of aggregates to be used in concrete may be as large as
possible within the limits prescribed by IS 456:2000.

The cement content is to be limited from shrinkage, cracking and creep.

The workability of concrete for satisfactory placing and compaction is related to the size
and shape of section, quantity and spacing of reinforcement and technique used for
transportation, placing and compaction.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Procedure:

1. Determine the mean target strength ft from the specified characteristic compressive
strength at 28-day fck and the level of quality control.

ft = fck + 1.65 S

where S is the standard deviation obtained from the Table of approximate contents
given after the design mix.

ww
2. Obtain the water cement ratio for the desired mean target using the emperical
relationship between compressive strength and water cement ratio so chosen is

w.E
checked against the limiting water cement ratio. The water cement ratio so chosen is
checked against the limiting water cement ratio for the requirements of durability given

asy
in table and adopts the lower of the two values.

En
3. Estimate the amount of entrapped air for maximum nominal size of the aggregate from
the table.
gin
eer
4. Select the water content, for the required workability and maximum size of aggregates

ing
for aggregates in saturated surface dry condition from table.

.ne
5. Determine the percentage of fine aggregate in total aggregate by absolute volume from
table for the concrete using crushed coarse aggregate.

6. Adjust the values of water content and percentage of sand as provided in the table for
t
any difference in workability, water cement ratio, grading of fine aggregate and for
rounded aggregate the values are given in table.

7. Calculate the cement content form the water-cement ratio and the final water content as
arrived after adjustment. Check the cement against the minimum cement content from
the requirements of the durability, and greater of the two values is adopted.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

8. From the quantities of water and cement per unit volume of concrete and the percentage
of sand already determined in steps 6 and 7 above, calculate the content of coarse and
fine aggregates per unit volume of concrete from the following relations:

ww
where V = absolute volume of concrete

w.E
= gross volume 1m 3 minus the volume of entrapped air

asy
Sc = specific gravity of cement

En
W = Mass of water per cubic metre of concrete, kg

gin
C = mass of cement per cubic metre of concrete, kg

eer
p = ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume

ing
fa, Ca = total masses of fine and coarse aggregates, per cubic metre of
concrete, respectively, kg, and .ne
Sfa, Sca = specific gravities of saturated surface dry fine and coarse
aggregates, respectively
t
9. Determine the concrete mix proportions for the first trial mix.

10. Prepare the concrete using the calculated proportions and cast three cubes of 150 mm
size and test them wet after 28-days moist curing and check for the strength.

11. Prepare trial mixes with suitable adjustments till the final mix proportions are arrived at.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

2. Write the short note on Production manufacture) of

Concrete/Concrete Operations May/June2016)

PRODUCTION OF CONCRETE/CONCRETE OPERATIONS

The concrete operations i.e. the various operations required in production of
concrete for a concrete construction project are listed down as follows;
i Storing
a Storing of cement
b Storing of aggregates

ww ii
c) Storing of water
Batching

w.E
a Batching of cement

asy
b Hatching of aggregates
c) Batching of water
iii Mixing
En
aHand mixing
bMachine -mixing gin
iv Handling and Transporting
eer
v) Placing
vi Compacting ing
vii Finishing
.ne
viii Curing
t

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Process of manufacture of concrete

1. BATCHING

Batching is the process of measuring concrete mix ingredients by either mass or

volume and introducing them into the mixer . To produce concrete of uniform
quality, the ingredients must be measured accurately for each batch.

2. Mixing The mixing should be ensure that the mass becomes Homogeneous ,
uniform in colour and consistency .

ww Methods of Mixing : 1.Hands(using hand shovels) 2.Stationary Mixers 3.Ready

w.E
mix concrete

asy
Hand Mixing: Mixing ingredients of concrete by hands using ordinary tools like,
hand shovels etc. This type of mixing is done for Less output of concrete.

En
gin
Stationary Mixers: Concrete is sometime mixed at jobsite in a stationary mixer
having a size of 9 cubic meter. These mixers may be of : 1. Tilting type , 2. Non-
Tilting type ,
eer
ing
Tilting type mixer: It consist a conical drum which rotates on an inclinable axis. It
has only one opening. The drum charged directly and discharged by tilting and
reversing the drum. .ne
Non tilting type mixer : The mixing drum is cylindrical in shape and revolves two – t
horizontal axis. It has opening on both sides. The ingredients are charged in from
one opening. For discharging concrete chute is introducing to other opening by
operating a lever.

Ready Mixed Concrete Ready mixed concrete is proportioned and mixed off at
the project site and is delivered to the construction area in a freshly mixed and
unhardened state. It can be manufactured by any of the following methods:
1.Central-mixed concrete 2.Truck-mixed concrete.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

3. Transporting

Mortar Pan : Concrete is carried in small Quantities

Wheelbarrows and Buggies : Short flat hauls on all types of onsite concrete
construction

Belt Conveyors : Conveying concrete horizontally or higher/lower level.

Cranes and Buckets : Used forWork above ground level , Buckets use with

wwCranes, cableways, and helicopters.

w.E
Pumps : Conveying concrete from central discharge point to formwork.

asy
Transit Mixer : used for transporting the concrete over long distance particularly
in RMC plant .

En
4. Compaction of concrete Compaction of concrete is process adopted for

gin
expelling the entrapped air from the concrete. In the process of mixing ,

eer
transporting and placing of concrete air is likely to get entrapped in the concrete.
It has been found from the experimental studies that 1% air in the concrete

ing
approximately reduces the strength by 6%. If we don’t expel this air, it will result
into honeycombing and reduced strength
Different Methods Of Concrete Compaction .ne
1 Hand Compaction Rodding Ramming Tamping
2 Compaction by Vibration
t
Internal vibrator . Formwork Vibrator
Table Vibrator, Platform vibrator
Surface vibrator .
Hand Compaction • Hand compaction is used for ordinary and unimportant
structures. Workability should be decided in such a way that the chances of
honeycombing should be minimum. The various methods of hand compaction
are as given below: Rodding It is a method of poking with 2m long, 16 mm dia.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

rod at sharp corners and edges. The thickness of layers for rodding should be 15
to 20 cm.

Ramming • It is generally used for compaction on ground in plain concrete. It is

not used either in RCC or on upper floors. Tamping • It is a method in which the
top surface is beaten by wooden cross beam of cross section 10 cm x 10 cm.
both compaction and leveling are achieved simultaneously. It is mainly used for
roof slabs and road pavements.

ww Compaction by Vibration • Vibration is imparted to the concrete by mechanical

means. It causes temporary liquefaction so that air bubbles come on to the top

under. w.E
and expelled ultimately. Mechanical vibration can be of various types as given
Internal Vibration It is most commonly used technique of concrete

asy
vibration. Vibration is achieved due to eccentric weights attached to the shaft.
The needle diameter varies from 20 mm to 75 mm and its length varies from 25

En
cm to 90 cm. the frequency range adopted is normally 3500 to 5000 rpm. The

gin
correct and incorrect methods of vibration using internal vibration needles are
shown below.
eer
ing
External Vibration • This is adopted where internal vibration can’t be used due to
either thin sections or heavy reinforcement. External vibration is less effective and it

.ne
consumes more power as compared to the internal vibration. The formwork also has
to be made extra strong when external vibration is used

Table Vibration • It is mainly used for laboratories where concrete is put on the table
t
Platform Vibration • t is similar to table vibrators but these are generally used on a
very large scale

Surface Vibration • These are also called screed board vibrators. The action is
similar to that of tamping. The vibrator is placed on screed board and vibration is
given on the surface. It is mainly used for roof slabs, road pavements etc., but it is
not effective beyond 15 cm depth.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

UNIT IV

TIMBER AND OTHER MATERIALS

PART-A

1. What is timber?
Timber is obtained from trees. Timber denotes structural wood.
2.What is standing timber?

ww A standing living tree is known as standing timber.

w.E
3. What is rough timber?

When tree has been cut and its stem and branches are roughly converted into

asy
pieces of suitable lengths, it is known as rough timber.

En
4.What is converted timber?

When roughly converted timber is further sawn and converted into commercial

gin
sizes such as planks, logs, battens, posts, beams, etc, it is called converted timber.
5.What is conversion of timber?
eer
The process by which timber is cut and sawn into suitable marketable sizes is
known as conversion of timber. ing
6. Define seasoning of timber?(Nov/Dec 2015
.ne
A freshly felled tree contains lot of moisture which is usually in form of sap. The
excess of moisture have to be removed, before timber can be used for any structural
t
purposes.
The process of removing excess surplus moisture from freshly converted timber
is known as seasoning of timber.
7.Name some common diseases of timber.
i Dry rot ii Wet rot
8. What is meant by distempering?
It is a process of applying wash or coating like white-washing or colour washing
on the surface.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

9. What is meant by varnish?

Varnish is a solution of some resinous substance in alcohol, oil or turpentine.
The process of covering the surface with varnish is known as varnishing. Varnishing is
done on wooden surface.
10.What are the constituents of the varnish?
 Resinous material
 Driers
 Solvents
11.What are the constituents of oil paints? Nov/Dec 2015

ww A base, an inert extender or filler, a vehicle or carrier, a drier, a solvent or

w.E
thinner, a colouring pigment.
12.Define glazing.

asy
It is a process of covering the earthen ware, stone ware and porcelain products
with an impervious film of glaze. It is a glassy coat of about 0.1 to 0.2 mm thickness,

En
applied on the surface and then fused into the product by burning at high temperature.
13. Write notes on Varnishes.
gin
Varnish is a transparent, hard, protective finish or film primarily used in

eer
wood finishing but also for other materials. Varnish is traditionally a combination
of a drying oil, a resin, and a thinner or solvent.
ing
Varnish finishes are usually glossy but may be designed to produce satin
or semi-gloss sheens by the addition of "flatting" agents.
.ne
14. What is bitumen?
 Bitumen is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of
petroleum.
t
 It may be found in natural deposits or may be a refined product.
15. Define Plywood.
Plywood is a laminate made of thin layers of wood.
16. Write about Veneer.
 In woodworking, veneer refers to thin slices of wood, usually thinner than
3 mm, that typically are glued onto core panels typically, wood, particle
board or medium-density fibreboard to produce flat panels such as

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

doors, tops and panels for cabinets, parquet floors and parts of furniture.
17. List the application of Aluminium composites.May/June 2016
A popular application for aluminium composite is folded structures.
From sign trays to fascia panels and column cladding aluminium composite
is easy to form and light enough to install easily. Using the correct type of
tooling aluminium composite can be scored and then folded.
18. Write notes on Paint.
Paint is any liquid, liquefiable, or mastic composition that, after
application to a substrate in a thin layer, converts to a solid film. It is most

ww commonly used to protect, colour, or provide texture to objects.

19. What is a binder?

w.E
The binder is the film-forming component of paint. It is the only

asy
component that must be present. The binder imparts adhesion and strongly
influences properties such as gloss, durability, flexibility, and toughness.

En
20. What are the Advantages of using veneer?

gin
Furniture made with wood veneer uses less wood than the same
piece of furniture made with solid wood. Some projects built using wood

eer
veneer would not be possible to construct using solid lumber, owing to

ing
expansion and contraction caused by fluctuation of temperature and
humidity.
21. List the applications of Thermocole.Apr/May 2015
.ne
Its high thermal insulation makes it an excellent material to use in the
construction of walls and ceilings and its high sound absorption makes it the
ideal choice forsound-proofing.
t
Another recent application of Thermocol EPS is as ―Geofoaml in
landfills.
This application is made possible because of Thermocol’s(EPS’s) light
weight,water resistance, dimensional stability and inert nature.
22. list the various forms of steelMay/June 2016
Mild steel bars
High yield strength deformed bars

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

UNIT IV
TIMBER AND OTHER MATERIALS
PART-B 13MARKS)
1. Write notes on Aluminium Composite. Apr / May 2015)
Aluminium Composite material:
 Composite materials can be selected to give combination of properties such as
stiffness, strength, high temperature performance, corrosion resistance,
hardness, conductivity etc. Aluminium matrix composites are finding wide range

ww of applications in automobile, aerospace, defence and general engineering

sectors, because of their higher specific strength and stiffness, good wear and

w.E
seizure resistance and improved high temperature properties as compared to the
base alloy.

asy
The strength and wear resistance of AMCs were found to be comparable to cast

En
irons. AMCs are lighter than cast iron or steels and the former one have better
specific strength and wear resistance as compared to the later one.
 gin
Thus, considerable efforts are being made to replace these components with

eer
AMCs. It will not only improve the life of components but also reduce the weight

ing
and improve the fuel efficiency Aluminium composite is a lightweight panel
material which is designed for interior and exterior applications.
 Aluminium Composite sheet has a polyethylene core. This make up 90% of the
.ne

structure of each sheet. Depending on which brand of Aluminium Composite you
use this core will be either a Clear/ Grey or Black colour.
The polyethylene core of your Aluminium Composite sheet is faced with two thin
t
sheets of aluminium. This aluminium is bonded onto the core during the
manufacturing process and it is virtually impossible to separate the layers of
material once they have been bonded.
 The applications for aluminium composite are wide and varied. Versatile
lightweight and durable material aluminium composite performs well for internal
and external applications.
 Addition of second phase particles to aluminium based alloys has emerged as a

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

potential technique for the development of aluminium - alloy composite

materials especially suitable for structural and elevated temperature
applications.
 In this case, usually one set of properties is improved at the cost of the other
and hence a compromise has to be made in the case of composite materials in
this regard.
 Much lighter than other metal and plastic sheet aluminium composite allows the
creation of lightweight yet strong structures.
 Manufactured from plastic and aluminium this material is easy to handle and

ww

simple to machine.

w.E
A popular application for aluminium composite is folded structures. From sign
trays to fascia panels and column cladding aluminium composite is easy to form

asy
and light enough to install easily.

En
2. Explain applications of Bitumens. May/June 2016)


gin
eer
Bitumen is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of
petroleum. It

ing
may be found in natural deposits or may be a refined product; it is a substance


classed as a pitch.
Bitumen is an oil based substance. It is a semi-solid hydrocarbon product .ne
produced by removing the lighter fractions such as liquid petroleum gas, petrol
and diesel from heavy crude oil during the refining process. As such, it is
t
correctly known as refined bitumen.
 The primary use of asphalt/bitumen is in road construction, where it is used as
the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its
other main uses are for bituminous waterproofing products, including production
of roofing felt and for sealing flat roofs.
 The vast majority of refined bitumen is used in construction: primarily as a
constituent of products used in paving and roofing applications. According to the

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

requirements of the end use bitumen is produced to specification.

 This is achieved either by refining process or blending. The production of
asphalt involves mixing sand, gravel and crushed rock with bitumen, which acts
as the binding agent. Other materials, such as polymers, may be added to the
bitumen to alter its properties according to the application for which the asphalt
is ultimately intended.
 85% of all the bitumen produced is used as the binder in asphalt for roads. It is
also used in other paved areas such as airport runways, car parks and
footways. A further 10% of global bitumen production is used in roofing

ww

applications, where its waterproofing qualities are invaluable.

w.E
The remaining 5% of bitumen is used mainly for sealing and insulating purposes
in a variety of building materials, such as pipe coatings, carpet tile backing and


paint.
asy
Naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen is sometimes specified by the term "crude

En
bitumen". Its viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses while the material

gin
obtained from the fractional distillation of crude oil boiling at 525 °C 977 °F) is
sometimes referred to as "refined bitumen".

eer
ing
3. Explain in detail the application of timber in construction.
May/June 2016)
.ne
 In comparison with other construction materials, using timber is energy saving.
The manifold material values can also be expanded with the material selection.
t
 The selection between different materials like round wood, squared wood, sawn
wood or glued laminated timber which has been improved through industrial
methods, or different sorts of plywood, provides different resistance qualities with
economical and competitive construction possibilities.
 Wood sections are a further quality to take into account beside resistance criteria
when using round- or sawn wood.
 The treatment preceding the drying and the considering of the extension of the

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

year rings in different forms of sections, as well as the profiles of the wood
sections are most important for an economical formation of detail in the
constructive use of timber.

Techniques and Means of Assembling

 New highly efficient means of assembling, i.e. connections with lower section
weakening and needs of steal, have to be developed for a highest possible
degree of pre-fabrication in the workshop and in order to reduce the working

ww
time on the site as much as possible.
The use of new connecting systems like nailed tinplate’s, screws, lag bolts as

w.E
well as connectors with wood contact allow a much higher quality of more
filigree supporting systems when linked with deterministic non-destructive

asy
testing methods in order to avoid sporadic problems, which arise in highly
stressed construction elements. Connectors combining fiberglass and

En
mechanical fasteners allow also a noticeable increase in the load capacity, as


gin
shown in a recent study on fiberglass reinforced timber joints.

eer
In order to give timber a new chance as a construction material, the different
research development and marketing programs should not aim at the quantity

ing
of material used, but at the manifold quality of material steadiness, section

.ne
variability, material diversity as well as facilitated construction control and
quick usage of the new techniques in timber engineering construction.
 Timber as load-bearing material has only a chance if the conception of the
construction can show a quality which is not only functional, technical or
t
architectural, but which can also justify its economy.
 This presupposes, how-ever, a more important planning and a better
cooperation between architect and engineer, in order to make the most of the
diversity of forms, structures and techniques applicable to timber.
 It is essential to define clearly the quality criteria of a timber construction and
to aim at reading easily the force and load fluctuations, and reducing the
material through load- and detail planning with an optimally functional
adaptation to technique and construction.
88

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

New Techniques in Timber Construction

 The increasing use of timber in the construction depends on engineering
developments of timber as a load-bearing material, in order to raise the modest
portion of the total construction volume from about 1 per cent to perhaps 2 or 3
per cent.
 The criteria of development are: better evaluation of the timber quality, increase
of the diversity and better treatment of material varieties, development of new
time-sparing assembling techniques which allow the highest possible degree of
pre-fabrication.

ww Quantity related techniques for floors, walls and roofs of the dense housing and

w.E
public buildings linked with other massive construction materials, as well as
quality related high-tech systems, which play a significant role in the modern

asy
architecture of roof, hall and bridge construction, should correct the image of
timber and offer a competitive alternative to other materials used in
construction.
En

gin
The material selection is no proof for "good architecture". It is, however, an
important contribution to the environmental conservation, even if it needs more
concentration on the planning phase.
eer
ing
4. Write short notes on Plywood, Veneer and Thermacole? May/June
2016) Nov / Dec 2015) .ne
VENEER
 In woodworking, veneer refers to thin slices of wood, usually thinner than 3 mm
t
1/8 inch, that typically are glued onto core panels typically, wood, particle
board or medium-density fibreboard to produce flat panels such as doors, tops
and panels for cabinets, parquet floors and parts of furniture.
 Plywood consists of three or more layers of veneer, each glued with its grain at
right angles to adjacent layers for strength.
 Veneer beading is a thin layer of decorative edging placed around objects, such
as jewellery boxes. Veneer is also used to replace decorative papers in Wood

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Veneer HPL. Veneer is also a type of manufactured board.

 Veneer is obtained either by "peeling" the trunk of a tree or by slicing large
rectangular blocks of wood known as flitches.
 The appearance of the grain and figure in wood comes from slicing through the
growth rings of a tree and depends upon the angle at which the wood is sliced.
There are three main types of veneer-making equipment used commercially:
 A rotary lathe in which the wood is turned against a very sharp blade and
peeled off in one continuous or semi-continuous roll. Rotary-cut veneer is
mainly used for plywood, as the appearance is not desirable because the

ww

veneer is cut concentric to the growth rings.

w.E
A slicing machine in which the flitch or piece of log is raised and lowered against
the blade and slices of the log are made. This yields veneer that looks like sawn

asy
pieces of wood, cut across the growth rings; such veneer is referred to as
"crown cut".

En
A half-round lathe in which the log or piece of log can be turned and moved in

 gin
such a way as to expose the most interesting parts of the grain.
Each slicing processes gives a very distinctive type of grain, depending upon

eer
the tree species. In any of the veneer-slicing methods, when the veneer is


sliced, a distortion of the grain occurs.
ing
As it hits the wood, the knife blade creates a "loose" side where the cells have
been opened up by the blade, and a "tight" side.
.ne
Types:
 Raw veneer has no backing on it and can be used with either side facing t
up. It is important to note that the two sides will appear different when a
finish has been applied, due to the cell structure of the wood.
 Paper backed veneer is, as the name suggests, veneers that are backed
with paper. The advantage to this is it is available in large sizes, or sheets,
as smaller pieces are joined together prior to adding the backing.
 This is helpful for users that do not wish to join smaller pieces of raw
veneers together. This is also helpful when veneering curves and columns
as the veneer is less likely to crack.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 Phenolic backed veneer is less common and is used for composite, or

manmade wood veneers. Due to concern for the natural resource, this is
becoming more popular. It too has the advantage of being available in
sheets, and is also less likely to crack when being used on curves.
Laid up veneer is raw veneer that has been joined together to make larger pieces.
The process is time-consuming and requires great care, but is not difficult and
requires no expensive tools or machinery. Veneers can be ordered through some
companies already laid up to any size, shape or design.

ww Reconstituted veneer is made from fast-growing tropical species. Raw veneer is

cut from a log, and dyed if necessary. Once dyed, the sheets are laminated

w.E
together to form a block. The block is then sliced so that the edges of the

asy
laminated veneer become the ―grain of the reconstituted veneer
Advantages:

En
gin
Furniture made with wood veneer uses less wood than the same piece of
furniture made with solid wood. Some projects built using wood veneer would not

eer
be possible to construct using solid lumber, owing to expansion and contraction
caused by fluctuation of temperature and humidity.
THERMACOLE: ing
.ne
 Its high thermal insulation makes it an excellent material to use in the
construction of walls and ceilings and its high sound absorption makes it the
ideal choice for sound-proofing.
t
 Another recent application of Thermocol EPS is as ―Geofoaml in landfills. This
application is made possible because of Thermocol’s EPS’s) light weight, water
resistance, dimensional stability and inert nature.
Construction with EPS
 By using EPS rigid foam, architects and construction engineers today are also at
the same time making use of the opportunity presented by system solutions and
incorporate them in their plans appropriately for the functions concerned.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 The trend is clearly toward specific insulation systems, such as external wall and
roof insulation systems, under floor heating systems etc. Such systems give the
owner of a building under construction not only considerable cost/benefit
advantages but also reduce the risk of technical errors in the planning and
execution of work. Even today, 4 decades after its invention, EPS has lost
nothing of its attractiveness and is more a part of today’s construction industry
than ever.
Roof constructions with EPS:
 From the viewpoint of construction physics, the roof, nomatter of what design, is

ww the most highly stressed party of a building. Heat and Cold, dryness and
wetness, storms and snow act from the outside, internal relative humidity acts


w.E
from inside, either alternately or both at the same time.

asy
Roof designs and materials have to be adapted to these conditions if the roof is
to fulfill its protective function. Plastics play a significant part in this connection as

En
insulation layers, waterproofing membranes, vapor barriers, underlays, gutters,

Flat roofs: Flat roof gin

downpipes and many other functional elements. Whether a flat.
insulation is an important field of application for
EPSThermocolsheets.
eer

ing
Depending on the roof design, the insulation material is laid loosely, fixed by hot
or cold adhesive or mechanically fastened to the underlying surface. The

.ne
insulation of a non ventilated flat roof is performed simply and economically by
means of insulation units of EPS which have been precoated with roofing felt.
Pitched roofs: In many countries, use of the roof space for living purposes is already
consideration during the planning of a building.
t
 Even on existing buildings, roof space is increasingly being developed as
additional living areas for guest rooms, play rooms or hobby rooms. Adequate
thermal insulation of the roof surface – as the area bounding indoors from
outdoors – must be provided.
Wall constructions with EPS: A wall is both a load-bearing and a protective
building unit.It protects the surrounded space against the effects of temperature and
weather and against noise.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 Nowadays, the thermal insulation function is assumed by modern insulating

materials, such as EPS sheets. In what is the optimum type of external insulation
from a construction physics viewpoint, the EPS insulating layer is applied on the
outside of the load-bearing masonry and weather-protected either by a reinforced
special plaster or by a ventilated facing layer
Insulating plaster A further possibility of improving the thermal insulation of external
wallsis to coat them with a thermally insulating lightweight plaster.
 In this case, small, foamed EPS particles are added to the plastering mortar mix,
substantially reducing the apparent density of the plaster and thus increasing its

ww thermal insulation.
Lightweight concrete Foamed EPS beads are not only suitable for lightweight

w.E
plasters, butalso for the production of lightweight concrete and porous bricks.

asy
The possible applications of EPS concrete as a thermally insulating, light-weight
construction material have already been investigated and formulations for various

En
apparent density ranges with different concrete properties developed.

gin
Prefabricated Systems The use of EPS sheets as thermal insulation in large format

eer
façadeunits of normal concrete sandwich construction has long since proven
successful.
 ing
The high mechanical load-bearing capacity and dimensional stability of EPS
sheets also make possible a trouble-free production of large panel lightweight
.ne
units which can be covered with various materials depending on the intended
application. t
PLYWOOD
 Itis a sheet material manufactured from thin layers or "plies" of wood veneer that
are glued together with adjacent layers having their wood grain rotated up to90
degrees to one another.
 It is an engineered wood from the family of manufactured boards which includes
medium-density fibreboard MDF) and particle board chipboard.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 All plywoods bind resin and wood fiber sheets cellulose cells are long, strong
and thin to form a composite material. T his alternation of the grain is called
cross-graining and has several important benefits: it reduces the tendency of
wood to split when nailed at the edges; it reduces expansion and shrinkage,
providing improved dimensional stability and it makes the strength of the panel
consistent across all directions.
 There are usually an odd number of plies, so that the sheet is balanced—this
reduces warping. Because plywood is bonded with grains running against one
another and with an odd number of composite parts, it is very hard to bend it

ww

perpendicular to the grain direction of the surface ply.

w.E
Smaller thinner plywoods and lower quality plywoods see Average -quality
plywood photo below and right may only have their plies layers) arranged at

asy
rightangles to each other, though many better quality plywood products will by
design have five plies in steps of 45 degrees 0, 45, 90, 135, and 180 degrees),
giving strength in
En

Multiple axis.
gin
The highest quality specialty plywood often have plies at 30 degrees 0,30, 60,

eer
90, 120, 150, and 180 degrees) in seven layers, or have nine layers with two

ing
layers of 45 and 135 degrees in the sandwich. The smaller the step rotations the
harder it is to manufacture, increasing manufacturing costs and consequently
retail price.
.ne
Types
Different varieties of plywood exist for different applications:
t
a Softwood plywood &Hardwood plywood
b) Tropical plywood
c Aircraft plywood
d) Decorative plywood overlaid plywood)
e Flexible plywood
f Marine plywood
g) Other plywood

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Applications
 Plywood is used in many applications that need high-quality, high-strength sheet
material. Quality in this context means resistance to cracking, breaking,
shrinkage, twisting and warping.
 Exterior glued plywood is suitable for outdoor use, but because moisture affects
the strength of wood, optimal performance is achieved in end uses where the
wood's moisture content remains relatively low.
 On the other hand, sub-zero conditions don't affect plywood's dimensional or
strength properties ,which makes some special applications possible.

ww
 Plywood is also used as an engineering material for stressed-skin applications.

w.E
Ithas been used for marine and aviation applications since WWII. Most notable is
the British de Havilland Mosquito bomber, which was primarily made using a

 asy
moulded sandwich of two layers of birch plywood around a balsa core.
Plywood was also used for the hulls in the hard-chine Motor Torpedo Boats

En
MTB and Motor Gun Boats MGBbuilt by the British Power Boat Company and
Vosper's.
Softwood plywood applications gin
Typical end uses of spruce plywood are:
eer


Floors, walls and roofs in home constructions
Wind bracing panels ing
 Vehicle internal body work
.ne


Packages and boxes
Fencing t
There are coating solutions available that mask the prominent grain structure of
spruce plywood. For these coated plywood there are some end uses where
reasonable strength is needed but the lightness of spruce is a benefit e.g.:
Concrete shuttering panels
Ready-to-paint surfaces for constructions
Hardwood plywood applications

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Phenolic resin film coated Film Faced plywood is typically used as a ready -to-
install component e.g.:
1. Panels in concrete form work systems
2. Floors, walls and roofs in transport vehicles
3. Container floors
4. Floors subjected to heavy wear in various buildings and factories
5. Scaffolding materials
"Wire" or other styles of imprinting available for better traction
Birch plywood is used as a structural material in special applications e.g.:

ww
1. Wind turbine blades
2. Insulation boxes for liquefied natural gas LNG carriers Smooth surface and

w.E
accurate thickness combined with the durability of the material makes birch plywood

asy
a favorable material for many special end uses e.g.:
1. High-end loud speakers
2. Die-cutting boards
En
3. Supporting structure for parquet
4. Playground equipment gin
5. Furniture
eer
6. Signs and fences for demanding outdoor advertising
7. Musical instruments ing
8. Sports equipment
.ne
Tropical plywood applications
 Tropical plywood is widely available from the South-East Asia region, mainly from
Malaysia and Indonesia. Tropical plywood boasts premium quality, and strength.
t
Depending on machinery, tropical plywood can be made with high accuracy in
thickness, and is a highly preferable choice in America, Japan, Middle East,
Korea, and other regions around the world.
1. Common plywood
2. Concrete panel
3. Floor base
4. Structure panel

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

5. Container flooring
6. Lamina board
7. Laminated veneer lumber LVL

5. Explain in detail about Panels of Laminates.

 Laminate panel is a type of manufactured timber made from thin sheets of

substrates or wood veneer. It is similar to the more widely used plywood, except
that it has a plastic, protective layer on one or both sides. Laminate panels are

ww used instead of plywood because of their resistance to impact, weather,

moisture, shattering in coldductility, and chemicals.

w.E
Laminate panel layers called veneers) are glued together with adjacent plies
having their grain at right angles to each other for greater strength. The plastic

asy
layers)added for protection vary in composition, thickness, colour and texture
according to the application.
En
gin
Types
A number of varieties of laminate panel exist for different applications.


Plywood + ABS laminate panels
eer

Plywood + FRP laminate panels
Plywood + aluminum laminated panels ing
 Lightweight composite panels
.ne
Sizes
 The most commonly used thickness range from 1/8" to 1/2" and 3/8", in a variety
of colours and textures.
t
Applications
Laminate panels are used in many applications that need weather-proof, impact
resistant sheet material. Typical end uses of spruce plywood are:
 Floors, walls and roofs in clean rooms
 Vehicle internal body work
 Packages and boxes
 Road cases

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

6. Explain in detail about Manufacturing Methods of

Steel.Apr/May2015)

 Steel is the most suitable building material among metallic materials. This is due
to awide range and combination of physical and mechanical properties that
steels can have.By suitably controlling the carbon content, alloying elements and
heat treatment, adesired combination of hardness, ductility, and strength can be
obtained in steel. On thebasis of carbon content steel may be classified as under:
Type of steel Carbon content %

ww Dead mild steel

Mild steel
< 0.15
0.15–0.3

w.E
Medium carbonsteel 0.3–0.8

Hard steelasy
High carbon steel 0.8–1.5
> 1 is also called cast steel or toolsteel
Manufacturing Methods
En
The prominent steel-making processes are:
1. Bessemer process gin
2. Cementation process
eer
3. Crucible process
4. Open Hearth process ing
5. Electric Smelting process
.ne

6. Duplex process
7. Lintz and Donawitz L.D. process
The most prominent present-day steel-making process is the Bessemer process
t
was introduced in 1856. The pig iron is first melted in Cupola furnace and sent to
Bessemer converter Blast of hot air is given to oxidize the carbon.
 Depending upon the requirement, some carbon and manganese is added to the
converter and hot air is blasted once again. Then the molten material is poured
into moulds to form ingots. L.D. process is modification of the Bessemer process
in which there in no control over temperature.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 By this method steel can be made in hardly 25 minutes. In Open-hearth process

also known as Siemen’s-Martin process, the steel produced is more
homogeneous than by Bessemer’s.
 The electric process is costly but no ash or smoke is produced. The Crucible
process involves melting of blister steel or bars of wrought iron in fire clay
crucibles.
 Cast steel so obtained is very hard and is used for making surgical equipment.
The Duplex process is a combination of Acid Bessemer process and Basic Open
Hearth process.

ww
Properties and Uses

w.E
Mild Steel Also known as low carbon or soft steel. It is ductile, malleable; tougher
and more elastic than wrought iron. Mild steel can be forged and welded, difficult to

 asy
temper and harden. It rusts quickly and can be permanently magnetized.
The properties are: Sp.gr. = 7.30, ultimate compressive and tensile strengths 800–
1200N/mm2 and 600–800N/mm2.
En

gin
Mild steel is used in the form of rolled sections, reinforcing bars, roof coverings and
sheet piles and in railway tracks.

eer
High Carbon Steel: The carbon content in high carbon steel varies from 0.55

 ing
to1.50%. It is also known as hard steel. It is tougher and more elastic than mild steel.
It can be forged and welded with difficulty. Its ultimate compressive and tensile
strengths are 1350 N/mm2 and 1400–2000 N/mm2, respectively.
.ne
 Its Sp. gr. is 7.90. High carbon steel is used for reinforcing cement
concrete and prestressed concrete members. It can take shocks and vibrations
and is used for making tools and machine parts.
t
High Tensile steel: The carbon content in high tensile steel is 0.6–0.8%,
manganese 0.6%, silicon 0.2%, sulphur 0.05% and phosphorus 0.05%.
 It is also known as high strength steel and is essentially a medium carbon
steel. The ultimate tensile strength is of the order of 2000 N/mm2 and a
minimum elongation of 10 per cent.
 High Tensile steel is used in prestressed concrete construction.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Properties of Steel
 The factors influencing the properties of steel are chemical composition, heat
treatment, and mechanical work.
Chemical Composition
 The presence of carbon in steel gives high degree of hardness and
strength. Then addition of carbon to iron decreases the malleability and ductility
of the metal, and reduces its permeability to magnetic forces.
 The tensile strength of hot rolled steel bars is maximum between 1.0 and
1.2 per cent carbon. The elastic limit and the ultimate strength of steel increase

ww with carbon content but at a lower rate. The compressive strength of steel

w.E
increases directly with carbon content up to 1.0 per cent.

asy
7. Explain the Characteristics Of An Ideal Paint.


En
The requirements are uniform spread as a thin film, high coverage, good

gin
workability and durability, sufficient elasticity to remain unaffected by expansion
or contraction of the surface to be painted or by weathering action of

eer
atmosphere. The paints should also be: impervious to air and water, cheap and
economical to form a hard surface.
Preparation of Paint ing
.ne
The base is ground in a vehicle to the consistency of paste in a stone pestle
known as
muller. Linseed oil, is intermittently added to the paste in small quantities and
the mixture is stirred with a wooden puddle. In case of coloured paints, the
t
pigment is mixed with linseed oil separately and the paste is formed as
explained above.
 Driers are also ground separately in linseed oil. The three pastes so
prepared are mixed and a little linseed oil is added further to soften the paste.
The mixture is continuously stirred till a consistency of cream is obtained.

100

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 The mixture is thereafter strained through fine canvas or a sieve. The

paint is now ready for use. The paint so prepared can be used by adding oil or a
thinner to make it of workable consistency before application.
 For commercial manufacturing of paints a four-storey building is used to
have gravitational flow of materials. Pigments, oil, thinner, plasticizer, drier, etc.
are stored on the fourth floor and are fed by means of chutes in proper
proportions, to the grinding mill placed on the third floor and are ground.
 The thoroughly ground materials are then sent to storage tanks on the
second floor. The charge in the tanks is kept in motion by agitation mechanism

wwso that settling of materials does not take place.

w.E
The factors affecting the quality of paint so prepared are quality of
ingredients, grinding, intimate mixing and proportioning, straining, packing,

asy
etc. Ready mixed paints are also available in the market with different trade
names, e.g., Asian, Ducco, Shalimar, Berger Nerolac, etc.

En
gin
8. Enumerate the advantages of aluminium in construction.

Applications
eer
ing
The best application can be obtained in some typical cases, which are
characterised in getting profit at least of one of the main basic properties:

.ne
lightness, corrosion resistance and functionality. The structural applications
which best fit these properties in the field of civil engineering are the following:

1. Long-span roof systems in which live loads are small compared with dead
t
loads, as in the case of reticular space structures and geodetic domes covering
large span areas, like halls and auditoriums.

2. Structures located in inaccessible places far from the fabrication shop, for
which transport economy and ease of erection are of extreme importance, like for
instance electrical transmission towers, which can be carried by helicopter.

101

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

3. Structures situated in corrosive or humid environments such as swimming pool

roofs, river bridges, hydraulic structures and offshore super-structures.

4. Structures having moving parts, such as sewage plant crane bridges and
moving bridges, where lightness means economy of power under service.

5. Structures for special purposes, for which maintenance operations are

particularly difficult and must be limited, as in case of masts, lighting towers,
antennas towers, sign motorway portals, and so on.

ww
Advantages
1. Lightweight

w.E
Aluminium is one of the lightest available commercial metals with a density

asy
approximately one third that of steel or copper.

2. Excellent
En Corrosion
Aluminium has excellent resistance to corrosion due to the thin layer of
Resistance

gin
aluminium oxide that forms on the surface of aluminium when it is exposed to air

3. Strong at
eer Low Temperatures

ing
Where as steel becomes brittle at low temperatures, aluminium increases in
tensile strength and retains excellent toughness.

.ne
4. Easy to
Aluminium can be easily fabricated into various forms such as foil, sheets,
geometric shapes, rod, tube and wire.
Work
t
5. Easy Surface Treatment
For many applications, aluminium requires no protective or decorative coating;
the surface supplied is entirely adequate without further finishing

Disadvantages:
1. Thermal insulation was almost definitely insufficient: aluminium being a good
thermal conductor.

102

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

2. Poor water proofing due to the inadequately designed/executed joints between

the roof aluminium sheets
3. General noise caused by rain or hail falling on aluminium roof and wall sheets.
Aluminium is the second most widely specified metal in buildings after steel, and
is used in all construction sectors, from commercial buildings to domestic
dwellings. 40% of the UK annual production of aluminium is utilized within the
construction industry, which equates to roughly 150,000 tonnes of aluminium per
annum, of which approximately 65,000 tonnes is extruded products, and 25,000
tonnes sheet materials.

wwThe main market sectors are windows, roofing, cladding, curtain walling and

w.E
structural glazing, prefabricated buildings, architectural hardware, H&V, shop
fitting and partitions. Aluminium is also used extensively in plant, ladders and

asy
scaffolding.

Skyscrapers
En
Pavilions
Sports Facilities gin
eer
PART – C (15 MARKS
ing
1. Discuss the possible sources of defects in timber. .ne
Defects in timber
t
Since timber is a natural product, developed through many years of growth in the
open air, exposed to continual and varying climate conditions, it is prone to many
defects.

Defects cannot be corrected and therefore each individual piece must be

inspected before use and judged on its own merits. Defects can be caused
during growth, during drying, through insects, through fungi or during subsequent

103

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

handling or machining, and each should be known, so that imperfect pieces can
be detected and rejected.

a During growth

- Shake is called a partial or complete separation between adjoining layers of

wood, due initially to causes other than drying. The three types are Heart shake,
Cup shake and Star shake.

ww
w.E
asy
Starshake
En
Heartshake Cupshake
- Knots can be caused by a branch or limb being cut through the process of

gin
sawing up the log. Knots are classified in two groups: live knot and dead knot.

eer
Live knot is left by a branch when the tree is felled.

ing
.ne
t
Live knot
- Dead knot is left by branches that have been cut off or broken before felling,
and which cannot be relied on to remain in position in the piece.

Dead knot

104

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

- Gum pocket is a cavity which has contained or contains gum.

Gum pocket

b During or after drying process

- Bow is a deviation from the flat, the piece being arched.

ww
w.E
asy
En Bow

gin
eer
- Twist is a spiral distortion along the length of a piece of timber.

ing
.ne
Twist
t
- Cup is a curvature across the width of a piece of timber.

Cup

105

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

c) Defects through insects

- Termites or white ants attack timber structures and are a serious problem in
Papua New Guinea.

The species that causes the damage live in the ground. Precautions involve
treating timber with a preservative or avoiding direct timber contact with the
ground.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Types of termite damage
eer
ing
Left unchecked termites eat the wood, leaving the outer shell intact. Often their
presence is not evident until serious damage has occurred

2. Write notes on Paints, Varnishes and Distempers? May/June 2016) .ne

Nov / Dec 2015 t
PAINTS,

 Paint is any liquid, liquefiable, or mastic composition that, after application to a

substrate
in a thin layer, converts to a solid film. It is most commonly used to protect,
colour, or provide texture to objects.
 Paint can be made or purchased in many colours—and in many different types,

106

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

such as watercolour, artificial, etc. Paint is typically stored, sold, and applied as
a liquid, but dries into a solid.
 The binder, commonly called the vehicle, is the film-forming component of
paint. It is the only component that must be present. Components listed below
are included optionally, depending on the desired properties of the cured film.
 The binder imparts adhesion and strongly influences properties such as gloss,
durability, flexibility, and toughness.
 Binders include synthetic or natural resins such as alkyds, acrylics, vinyl-
acrylics, vinyl acetate/ethylene VAE, polyurethanes, polyesters, melamine

ww

resins, epoxy, or oils.

w.E
Binders can be categorized according to the mechanisms for drying or curing.
Although drying may refer to evaporation of the solvent or thinner, it usually

asy
refers to oxidative cross-linking of the binders and is indistinguishable from
curing. Some paints form by solvent evaporation only, but most rely on cross-
linking processes.
En

gin
The main purposes of the diluents are to dissolve the polymer and adjust the
viscosity of the paint. It is volatile and does not become part of the paint film.

eer
It also controls flow and application properties, and in some cases can affect the


stability of the paint while in liquid state.
ing
Its main function is as the carrier for the non volatile components.
 To spread heavier oils for example, linseed as in oil -based interior house
.ne

paint, a thinner oil is required.
These volatile substances impart their properties temporarily—once the solvent t
has evaporated, the remaining paint is fixed to the surface.
 This component is optional: some paints have no diluent. Water is the main
diluent for water-borne paints, even the co-solvent types. Solvent-borne, also
called oil-based, paints can have various combinations of organic solvents as
the diluent, including aliphatics, aromatics, alcohols, ketones and white spirit.
 Specific examples are organic solvents such as petroleum distillate, esters,
glycol ethers, and the like. Sometimes volatile low-molecular weight synthetic
resins also serve as diluents.

107

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 Pigments are granular solids incorporated in the paint to contribute color. Fillers
are granular solids incorporate to impart toughness, texture, give the paint
special properties, or to reduce the cost of the paint. Alternatively, some paints
contain dyes instead of or in combination with pigments.
 Fillers are a special type of pigment that serve to thicken the film, support its
structure and increase the volume of the paint. Fillers are usually cheap and
inert materials, such as diatomaceous earth, talc, lime, barytes, clay, etc.
 Floor paints that must resist abrasion may contain fine quartz sand as filler. Not
all paints include fillers. On the other hand, some paints contain large

ww proportions of pigment/filler and binder.

w.E
Applications:


asy
Paint can be applied as a solid, a gaseous suspension aerosol or a liquid.
Techniques vary depending on the practical or artistic results desired. As a solid

En
usually used in industrial and automotive applications), the paint is applied as a

gin
very fine powder, and then baked at high temperature.


eer
This melts the powder and causes it to adhere to the surface. The reasons for
doing this involve the chemistries of the paint, the surface itself, and perhaps

ing
even the chemistry of the substrate the object being painted. This is called

.ne
"powder coating" an object. As a gas or as a gaseous suspension, the paint is
suspended in solid or liquid form in agas that is sprayed on an object. The paint


sticks to the object. This is called "spray painting" an object.

In the liquid application, paint can be applied by direct application using

t
brushes, paint rollers, blades, other instruments, or body parts such as fingers
and thumbs.

 Rollers generally have a handle that allows for different lengths of poles to be
attached, allowing painting at different heights. Generally, roller application
requires two coats for even color. A roller with a thicker nap is used to apply
paint on uneven surfaces. Edges are often finished with an angled brush

108

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

VARNISHES:
 Varnish is a transparent, hard, protective finish or film primarily used in wood
finishing but also for other materials. Varnish is traditionally a combination of a
drying oil, a resin, and a thinner or solvent.
 Varnish finishes are usually glossy but may be designed to produce satin or
semi-gloss sheens by the addition of "flatting" agents.
 Varnish has little or no colour, is transparent, and has no added pigment, as
opposed to paints or wood stains, which contain pigment and generally range
from opaque to translucent.

ww
 Varnishes are also applied over wood stains as a final step to achieve a film for

w.E
gloss and protection. Some products are marketed as a combined stain and
varnish.

asy
After being applied, the film-forming substances in varnishes either harden directly,
as soon as the solvent has fully evaporated, or harden after evaporation of the

En
solvent through certain curing processes, primarily chemical reaction between oils

gin
and oxygen from the air autoxidation and chemical reactions between
components of the varnish.

eer
Resin varnishes "dry" by evaporation of the solvent and harden almost immediately

ing
upon drying. Acrylic and waterborne varnishes "dry" upon evaporation of the water
but experience an extended curing period. Oil, polyurethane, and epoxy varnishes

.ne
remain liquid even after evaporation of the solvent but quickly begin to cure,

t
undergoing successive stages from liquid or syrupy, to tacky or sticky, to dry
gummy, to "dry to the touch", to hard.
 Environmental factors such as heat and humidity play a very large role in the drying
and curing times of varnishes.
 In classic varnish the cure rate depends on the type of oil used and, to some
extent, on the ratio of oil to resin. The drying and curing time of all varnishes
may be sped up by exposure to an energy. source such as sunlight, ultraviolet
light, or heat.
 Varnishes and drying oils may cause fires. Many varnishes contain plant-
derived oils e.g. linseed oil, synthetic oils e.g. polyurethanes) or resins as

109

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

their binder in combination with organic solvents. These are highly flammable in
their liquid state.

DISTEMPER:

 Distemper is an early form of whitewash, also used as a medium for artistic

painting, usually made from powdered chalk or lime and size a gelatinous
substance.
 Alternatives to chalk include the toxic substance white lead.

ww
 Distempered surfaces can be easily marked and discoloured, and cannot be

w.E
washed down, so distemper is best suited to temporary and interior decoration.
The technique of painting on distempered surfaces blends watercolours with

asy
whiting and glue. The colours are mixed with whitening, or finely-ground chalk,
and tempered with size.
Properties
En


Light in colour
Coatings are thicker gin
 Give reflective coating.
eer


Less durable than oil paint but cheeper
ing
Coatings are thicker and more durable when compared too other water paints.

.ne
t

110

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

UNIT - V
MODERN MATERIALS
PART-A

1. What is a geofabric?
These are synthetic fabrics which are sufficiently durable to last a good
length of time in soil environment used in geotechnical engineering. Some
geofabrics are polyester, nylon, polyethylene and geotechnical engineering.

ww
2. What is a Fibre-Reinforced Plastic?
Fibre-reinforced plastic FRP also fibre -reinforced polymer is a composite

w.E
material made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres. The fibres are usually

asy
glass, carbon, basalt or aramid, although other fibres such as paper or wood or
asbestos have been sometimes used.
3.What is a laminar composite?
En
gin
A laminar composite is a composite material that consists of two or more layers
of different materials that are bonded together. They are also called laminated

eer
composites or laminates. A laminate usually consists of two or more layers of

ing
planar composites in which each layer also called lamina or ply may be of the
same or different materials.
4. Define Refractories.
.ne
Refractories are defined as non-metallic materials having those chemical and
physical properties that make them applicable for structures, or as components
of systems, that are exposed to environments above 1,000 °F. A refractory
t
material is one that retains its strength at high temperatures.
5. What is a sealant? May/June 2016 Apr/May2015 Nov/Dec 2015
Sealants are typically lower strength, yet flexible, bonding agents used between
substrates of differing physical properties to form a seal between the materials.
A sealant may be viscous material that has little or no flow characteristics and
which stay where they are applied.

111

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

6. What is a ceramic?
A ceramic is an inorganic, nonmetallic solid prepared by the action of heat and
subsequent cooling. Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly
crystalline structure, or may be amorphous e.g., a glass).
7.What are the classifications of geofabrics?
 Geotextiles
 Geogrids
 Geomembranes
 Linear strips for soil reinforcement

ww
8. Define fibre textiles. Nov/Dec 2015

w.E
Textile Fibers Are Special Many fibrous materials are not suitable to make into
fabrics,e.g., corn silk or wood slivers. Textile fibers must have certain

asy
properties: flexible, thin but nottoo thin, long enough, cohesive, and
strongenough.Textile fibers must be flexible.

En
9.What are the classification of Glass?


Soda-lime Glass
Lead Glass gin
 Boro-silicate Glass
eer
Commercial Forms
ing
 Sheet Glass
.ne


Plate Glass
Tempered Glass t
 Wired Glass
 Heat absorbing Glass
 Ground Glass
 Coloured Glass
 Enamel Glass

112

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

10. Define clay products

 Clay products are one of the most important classes of structural materials. The
raw materialsused in their manufacture are clay blended with quartz, sand,
chamatte refractory clay burned at1000 –1400°C and crushed, slag, sawdust
and pulverized coal.
 Structural clay products or building ceramics are basically fabricated by
moulding, drying and burning a clay mass.
11. Differentiate between Geomembranes and Geotextiles: May/June 2016
Apr/May2015

ww 1.
fabrics
Geotextiles: These materials consist of either woven or non-woven
and aregenerally used for separation, drainage, filtration and

w.E
reinforcement. From strength considerations, the strongest of these are woven

asy
fabrics, then the resin bonded, melt bonded and finally the needle punched
fabrics.
2.
En
Geomembranes: These materials are available in wide range of

gin
permeability. Continuousgeomembrane barriers of sufficiently low permeability
can be used to control fluid migration in geotechnical engineering while those of
high permeability are used for drainage.
eer
UNIT V
MODERN MATERIALS
ing
PART-B (13 MARKS .ne
1. Explain in detail about Geofabrics.
 Geofabrics are also called geosynthesis or geotextiles. These are synthetic
t
fabrics which are sufficiently durable to last a good length of time in soil
environment used in geotechnical engineering.
 Some geofabrics are polyester, nylon, polyethylene and geotechnical
engineering. The fabric may be woven, knitted or punched. They are used for
the following functions:
1. Drainage paths for water for soil consolidation
2. Separation of different types of soil materials

113

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

3. Soil reinforcement in reinforced earth construction

4. Filtration of water from soil.
 Geosynthesis are ideal for use in soil as they do not deteriorate by
corrosion in the presence of chemicals. They last for a long time
when not exposed to direct sunlight and are also not affected by
water.
 They are extensively used for Mechanically Stabilized Earth MSE /
Reinforced Earth Construction.
Uses

ww 1. As drainage paths to assist consolidation. Geotextiles are used as drainage

wicks to assist f=drainage and consolidation of clayey deposits. The modern

w.E
readymade ―plastic geotextile drainǁ consists of a plastic drain core and a

asy
geotextile jacket covering the plastic core pipe. They are efficient for soil
drainage to assist in preloading of foundations.

En
2. As a separation medium. It is used as under railway track, to separate the

gin
ballast from sub grade, thus decreasing penetration of ballast into the weak
sub grade.

eer
3. As soil reinforcement. These reinforcements are used in the reinforced earth
techniques for the following purposes
a. ing
For retaining walls and stability of slopes
b. For improving the bearing capacity of foundations.
.ne
4. As a filtration medium for drainage. In many situations, when used for
drainage and separation, it also acts as a filter.
Classification
t
3. Geotextiles: These materials consist of either woven or non-woven fabrics and
are generally used for separation, drainage, filtration and reinforcement. From
strength considerations, the strongest of these are woven fabrics, then the resin
bonded, melt bonded and finally the needle punched fabrics.
4. Geogrids: They have large openings and are made of materials with high tensile
strength ,low elongation and dimensional stability. They are made from plain
polymer sheets by punching holes in it followed by 2 stretching operations so that

114

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

a grid is formed. They can be designed to have different strength or same

strength in two directions.
5. Geomembranes: These materials are available in wide range of permeability.
Continuous geomembrane barriers of sufficiently low permeability can be used to
control fluid migration in geotechnical engineering while those of high
permeability are used for drainage.
6. Linear strips for soil reinforcement: Polymer fibres are made into strips which
can be used for reinforced earth in retaining walls. Glass- reinforced plastics are
also considered as suitable for soil reinforcement.

ww
Use in Embankments
 As the embankments for flyovers in cities should occupy as little width as

w.E
possible, the use of geotextiles as soil reinforcement for these embankments

 asy
comes in very handy.
Much steeper slopes than normally admissible with earth only can be

En
provided by using soil reinforcement in the embankment.

gin
Similarly, consolidation of foundations of many new railway embankments for
Indian Railways has been carried out by using plastic geotextile drains
instead of old fashioned sand or wick drains.
eer
ing
2. Discuss about the manufacture and properties of Clay Products.
May/June2016) .ne
 Structural clay products, ceramic products intended for use in building
t
construction. Typical structural clay products are building brick, paving brick,
terra-cotta facing tile, roofing tile, and drainage pipe.
 These objects are made from commonly occurring natural materials, which
are mixed with water, formed into the desired shape, and fired in a kiln in
order to give the clay mixture a permanent bond.
 Finished structural clay products display such essential properties as load-
bearing strength, resistance to wear, resistance to chemical attack, attractive
appearance, and an ability to take a decorative finish.
115

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Manufacture
 Structural clay products are made from 35 to 55 percent clays or argillaceous
clayey shales, 25 to 45 percent quartz, and 25 to 55 percent feldspar. As
with all traditional ceramic products, the clay portion acts as a former,
providing shaping ability; the quartz silica serves as filler, providing strength
to the formed object; and the feldspar serves as a fluxing agent, lowering the
melting temperatures of the clay and quartz during firing.
 The proportions cited above are often found directly in shale deposits, so that
blending is often not necessary. In addition, little or no beneficiation, or

ww 
crushing and grinding of the mined material, is employed.

w.E
Local clays or shales of highly variable composition are used in order to keep
transportation costs as low as possible. The colour of the finished product

asy
derives from impurities, most notably iron oxides, present in the raw
materials.

En
Colours can range from buff and other light shades of brown through red to

gin
black, depending upon whether an oxidizing or reducing atmosphere exists in
the kiln.

eer
In the processing of structural clay products, stiff-mud plastic-forming

ing
operations predominate—for example, pressing operations for brick and
extrusion for brick or pipe. Formed objects are usually fired in continuous

.ne
conveyor belt or railcar operations, with the ware, as it traverses the tunnel
kiln, proceeding from room temperature into a hot zone and finally to a cooler
zone at the other end.
Properties
t
 The properties exhibited by structural clay products are determined by particle
size, firing temperature, and ultimate microstructure. Compared with finer
ceramic products such as white wares, much coarser filler particles are used,
and lower firing temperatures are employed—typically in the range of 1,050°
to 1,100° C approximately 1,925° to 2,000° F).
 At such low temperatures the filler particles usually crushed quartz are
normally not affected. Instead, the clay or shale ingredients contain sufficient

116

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

impurities to melt and form a glass, thus bonding the particles together. As is
the case with white wares, crystalline mullite needles grow into this glassy
phase.
 The resulting microstructure consists of large secondary particles embedded
in a matrix of fine-grained mullite and glass—all containing a substantial
volume of large pores.
 Because of the presence of large and small particles in their microstructures,
fired clay products have relatively high compressive strengths. This ability to
bear relatively heavy loads without fracture is the prime property qualifying

ww
these products for structural applications.

w.E
The size and number of pores is also important. If underfired, structural clay
products have low strength and poor resistance to frost and freezing, owing to

 asy
the presence of many small pores in the clay regions.
Over fired ware, on the other hand, has too much glass. It is strong but brittle

En
and is susceptible to failure under mechanical and thermal stress.

gin
Furthermore, it is impossible to obtain a good bond when glassy products are
used with mortars.

eer
Small pores and high glass content are desirable, however, when chemical

ing
resistance and imperviousness to water penetration are required.
Products

.ne
 By some estimates structural clay products make up as much as 50 percent
of the entire ceramics market. The industry is highly conservative, with
development aimed primarily at automation and labour minimization rather
t
than the introduction of new products.

 There is a wide variety of structural clay products, broadly classified as facing

materials, load-bearing materials, paving materials, roofing tile, and
chemically resistant materials. Examples of facing materials are face brick,
terra-cotta, brick veneer, sculptured brick, glazed brick and tile, and
decorative brick.

117

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 Building brick, hollow brick, and structural tile for floors and walls are
examples of load-bearing materials. Paving materials include light traffic
pavers, quarry tile, and paving brick—this last product once in more common
use than at present.
 Roofing tiles are quite common in many parts of the world, red and black
colours being of particular note. Chemically resistant materials include sewer
pipe, industrial floor brick, drain tile, flue liners, chimney brick, and chemical
stoneware.

ww
3. . Explain in detail about laminar composites Apr/May 2015)

 w.E
A laminar composite is a composite material that consists of two or more

 asy
layers of different materials that are bonded together.
They are also called laminated composites or laminates. A laminate usually

En
consists of two or more layers of planar composites in which each layer also

 gin
called lamina or ply may be of the same or different materials.
Similarly, a sandwich laminate is a composite construction in which a metallic

eer
or composite core layer is sandwiched between two metallic or composite

 ing
face layers. The composite face layers may also be in the form of laminates.
Laminated and sandwich composite structures are very strong and stiff, and
are commonly recommended for lightweight structural applications. In .ne

materials science,
Composite laminates are assemblies of layers of fibrous composite materials
t
which can be joined to provide required engineering properties, including in-
plane stiffness, bending stiffness, strength, and coefficient of thermal
expansion.
 The individual layers consist of high-modulus, high-strength fibers in a
polymeric, metallic, or ceramic matrix material. Typical fibers used include
graphite, glass, boron, and silicon carbide, and some matrix materials are
epoxies, polyimides, aluminium, titanium, and alumina.
 Layers of different materials may be used, resulting in a hybrid laminate. The

118

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

individual layers generally are orthotropic that is, with principal properties in
orthogonal directions) or transversely isotropic with isotropic properties in the
transverse plane with the laminate then exhibiting anisotropic with variable
direction of principal properties), orthotropic, or quasi-isotropic properties.
Quasi-isotropic laminates exhibit isotropic that is, independent of direction in
plane response but are not restricted to isotropic out-of-plane bending
response.
 Depending upon the stacking sequence of the individual layers, the laminate
may exhibit coupling between inplane and out-of-plane response. An example

ww of bending-stretching coupling is the presence of curvature developing as a

result of in-plane loading.

w.E
asy
4. Explain in detail about ceramics. Nov/Dec2015)
A ceramic is an inorganic, non metallic solid material comprising metal, non

En
metal or metalloid atoms primarily held in ionic and covalent bonds.

gin
A ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic, often crystalline oxide, nitride or
carbide material. Some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considered

eer
ceramics. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression, weak in
shearing and tension.
ing
Crystalline ceramics
.ne
Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a great range of processing.
Methods for dealing with them tend to fall into one of two categories – either
t
make the ceramic in the desired shape, by reaction in situ, or by "forming"
powders into the desired shape, and then sintering to form a solid body. Ceramic
forming techniques include shaping by hand sometimes including a rotation
process called "throwing", slip casting, tape casting used for making very thin
ceramic capacitors, e.g., injection molding, dry pressing, and other variations.
Details of these processes are described in the two books listed below. A few
methods use a hybrid between the two approaches.

119

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Noncrystalline ceramics

Noncrystalline ceramics, being glass, tend to be formed from melts. The glass is
shaped when either fully molten, by casting, or when in a state of toffee-like
viscosity, by methods such as blowing into a mold. If later heat treatments cause
this glass to become partly crystalline, the resulting material is known as a glass-
ceramic, widely used as cook-top and also as a glass composite material for
nuclear waste disposal.

Mechanical properties are important in structural and building materials as well

ww
as textile fabrics. They include the many properties used to describe the strength

w.E
of materials such as: elasticity / plasticity, tensile strength, compressive strength,
shear strength, fracture toughness & ductility low in brittle materials), and

asy
indentation hardness

Electrical properties
En
Semiconductors
gin
eer
Semiconducting ceramics are also employed as gas sensors. When various
gases are passed over a polycrystalline ceramic, its electrical resistance

ing
changes. With tuning to the possible gas mixtures, very inexpensive devices can
be produced.
.ne
Superconductivity
Under some conditions, such as extremely low temperature, some ceramics
exhibit high temperature superconductivity. The exact reason for this is not
t
known, but there are two major families of superconducting ceramics.
Boron oxide is used in body armor
Silicon carbide SiC) is used as a susceptor in microwave furnaces, a commonly
used abrasive, and as a refractory material.
Silicon nitride Si 3N4 is used as an abrasive powder.
Steatite magnesium silicates) is used as an electrical insulator.

120

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Titanium carbide Used in space shuttle re-entry shields and scratchproof

watches.
Uranium oxide UO2, use d as fuel in nuclear reactors.Zinc oxide ZnO, which
is a semiconductor, and used in the construction of varistors

5. Explain in detail about Fibre glass reinforced plastic.

Fiberglass or fibreglass is a type of fiber-reinforced plastic where the reinforcement

fiber is specifically glass fiber. The glass fiber may be randomly arranged, flattened into

ww
a sheet called a chopped s trand mat, or woven into a fabric. The plastic matrix may be
a thermosetting plastic – most often epoxy, polyester resin – or vinylester, or a
thermoplastic.
w.E
The glass fibers are made of various types of glass depending upon the fiberglass use.

asy
These glasses all contain silica or silicate, with varying amounts of oxides of calcium,

En
magnesium, and sometimes boron. To be used in fiberglass, glass fibers have to be
made with very low levels of defects.

gin
Fiberglass is a strong lightweight material and is used for many products. Although it is

eer
not as strong and stiff as composites based on carbon fiber, it is less brittle, and its raw
materials are much cheaper. Its bulk strength and weight are also better than many

ing
metals, and it can be more readily molded into complex shapes. Applications of
fiberglass include aircraft, boats, automobiles, bath tubs and enclosures, swimming
.ne
pools, hot tubs, septic tanks, water tanks, roofing, pipes, cladding, casts, surfboards,
and external door skins.
Other common names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced plastic GRP, glass-fiber
t
reinforced plastic GFRP

Applications

Storage tanks
House building
Piping

121

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

GRP and GRE pipe can be used in a variety of above- and below-ground systems,
including those for:

 Desalination
 Water treatment
 Water distribution networks
 Chemical process plants
 Firewater
 Hot and Cold water

ww


Drinking water
Wastewater/sewage, Municipal waste

Examples w.E
asy
DIY bows / youth recurve; longbows
Pole vaulting poles
En
Equipment handles(Hammers, axes, etc.
Traffic lights gin
Ship hulls
eer
Rowing shells and oars
Waterpipes ing
PART – C (15 MARKS
.ne
1. Write notes on types of Glass and its properties.may / june 2016)
t
 Silica is the main constituent of glass. But it is to be added with sodium
potassium carbonate to bring down melting point. To make it durable
lime or lead oxide is also added.
 Manganese oxide is added to nullify the adverse effects of unwanted
iron present in the impure silica. The raw materials are ground and
sieved. They are mixed in specific proportion and melted in furnace.

122

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 Then glass items are manufactured by blowing, flat drawing, rolling

and pressing.

Important Properties of Glass:

1. It absorbs, refracts or transmits light. It can be made transparent or

translucent.
2. It can take excellent polish.
3. It is an excellent electrical insulator.

ww 4. It is strong and brittle.

5. It can be blown, drawn or pressed.

w.E
6. It is not affected by atmosphere.

asy
7. It has excellent resistance to chemicals.
8. It is available in various beautiful colours.

En
9. With the advancement in technology, it is possible to make glass lighter
than cork or stronger than steel.
10. Glass panes can be cleaned easily. gin
eer
Types of Glass
The glass may be broadly classified as: ing
.ne
1. Soda Lime Glass: It is mainly a mixture of sodium silicate and calcium silicate. It
isfusible at low temperature. In the fusion condition it can be blown or welded
easily. It is colourless. It is used as window panes and for the laboratory tubes and
t
apparatus.

2. Potash Lime Glass: It is mainly a mixture of potassium silicate and calcium

silicate. It isalso known as hard glass. It fuses at high temperature. It is used in the
manufacture of glass articles which have to with stand high temperatures.

3. Potash Lead Glass: It is mainly a mixture of potassium silicate and lead silicate.

123

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Itpossesses bright lustre and great refractive power. It is used in the manufacture
of artificial gems, electric bulbs, lenses, prisms etc.
4. Common Glass: It is mainly a mixture of sodium silicate, calcium silicate and
ironsilicate. It is brown, green or yellow in colour. It is mainly used in the
manufacture of medicine bottles.
5. Special Glasses: Properties of glasses can be suitably altered by changing
basic ingredients and adding few more ingredients. It has now emerged as
versatile material to meet many special requirements in engineering. The
following is the list of some of the special glasses:

ww a Fibre glass
b Foam glass

w.E
c) Bullet proof glass

asy
d Structural glass
e Glass black
f Wired glass
En
g Ultraviolet ray glass
h Perforated glass. gin
eer
2. Explain the methods of forming Fibre-reinforced plastic FRP).
Also state its merits and demerits. Nov/Dec2015) ing
.ne
o Fibre-reinforced plastic FRP also fibre -reinforced polymer is a composite
material made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres. The fibres are usually
glass, carbon, basalt or aramid, although other fibres such as paper or wood or
t
asbestos have been sometimes used.
o The polymer is usually an epoxy, vinyl ester or polyester thermosetting plastic,
and phenol formaldehyde resins are still in use. FRPs are commonly used in the
aerospace, automotive, marine, construction industries and ballistic armor.

o The moulding processes of FRP plastic begins by placing the fibre preform on or
in the mold. The fibre preform can be dry fibre, or fibre that already contains a

124

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

measured amount of resin called "prepreg". Dry fibres are "wetted" with resin
either by hand or the resin is injected into a closed mold.

o The part is then cured, leaving the matrix and fibres in the shape created by the
mold. Heat and/or pressure are sometimes used to cure the resin and improve
the quality of the final part. The different methods of forming are listed below.

Bladder moulding

ww Individual sheets of material are laid up and placed in a female-style mould

along with a balloon-like bladder.

w.E
The mould is closed and placed in a heated press. Finally, the bladder is
pressurized forcing the layers of material against the mould walls.

asy
Compression moulding

 En
When the raw material plastic block, rubber block, plastic sheet, or granules)

gin
contains reinforcing fibres, a compression molded part qualifies as a fibre-


reinforced plastic.
eer
More typically the plastic preform used in compression molding does not

ing
contain reinforcing fibres. In compression molding, A "preform" or "charge", of


SMC, BMC is placed into mould cavity.
.ne
t
The mould is closed and the material is formed & cured inside by pressure
and heat. Compression moulding offers excellent detailing for geometric
shapes ranging from pattern and relief detailing to complex curves and
creative forms, to precision engineering all within a maximum curing time of
20 minutes.

Autoclave / vacuum bag

 Individual sheets of material are laid-up and placed in an open mold. The
material is covered with release film, bleeder/breather material and a vacuum
bag. A vacuum is pulled on part and the entire mould is placed into an
autoclave heated pressure vessel. The part is cured with a continuous
125

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

vacuum to extract entrapped gasses from laminate.

 This is a very common process in the aerospace industry because it affords
precise control over moulding due to a long, slow cure cycle that is anywhere
from one to several hours.
 This precise control creates the exact laminate geometric forms needed to
ensure strength and safety in the aerospace industry, but it is also slow and
labour-intensive, meaning costs often confine it to the aerospace industry.

Mandrel wrapping

ww

w.E
Sheets of material are wrapped around a steel or aluminium mandrel. The
material is compacted by nylon or polypropylene cello tape. Parts are typically

 asy
batch cured by vacuum bagging and hanging in an oven.
After cure the cello and mandrel are removed leaving a hollow carbon tube.

En
This process creates strong and robust hollow carbon tubes.

Wet layup gin


eer
Wet layup forming combines fibre reinforcement and the matrix as they are

ing
placed on the forming tool. Reinforcing Fibre layers are placed in an open
mould and then saturated with a wet [resin] by pouring it over the fabric and
working it into the fabric.
.ne



The mould is then left so that the resin will cure, usually at room temperature,
though heat is sometimes used to ensure a proper cure.
Sometimes a vacuum bag is used to compress a wet layup. Glass fibres are
t
most commonly used for this process, the results are widely known as
fibreglass, and are used to make common products like skis, canoes, kayaks
and surf boards.
Chopper gun

 Continuous strands of fibreglass are pushed through a hand-held gun that

both chops the strands and combines them with a catalysed resin such as

126

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

polyester. The impregnated chopped glass is shot onto the mould surface in
whatever thickness the design and human operator think is appropriate.
 This process is good for large production runs at economical cost, but
produces geometric shapes with less strength than other moulding processes
and has poor dimensional tolerance.

Filament winding
 Machines pull fibre bundles through a wet bath of resin and wound over a
rotating steel mandrel in specific orientations Parts are cured either room

ww temperature or elevated temperatures. Mandrel is extracted, leaving a final

geometric shape but can be left in some cases.

w.E
Pultrusion
asy

En
Fibre bundles and slit fabrics are pulled through a wet bath of resin and

gin
formed into the rough part shape. Saturated material is extruded from a
heated closed die curing while being continuously pulled through die.

eer
Some of the end products are structural shapes, i.e. I beam, angle, channel

ing
and flat sheet. These materials can be used to create all sorts of fibreglass
structures such as ladders, platforms, handrail systems tank, pipe and pump
supports.
.ne
RTM & VARTM t
 Also called resin infusion. Fabrics are placed into a mould which wet resin is
then injected into. Resin is typically pressurized and forced into a cavity which
is under vacuum in RTM Resin Transfer Molding.
 Resin is entirely pulled into cavity under vacuum in VARTM Vacuum -
Assisted Resin Transfer Molding. This moulding process allows precise
tolerances and detailed shaping but can sometimes fail to fully saturate the
fabric leading to weak spots in the final shape.

127

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Advantages and limitations

o FRP allows the alignment of the glass fibres of thermoplastics to suit specific
design programs. Specifying the orientation of reinforcing fibres can increase
the strength and resistance to deformation of the polymer.

o Glass reinforced polymers are strongest and most resistive to deforming

forces when the polymers fibres are parallel to the force being exerted,
and are weakest when the fibres are perpendicular. Thus this ability is at

ww once either an advantage or a limitation depending on the context of use.

w.E
o Weak spots of perpendicular fibres can be used for natural hinges and

asy
connections, but can also lead to material failure when production
processes fail to properly orient the fibres parallel to expected forces.

En
gin
o When forces are exerted perpendicular to the orientation of fibres the
strength and elasticity of the polymer is less than the matrix alone.

eer
ing
o In cast resin components made of glass reinforced polymers, the
orientation of fibres can be oriented in two-dimensional and three-
dimensional weaves. This means that when forces are possibly
.ne
perpendicular to one orientation, they are parallel to another orientation;
this eliminates the potential for weak spots in the polymer. t
Failure modes

Structural failure can occur in FRP materials when:

o Tensile forces stretch the matrix more than the fibres, causing the
material to shear at the interface between matrix and fibres.

128

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

o Tensile forces near the end of the fibres exceed the tolerances of the
matrix, separating the fibres from the matrix.

o Tensile forces can also exceed the tolerances of the fibres causing the
fibres themselves to fracture leading to material failure.

3 i Explain various Applications of geomembranes.May/June2016)

Geomembranes have been used in the following environmental, geotechnical,

ww
hydraulic, transportation, and private develepment applications:

 w.E
As liners for potable water
As liners for reserve water e.g., safe shutdown of nuclear facilities)


 asy
As liners for waste liquids e.g., sewage sludge
Liners for radioactive or hazardous waste liquid

En
As liners for secondary containment of underground storage tanks



As liners for solar ponds
As liners for brine solutions gin
 As liners for the agriculture industry
eer


 ing
As liners for the aquiculture industry, such as fish/shrimp pond
As liners for golf course water holes and sand bunkers
 As liners for all types of decorative and architectural ponds
.ne



As liners for water conveyance canals
As liners for various waste conveyance canals
As liners for primary, secondary, and/or tertiary solid-waste landfills and waste
t
piles
 As covers caps) for solid -waste landfills
 As covers for aerobic and anaerobic manure digesters in the agriculture industry
 As covers for power plant coal ash
 As liners for vertical walls: single or double with leak detection
 As cutoffs within zoned earth dams for seepage control
 As linings for emergency spillways

129

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

 As waterproofing liners within tunnels and pipelines

 As waterproof facing of earth and rockfill dams
 As waterproof facing for roller compacted concrete dams
 As waterproof facing for masonry and concrete dams
 Within cofferdams for seepage control
 As floating reservoirs for seepage control
 As floating reservoir covers for preventing pollution
 To contain and transport liquids in trucks
 To contain and transport potable water and other liquids in the ocean

ww



As a barrier to odors from landfills
As a barrier to vapors radon, hydrocarbons, etc. beneath buildings



w.E
To control expansive soils

asy
To control frost-susceptible soils
 To shield sinkhole-susceptible areas from flowing water

En
To prevent infiltration of water in sensitive areas



To form barrier tubes as dams
gin
To face structural supports as temporary cofferdams
 To conduct water flow into preferred paths
eer


 ing
Beneath highways to prevent pollution from deicing salts
Beneath and adjacent to highways to capture hazardous liquid spills
 As containment structures for temporary surcharges
.ne



To aid in establishing uniformity of subsurface compressibility and subsidence
Beneath asphalt overlays as a waterproofing layer
To contain seepage losses in existing above-ground tanks
t
 As flexible forms where loss of material cannot be allowed.

130

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

3 ii. Explain various Applications of geotextiles. May/June2016)

Geotextiles and related products have many applications and currently support many
civil engineering applications including roads, airfields, railroads, embankments,
retaining structures, reservoirs, canals, dams, bank protection, coastal engineering and
construction site silt fences or geotube. Usually geotextiles are placed at the tension
surface to strengthen the soil. Geotextiles are also used for sand dune armoring to
protect upland coastal property from storm surge, wave action and flooding. A large

ww
sand-filled container SFC) within the dune system prevents storm erosion from
proceeding beyond the SFC. Using a sloped unit rather than a single tube eliminates

w.E
damaging scour.

asy
Erosion control manuals comment on the effectiveness of sloped, stepped shapes in

En
mitigating shoreline erosion damage from storms. Geotextile sand-filled units provide a
"soft" armoring solution for upland property protection. Geotextiles are used as matting
to stabilize flow in stream channels and swales.
gin
eer
Geotextiles can improve soil strength at a lower cost than conventional soil nailing

ing
In addition, geotextiles allow planting on steep slopes, further securing the slope.

Geotextiles have been used to protect the fossil hominid footprints of Laetoli in .ne
Tanzania from erosion, rain, and tree roots.
t
In building demolition, geotextile fabrics in combination with steel wire fencing can
contain explosive debris.

Coir coconut fiber geotextiles are popular for erosion control, slope stabilization and
bioengineering, due to the fabric's substantial mechanical strength. Coir geotextiles last
approximately 3 to 5 years depending on the fabric weight. The product degrades into
humus, enriching the soil

131

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

ww
w.E
asy
En
gi nee
r ing
.ne
t

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
n eer
i ng.
net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Timothy Daly - 21st Century Playwriting, A Manual of Contemporary Techniques-Smith & Kraus (2019)
No ratings yet
Timothy Daly - 21st Century Playwriting, A Manual of Contemporary Techniques-Smith & Kraus (2019)
480 pages
Shooting Script For Rap Documentary
No ratings yet
Shooting Script For Rap Documentary
6 pages
The Heros Journey - Vogler Memo
100% (2)
The Heros Journey - Vogler Memo
14 pages
Construction Materials and Concrete Technology
No ratings yet
Construction Materials and Concrete Technology
25 pages
Civil Engineering Materials (Video)
No ratings yet
Civil Engineering Materials (Video)
1 page
CE-112 Lecture 1
No ratings yet
CE-112 Lecture 1
25 pages
Week 1
No ratings yet
Week 1
17 pages
Question Bank
No ratings yet
Question Bank
13 pages
Civil Engg Materials Course Outline
No ratings yet
Civil Engg Materials Course Outline
3 pages
CE6401 Construction Materials Lesson Plan
100% (1)
CE6401 Construction Materials Lesson Plan
6 pages
CE 6401 Construction Materials LTPC 3 0 0 3 Question Bank Part - A Unit I Stones - Bricks - Concrete Blocks
No ratings yet
CE 6401 Construction Materials LTPC 3 0 0 3 Question Bank Part - A Unit I Stones - Bricks - Concrete Blocks
6 pages
CEM Syllabus
No ratings yet
CEM Syllabus
3 pages
Construction Materials Question Bank
No ratings yet
Construction Materials Question Bank
4 pages
Building Constryction Engenirig
No ratings yet
Building Constryction Engenirig
6 pages
CE 43-Construction, Materials and Testing Syllabus
100% (5)
CE 43-Construction, Materials and Testing Syllabus
2 pages
2.construction Materials
No ratings yet
2.construction Materials
4 pages
Department of Civil Engineering CE501PC - Concrete Technology
No ratings yet
Department of Civil Engineering CE501PC - Concrete Technology
3 pages
1 Introduction
No ratings yet
1 Introduction
38 pages
Moc Ii
100% (1)
Moc Ii
9 pages
Attachment
No ratings yet
Attachment
238 pages
4_07-07-2023_14-50-48_Foundation Elective - 2nd sem (Building Material) w.e.f the session 2022-23
No ratings yet
4_07-07-2023_14-50-48_Foundation Elective - 2nd sem (Building Material) w.e.f the session 2022-23
2 pages
Civil Rtu Syllabus
No ratings yet
Civil Rtu Syllabus
51 pages
CE-102, Civil Engg Material
No ratings yet
CE-102, Civil Engg Material
3 pages
Civil Engineering Material
No ratings yet
Civil Engineering Material
366 pages
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering CEEB222 - Construction Materials Syllabus 2 Semester 2015/2016
No ratings yet
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering CEEB222 - Construction Materials Syllabus 2 Semester 2015/2016
6 pages
CE 242 Handout 1 (Outline)
No ratings yet
CE 242 Handout 1 (Outline)
2 pages
Ce5303 Materials
No ratings yet
Ce5303 Materials
1 page
Concrete Technology Handout
No ratings yet
Concrete Technology Handout
21 pages
BT Syllabus 2023
No ratings yet
BT Syllabus 2023
1 page
1 CMT Notes Unit 1
No ratings yet
1 CMT Notes Unit 1
372 pages
Course Outlines of Associate of Science Civil Engineering Years 1 and 2
No ratings yet
Course Outlines of Associate of Science Civil Engineering Years 1 and 2
25 pages
Ct-Prephd - PDF Rrh-Prephd - PDF Rsmethod PDF
No ratings yet
Ct-Prephd - PDF Rrh-Prephd - PDF Rsmethod PDF
6 pages
CIV 0423.1 Construction Materials and Testing Lec Syllabus
No ratings yet
CIV 0423.1 Construction Materials and Testing Lec Syllabus
7 pages
Lecture Plan 0732-1203
No ratings yet
Lecture Plan 0732-1203
6 pages
Civil Engineering Materials CE-102
No ratings yet
Civil Engineering Materials CE-102
25 pages
BTCVE506A Materials, Testing & Evaluation Syllabus Dbatu University
0% (3)
BTCVE506A Materials, Testing & Evaluation Syllabus Dbatu University
2 pages
Construction Materials
No ratings yet
Construction Materials
8 pages
MSS_CIVE1008_2013_ECSA-Updated
No ratings yet
MSS_CIVE1008_2013_ECSA-Updated
9 pages
Materials of Construction
No ratings yet
Materials of Construction
22 pages
HOBMC21
No ratings yet
HOBMC21
4 pages
Lecturer in Polytechnic Civil Engg KPSC Syllabus
No ratings yet
Lecturer in Polytechnic Civil Engg KPSC Syllabus
21 pages
Bikaner Technical University, Bikaner: Ckhdkusj Rduhdh Fo'ofo - Ky ) Chdkusj
No ratings yet
Bikaner Technical University, Bikaner: Ckhdkusj Rduhdh Fo'ofo - Ky ) Chdkusj
2 pages
1.00 Introduction to CE Materials 2025
No ratings yet
1.00 Introduction to CE Materials 2025
5 pages
Ug/Pg: Ug Department: Civil Engineering Course Code: Course Name: Construction Materials Credit: 3 L-T-P: 3-0-0 Pre-Requisite Course: Syllabus
No ratings yet
Ug/Pg: Ug Department: Civil Engineering Course Code: Course Name: Construction Materials Credit: 3 L-T-P: 3-0-0 Pre-Requisite Course: Syllabus
2 pages
ec lesson planing
No ratings yet
ec lesson planing
15 pages
SYLLABUS - Construction Materials and Testing
No ratings yet
SYLLABUS - Construction Materials and Testing
18 pages
Syl Lab Us
No ratings yet
Syl Lab Us
5 pages
RS3804 - Grade - 9 Construction Technology
No ratings yet
RS3804 - Grade - 9 Construction Technology
62 pages
CB 352 Construction Materials
No ratings yet
CB 352 Construction Materials
3 pages
2SE01
No ratings yet
2SE01
2 pages
Lesson Plan 2023-24 - Ce - 2 - Year
No ratings yet
Lesson Plan 2023-24 - Ce - 2 - Year
67 pages
CVX4446 Synopsis
No ratings yet
CVX4446 Synopsis
3 pages
Brief History and Scope of The Subject
No ratings yet
Brief History and Scope of The Subject
5 pages
BUILDING MATERIALS SCIENCE LEVEL 4 NOTES
No ratings yet
BUILDING MATERIALS SCIENCE LEVEL 4 NOTES
4 pages
Act B.E.
No ratings yet
Act B.E.
2 pages
Syllabus - 3rd Semester - 2022 - Civil Engg
No ratings yet
Syllabus - 3rd Semester - 2022 - Civil Engg
41 pages
CE F230 Civil Engineering Materials: BITS Pilani
No ratings yet
CE F230 Civil Engineering Materials: BITS Pilani
9 pages
Industrial Training Report New Bus Stand Construction in Rohru (H.P)
No ratings yet
Industrial Training Report New Bus Stand Construction in Rohru (H.P)
22 pages
CIE 311 - 1 Construction Materials
No ratings yet
CIE 311 - 1 Construction Materials
15 pages
CE F230 - Civil Engineering Materials (2019)
No ratings yet
CE F230 - Civil Engineering Materials (2019)
3 pages
Properties of Semiconductor Alloys: Group-IV, III-V and II-VI Semiconductors
From Everand
Properties of Semiconductor Alloys: Group-IV, III-V and II-VI Semiconductors
Sadao Adachi
No ratings yet
Geotechnics for Railway Engineers
From Everand
Geotechnics for Railway Engineers
Dave Brooks
5/5 (1)
Spot Welding Interview Success: An Introduction to Spot Welding
From Everand
Spot Welding Interview Success: An Introduction to Spot Welding
Chetan Singh
No ratings yet
An Early Era Pallava Somaskanda in Chengalpattu District Tamilnadu
No ratings yet
An Early Era Pallava Somaskanda in Chengalpattu District Tamilnadu
2 pages
RFI#037 For Grill Color For RB-10
No ratings yet
RFI#037 For Grill Color For RB-10
6 pages
A Symphony of Love
100% (1)
A Symphony of Love
2 pages
Grey Bobble Bag
No ratings yet
Grey Bobble Bag
8 pages
Hs Art Day Lesson Plan
No ratings yet
Hs Art Day Lesson Plan
4 pages
02 Ricorumi Happy Polar Bear GB
No ratings yet
02 Ricorumi Happy Polar Bear GB
3 pages
Why Barry Harris Has The Best Method For Chromatic Notes
No ratings yet
Why Barry Harris Has The Best Method For Chromatic Notes
5 pages
Song Lyrics #25
No ratings yet
Song Lyrics #25
24 pages
Images Catalogue 2009
No ratings yet
Images Catalogue 2009
112 pages
Nitco Engineered Marble
0% (1)
Nitco Engineered Marble
4 pages
"Antipolo Rizal": Tour Guide
100% (1)
"Antipolo Rizal": Tour Guide
6 pages
Folk Songs in Lowlands of Luzon
No ratings yet
Folk Songs in Lowlands of Luzon
77 pages
Comprehension
No ratings yet
Comprehension
29 pages
Famous Foreign Architect
No ratings yet
Famous Foreign Architect
63 pages
Recent IELTS Speaking Tests in 2020. 1. Laugh
No ratings yet
Recent IELTS Speaking Tests in 2020. 1. Laugh
4 pages
ANAK of FREDDIE AGUILAR - ANALYSIS
No ratings yet
ANAK of FREDDIE AGUILAR - ANALYSIS
5 pages
The Chola Dynasty An Ancient Powerhouse in South India
No ratings yet
The Chola Dynasty An Ancient Powerhouse in South India
2 pages
Scheme of Syllabus LF
No ratings yet
Scheme of Syllabus LF
2 pages
Variety 01.9.2023 - Downmagaz - Net-1
No ratings yet
Variety 01.9.2023 - Downmagaz - Net-1
9 pages
Visual Arts t1
No ratings yet
Visual Arts t1
11 pages
Nicht Unserm Namen, Herr, Op.31 (Mendelssohn, Felix) - IMSLP
No ratings yet
Nicht Unserm Namen, Herr, Op.31 (Mendelssohn, Felix) - IMSLP
1 page
Bag Jolly Owl: Jolly Crocheting by NELLAGOLD
No ratings yet
Bag Jolly Owl: Jolly Crocheting by NELLAGOLD
17 pages
KIEM TA 45 ON GIUA KY 1 tiếng anh 10
No ratings yet
KIEM TA 45 ON GIUA KY 1 tiếng anh 10
9 pages
I Cia BL Iii - QP
No ratings yet
I Cia BL Iii - QP
2 pages
Rosa Jamali Bio
No ratings yet
Rosa Jamali Bio
19 pages
Song
No ratings yet
Song
22 pages
Mithra On Kanishka and Huviska Coins
No ratings yet
Mithra On Kanishka and Huviska Coins
22 pages