CCNA Study Notes

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Internetworking Basics – Chapter One

Switches are multiport bridges with more intelligence. They break up collision domains
but create one large broadcast domain by default.

- Switches can replace the hub, breaking up collision domains.


- Each segment has its own collision domain
- All segments are in the same broadcast domain
- Uses hardware addresses to filter the network

Routers break up broadcast domains and collision domains and use logical addressing to
filter the network.

- By default will not forward any broadcast or multicast packets.


- Routers use the logical address in a Network layer header to determine the next hop
to forward the packet to.
- Uses Access Lists, created by Administrators, to control security on the types of
packets that are allowed to enter or exit an interface.
- Routers can provide layer 2 bridging functions if needed and can simultaneously
route through the same interface
- Layer 3 devices (Routers) provide connections between virtual LANs (VLANs)
- Routers can provide quality of service (QoS) for specific types of network traffic
- Can filter the network based on layer 3 (Network layer) information (e.g., IP
address)
- Each router interface is a broadcast domain. They break up broadcast domains by
default and provide WAN services

Hubs create one collision domain and one broadcast domain.

Is commonly used to connect segments of a LAN, contains multiple ports. When a


packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the
LAN can see the packet.

- All devices in the same collision domain and the same broadcast domain

Bridges break up collision domains but create one large broadcast domain. They use
hardware addresses to filter the network

Four router functions:


- Packet switching
- Packet filtering
- Internetwork communication
- Path selection6

THE OSI MODEL

Application Layer (Layer 7)


-Provides user interface
-File, Print, Message, Database, and Application Services
Presentation Layer (Layer)
-Presents data
-Data encryption, compression, and translation services

Session Layer (Layer 5)


-Keeps different applications’ data separate
-Dialog control
Transport Layer (Layer 4)
-End-to-end connection
-Divides data stream into segments
-Provides reliable or unreliable delivery
-Performs error correction before retransmit
-The Transport Layer uses port numbers to define both the virtual circuit and the
upper-layer process

Network Layer (Layer 3)


-Routing
-Creates packets by adding layer 3 address to segment
-Provides logical addressing, which routers use for path selection

Data Link Layer (Layer 2)


-Framing
-Combines packets into bytes and bytes into frames
-Provides access to media using MAC address (802.3)
-Performs error detection not correction

Physical Layer (Layer 1)


-Physical topology
-Moves bits between devices
-Specifies voltage, wire speed, and pin-out of cables

Windowing:
- Windows are used to control the amount of outstanding, unacknowledged data
segments
- The size of the window controls how much information is transferred from one end
to the other.
- If a receiving host fails to receive all the segments that it should acknowledge, the
host can improve the communication session by decreasing the window size.

Flow Control:
Is the process of managing the rate of data transmission between two nodes to
prevent a fast sender from outrunning a slow receiver. It provides a mechanism
for the receiver to control the transmission speed, so that the receiving node is
not overwhelmed with data from transmitting.

Buffering
Windowing
Congestion Avoidance
Ethernet Networking:
- Ethernet is a contention media access method that allows all hosts on a network to
share the same bandwidth of a link
- It’s readily scalable: meaning that it’s comparatively easy to integrate
- Also relatively simple to implement, troubleshooting is reasonably straightforward

The three types of Ethernet cables are:


Straight-through cable
The straight-through cable is used to connect –
Host to switch
Router to Hub
Router to switch
Crossover cable:
Can be used to connect:
Switch to Switch
Hub to Hub
Host to host
Hub to Switch
Router direct to host

Rolled cable
It is not used to connect any Ethernet connections together, you can use a
rolled Ethernet cable to connect a host to a router console serial
communication (com) port

CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection):

Half & Full Duplex:


Half-duplex: is defined in the original 802.3 Ethernet; Cisco says it uses only one
wire pair with a digital signal and running in both directions on the wire

Full-duplex: uses two pairs of wires and uses a point-to-point connection between
the transmitter of the transmitting device and the receiver of the receiving device

Can be used -With connection from a switch to a host


With connection from a switch to a switch
With connection from a host to a host using crossover cable

Data Encapsulation:
Is when a host transmits data across a network to another device, the data goes
through encapsulation

o It is wrapped with protocol information at each layer of the OSI model


o Each layer communicates only with its peer layer on the receiving device
PDU (Protocol Data Unit):
Data – Segment – Packet – Frame – Bits

-Segment: Source Port~ Destination Port~ … Data


-Packet: Source IP~ Destination IP~ Protocol~ … Segment
-Frame: Destination MAC~ Source MAC~ Ethernet Field~ Packet~ FCS
(Frequency Check Sequence)
-Bits: 1011011100011110000

IP Address Ranges
Class A – 1-127 (Reserved Private range 10.X.X.X) (127 is reserved for loopback
Class B – 128-191 (Private Range 172.16.X.X – 172.31.X.X)
Class C – 192-223 (Private Range 192.168.X.X)
Class D – 224-239 (Reserved for Multicast)

A broadcast domain a set of all devices on a network segment hear all broadcasts sent on
that segment

A collision domain is an Ethernet term that describes a network collection of devices in


which one particular device sends a packet on a network segment, forcing every other
device on that same segment to pay attention to it.

CISCO’S THREE-LAYER MODEL


Core Layer – Backbone – Is literally the core of the network. It’s at the top of the hierarchy;
the core layer is responsible for transporting large amounts of traffic both reliably and
quickly. It is use to switch traffic as fast as possible.

-Does not do anything to slow down traffic, including using Access Lists, routing
between VLANs, implementing packet filtering
-Don’t support workgroup access
-Avoid expanding the core (When network grows, performance becomes an issue,
give preference to upgrade over expansion

Designing the core


- Design for high reliability (Consider Data Link technologies that facilitate both speed
and redundancy. Such as FDDI, Fast Ethernet (with redundant links) or ATM
- Design with speed in mind
- Select routing protocols with lower convergence times.

Distribution Layer – Routing – Sometimes referred to as the “Workgroup Layer” and is the
communication point between the Access Layer and Core Layer.

Function:
Routing
Filtering
WAN access

It is the place to implement policies for the network


Actions to be done:
- Routing
- Implementing tools (such as Access Lists), packet filtering, and queuing
- Implementing security and network policies, including address translation and
firewalls
- Redistributing between routing protocols, including static routing
- Routing between VLANs and other workgroup support functions
- Defining broadcast and multicast domain

Limited functions that are exclusively belong to one of the other layers.

Access Layer - Switching – Controls user and workgroup access to internetwork resources.
It is sometimes referred to as the desktop layer. It handles any traffic for remote services.
Functions to be included:
Continued (from distribution layer) use of access control and policies
Creating of separate collision domains (Segmentation)
Workgroup connectivity into the distribution layer

DDR and Ethernet switching are frequently seen in the Access Layer
Static routing instead of dynamic routing protocols is also seen here as well
TCP/IP – CHAPTER 2

The TCP/IP Protocol Suite

DoD Model
Process/Application Telnet~ FTP~ LDP~ SNMP~ TFTP~ SMTP~ NFS~ XWindow
Host-to-Host TCP~ UDP
Internet ICMP~ ARP~ RARP
IP
Network Ethernet~ Fast Ethernet~ Token Ring~ FDDI

TCP Header

Bit 0 Bit 15 Bit 16 Bit 31

Source port (16) Destination port (16)

Sequence number (32)

Acknowledgement number (32)

Header length (4) Reserved (6) Code bits (6) Window (16)

Checksum (16) Urgent (16)

Options (0 or 32 if any)

Data (varies)

UDP

Source port (16) Destination port (16)

Length (16) Checksum (16)

Data (if any)

Key concepts of Host to Host Protocols

TCP UDP
Sequenced Unsequenced
Reliable Unreliable
Connection-oriented Connectionless
Virtual circuit Low overhead
Acknowledgments No acknowledgment
Windowing flow control No windowing or flow control
Port Numbers
FTP - 21 (TCP)
Telnet - 23 (TCP)
Doom - 666 (TCP)
DNS - 53 (UDP)
TFTP - 69 (UDP)
POP3 - 110 (TCP)
News - 119 (UDP)
SMTP - 25 (TCP)
HTTP - 80 (TCP)
HTTPS- 443 (TCP)
SNMP - 161 (UDP)
TFTP - 69 (UDP)

Internet Layer
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) works at the Network layer and is used by IP for
many different services.

ICMP is a management protocol and messaging service provider for IP


Its messages are carried as IP datagrams

Characteristics of ICMP
They can provide hosts with information about network problems
They encapsulated within IP datagrams

CISCO IOS AND SDM - CHAPTER 4


Objectives
Cisco router IOS
Enhanced editing
Administrative functions
Hostnames
Banners
Passwords
Interface descriptions

Cisco Router IOS


- Carries network protocols and functions
- Connects high-speed traffic between devices
- Adds security to control access
- Provides scalability for growth
- Supplies reliability

Boot-up process:
Post~ Flash memory~ Loads and look for a valid configuration;
Startup-config
Stored in NVRAM
If a valid configuration is not found in NVRAM:
Setup mode
Command-Line Interface (CLI)
More flexible than setup mode
To use CLI, just say “No” to entering the initial configuration dialog

Logging into the Router


User mode:
- Router>
- Used mostly to view statistics

Privileged mode:
- Router#
- Used to view & change router configuration

Global changes:
- config terminal or config t or conf t
- Changes made to running-config (DRAM)
- To change the startup-config (NVRAM)
Config memory or config mem or conf mem
Any configuration changes need to be place into RAM; typing “config mem or config net
(from a TFTP host) will append the current running-config.

Configuration:
CLI Prompts
Interfaces
Sub-interfaces
Line Commands
Routing Protocol Configurations

Router IOS filename ends with .bin

Router Components
Bootstrap – Brings router up during initialization
Post – Checks basic functionality: Hardware and Interfaces
ROM Monitor – Manufacturing testing and troubleshooting
Mini IOS – Loads Cisco IOS into flash memory
RAM – Holds packets buffers, routing tables, and software, also stores running
configuration

Boot Sequence
1. Router performs a POST
2. Bootstrap looks for and loads the Cisco IOS
3. IOS software looks for valid configuration file
4. Startup–config file (from NVRAM) is loaded, if startup-config file is not found, the
router will start the setup mode

Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP) – is a proprietary protocol designed to collect info about
directly attached and remote devices. It displays the H/W and protocol info. It is useful for
troubleshooting and management.

For IP phones to work, CDP has to be turned on


ROUTING
To route a router needs to know:
Remote Networks
Neighbor Routers
All possible routes to remote network
The absolute best route to all remote networks

Static Routes
Route must be unidirectional

Routing Protocols:
Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP): RIP, IGRP, OSPF, EIGRP

Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP): BGP (Internet)

Distance Vector Link State


- Sends entire routing table -Sends changes only and when they are made
- Sends update periodically -Make up own mind
- Route by rumor - Use the DIJKSTRA algorithm
- Prone to loops - Able to avoid loops

Split Horizon: Does not believe information that comes back to us that came from the
direction in which it was heard originally

Route Poisoning: If I know for fact that a route is down, I will not wait for infinity

Poison Reverse: Breaks the split horizon rules

Triggered Updates: Triggers update and does not wait for the period updates

Hold-down Timer: If we hear about another path, I will not believe it until the “Hold down
timer” is expired, which is 180 seconds. After which I will update routing table or wait for
the “Flush Time – (240 sec) before taking the entry off the routing table.

RIP is both classful and distance vector

RIP Routing Configuration


Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#network network-number

RIPv2 – router rip


Network
Version2 (to turn on)

Classful vs Classless
- Does not send subnet mask Sends subnet mask
Administrative Distances
RIP = 120
IS-IS = 115
OSPF = 110
IGRP = 100
EIGRP = 90
Static Route = 1
Directly connected =0
Enhanced Integrated Gateway Routing Protocol - Chapter 7

Features of EIGRP
- Support for IP and IPv6 including some other routed protocols via protocol-
dependent modules
- Considered classless
- Not a link state or distance-vector protocol. It carries characteristics of both
- It’s easy to setup
- It has rapid convergence time (Convergence – means all routing tables are the same)
- Reduce bandwidth usage
- Support for VLSM/CIDR
- Support for summaries and discontinuous networks
- Efficient neighbor discovery
- Communication via Reliable Transport Protocol
- Best path selection via Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) to select loop-free routes
and enable fast convergence
- Uses up to six unequal paths to remote networks (4 by default)
- It carries all routed protocols

EIGRP is a distance-vector routing protocol or sometimes an advance distance-vector or


hybrid routing protocol.

Protocol-Dependent Modules (PDM): Provides routing support for multiple Network layer
protocols: IP, IPX, AppleTalk, and IPv6
- Maintain a separate series of tables containing the routing information that applies
to specific protocol (e.g. IP/EIGRP and IPv6/EIGRP tables)

1. Neighbor Tables - IP = Next Hop (Router) interface


2. Topology Table – IP = Destination Routing Table (Successor/Feasible
Successor
3. Routing Table – IP = Destination Successor

The neighbor and topology tables are stored in RAM and maintained through the use of Hello
and update packets. Routing table is also stored in RAM, but that information is gathered only
from the topology table.

- Advertised Distance: Next hop router distance


- Feasible Distance: is the feasible distance plus the advertised distance
- A feasible successor: is the next best usable path, which will be the next advertise
path with a lower advertise bandwidth that’s lower than the path before.
- Successor route: is the next hop router on the best path. It is used by EIGRP to
forward traffic to a destination; it may be backed up by a feasible successor route;
they are stored in both the Topology and the Routing table
- Variance: is a multiplier – Multiply by the feasible distance if the product is equal
to……..

Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS) also supports multiple network layer


protocol
Neighbor Discovery
EIGRP routers are willing to exchange routes with each other, they must become
neighbors and under the following conditions:
Hello or ACK received
Autonomous Systems (AS) numbers match
Identical metrics (K values)

Hello packets tells you who your neighbors are, they are sent every 5 seconds
EIGRP routers that belong to different autonomous systems (ASes) don’t automatically
share routing information and they don’t become neighbors. Can be benefited when in
larger networks to reduce the amount of route information propagated through specific AS;
redistribution between the different ASes will have to be done manually.

Metric – Using DUAL Algorithm


Bandwidth – Calculates lowest bandwidth – 10 to the 8 Power
Delay – Using Serialization
Reliability Load MTU

- Feasible Distance: Is the metric reported by the neighbor (advertised distance) plus
the metric to the neighbor reporting the route. It is consider the best path and it’s on
the routing table.
- Reported/Advertised Distance: It’s the metric of a remote network as reported by
a neighbor. Also in the routing table metric of the neighbor.
- Variance: is a multiplier- it multiplies the feasible distance if the product is equal
to…

Redistribution – translate one type of routing protocol to another (Translating metric)

Router configuration mode:

Router (config)# redistribute rip metric 100000 20000 255 1 1500

Router (config)# router eigrp 100

To enable EIGRP – Router (config)# router eigrp 10

EIGRP is a classless routing protocol, you can add the subnet mask but you don’t need to do
that.

Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP)


EIGRP uses Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP) to manage the communication of messages
between EIGRP routers. It takes key concern of this protocol.

Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL)


EIGRP uses DUAL for selecting and maintaining the best path to each remote network. This
algorithm allows for the following:
- Backup route determination if one is available
- Support VLSMs
- Dynamic route recoveries
- Queries for an alternate route if no route can be found
DUAL provides EIGRP with possibly the fastest route convergence time among all
protocols.

EIGRP is suitable for larger networks because:


It supports multiple ASes on a single router
It supports VLSM and summarization
Route discovery and maintenance

EIGRP also support s the use of discontiguous subnets which gives us a lot of flexibility
when designing the network’s IP address plan

Also supports manual creation of summaries at any and all EIGRP routers which can
substantially reduce the size of the route table.

EIGRP automatically summarizes networks at their classful boundaries.

Discontiguous network is one that has two or more sub-networks of a classful network
connected together by different classful networks.

VLSM Support and Summarization

OSPF
- Open Standard
- Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm
- It’s a link-state routing protocol (vs. Distance Vector)

Hierarchical Routing
- Consists of areas and autonomous systems
- Minimizes routing update traffic
- Supports (Variable Length Subnet Mask) VLSM
- Unlimited hop count

LSAs - Link State Advertisers

OSPF Neighbors
Uses Hello Packets to create adjacencies and maintain connectivity with neighbors

Neighbors are routers you get adjacencies with

A simpler way to convert network address to a wild card mask is to subtract the subnet
mask from all 255s e.g.
255.255.255.255
- 255.255.252.0
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