Drahmedsoil Mechanicsnoteschapter 6

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Dr. Ahmed Soil Mechanics Notes Chapter Six (Shear Strength of Soil)
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CHAPTER SIX
SHEAR STRENGTH
OF SOIL
Lecture Notes
Soil
Mechanics
3rd Class
Up copyrights
2017
Assistant Prof.
Dr. Ahmed Al-Obaidi

CHAPTER SIX
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL
6.1 Introduction
The strength of material is the greatest stress it can sustain.
The safety of any geotechnical structure is dependent on the strength of the
soil.
Shearing resistance is important to analyze soil stability problems such as;
Bearing capacity, Slope stability, Lateral earth pressure on earth-retaining
structures, and Pavement.
The shear strength of soil is its resistance to shearing stresses.
It is a measure of the soil resistance to deformation by continuous displacement
of its individual soil particles.
The shear strength of a soil mass is the internal resistance per unit area
that the soil mass can offer to resist failure and to slide along any plane
inside it.
Civil Eng. Dept. – College of Eng. Soil Mechanics Assistant Prof. Dr. Ahmed Al-Obaidi
(181)
6.2 Mohr–Coulomb Failure Criterion
Coulomb, 1776 considered that failure of soil is a curved line.
f = f()
Mohr (1900) presented a theory for rupture in materials that contended that a
material fails because of a critical combination of normal stress and shearing
stress. Thus, the failure can be expressed in the following form:
f = c +  tan
Where: c = cohesion
 = angle of internal friction
 = normal stress on the failure plane
f = shear strength
The preceding equation is called the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion.
In saturated soil,  =  + u
The Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion, in terms of effective stress, will be:
f = c +  tan
Where c = cohesion and  = friction angle, based on effective stress.
So that soil derives its shear strength from two sources:
Cohesion between particles (stress independent component), Cementation
between sand grains, Electrostatic attraction between clay particles
Frictional resistance between particles (stress dependent component)
The value of (c) for sand and inorganic silt = 0.
For normally consolidated clays, (c) can be = 0.
Overconsolidated Clays have values of (c) that are greater than 0.
The angle of friction, is sometimes referred to as the drained angle of friction.
Typical values of  for some granular soils are given in Table.
(182)
From the figure below, which shows an elemental soil mass. Let the effective
normal stress and the shear stress on the plane (ab) be () and (),
respectively. If the magnitudes of  and  on the plane (ab) are such that they
plot as point A, shear failure will not occur along the plane. If the effective
normal stress and the shear stress on plane ab plot as point B (which falls on
the failure envelope), shear failure will occur along that plane. A state of stress
on a plane represented by point C cannot exist because it plots above the
failure envelope, and shear failure in soil would have occurred already.
(183)
For cohesionless soils (c) = 0, the failure criterion will be: f =  tan
For saturated soil under undrained condition, the failure criterion will be: f = c
Example (1)
What is the shearing strength of soil along a horizontal plane at a depth of 4 m
in a deposit of sand having the following properties:
Angle of internal friction,  = 35°, Dry unit weight, d = 17 kN/m3, Specific gravity,
Gs = 2.7. Assume the ground water table is at a depth of 2.5 m from the ground
surface. Also, find the change in shear strength when the water table rises to
the ground surface.
Solution
The effective vertical stress at the plane of interest is
Hence, the shearing strength of the sand is
(184)
If the water table rises to the ground surface, by a height of 2.5 m, the change
in the effective stress will be:
Hence the decrease in shear strength will be,
To determine the inclination of the failure plane with the major principal plane,
refer to Figure above, where 1 and 3 are the major and minor effective
principal stresses. The failure plane EF makes an angle  with the major
principal plane. To determine the angle  and the relationship between 1 and
3, which is a plot of the Mohr’s circle for the state of stress. In Figure, fgh is
the failure envelope defined by the relationship f = c +  tan .The radial line
ab defines the major principal plane (CD in Figure), and the radial line ad
defines the failure plane (EF in Figure).
It can be shown that
(185)
In total stress terms
6.3 Laboratory Test to Determine Shear Strength Parameters

There are several laboratory methods available to determine the shear strength
parameters, (c,, c, ) in the laboratory. They are as follows:
• Direct shear test
• Triaxial test
• Direct simple shear test
• Plane strain triaxial test
• Torsional ring shear test
• Field method: Vane shear test or by any other indirect methods
(186)
Because soil is a complex material. No one test sufficient for the study of
stress-strain behavior. In the above Figure, it can find the common types stress
– strain tests.
The direct shear test and the triaxial test are the two commonly used
techniques for determining the shear strength parameters.
(187)
6.4 Direct Shear Test
The direct shear test is the oldest and
simplest form of shear test. The test
equipment consists of a metal shear box
in which the soil specimen is placed. The
soil specimens may be square or circular
in plan. The box is split horizontally into
halves.
Normal force on the specimen is applied
from the top of the shear box. Shear
force is applied by moving one-half of the
box relative to the other to cause failure in the soil specimen.
For a given test, the normal stress can be calculated as
The resisting shear stress for any shear displacement can be calculated as
(188)
The figure shows a typical plot of shear stress and change in the height of the
specimen against shear displacement for dry loose and dense sands.
• In loose sand, the resisting shear stress increases with shear displacement
until a failure shear stress of (f) is reached. After that, the shear resistance
remains approximately constant for any further increase in the shear
displacement.
• In dense sand, the resisting shear stress increases with shear displacement
until it reaches a failure stress of (f). This (f) is called the peak shear
strength. After failure stress is attained, the resisting shear stress gradually
decreases as shear displacement increases until it finally reaches a constant
value called the ultimate shear strength.
To find the correct internal friction and cohesion of soil, its recommended to
carry at least three tests.
The results of this test give normal and shear stress and need to use Mohr’s
circle or analytic to find major and minor principal stresses, 1 and 3.
(189)
Example (2)
Direct shear tests were performed on a dry sandy soil. The size of the specimen
was 50 mm * 50 mm * 19 mm. Test results are as follows:
Test No. Normal force (N) Shear force at failure (N)
1 89 53.4
2 133 81.4
3 311 187.3
4 445 267.3
Find the shear strength parameters.
Solution
Test No. Normal stress Shear stress at failure,

(kN/m2)  =  f (kN/m2)
1 35.6 21.4
2 53.2 32.6
3 124.4 74.9
4 178 106.9
The shear stresses, f obtained

from the tests are plotted against
the normal stresses in Figure, from
which c = 0 and  = 32°.
(190)
Example (3)
Following are the results of four drained direct shear tests on an
overconsolidated clay, the size of the specimen was 50 mm * 50 mm * 25 mm
Find the shear strength parameters.
1 150 157.5
2 250 199.9
3 350 257.6
4 550 363.4
Solution
Test No. Normal stress Shear stress at failure,

(kN/m2)  =  f (kN/m2)
1 60 63
2 100 80
3 140 103
4 220 145.4
The shear stresses, f
obtained from the tests
are plotted against the
normal stresses in
Figure, from which c = 30
kN/m2 and  = 27.5°
(191)
Mohr Diagram for a Direct Shear Test at Failure
In a direct shear test, the sample is sheared along a horizontal plane. This
indicates that the failure plane is horizontal.
Point PI on the stress diagram in Figure represents the stress condition on the
failure plane. The coordinates of the point are normal stress =  and shear
stress  = s.
If it is assumed that the Mohr envelope is a straight line passing through the
origin (for cohesionless soil or normally consolidated clays). Therefore the line
OPI must be tangent to the Mohr circle, and the circle may be constructed as
follows:
Draw PIC normal to OPI, Point C which is the intersection point of the normal
with the abscissa is the center of the circle. CPI is the radius of the circle. The
Mohr circle may now be constructed which gives the major and minor principal
stresses 1 and 3 respectively.
Since the failure is on the horizontal plane, the origin of planes P O may be
obtained by drawing a horizontal line through PI giving PO. POF and POE give
the directions of the major and minor principal planes respectively.
For analytic solution:
PI A PI A
tan∅ = , PIO = , PI C = PI O ∗ tan∅
AO sin∅
(192)
PI C = (σ1 − σ3 )/2
AC (σ1 − σ3 )/2 (σ1 + σ3 ) (σ1 − σ3 )/2
sin∅ = = , =
OC (σ1 + σ3 )/2 2 sin∅
in cohesive soil use:
(σ1 − σ3 )
sin∅ =
(σ1 + σ3 ) + 2c cot∅
Example (4)
A direct shear test was conducted on a remolded sample of sand, gave the
following observations at the time of failure: Normal load = 288 N; shear load
= 173 N. The cross-sectional area of the specimen = 36 cm2.
Determine: (a) the angle of internal friction, (b) the magnitude and direction of
the principal stresses in the zone of failure.
Solution
Such problems can be solved in two ways, namely graphically and analytically.
(a)
We know one point on the Mohr envelope. Plot point A with coordinates
48 kN/m2, and f = 80 kN/m2. Since cohesion c = 0 for sand, the Mohr
envelope OM passes through the origin. The slope of OM gives the
angle of internal friction  =31°.
(b) In Figure, draw line AC normal to the envelope OM cutting the abscissa
at point C. With C as center and AC as radius, draw Mohr circle Cl which
cuts the abscissa at points B and D, which gives
Major principal stress = OB = 1 = 163.5 kN/m2
Minor principal stress = OD = 3 = 53.5 kN/m2
(193)
Now, ACB = 2 = twice the angle between the failure plane and the
major principal plane. Measurement gives
2= 121° or  = 60.5°
Since in a direct shear test the failure plane is horizontal, the angle made
by the major principal plane with the horizontal will be 60.5°. The minor
principal plane should be drawn at a right angle to the major principal
plane. The directions of the principal planes may also be found by
locating the pole Po which is obtained by drawing a horizontal line from
point A which is parallel to the failure plane in the direct shear test. Now
POB and POD give the directions of the major and minor principal planes.
For analytic solution:

48
tan∅ = = 0.6 → ∅ = 31°
80
48 kN kN
AO = = 93.2 2 , AC = 93.2 ∗ tan31 = 56 2 = (σ1 − σ3 )/2
sin31 m m
(σ1 − σ3 )/2 (σ1 + σ3 ) 56
sin31 = , = = 108.73 kN/m2
(σ1 + σ3 )/2 2 sin31
1 = 165 kN/m2, 3 = 53 kN/m2, 2 = 180 – (180 – 31 – 90) = 121,  = 60.5° =
45+/2
(194)
6.5 Triaxial Shear Test
The triaxial shear test is one of the most reliable methods available for
determining shear strength parameters. It is used widely for research and
conventional testing. A diagram of the triaxial test layout is shown in Figure.
The figure shows a triaxial test in progress

in the laboratory.
(195)
In this test, a soil specimen about 36 mm in diameter and 76 mm long. A thin
rubber membrane encased the specimen and placed inside a plastic cylindrical
chamber that usually is filled with water or glycerin.
The test consists of two-stage the first one is isotropic loading where the
specimen is subjected to a confining pressure by compression of the fluid in
the chamber. The second stage is shearing to cause shear failure in the
specimen, where axial stress is applied (sometimes called deviator stress)
through a vertical loading ram.
The axial load applied by the loading ram corresponding to a given axial
deformation is measured by a proving ring or load cell attached to the ram.
Connections to measure drainage into or out of the specimen, or to measure
pressure in the pore water (as per the test conditions), also are provided. The
following three standard types of triaxial tests generally are conducted:
1. Consolidated-drained test or drained test (CD test)
2. Consolidated-undrained test (CU test)
3. Unconsolidated-undrained test or undrained test (UU test)
6.5.1 Consolidated-Drained Triaxial Test

In the CD test, the saturated specimen first is subjected to an all-around
confining pressure, 3, by compression of the chamber fluid. As confining
pressure is applied, the pore water pressure of the specimen increases by uc
(if drainage is prevented). This increase in the pore water pressure can be
expressed as a non-dimensional parameter in the form
where B = Skempton’s pore pressure parameter (Skempton, 1954).

Now, if the connection to drainage is opened, dissipation of the excess pore
water pressure, and thus consolidation, will occur. With time, uc will become
equal to 0. In saturated soil, the change in the volume of the specimen (ΔVc)
(196)
that takes place during consolidation can be obtained from the volume of pore
water drained. Next, the deviator stress, d, (= 1 - 3) on the specimen is
increased very slowly. The drainage connection is kept open, and the slow rate
of deviator stress application allows complete dissipation of any pore water
pressure that developed as a result (Δud = 0).
A typical plot of the variation of deviator stress against strain in loose sand and
normally consolidated clay also for dense sand and overconsolidated clay is
shown in Figure.
At least three identical samples

having the same initial conditions
are to be used. Typical shapes of
dense and loose sand samples at
failure are shown in Figure.
(197)
Example (5)
A consolidated drained triaxial test was conducted on a normally consolidated
clay. The results are as follows:
• 3 = 276 kN/m2
• (Δd)f = 276 kN/m2
Determine
a. Angle of friction, 
b. Angle that the failure plane makes with the major principal plane.
c. Find the normal stress  and the shear stress f on the failure plane.
b. Determine the effective normal stress on the plane of maximum shear stress.
Solution
For normally consolidated soil, the failure envelope equation is
f =  tan (because c = 0)
a. For the triaxial test, the effective major and minor principal stresses at failure
are as follows:
σ1 = σ3 + ∆(σd )f = 276 + 276 = 552 kN/m2
σ3 = 276 kN/m2
(σ1 − σ3 )/2 552 − 276
sin∅ = = = 0.333
(σ1 + σ3 )/2 552 + 276
 = 19.45°
b. 𝜃 = 45 + ∅⁄2 = 45 + 19.45⁄2 = 54.73°
c.
(198)
d. it can be seen that the maximum shear stress will occur on the plane with 
= 45°
Example (6)
The equation of the effective stress failure envelope for normally consolidated
clayey soil is f =  tan 30°. A drained triaxial test was conducted with the
same soil at a chamber confining pressure of 69 kN/m2. Calculate the deviator
stress at failure.
Solution
For normally consolidated clay, c’ = 0. Thus,
(199)
Example (7)
The results of two drained triaxial tests on a saturated clay follow:
Specimen I:  3 =70 kN/m2, (Δd) f = 130 kN/m2
Specimen II: 3 =160 kN/m2, (Δd) f = 223.5 kN/m2
Determine the shear strength parameters.
Solution
For Specimen I, the principal stresses at failure are
3 = 3 =70 kN/m2
1 = 1 = 3 + (Δd) f =70 + 130 = 200 kN/m2
Similarly, the principal stresses at failure for Specimen II are
3 = 3 =160 kN/m2
1 = 1 = 3 + (Δd) f =160 + 223.5 = 383.5 kN/m2
(200)
Example (8)
A consolidated drained triaxial test was conducted on a granular soil. At failure
 1/ 3 = 4.0. The effective minor principal stress at failure was 100 kN/m 2.
Compute  and the principal stress difference at failure.
Solution
The principal stress difference at failure is
Example (9)
A saturated specimen of sand was tested under triaxial drained conditions. The
sample failed at a deviator stress of 482 kN/m2, and the plane of failure made
an angle of 60° with the horizontal. Find the magnitudes of the principal
stresses. What would be the magnitudes of the deviator stress and the major
principal stress at failure for another identical specimen of sand if it is tested at
a cell pressure of 200 kN/m2
Solution
The angle of the failure plane a is expressed as equal to
(201)
6.5.2 Consolidated-Undrained Triaxial Test
The consolidated-undrained test is the most common type of triaxial test. In
this test, the saturated soil specimen is first consolidated by an all-around
chamber fluid pressure, 3, that results in drainage. After the pore water
pressure generated by the application of confining pressure is dissipated, the
deviator stress, (Δd), on the specimen, is increased to cause shear failure.
During this phase of the test, the drainage line from the specimen is kept
closed. Because drainage is not permitted, the pore water pressure, Δud, will
increase. During the test, simultaneous measurements of (Δd) and Δud are
made. The increase in the pore water pressure, Δud, can be expressed in a
non-dimensional form as:
Where Â Skempton’s pore pressure parameter (Skempton, 1954), =AB.

The general patterns of variation of (Δd) and Δud with axial strain for sand and
clay soils are shown in Figures. In loose sand and normally consolidated clay,
the pore water pressure increases with strain. In dense sand and
overconsolidated clay, the pore water pressure increases with a strain to a
certain limit, beyond which it decreases and becomes negative (with respect to
(202)
the atmospheric pressure). This decrease is because of a tendency of the soil
to dilate.
Unlike the consolidated drained test, the total and effective principal stresses
are not the same in the consolidated-undrained test. Because the pore water
pressure at failure is measured in this test, the principal stresses may be
analyzed as follows:
• Major principal stress at failure (total): 3 + (Δd) f = 1
• Major principal stress at failure (effective): 1 - (Δd) f = 1
• Minor principal stress at failure (total): 3
• Minor principal stress at failure (effective): 3 - (Δd) f = 3
In these equations, (Δud)f = pressure at failure. The preceding derivations show
that: 1 - 3= 1 - 3
Tests on several similar
specimens with varying
confining pressures
may be conducted to
determine the shear
strength parameters.
Skempton’s pore water
pressure parameter at
failure
(203)
The general range of Âf values in most clay soils is as follows:
Normally consolidated clays: 0.5 to 1, Overconsolidated Clays: -0.5 to 0
(204)
Example (10)
A specimen of saturated sand was consolidated under an all-around pressure
of 105 kN/m2. The axial stress was then increased, and drainage was
prevented. The specimen failed when the axial deviator stress reached 70
kN/m2. The pore water pressure at failure was 50 kN/m2. Determine
a. Consolidated-undrained angle of shearing resistance, 
b. Drained friction angle, 
Solution
a. For this case, 3 = 105 kN/m2, 1 = 105 + 70 = 175 kN/m2, and (Δud)f = 50
kN/m2. The total and effective stress failure envelopes are shown in Figure
(205)
Example (11)
A normally consolidated clay was consolidated under a stress of 150 kN/m2,
then sheared undrained in axial compression. The principal stress difference
at failure was 100 kN/m2, and the induced pore pressure at failure was 88.5
kN/m2. Determine:
(a) The Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters, regarding both total and effective
stresses analytically
(b) Compute (1/3)f and (1/3)f
(c) Determine the theoretical angle of the failure plane in the specimen.
Solution
(a) Given df = (1 - 3)f = 100 kN/m2, 3f = 150 kN/m2, 1f = 250 kN/m2
Effective 1f = 1f – uf = 250 – 88.5 = 161.5 kN/m2
3f = 3f – uf = 150 – 88.5 = 61.5 kN/m2
∅ ∅
𝜎1 = 𝜎3 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 − ) + 2𝑐 tan(45 − ) c = 0, N.C.C
2 2
𝜎1 ∅ 1+sin ∅ 𝜎1 −𝜎3
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 − ) = , 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ =
𝜎3 2 1−sin ∅ 𝜎1 +𝜎3
100
In total stress concept,  = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1 = 0.25, ∅ = 14.5°
250+150
100
In effective stress concept ∅′ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1 = 0.448, ∅ = 26.64°
161.5+61.5
(b) The stress ratio at failure are

𝜎1 250 𝜎′1 161.5
= = 1.667, = = 2.63
𝜎3 150 𝜎′3 61.5
(c)  = 45 +/2 = 45 + 26.64/2 = 58.32°
(206)
Example (12)
The following results were obtained at failure in a series of consolidated
undrained tests, with pore pressure measurement, on specimens of saturated
clay. Determine the values of the effective stress parameters c' and  by
drawing Mohr circles.
Test No. 3 (kN/m2) (1 - 3) (kN/m2) uf (kN/m2)
1 150 192 80
2 300 341 154
3 450 504 222
Solution
The values of the effective principal stresses 1and 3 at failure are tabulated
below
Test No. 3 (kN/m2) 1 (kN/m2) 3 (kN/m2) 1 (kN/m2)
1 150 342 70 262
2 300 641 146 487
3 450 954 228 732
The Mohr circles regarding effective stresses and the failure envelope are
drawn in Figure. The shear strength parameters as measured are:
c'=16 kN/m2; '= 29°
(207)
Example (13)
The following results were obtained at failure in a series of triaxial tests on
specimens of a saturated clay initially 38 mm in diameter and 76 mm long.
Determine the values of the shear strength parameters with respect to (a) total
stress, and (b) effective stress.
Test type 3 (kN/m2) Axial Axial compression Volume
load (N) (mm) change (cm3)
Undrained 200 222 9.83 -
400 215 10.06 -
600 226 10.28 -
drained 200 467 10.81 6.6
400 848 12.26 8.2
600 1265 14.17 9.5
Solution
The principal stress difference at failure in each test is obtained by dividing the
axial load by the cross-sectional area of the specimen at failure. The corrected
cross-sectional area is calculated from Equation below
Aoho = Ah
where Ao, ho = initial cross-sectional area and height of sample respectively.
A, h = cross-sectional area and height respectively at any stage of loading
If Δh is the compression of the sample, the strain is
The average vertical stress at any stage of loading may be written as
(208)
There is no volume change during an undrained test on a saturated clay. The
initial values of length, area and volume for each specimen are ho = 76 mm, Ao
= 11.35 cm2; VO = 86.0 cm3 respectively
The Mohr circles at failure and the corresponding failure envelopes for both
series of tests are shown in Figure below. In both cases, the failure envelope
is the line nearest to the common tangent to the Mohr circles. The total stress
parameters representing the undrained strength of the clay are:
cu = 85 kN/m2; u = 0
The effective stress parameters, representing the drained strength of the clay,
are: c' = 20 kN/m2;  = 26°
3 Area 1 - 3 1
Test type Δh/ho ΔV/Vo
(kN/m2) (corrected) cm2 (kN/m2) (kN/m2)
Undrained 200 0.129 13.04 170 370
400 0.132 13.09 160 564
600 0.135 13.12 172 772
drained 200 0.142 0.077 12.22 382 582
400 0.161 0.095 12.25 691 1091
600 0.186 0.110 12.40 1020 1620
(209)
Example (14)
An embankment is being constructed of soil whose properties are c' = 50
kN/m2, ' = 21° (all effective stresses), and = 16 kN/m3. The pore pressure
parameters as determined from triaxial tests are A = 0.5, and B = 0.9. Find the
shear strength of the soil at the base of the embankment just after the height
of fill has been raised from 3m to 6m. Assume that the dissipation of pore
pressure during this stage of construction is negligible and that the lateral
pressure at any point is one-half of the vertical pressure.
Solution
The equation for pore pressure is
∆u = B[∆𝜎3 + 𝐴(∆𝜎1 − ∆𝜎3 )]
Δ1 = vertical pressure due to 3m of fill = 3 * 16 = 48 kN/m 2
Δ3 = 48/2 = 24 kN/m2
∆u = 0.9[24 + 0.5(24)] = 32 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
1 = 3 * 16 = 48 kN/m2
 = 1 + Δ1 – Δu = 48 +48 – 32 = 64 kN/m2
f = c +  tan  = 50 + 64 * tan 21 = 74.57 kN/m2
6.5.3 Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxial Test

In unconsolidated-undrained tests, drainage from the soil specimen is not
permitted during the application of chamber pressure 3. The test specimen is
sheared to failure by the application of deviator stress, (Δd), and drainage is
prevented. Because drainage is not allowed at any stage, the test can be
performed quickly. Because of the application of chamber confining pressure
3, the pore water pressure in the soil specimen will increase by uc. A further
increase in the pore water pressure (Δud) will occur because of the deviator
stress application. Hence, the total pore water pressure u in the specimen at
any stage of deviator stress application can be given as:
(210)
This test usually is conducted on clay specimens and depends on a very
important strength concept for cohesive soils if the soil is fully saturated. The
failure envelope for the total stress Mohr’s circles is shown in Figure below
becomes a horizontal line and hence is called a  = 0 condition.
f = c = cu
Where: cu is the undrained shear strength and is equal to the radius of the
Mohr’s circles.
Note that the  = 0 concept applies to only saturated clays and silts.
(211)
6.6 Unconfined Compression Test on Saturated Clay
The unconfined compression test is a special type of unconsolidated-undrained
test that is commonly used for clay specimens. In this test, the confining
pressure 3 is 0. An axial load is rapidly applied to the specimen to cause
failure. At failure, the total minor principal stress is zero, and the total major
principal stress is 1.
Where: qu is the unconfined

compression strength.
The table gives the
approximate consistencies of
clays on the basis of their
unconfined compression
strength. A photograph of
unconfined compression test
equipment is shown in Figure
(212)
Example (15)
Boreholes reveal that a thin layer of alluvial silt exists at a depth of 15.25m
below the surface of the ground. The soil above this level has an average dry
unit weight of 15 kN/m3 and an average water content of 30%. The water table
is approximately at the surface. Tests on undisturbed samples give the
following data: cu = 48 kN/m2, u = 13°, cd = 41.25 kN/m2, d = 23°. Estimate
the shearing resistance of the silt on a horizontal plane (a) when the shear
stress builds up rapidly, and (b) when the shear stress builds up very slowly.
Solution
Total unit weight = t = d * (1 +  = 15 * 1.3 = 19.5 kN/m3
Submerged unit weight = b = 19.5 - 9.81 = 9.69 kN/m3
Total normal pressure at 15.25m depth = 15.25*19.5 = 297.38 kN/m 2
Effective pressure at 15.25m depth = 15.25 * 9.69 = 147.78 kN/m 2
(a) For rapid biuld – up, use the properties of undrained state and total
pressure. At totoal pressure of 297.38 kN/m2
Shear strength f = c +  tan = 48 + 297 tan 13 = 116.57 kN/m2
(b) For slow build – up use effective stress properties
At an effective stress of 147.78 kN/m2
Shear strength = 41.25 + 147.78 tan 23 = 103.98 kN/m2
Example (16)
When an undrained triaxial compression test was conducted on specimens of
clayey silt, the following results were obtained:
Speciemen No. 1 2 3
3 (kN/m2) 17 44 56
1 (kN/m2) 157 204 255
u (kN/m2) 12 20 22
Determine the values of shear parameters considering (a) total stresses and
(b) effective stresses.
(213)
Solution
(a) Total stresses
For a solution with total stresses, draw Mohr circles C1, C2 and C3 for each of
the specimens using the corresponding principal stresses 1 and 3.
Draw a Mohr envelope tangent to these circles as shown in Figure. Now from
the figure
c = 48 kN/m2, = 15°
(b) With effective stresses

The effective principal stresses may be found by subtracting the pore pressures
u from the total principal stresses as given below.
Speciemen No. 1 2 3
3 (kN/m2) 5 24 34
1 (kN/m2) 145 184 204
As before draw Mohr circles C'1 C2 and C3 for each of the specimens as
shown in Figure. Now from the figure
c' = 46 kN/m2, '= 20°
(214)
Example (17)
The soil has an unconfined compressive strength of 120 kN/m 2. In a triaxial
compression test, a specimen of the same soil when subjected to a chamber
pressure of 40 kN/m2 failed at an additional stress of 160 kN/m2. Determine:
(i) The shear strength parameters of the soil, (ii) the angle made by the failure
plane with the axial stress in the triaxial test.
Solution
There is one unconfined compression test result and one triaxial compression
test result. Hence two Mohr circles, C1 and C2 may be drawn as shown in
Figure. For Mohr circle C1, 3 = 0 and 1 = 120 kN/m2, and for Mohr circle C2,
3 = 40 kN/m2 and 1 = (40 + 160) = 200 kN/m2. A common tangent to these
two circles is the Mohr envelope which gives
(i) c = 43 kN/m2 and  = 19°
(ii) For the triaxial test specimen, A is the point of tangency for Mohr circle C2,
and C is the center of circle C2. The angle made by AC with the abscissa is
equal to twice the angle between the failure plane and the axis of the sample,
2. From Figure, 2 = 26 = 71 ° and  = 35.5°. The angle made by the failure
plane with the  -axis is  = 90°-35.5° = 54.5°.
(215)
Example (18)
A cylindrical sample of saturated clay 4 cm in diameter and 8 cm high was
tested in an unconfined compression apparatus. Find the unconfined
compression strength, if the specimen failed at an axial load of 360 N when the
axial deformation was 8 mm. Find the shear strength parameters if the angle
made by the failure plane with the horizontal plane was recorded as 50°.
Solution
The unconfined compression strength of the soil is given by
Now  = 2 - 90°, where  = 50°. Therefore  = (2 x 500 - 90° = 10°.

Draw the Mohr circle as shown in Figure. (3 = 0 and 1 = 258 kN/m2) and from
the center C of the circle, draw CA at 2 = 100°. At point A, draw a tangent to
the circle. The tangent is the Mohr envelope which gives
c = 106 kN/m2, and =10°
(216)
Example (19)
A cylindrical sample of soil having a cohesion of 80 kN/m 2 and an angle of
internal friction of 20° is subjected to a cell pressure of 100 kN/m2.
Determine: (i) the maximum deviator stress (1 - 3) at which the sample will
fail, and (ii) the angle made by the failure plane with the axis of the sample.
Solution
Graphically
3 = 100 kN/m2,  = 20°, and c = 80 kN/m2.
A Mohr circle and the Mohr envelope can be drawn as shown in Figure. The
circle cuts the -axis at B (= 3), and at E (=1). Now 1 = 433 kN/m2, and 3 =
100 kN/m2.
(1, - 3) = 433 - 100 = 333 kN/m2.
Analytical
(217)
6.7 Sensitivity of Clay
For many naturally deposited clay soils, the unconfined compression strength
is reduced greatly when the soils are tested after remolding without any change
in the moisture content,
as shown in Figure. This
property of clay soils is
called sensitivity. The
degree of sensitivity may
be defined as the ratio of
the unconfined
compression strength in
an undisturbed state to
that in a remolded state,
or
The sensitivity ratio of most clays ranges from about 1 to 8; however, highly
flocculent marine clay deposits may have sensitivity ratios ranging from about
10 to 80. Some clays turn to viscous fluids upon remolding. These clays are
found mostly in the previously glaciated areas of North America and
(218)
Scandinavia. Such clays are referred to as quick clays. Rosenqvist (1953)
classified clays on the basis of their sensitivity as follows:
6.8 Stress Path

When we have many soil samples, it is difficult to study the change of stresses
in the soil. Thus, the results of triaxial tests can be represented by diagrams
called stress paths. In this diagram, the results for one Mohr’s circle (state of
stress) will transform to a point.
A stress path is a line or curve that connects a series of points, each of which
represents a successive stress state experienced by a soil specimen during
the progress of a test.
(219)
In geostatic stresses, the results can be expressed as:
Example (20)
If the initial stresses is: v = h, find the stress path for the following cases.
(a) Δv  0, Δh = 0 (b) Δv = 0, Δh  0 (c) Δh =- Δv (d) Δv = Δh (e) Δh =
0.25 Δv
Solution
Initial stresses
𝜎𝑣 + 𝜎ℎ 𝜎𝑣 + 𝜎𝑣 𝜎𝑣 − 𝜎ℎ 𝜎𝑣 − 𝜎𝑣
𝑝= = = 𝜎𝑣 , 𝑞 = = = 0
2 2 2 2
(a) Δv  0, Δh = 0
∆𝜎𝑣 + ∆𝜎ℎ ∆𝜎𝑣 + 0 ∆𝜎𝑣 ∆𝜎𝑣 − ∆𝜎ℎ ∆𝜎𝑣 − 0 ∆𝜎𝑣
∆𝑝 = = = , ∆𝑞 = = =
2 2 2 2 2 2
∆𝜎𝑣
∆𝑞
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = 2 =1
∆𝑝 ∆𝜎𝑣
2
(b) Δv = 0, Δh  0
∆𝜎𝑣 + ∆𝜎ℎ 0 + ∆𝜎ℎ ∆𝜎ℎ ∆𝜎𝑣 − ∆𝜎ℎ 0 − ∆𝜎ℎ ∆𝜎ℎ
∆𝑝 = = = , ∆𝑞 = = =−
2 2 2 2 2 2
∆𝜎ℎ
∆𝑞 2 = −1
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = =
∆𝑝 ∆𝜎
− ℎ
2
(c) Δh = -Δv
∆𝜎𝑣 + ∆𝜎ℎ ∆𝜎𝑣 + (−)∆𝜎𝑣 ∆𝜎𝑣 − ∆𝜎ℎ ∆𝜎𝑣 − (−)∆𝜎𝑣
∆𝑝 = = = 0, ∆𝑞 = = = ∆𝜎𝑣
2 2 2 2
∆𝑞 ∆𝜎𝑣
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = =∞
∆𝑝 0
(220)
(d) Δv = Δh
∆𝜎𝑣 + ∆𝜎ℎ ∆𝜎𝑣 + ∆𝜎𝑣 ∆𝜎𝑣 − ∆𝜎ℎ ∆𝜎𝑣 − ∆𝜎𝑣
∆𝑝 = = = ∆𝜎𝑣 , ∆𝑞 = = =0
2 2 2 2
∆𝑞 0
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = =0
∆𝑝 ∆𝜎𝑣
(e) Δh = 0.25 Δv
∆𝜎𝑣 + ∆𝜎ℎ ∆𝜎𝑣 + 0.25∆𝜎𝑣
∆𝑝 = = = 0.625∆𝜎𝑣
2 2
∆𝜎𝑣 − ∆𝜎ℎ ∆𝜎𝑣 − 0.25∆𝜎𝑣
∆𝑞 = = = 0.375∆𝜎𝑣
2 2
∆𝑞 0.375∆𝜎𝑣 3
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = =
∆𝑝 0.625∆𝜎𝑣 5
Example (21)
If the initial stresses is v = h = 0 (at soil surface), find the stress path for the
condition for (ko).
Solution
h = ko v
Initially, p = 0, q = 0
𝜎𝑣 + 𝑘𝑜 𝜎𝑣 (1 + 𝑘𝑜 ) 𝜎𝑣 − 𝑘𝑜 𝜎𝑣 (1 − 𝑘𝑜 )
∆𝑝 = = 𝜎𝑣 , ∆𝑞 = = 𝜎𝑣
2 2 2 2
∆𝑞 (1 − 𝑘𝑜 )
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = =
∆𝑝 (1 + 𝑘𝑜 )
(221)
ko may be  0, or  0, or = 0 as shown
if q/p = tanthen
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
𝑘𝑜 =
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
Example (22)
For the soil profile shown and the loading
condition draw the stress path for points A to H, if
ko = 0.4.
Solution
 Find the initial vertical stress, v = h
 Find the initial horizontal stress, h = kov
 Find pi, qi
 Add vertical and horizontal stresses (given) to
initial stresses.
 Find pf, qf
Elev. v h pi qi Δv Δh vf hf pf qf

point
(m) kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2
A 7.26 147.16 58.86 103.01 44.15 256 136 403.16 194.86 299.01 104.15
B 15.24 308.91 123.57 216.24 92.67 220 63 528.91 186.57 357.74 171.17
C 22.86 463.37 185.35 324.36 139.01 173 28 636.37 213.35 424.86 211.51
D 30.43 616.82 246.73 431.77 185.04 132 13 748.82 259.73 504.27 244.54
E 45.31 918.43 367.37 642.90 275.53 78 3 996.43 370.37 683.40 313.03
F 60.96 1235.66 494.26 864.96 370.70 49 1 1284.66 495.26 889.96 394.70
G 76.22 1544.98 617.99 1081.49 463.49 33 0 1577.98 617.99 1097.99 479.99
H 91.46 1853.89 741.56 1297.73 556.17 24 0 1877.89 741.56 1309.73 568.17
(222)
600
500
400
q
300
200
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
What is the tangent of line connected initial p and q?
6.9 Stress Path for Triaxial Result Tests

This type of stress path plot can be explained with the aid of Figure. Let us
consider a normally consolidated clay specimen subjected to the
anisotropically consolidated drained triaxial test. At the beginning of the
application of deviator stress, 1 = 3, = 3, so
(223)
For this condition, p and q will plot as a point (that is, I in Figure). After deviator
stress application, for Mohr’s circle A in Figure. The values of p and q for this
stress condition are:
If these values of p and q were plotted in Figure, they would be represented

by point D at the top of the Mohr’s circle. So, if the values of p and q at various
stages of the deviator stress application are plotted, and these points are
joined, a straight line like ID will result. The straight line ID is referred to as the
stress path. Note that the line ID makes an angle of 45° with the horizontal.
Point D represents the failure condition of the soil specimen in the test. Also,
we can see that Mohr’s Circle B represents the failure stress condition.
For normally consolidated clays, the failure envelope given by f =  tan.
This is the line OF in Figure. A modified failure envelope now can be defined
by line OF. The equation of the line can be expressed as:
q = p tan
where  = the angle that the modified failure envelope makes with the
horizontal
(224)
For consolidated
undrained tests
Initialy (isotropic)
p = 3, q = q = 0
After shearing
For overconsolidated clay
(225)
𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝑐 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅′ = 2 − 𝑝′
𝑠𝑖𝑛∅′
𝜎1 − 𝜎3
=𝑞
2
1 𝑞
𝑐′ = ( − 𝑝′ )
𝑐𝑜𝑡∅′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅′
𝑞 𝑝′𝑠𝑖𝑛∅′
𝑐′ = −
𝑐𝑜𝑠∅′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅′
At p’ = 0, q = a
𝑎′ = 𝑐 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅′
Example (23)
A specimen of normally onsolidated clay is consolidated to 689 kN/m2 and then
failed by decresing 3 while 1 held constant. Find qf and pf, knowning that 
= 22°
Solution
sin = tan   sin22° = tan    = 20.5°
initial q = 0, p = 689 kN/m2
𝑞−0
= tan 20.5
𝑝−0
q = 0.375 p (1)
∆𝜎1 − ∆𝜎3 −(−∆𝜎3) ∆𝜎3
∆q = = =
2 2 2
∆𝜎1 + ∆𝜎3 (−∆𝜎3) −∆𝜎3
∆p = = =
2 2 2
∆q 𝑞−0
= −1 → = −1 → 𝑞 = 689 − 𝑝 (2)
∆p 𝑝 − 689
Solve the Eq. 1 and 2
pf = 501.1 kN/m2, q = 188 kN/m2
(226)
Example (24)
A specimen of normally onsolidated clay is consolidated to 414 kN/m 2 and then
failed by decresing 3 and increasing 1 in such away that p remain constant
Find qf and pf, knowning that  = 22°
Solution
sin = tan   sin22° = tan    = 20.5°
initial q = 0, p = 414 kN/m2
pf = 414
𝑞𝑓
= tan 20.5
𝑝𝑓
qf = 414 * tan 20.5 = 154.78 kN/m2
(227)
Homework Chapter 6
(1) Following data are given for a direct shear test conducted on dry sand:
Specimen dimensions: 63 mm * 63 mm * 25 mm (height)
Normal stress: 105 kN/m2
Shear force at failure: 300 N
a. Determine the angle of friction, 
b. For a normal stress of 180 kN/m 2, what shear force is required to cause
failure? Ans.  = 35.5, shear force (S) = 509.5 N
(2) Consider the specimen in Problem (1b).

a. What are the principal stresses at failure?
b. What is the inclination of the major principal plane with the horizontal?
Ans. (a) 3 = 115 kN/m2, 1 = 420 kN/m2 (b)  = 65°
(3) For a dry sand specimen in a direct shear test box, the following are given:
Size of specimen: 63.5 mm * 63.5 mm * 31.75 mm (height)
Angle of friction: 33°
Normal stress: 193 kN/m2
Determine the shear force required to cause failure. Ans. S = 0.505 kN
(4) The following are the results of four drained direct shear tests on
undisturbed normally consolidated clay samples having a diameter of 50
mm and height of 25 mm.
1 67 23.3
2 133 46.6
3 213 73.5
4 369 132.3
Draw a graph for shear stress at failure against the normal stress and
determine the drained angle of friction from the graph.
Ans. From graph  = 19.5
(228)
(5) Repeat Problem (4) with the following data. Given: Specimen diameter =
50 mm; specimen height = 25 mm. Ans. From graph  = 29

1 250 139
2 375 209
3 450 250
4 540 300
(6) Consider the clay soil in Problem 5. If a drained triaxial test is conducted on
the same soil with a chamber confining pressure of 208 kN/m 2, what would
be the deviator stress at failure? Ans. Δd(f) = 392 kN/m2
(7) For the triaxial test on the clay specimen in Problem 6

a) What is the inclination of the failure plane with the major principal plane?
b) Determine the normal and shear stress on a plane inclined at 30° with
the major principal plane at failure. Also, explain why the specimen did
not fail along this plane. Ans.  = 59.5°, f = 169.7 kN/m2,  = 502 kN/m2
(8) The relationship between the relative density, Dr, and the angle of friction,
of sand can be given as  = 28 + 0.18Dr (Dr in %). A drained triaxial test
was conducted on the same sand with a chamber confining pressure of 150
kN/m2. The sand sample was prepared at a relative density of 68%.
Calculate the major principal stress at failure. Ans.  1 = 697.4 kN/m2
(9) For a normally consolidated clay specimen, the results of a drained triaxial
test are as follows:
• Chamber-confining pressure =125 kN/m2
• Deviator stress at failure = 175 kN/m2
Determine the soil friction angle, . Ans.  = 24.3°
(10) In a consolidated drained triaxial test on clay, the specimen failed at a

deviator stress of 124 kN/m2. If the effective stress friction angle is known
to be 31°, what was the effective confining pressure at failure?
(229)
Ans.  3 = 58.54 kN/m2
(11) Consider the clay sample in Problem 10. A consolidated-undrained triaxial
test was conducted on the same clay with a chamber pressure of 103
kN/m2. The pore pressure at failure (Δud)f = 33 kN/m2. What would be the
major principal stress, 1, at failure? Ans.  1 = 219.67 kN/m2
(12) Following are the results of consolidated-undrained triaxial tests on

undisturbed soils retrieved from a 4-m-thick saturated clay layer in the field
(sat = 19 kN/m3). a. Estimate graphically the Mohr–Coulomb shear
strength parameters c and . b. Estimate the shear strength in the middle
of the clay layer. Ans. (a) c′ ≈ 40 kN/m2 and ′ ≈ 20° (b)  = 46.7 kN/m2
Test Champer pressure, Deviator stress, Pore pressure at failure
No. 3 (kN/m2) (Δd)f (kN/m2) (Δud)f (kN/m2)
1 100 170 -15
2 200 260 -40
3 300 360 -80
(13) A consolidated-drained triaxial test was conducted on a normally
consolidated clay with a chamber pressure, 3 = 172 kN/m2. The deviator
stress at failure, (Δd)f = 227 kN/m2. Determine:
a. The angle of friction, 
b. The angle u that the failure plane makes with the major principal plane
c. The normal stress, f, and the shear stress, f, on the failure plane
Ans. (a) ′ ≈ 23.4° (b)  = 56.7° (c)  f = 240.9 kN/m2, f = 104.25 kN/m2
(14) The results of two consolidated drained triaxial tests on clay are given
below:
specimen Chamber pressure, 3 (kN/m2) Deviator stress, (Δd)f (kN/m2)
1 105 220
2 210 400
Calculate the shear strength parameters. Ans.  = 27.48° c = 12.48 kN/m2
(230)
(15) Consider the triaxial tests in Problem 14. (a) What are the normal and
shear stresses on a plane inclined at 40° to the major principal plane for
Specimen 1, (b) What are the normal and shear stresses on the failure
plane at failure for Specimen 2.
Ans. (a)  = 234.1 kN/m2,  =108.32 kN/m2 (b)  =317.74 kN/m2  =177.46 kN/m2
(16) A clay sample was consolidated in a triaxial test chamber under an all-
around confining pressure of 152 kN/m2. The sample was then loaded to
failure in undrained condition by applying an additional axial stress of 193
kN/m2. A pore water pressure sensor recorded an excess pore pressure,
(Δud)f = - 27.6 kN/m2 at failure. Determine the undrained and drained
friction angles for the soil. Ans.  = 22.9°  = 20.48°
(17) The shear strength of a normally consolidated clay can be given by the
equation f =  tan 27°. Following are the results of a consolidated-
undrained test on the clay.
• Chamber-confining pressure = 150 kN/m2
• Deviator stress at failure = 120 kN/m2
a. Determine the consolidated-undrained friction angle
b. Pore water pressure developed in the specimen at failure
Ans.  = 16.6°, (Δud)f = 77.8 kN/m2
(18) If a consolidated drained test is conducted on the clay specimen of
Problem 17 with the same chamber-confining pressure of 150 kN/m2, what
would be the deviator stress at failure? Ans. 249.4 kN/m2
(19) A consolidated-undrained triaxial test was conducted on a dense sand with

a chamber confining pressure of 138 kN/m2. Results showed that  = 24°
and  = 31°. Determine the deviator stress and the pore water pressure at
failure. If the sand were loose, what would have been the expected
behavior? Explain. Ans. Δd)f = 431.12 kN/m2 Δud)f = - 30.83 kN/m2
(20) Undisturbed samples from a normally consolidated clay layer were

collected during a field exploration program. Drained triaxial tests showed
(231)
that the effective friction angle =28°. The unconfined compressive
strength, qu, of a similar specimen, was found to be 148 kN/m2. Determine
the pore pressure at failure for the unconfined compression test.
Ans. Δud)f = -83 kN/m2
(21) Results of two consolidated drained triaxial tests on a clayey soil are as
follows:
Test No. 3 (kN/m2) 1(failure) (kN/m2)
1 104 320
2 207 517
Find c ,, a, and  Ans. c = 43.55 kN/m2, = 18.26º, a = 42.36 kN/m2,  = 17.4°
(22) If the initial stresses is: v  h  0, find the stress path for the following
cases. (a) Δv  0, Δh = 0 (b) Δv = 0, Δh  0 (c) Δh =- Δv (d) Δv = Δh
(e) Δh = 0.25 Δv

(23) A specimen of normally consolidated clay is consolidated to 207 kN/m2
1
and then failed by increasing 1 and 3 and in such a way that Δ3 = Δ1
3
Find qf and pf, knowing that  = 22° Ans. qf = 309.2 kN/m2 pf = 825.4 kN/m2
(24) A sample of clayey soil is initially consolidation to 250 kN/m 2, if the

relationship in undrained and drained are q = p - 250, q2+p2 = 62500
respectively and c΄= 53.68kN/m2,  = 20°. Find σ΄1, σ΄3 and u when
1- q = 40 kN/m2
2- q at its peak value in drained test
Ans. (1)  1 = 286.78 kN/m2,  3 = 206.78 kN/m2, u = 43.22 kN/m2
(2)  1 = 342.8 kN/m2,  3 = 86.52 kN/m2, u = 163.476 kN/m2
(25) Prove that
𝜎3𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅′
𝑞𝑓 =
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅′
(232)
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Chapter · April 2018

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Dr. Ahmed Al-Obaidi

Hence, the shearing strength of the sand is

Hence the decrease in shear strength will be,

6.3 Laboratory Test to Determine Shear Strength Parameters

For a given test, the normal stress can be calculated as

Test No. Normal stress Shear stress at failure,

The shear stresses, f obtained

Test No. Normal stress Shear stress at failure,

For analytic solution:

The figure shows a triaxial test in progress

6.5.1 Consolidated-Drained Triaxial Test

where B = Skempton’s pore pressure parameter (Skempton, 1954).

At least three identical samples

b. 𝜃 = 45 + ∅⁄2 = 45 + 19.45⁄2 = 54.73°

The principal stress difference at failure is

Where Â Skempton’s pore pressure parameter (Skempton, 1954), =AB.

(b) The stress ratio at failure are

The average vertical stress at any stage of loading may be written as

6.5.3 Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxial Test

Where: qu is the unconfined

(b) With effective stresses

Now  = 2 - 90°, where  = 50°. Therefore  = (2 x 500 - 90° = 10°.

6.8 Stress Path

Elev. v h pi qi Δv Δh vf hf pf qf

What is the tangent of line connected initial p and q?

6.9 Stress Path for Triaxial Result Tests

If these values of p and q were plotted in Figure, they would be represented

For overconsolidated clay

(2) Consider the specimen in Problem (1b).

Test No. Normal force (N) Shear force at failure (N)

(7) For the triaxial test on the clay specimen in Problem 6

(10) In a consolidated drained triaxial test on clay, the specimen failed at a

(12) Following are the results of consolidated-undrained triaxial tests on

Calculate the shear strength parameters. Ans.  = 27.48° c = 12.48 kN/m2

(19) A consolidated-undrained triaxial test was conducted on a dense sand with

(20) Undisturbed samples from a normally consolidated clay layer were

(e) Δh = 0.25 Δv

(24) A sample of clayey soil is initially consolidation to 250 kN/m 2, if the

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