Homework 2

CMPE 297 Internet of Things

Fall 2019

Under Professor

Dr. Ammar Rayes

Question 3. In a Table format, compare the Bandwidth, Distance, Interface
Rating, Cost and Security of (1) Twisted pair, (2) Coaxial cabling and (3)
Fiber Optical cabling.


Characteristics Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Fiber Optical Cable

Bandwidth
Up to 4700MHz 750 MHz (Default) Up to 4700MHz
Distance (Maximum Cable
100 meters 200 – 500 meters 2 km – 100 km
segment)

Very Good
Better than Twisted
Interface Rating (Up to 10/100/1000
Poor (Up to 10Gbps) Pair Cable
Mbps & Up to
10/40/100/200 Gbps)
Cheapest
Cheap Costlier than TPC
Cost $5.65
$10.83 $12.99
Low but more secure
Security Low High
than TPC

Question 10. How many IPv4 addresses are available? Justify your answer


The total number of IPv4 addresses are 4,294,967,296 which is 2^32 and out
of these 588,514.304 are reserved addresses. The IPv4 uses 32 bit IP address so
because of this 32 bit the maximum number of addresses that are allowed for IPv4
are 2^32.
Five classes (A, B, C, D, and E) have been established to identify the network and
host parts. All the five classes are identified by the first octet of IP address. Classes
A, B, and C are used in actual networks. Class D is reserved for multicasting (data
is not destined for a particular host; hence there is no need to extract host address
from the IP address). Class E is reserved for experimental purposes.
1) Class A networks provide only 8 bits for the network address field and 24 bits
for host address. Thus, the first octet ranges from 1 to 127, i.e., 00000001–
011111111. Class A addresses only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x
only. The IP range 127.x.x.x is reserved for loopback IP addresses. The default
subnet mask for class A IP address is 255.0.0.0 which implies that class A
addressing can have 126 networks (27–2) and 16777214 hosts (224–2).

2) Class B networks allocate 16 bits for the network address field and 16 bits for
the host address filed. An IP address which belongs to class B has the first two
bits in the first octet set to 10, i.e., 10000000 – 10111111 or 128–191 in
decimal. Class B IP addresses range from 128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x. The default
subnet mask for class B is 255.255.x.x. Class B has 16384 (214) network
addresses and 65534 (216–2) host addresses.

3) Class C networks allocate 24 bits for the network address field only 8 bits for
the host field. Hence, the number of hosts per network may be a limiting factor.
The first octet of Class C IP address has its first 3 bits set to 110, that is: 1110
0000–1110 1111 or 224–239 in decimal. Class C IP addresses range from
192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x. The default subnet mask for Class C is
255.255.255.x. Class C gives 2097152 (221) Network addresses and 254 (28–2)
Host addresses.

Question 12. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address, allowing 2128 Addresses. In decimal,
how many IPv6 addresses exist? How many IPv6 Addresses each human will
have? Why do we need billions of addresses for each human being?
 IPv4 has room for about 4.3 billion addresses, which is not nearly enough for the
world’s people let alone IoT with a forecast of 20 billion devices by 2020.
In 1998, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) had formalized the successor
protocol: IPv6. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address, allowing 2128, or 340 trillion trillion
trillion (3.4 1038) addresses.

This translates to about 667 1021 (667 sextillion) addresses per square meter in
earth. Version 4 and version 6 protocols are not designed to be interoperable,
complicating the transition to IPv6. However, several IPv6 transition mechanisms
have been devised to permit communication between IPv4 and IPv6 hosts.

As the number of devices are growing across the internet, the IPv4 addresses are
running out and to accommodate this demand there is need of much larger space
along with improved traffic routing and better security. These all advantages are
introduced by the introduction of IPv6 addresses which has billions of addresses to
support this increasing demand.

Question 15. What is distance vector protocol? Why is it called a Vector?

Where is it used?

 A vector in distance vector routing contains both distance and direction to

determine the path to remote networks using hop count as the metric. Hop count is
defined as the number of hops to destination router or network (e.g., if there are
two routers between a source router and destination router, the number of hops will
be three). All neighbor routers will send information about their connectivity to
their neighbors indicating how far other routers are from them. Hence, in distance
vector routing, all routers exchange information only with their neighbors (not with
all routers). One of the weaknesses of distance vector protocols is convergence
time, which is the time it takes for routing information changes to propagate
through all the topology.

Question 18. We have mentioned that in TCP/IP networks, the entire route is
not known at the beginning of the journey. Instead, at each stop, the next hop
router is determined by matching the destination address within the packet
with an entry in the current router’s routing table using internal information.
IP does not provide for error reporting back to the source when routing
anomalies occur.
A. Which Internet Protocol provide error reporting?
B. List two other tasks that this protocol provide?
 A.

The IP protocol also lacks a mechanism for host and management queries.
A host sometimes needs to determine if a router or another host is alive. And
sometimes a network manager needs information from another host or router.
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is assigned to provide error-reporting
messages and query messages.

B.

 It provides information relevant to IP packet processing.

  It redirects packets to be sent on an alternative route to hosts and to update
its routing information.

What happens when errors occur in delivering IP packets?

 ICMP messages are used for Error Reporting
What if a host needs more information about the network?
 ICMP messages are used for Status Queries

Question 19. Why is EGP considered to be obsolete for the current Internet?

 Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP): EGP was the first exterior routing protocol
that provided dynamic connectivity between autonomous systems. It assumes that
all autonomous systems are connected in a tree topology. This assumption is no
longer true and made EGP obsolete.

The 3 requirements needed for current internet which are:

 the need to avoid false information
 the need to allow more complex topologies
 the need to enable some form of policy routing
This is not provided by the EGP that is why it is obsolete.

Question 23. What are the four different reasons for packet loss? List
remediation for each reason.

1) link or queue congestion: Main reason for packet loss is link or queue
congestion (i.e., a link between two devices, and its associated queues, is fully
occupied when data arrives). Many applications are able to gracefully handle it
without impacting the end user, i.e., the application realizes that a packet was
lost, adjusts the transfer speed, and requests data retransmission

2) Overutilization of Devices: Another reason for packet loss is router

performance (i.e., links and queues have adequate capacity, but the device’s
CPU or memory is fully utilized and not able to process additional traffic). This
can be handled by send the data to from one link to the other after checking the
throughput of the machines
3) Faulty Software/ Hardware: Another reason for packet loss includes faulty
software deployed on the network device itself. This can be solved by doing the
right testing of the software before deploying to the network.

4) Faulty Cables: Another reason for packet loss include Faulty cables. This can
be handled by using good qualities of cables for the transmission and using
installing checking points at a regular interval to identify if there is any loss in
data or not.

Question 25. Figure 2.10 (in Section 2.4.3) stated the throughput between host
A and host B is 20 mbps with the assumptions:
• R2 = R3 = R5 = R6 = 10Mbps.
• R1 = R4 = 100Mbps.
• Data is equally divided between the two paths
How did the authors arrive at 20 Mbps?

Throughput may be defined as the maximum amount of data moved successfully

between two end points in a given amount of time. The system throughput is
typically calculated by aggregating all throughputs across end points in a network
(i.e., sum of successful data delivered to all destination terminals in a given amount
of time).
Estimating the throughput is more complicated when multiple paths are allowed in
the network. Figure 2.10, for instance, shows that data from host A to host B may
take path R1, R2, R3, and R4 or R1, R5, R6, and R4.

R1 = 100Mbps, R2 = 10Mbps, R3 = 10Mbps, R5 = 10Mbps, R6 = 10Mbps, R4 =

100Mbps.

R5 (Path2) R6
A R1 R2 (Path1) R3 R4 B

Minimum(R1,R2,R3,R4) + Minimum(R1,R5,R6,R4) = total

Minimum(100,10,10,100) + Minimum(100,10,10,100) = total
10 Mbps + 10 Mbps = 20 Mbps
So, the throughput of the whole network would be the sum of the least of the
rate of both of the paths. In this case, it is same for both the paths is 10 Mbps
that’s why the rate is 20Mbps.