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JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

HYDERABAD

I Year B.Tech.
L T/P/D C

2 1/-/- 4
ENGINEERING PHYSICS

UNIT-I

1. Bonding in Solids: Ionic Bond, Covalent Bond, Metallic Bond, Hydrogen Bond,
Vander-Waal’s Bond,
Calculation of Cohesive Energy.

2. Crystallography and Crystal Structures: Space Lattice, Unit Cell, Lattice

Parameters, Crystal Systems,Bravais Lattices, Miller Indices, Crystal Planes and
Directions, Inter Planar Spacing of Orthogonal CrystalSystems, Atomic Radius, Co-
ordination Number and Packing Factor of SC, BCC, FCC, Diamond and hcp
Structures, Structures of NaCl, ZnS, CsCl.

UNIT-II

3. X-ray Diffraction: Basic Principles, Bragg’s Law, Laue Method, Powder Method,
Applications of X- ray
Diffraction.

4. Defects in Crystals: Point Defects: Vacancies, Substitutional, Interstitial, Frenkel

and Schottky Defects;Qualitative treatment of line (Edge and Screw Dislocations)
Defects, Burger’s Vector, Surface Defects andVolume Defects.

UNIT-III

5. Elements of Statistical Mechanics: Maxwell-Boltzman, Bose-Einstein and

Fermi-Dirac Statistics(Qualitative Treatment), Photon gas , Wein’s Law, Rayleigh-
Jeans law,, Planck’s Law of Black BodyRadiation, Concept of Electron Gas, Fermi
Energy, Density of States.

6. Principles of Quantum Mechanics: Waves and Particles, de Broglie Hypothesis

, Matter Waves,Davisson and Germer’s Experiment, G. P. Thomson Experiment,
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle,Schrödinger’s Time Independent Wave Equation
- Physical Significance of the Wave Function - Particle in
One Dimensional Potential Box.

UNIT-IV

7. Band Theory of Solids: Electron in a periodic Potential, Bloch Theorem, Kronig-

Penny Model (Qualitative Treatment), Origin of Energy Band Formation in Solids,
Classification of Materials into Conductors, Semi Conductors & Insulators, Concept
of Effective Mass of an Electron and Hole.

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UNIT-V

8. Semiconductor Physics: Fermi Level in Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors,

Intrinsic Semiconductors
and Carrier Concentration, Extrinsic Semiconductors and Carrier Concentration,
Equation of Continuity,Direct & Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors, Hall Effect.

9. Physics of Semiconductor Devices: Formation of PN Junction, Open Circuit PN

Junction, EnergyDiagram of PN Diode, I-V Characteristics of PN Junction, PN Diode
as a Rectifier (Forward and ReverseBias), Diode Equation, LED, LCD and Photo
Diodes.

UNIT-VI

10. Dielectric Properties: Electric Dipole, Dipole Moment, Dielectric Constant,

Polarizability, ElectricSusceptibility, Displacement Vector, Electronic, Ionic and
Orientation Polarizations and Calculation ofPolarizabilities - Internal Fields in Solids,
Clausius - Mossotti Equation, Piezo-electricity, Pyro-electricity and
Ferro- electricity.

11. Magnetic Properties: Permeability, Field Intensity, Magnetic Field Induction,

Magnetization, MagneticSusceptibility, Origin of Magnetic Moment, Bohr Magneton,
Classification of Dia, Para and Ferro MagneticMaterials on the basis of Magnetic
Moment, Domain Theory of Ferro Magnetism on the basis of HysteresisCurve, Soft
and Hard Magnetic Materials, Properties of Anti-Ferro and Ferri Magnetic Materials,
Ferrites andtheir Applications, Concept of Perfect Diamagnetism, Meissner Effect,
Magnetic Levitation, Applications of Superconductors.

UNIT-VII`

12. Lasers: Characteristics of Lasers, Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission of

Radiation, Meta-stableState, Population Inversion, Lasing Action, Einstein’s
Coefficients and Relation between them, Ruby Laser,Helium-Neon Laser, Carbon
Dioxide Laser, Semiconductor Diode Laser, Applications of Lasers.

13. Fiber Optics: Principle of Optical Fiber, Acceptance Angle and Acceptance
Cone, Numerical Aperture,Types of Optical Fibers and Refractive Index Profiles,
Attenuation in Optical Fibers, Application of OpticalFibers.
UNIT-VIII

14. Acoustics of Buildings & Acoustic Quieting: Basic Requirement of

Acoustically Good Hall,Reverberation and Time of Reverberation, Sabine’s Formula
for Reverberation Time(Qualitative Treatment),Measurement of Absorption
Coefficient of a Material, Factors Affecting The Architectural Acoustics and
theirRemedies. Acoustic Quieting: Aspects of Acoustic Quieting, Methods of
Quieting, Quieting for SpecificObservers, Mufflers, Sound-proofing.

15. Nanotechnology: Origin of Nanotechnology, Nano Scale, Surface to Volume

Ratio, QuantumConfinement, Bottom-up Fabrication: Sol-gel, Precipitation,
Combustion Methods; Top-down Fabrication:Chemical Vapour Deposition, Physical
Vapour Deposition, Pulsed Laser Vapour Deposition Methods,
Characterization(XRD&TEM) and Applications.

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TEXT BOOKS:

1. Applied Physics – P.K.Palanisamy (SciTech Publications (India) Pvt. Ltd., Fifth

Print 2008).
2. Applied Physics – S.O. Pillai & Sivakami (New Age International (P) Ltd., Second
Edition 2008).
3. Applied Physics – T. Bhima Shankaram & G. Prasad (B.S. Publications, Third
Edition 2008).

REFERENCES:

1. Solid State Physics – M. Armugam (Anuradha Publications).

2. Modern Physics – R. Murugeshan & K. Siva Prasath – S. Chand & Co. (for
Statistical Mechanics).
3. A Text Book of Engg Physics – M. N. Avadhanulu & P. G. Khsirsagar– S. Chand &
Co. (for
acoustics).
4. Modern Physics by K. Vijaya Kumar, S. Chandralingam: S. Chand & Co.Ltd
5. Nanotechnology – M.Ratner & D. Ratner (Pearson Ed.).
6. Introduction to Solid State Physics – C. Kittel (Wiley Eastern).
7. Solid State Physics – A.J. Dekker (Macmillan).
8. Applied Physics – Mani Naidu Pearson Education

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PHYSICS

LIST OF CONTENTS

Name of the Topic

S. No Page No.

1 BONDING IN SOLIDS

2 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

3 X – RAY DIFFRACTION

4 DEFECTS IN CRYSTALS

5 ELEMENTS OF STATISTICAL MECHANICS

6 PRINCIPLES OF QUANTUM MECHANICS

7 BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS

8 SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

9 PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

10 DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES

11 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

12 LASERS

13 FIBER OPTICS

14 ACOUSTICS OF BUILDINGS & ACOUSTIC QUIETING

15 NANOTECHNOLOGY

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APPLIED PHYSICS

UNIT-I
1. BONDING IN SOLIDS

INTRODUCTION

In the gaseous state of matter, individual atoms or molecules can move freely in
space with a velocity determined by the temperature. But in solid state, the constituent atoms
or molecules that build the solid are confined to a localized region. The principle region
between the two states is bonding. In gases, the atoms or molecules are free whereas in solids
they are bound in a particular form because of which, they possess certain physical properties
such elasticity, electrical and optical properties.

BONDING

Bonding is the physical state of existence of two or more atoms together in a

bound form. The supply of external energy is required to get back the bonded atoms to the
Free State as energy is needed to break the bonds. This energy is called dissociation (binding)
or cohesive energy.

Bonding occurs between similar or dissimilar atoms, when an electrostatic interaction

between them produces a resultant state whose energy is lesser than the sum of the energies
possessed by individual atoms when they are free.

TYPES OF BONDING IN SOLIDS

Bonds in solids are classified basically into two groups namely primary and secondary bonds.
Primary bonds are inter atomic bonds i.e. bonding between the atoms and secondary bonds
are intermolecular bonds i.e. between the molecules.

Primary bonds
The primary bonds are interatomic bonds. In this bonding interaction occurs
only through the electrons in the outermost orbit, i.e. the valence electrons. These are further
classified into three types

Ionic bonding
Covalent bonding
Metallic bonding

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1. Ionic Bonding :
Ionic bonding results due to transfer of one or more electrons from
an electropositive element to an electronegative element. The two types of atoms involved in
the bonding are of dissimilar type.

Example:
In NaCl crystal, Na atom has only one electron in outer most shell and a Cl
atom needs one more electron to attain inert gas configuration. During the formation of NaCl
molecule, one electron from the Na atom is transferred to the Cl atom resulting which, both
Na and Cl ions attain filled- shell configuration.

+ -
Na + Cl  Na + Cl  NaCl

-
A strong electrostatic attraction is set up that bond the Na cation and the Cl
+
anion
into a very stable molecule NaCl at the equilibrium spacing.
Since Cl exist as molecules, the chemical reaction must be written as

+ -
2Na + Cl2  2Na + 2Cl  2NaCl

Other examples of ionic crystals are

++ --
2Mg + O2  2Mg + 2O  2MgO

++ -
Mg + Cl2  Mg + 2Cl  MgCl2

Properties:

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1. As the ionic bonds are strong, the materials are hard and possess high melting and
boiling points.
2. They are good ionic conductors, but poor conductors of both heat and electricity
3. They are transparent over wide range of electromagnetic spectrum
4. They are brittle. They possess neither ductility (ability to be made into sheets) nor
malleability (ability to be made into wires).
5. They are soluble in polar liquids such as water but not in non-polar liquids such
as ether.

2. Covalent Bonding

Covalent bond is formed by sharing of electrons between two atoms to form molecule.

Example: Covalent bonding is found in the H2 molecule. Here the outer shell of each
atom possesses 1 electron. Each H atom would like to gain an electron, and thus form a stable
configuration. This can be done by sharing 2 electrons between pairs of H atoms, there by
producing stable diatomic molecules.

Thus covalent bonding is also known as shared electron pair bonding.

Properties:

1. Covalent crystals are very hard since the bond is strong. The best example is
diamond which is the hardest naturally occurring material and possess high melting
and boiling points, but generally lower than that for ionic crystals.
2. Their conductivity falls in the range between insulators and semiconductors. For
example, Si and Ge are semiconductors, where as diamond as an insulator.
3. They are transparent to electromagnetic waves in infrared region, but opaque at
shorter wavelengths.
They are brittle and hard.
They are not soluble in polar liquids, but they dissolve in non-polar liquids such as
ether, acetone, benzene etc.
The bonding is highly directional.

3. Metallic Bonding:

The valance electrons from all the atoms belonging to the crystal are free to move
throughout the crystal. The crystal may be considered as an array of positive metal ions
embedded in a cloud of free electrons. This type of bonding is called metallic bonding.

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In a solid even a tiny portion of it comprises of billions of atoms. Thus in a metallic body,
the no. of electrons that move freely will be so large that it is considered as though there
is an electron gas contained with in the metal. The atoms lay embedded in this gas but
having lost the valence electrons, they become positive ions. The electrostatic interaction
between these positive ions and the electron gas as a whole, is responsible for the metallic
bonding.

Properties:

1. Compared to ionic and covalent bonds, the metallic bonds are weaker. Their
melting and boiling points are also lower.
2. Because of the easy movement possible to them, the electrons can transport
energy efficiently. Hence all metals are excellent conductors of heat and
electricity.
3. They are good reflectors and are opaque to E.M radiation.
4. They are ductile and malleable.

Secondary Bonds

There are two types of secondary bonds. They are Vander Waal‘s bonds and Hydrogen
bonds.

1. Vander Waal’s bonding: Vander Waal‘s bonding is due to Vander Waal‘s forces.
These forces exist over a very short range. The force decreases as the 4th power of the
distance of separation between the constituent atoms or molecules when the ambient
temperature is low enough. These forces lead to condensation of gaseous to liquid
state and even from liquid to solid state though no other bonding mechanism exists.(
except He)

Properties:

1. The bonding is weak because of which they have low melting points.
2. They are insulators and transparent for visible and UV light.
3. They are brittle.
4. They are non-directional

2. Hydrogen bonding: Covalently bonded atoms often produce an electric dipole

configuration. With hydrogen atom as the positive end of the dipole if bonds arise as a
result of electrostatic attraction between atoms, it is known as hydrogen bonding.

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FIG………………………..

Properties:

1. The bonding is weak because of which they have low melting points.
2. They are insulators and transparent for visible and UV light.
3. They are brittle.
4. The hydrogen bonds are directional.

Forces between atoms:

In solid materials, the forces between the atoms are of two kinds. 1)
Attractive force 2) Repulsive force

To keep the atoms together in solids, these forces play an important role. When the
atoms are infinitely far apart they do not interact with each other to form a solid and the
potential energy will be zero. From this, it can be understood that the potential energy
between two atoms is inversely proportional to some power of the distance of separation. In
all atoms, moving electric charges will be present, hence either attractive interaction or
repulsive interaction takes place as they approach each other.

The attractive forces between the atoms bring them close together until a strong repulsive
force arises due to overlap of electron shell. The atoms attract each other when they come
close to each other due to inter-atomic attractive force which is responsible for bond
formation. Suppose two atoms A and B experiences attractive and repulsive forces on each
other, then the interatomic or bonding force ‗f(r)‘ between them may be represented as

F(r)=A / r – B / r
M N
( N > M )--------------(1)

Where ‗r ‗ is the interatomic distance

A, B, M, N are constants.

In eqn-1, the first term represents attractive force and the second the repulsive force.

At larger separation, the attractive force predominates. The two atoms approach until they
reach equilibrium spacing. If they continue to approach further, the repulsive force pre
dominates, tending to push them back to their equilibrium spacing.

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Fig. Variaration of interatomic force with interatomic spacing

To calculate equilibrium spacing r0 :

The general expression for bonding force between two atoms is

F(r)=A / r – B / r
M N

At equilibrium spacing r = r0 , F = 0

Hence A / r0M = B / r0N

N-M
i.e. ( r0 ) =B/A
1 / (N-M)
or r0 =(B/A)

Cohesive energy:
The energy corresponding to to the equilibrium position r = r0
is called the bonding energy or the energy of cohesion of the molecule. Since this is the
energy required to dissociate the atoms, this is also called the energy of dissociation.

The potential energy or stored internal energy of a material is the sum of the individual
energies of the atoms plus their interaction energies. Consider the atoms are in the ground
state and are infinitely far apart. Hence they do not interact with each other to form a solid.
The potential energy, which is inversely proportional to some power of the distance of
separation, is nearly zero. The potential energy varies greatly with inter-atomic separation. It
is obtained by integrating the eqn –(1)

U(r) = ∫F(r)dr

= ∫ [ A/rM - B/rN ] dr

= [ (A/1-M)x r1-M – (B/1-N )x r1-N ] + c

= [-(A/M-1) r –(M-1) + (B/N-1) r–(N-1) + c

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= -a / rm + b / r n + c where a = A/M-1, b = B/N-1, m = M-1, n = N-1

At r =  , U(r) = 0, then c = 0

Therefore U(r) = -a / rm + b / r n

The condition under which the particles form a stable lattice is that the function U(r) exhibits
min. for a finite value of r i.e. r = r0 this spacing r0 is known as equilibrium spacing of the
system. This min. energy Umin at r = r0 is negative and hence the energy needed to
dissociate the molecule then equals the positive quantity of ( - Umin ). Umin occurs only if
m and n satisfy the condition n>m

When the system in equilibrium then r = r0 and U(r) = Umin

[ dU / dr ]r = ro = 0
m n
=d / dr [-a / ro + b / ro ] = 0

or 0 = [a m ro–m-1] – [b n ro–n-1]
m+1 n+1
or 0 = [a m / ro ] – [ b n / ro ] ------- ( 2)

Solving for ro
1/n-m
ro=[( b / a ) ( n / m )]
n m
or ro = ro [( b /a ) (n / m)]

at the same time , n>m to prove this,

2 2 m+2 n+2
[ d U / dr ]r = ro = - [a m( m+1) / ro ] + [ b n(n+1) / ro ] > 0
m+2 n+2
[ro b n(n+1)] - [ro a m( m+1) ] > 0
m n
ro b n (n+1) > ro a m ( m+1)
n-m
b n (n+1) > a m ( m+1) ro

b n (n+1) > a m ( m+1) ( b / a ) ( n / m )

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i.e. n > m

Calculation of cohesive energy:

The energy corresponding to the equilibrium position r = r0 , denoted by U(r0 ) is called

boning energy or cohesive energy of the molecule.

n
Substituting ‗ro ‘ in expression for Umin,

We get
m n
U(min) = - a / ro + b / ro
m m
= - a / ro + b (a / b) ( m/ n )1 / ro
m m
= - a / ro + ( m/ n) ( a / ro )
m
= - a / ro [1-m / n]
m
Umin = - a / ro [1-m / n]

Thus the min. value of energy of Umin is negative. The positive quantity │Umin│ is the
dissociation energy of the molecule, i.e. the energy required to separate the two atoms.

Calculation of cohesive energy of NaCl Crystal

Let Na and Cl atoms be free at infinite distance of seoarartion. The energy required to
remove the outer electron from Na atom ( ionization energy of Na atom ), leaving it a Na+
ion is 5.1eV.

i.e. Na + 5.1eV  Na+ + e-

The electron affinity of Cl is 3.6eV. Thus when the removed electron from Na atom is added
to Cl atom, 3.6eV of energy is released and the Cl atom becomes negatively charged.

Hence Cl + e-  Cl- +3.6eV

Net energy = 5.1 – 3.6 = 1.5 eV is spent in creating Na+ and Cl- ions at infinity.

Thus Na + Cl + 1.5 eV  Na+ + Cl-

At equilibrium spacing r0= 0.24nm, the potential energy will be min. and the energy released
in the formation of NaCl molecule is called bond energy of the molecule and is obtained as
follows:
2
V = e / 4Πε0 r0

= - [ (1.602x10-19)2 / 4Π(8.85x10-12 )( 2.4x10-10 ) ] joules

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= - [ (1.602x10-19)2 / 4Π(8.85x10-22 x2.4 )( 1.602x10-19 ) ] eV

= -6 eV

Thus the energy released in the formation of NaCl molecule is ( 5.1 - 3.6 – 6 ) = - 4.5 eV

To dissociate NaCl molecule into Na+ and Cl- ions, it requires energy of 4.5 eV.

Madelung Constant

Let r be the distance of separation between the two ions, z1 and z2 be the atomic numbers
of the respective nuclei.

The coulomb‘s force of attraction F between the positive and negative ions is,
2 2
F = (z1z2)e /4Πε0r

The work done while they move under the attractive force towards each other through a
distance dr,
2 2
W = Fdr = [ (z1z2)e / 4Πε0r ] dr

Therefore the work done while they move from infinite distance of separation to a distance r,
r 2 2
= ∞∫ fdr = [ (z1z2)e / 4Πε0 ] ∞∫ dr/ r
r

2
= - (z1z2)e / 4Πε0 r

Work done by them becomes the attractive potential energy Ua

2
Therefore U = - (z1z2)e / 4Πε0 r
2
= - α [e / 4Πε0 r ]

Where α is constant called Madelung constant which has different values for different
crystals.

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2. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

The branch of science which deals with the study of geometric form and other
physical properties of the crystalline solids by using X-rays, electron beam, and neutron
beams etc is called crystallography or crystal physics.

The solids are classified into two types crystalline and amorphous. A substance is
said to be crystalline, when the arrangement of atoms, molecules or ions inside it is regular
and periodic. Ex. NaCl, Quartz crystal. Though two crystals of same substance may look
different in external appearance, the angles between the corresponding faces are always the
same. In amorphous solids, there is no particular order in the arrangement of their constituent
particles. Ex. Glass.

CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS AMORPHOUS SOLIDS

1. Crystalline solids have regular periodic 1. Amorphous solids have no

Arrangement of particles (atoms, ions, regularity in the arrangement
Or molecules). Of particles.
2. They are un-isotropic i.e., they differ in 2. They are usually isotropic i.e.,
Properties with direction. They possess same properties in
different directions.
3. They have well defined melting and 3. They do not posses well defined
Freezing points. melting and freezing points.
Melting and freezing points
occurs at different temperatures at
different locations in the solids.
4. Crystalline solids my be made up of 4. Most important amorphous
materials are metallic crystals or glasses, plastics and rubber.
non-metallic crystals. Some of the
metallic crystals are Copper, silver,
aluminum, tungsten, and manganese.
Non-metallic crystals are crystalline
carbon, crystallized polymers or plastics.
5. Metallic crystals have wide use in 5. An amorphous structure does not
engineering because of their favorable generally posses elasticity but only
Properties of strength, ductility, plasticity.
conductivity and reflection.

Lattice points: They are the imaginary points in space about which the atoms are located.

Lattice: The regular repetition of atomic, ionic or molecular units in 2-dimensional, 3-

dimensional space is called lattice.

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Space lattice or Crystal lattice: The totality of all the lattice point in space is called space
lattice, the environment about any two points is same or An array of points in space such that
the environment about each point is the same.

Consider the case of a 2-dimensional array of points.

Let O be any arbitrary point as origin, r1, r2 are position vectors of any two lattice points
joining to O.

If T ( translational vector) is the difference of two vectors r1, r2 and if it satisfies the
condition

T= n1a + n2b where n1, n2 are integers

Then T represent 2-dimensional lattice.

For 3- dimensional lattice,
T= n1a + n2b + n3c

Note: crystal lattice is the geometry of set of points in space where as the structure of the
crystal is the actual ordering of the constituent ions, atoms, molecules in space

Basis and Crystal structure:

Basis or pattern is a group of atoms, molecule or ions identical in

composition, arrangement and orientation. When the basis is repeated with correct periodicity
in all directions, it gives the actual crystal structure.

Crystal structure = Lattice + Basis

FIG………………………..

The crystal structure is real while the lattice is imaginary.

In crystalline solids like Cu and Na, the basis is a single atom

In NaCl and CsCl- basis is diatomic
In CaF2 – basis is triatomic

Unit cell and Lattice parameters:

Unit cell is the smallest portion of the space lattice which can generate
the complete crystal by repeating its own dimensions in varies directions. In describing the

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crystal structure, it is convenient to subdivided the structure into small repetitive entities
called unit cells. Unit cell is the parallelepiped or cubes having 3 sets of parallel faces. It is
the basic structural unit or the building block of the crystal.

A unit cell can be described by 3 vectors or intercepts a, b, c, the lengths of the vectors and
the interfacial angles α, β, γ between them. If the values of these intercepts and interfacial
angles are known, then the form and actual size of the unit cell can be determined. They may
or may not be equal. Based on these conditions, there are 7 different crystal systems.

Primitive Cell: A unit cell having only one lattice point at the corners is called the primitive
cell. The unit cell differs from the primitive cell in that it is not restricted to being the
equivalent of one lattice point. In some cases, the two coincide. Thus, unit cells may be
primitive cells, but all the primitive cells need not be unit cells.

CRYSTAL SYSTEMS AND BRAVAIS LATTICES:

There are 7 basic crystal systems which are distinguished based on three
vectors or the intercepts and the 3 interfacial angles between the 3 axes of the crystal. They
are

1. Cubic
2. Tetragonal
3. Orthorhombic
4. Monoclinic
5. Triclinic
6. Trigonal ( Rhombohedral )
7. Hexagonal

More space lattices can be constructed by atoms at the body centres of unit cells or at the
centres of the faces. Based on this property, bravais classified the space lattices into 14.

1. Cubic crystal system

a = b = c,  =  =  =900

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The crystal axes are perpendicular to one another, and the repetitive interval in the same
along all the three axes. Cubic lattices may be simple, body centered or face-centered.

2. Tetragonal crystal system

a = b  c,  =  =  =900

The crystal axes are perpendicular to one another. The repetitive intervals along the two axes
are the same, but the interval along the third axes is different. Tetragonal lattices may be
simple or body-centered.

3. Orthorhombic crystal system.

a  b  c,  =  =  =900

The crystal axes are perpendicular to one another but the repetitive intervals are different
along the three axes. Orthorhombic lattices may be simple, base centered, body centered or
face centered.

4. Monoclinic crystal system

a  b  c,  =  = 900 

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Two of the crystal axes are perpendicular to each other, but the third is obliquely inclined.
The repetitive intervals are different along all the three axes. Monoclinic lattices may be
simple or base centered.

5. Triclinic crystal system

a  b  c,      900

None of the crystal axes is perpendicular to any of the others, and the repetitive intervals are
different along the three axes.

6. Trigonal(rhombohedral) crystal system

a = b = c,  =  =   900

The three axes are equal in length and are equally inclined to each other at an angle other than
900

7. Hexagonal crystal system.

a = b  c,  =  = = 90 ,  = 120
0 0

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Two of the crystal axes are 600 apart while the third is perpendicular to both of them. The
repetitive intervals are the same along the axes that are 600 apart, but the interval along the
third axis is different.

Basic Crystal Structures:

The important fundamental quantities which are used to study the different arrangements of
atoms to form different structure are

1. Nearest neighbouring distance ( 2r) : the distance between the centres of two nearest
neighbouring atoms is called nearest neighbouring distance. If r is the radius of the
atom, nearest neighbouring distance= 2r.
2. Atomic radius ( r) : It is defined as of the distance between the nearest neighbouring
atoms in a crystals.
3. Coordination number (N): It is defined as the number of equidistant nearest
neighbours that an atom as in a given structure. More closely packed structure as
greater coordination number.
4. Atomic packing factor or fraction: It is the ratio of the volume occupied by the
atoms in unit cell(v) to the total volume of the unit cell (V).

P.F. = v/ V

Simple cubic (SC) structure:

In the simple cubic lattice, there is one lattice point at each of the 8 corners
of the unit cell. The atoms touch along cubic edges.

Fig. Simple Cubic Structure

Nearest neighbouring distance = 2r = a

Atomic radius = r = a / 2

Lattice constant = a = 2r

Coordination number = 6 ( since each corner atom is surrounded by 6 equidistant nearest

neighbours )

Effective number of atoms belonging to the unit cell or no. of atoms per unit cell = (⅛)x8 =
1 atom per unit cell.

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Atomic packing factor = v/ V = volume of the all atoms in the unit cell
-----------------------------------------------
volume of the unit cell.

= 1 x (4 / 3)  r 3 / a3 = 4 r 3 / 3(2 r )3

=  / 6 = 0.52 = 52%

This structure is loosely packed. Polonium is the only element which exhibits the simple
cubic structure.

Body centered cube structure (BCC):

BCC structure has one atom at the centre of the cube and one atom at each corner. The centre
atom touches all the 8 corner atoms.

Fig. Body Centered Cubic Structure

Diagonal length = 4r

Body diagonal = ( 3)a

i.e. 4r = ( 3)a

Nearest neighbouring distance = 2r = ( 3)a / 2

Atomic radius = r = ( 3)a / 4

Lattice constant = a = 4r /  3

Coordination number = 8 ( since the central atom touches all the corner 8 atoms )

Effective number of atoms belonging to the unit cell or no. of atoms per unit cell = (⅛)x8 +
1 = 2 atom per unit cell.

i.e. each corner atom contributes ⅛th to the unit cell. In addition to it, there is a centre
atom.

Atomic packing factor = v/ V = volume of the all atoms in the unit cell
-----------------------------------------------
volume of the unit cell.

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= 2 x (4 / 3)  r 3 / a3 = 8 r 3 / 3(4r / 3 )3

=  3  / 8 = 0.68 = 68%

Tungsten, Na, Fe and Cr exhibits this type of structure.

Face centered cubic (FCC) structure:

In FCC structure, ther is one lattice point at each of the 8 corners of the unit cell and 1 centre
atom on each of the 6 faces of the cube.

Fig. Face Centered Cubic Structure

Face diagonal length = 4r = ( 2) a

Nearest neighbouring distance = 2r = ( 2)a / 2 = a /  2

Atomic radius = r = a / 2 2

Lattice constant = a = 2 2 r

Coordination number = 12 ( the centre of each face has one atom. This centre atom touches 4
corner atoms in its plane, 4 face centered atoms in each of the 2 planes on either side of its
plane)

Effective number of atoms belonging to the unit cell or no. of atoms per unit cell = (⅛)x8 +
(1/2)x 6 = 1 + 3 = 4 atom per unit cell.

i.e. each corner atom contributes ⅛th to the unit cell. In addition to it, there is a centre atom
on each face of the cube.

Atomic packing factor = v/ V = volume of the all atoms in the unit cell
-----------------------------------------------
Volume of the unit cell.

= 4 * (4 / 3)  r 3 / a3 = 16 r 3 / 3(2 2 r )3

=  / 3 2 = 0.74 = 74%

Cu, Al, Pb and Ag have this structure. FCC has highest packing factor.

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UNIT - II
3. X-RAY DIFFRACTION
Directions & Planes in Crystals:
While dealing with the crystals, it is necessary to refer to crystal planes,
and directions of straight lines joining the lattice points in a space lattice. For this purpose, an
indexing system deviced by Miller known as Miller indices is widely used.

Directions in A Crystal:
Consider a cubic lattice in which a straight line is passing through
the lattice points A, B, C etc and 1 lattice point on the line such as point A is chosen as the
origin.

Then the vector R which joins A to any other point on the line such as B (position vector) can
be represented by the vector eqn.

R = n1 a + n2 b + n3 c------ (1) where a, b, c are basic vectors

The direction of the vector R depends on the integers n1, n2, n3 since a, b, c are constants.
The common multiple is removed and n1, n2, n are re-expressed as the smallest integers
bearing the same relative ratio. The direction is then specified as [n1 n2 n3].

R =a+b+c, which provides the value of 1 for each of n1, n2, n3

Thus the direction is denoted as [1 1 1].

All lines in the space lattice which are parallel to the line AB possess either same set of
values for n1, n2, n3 as that of AB, or its common multiples.

Ex: 1. The direction that connects the origin and (1/3, 1/3, 2/3) point is [1 1 2].

i.e, (1/3, 1/3, 2/3)

L.C.M = 3.

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(1/3x3 1/3x3 2/3x3)= [1 1 2].

2. [2 1 1] is the direction that connects the origin (0, 0, 0) and point (1, 1/2, 1/2)

Largest Number = 2

(2/2, 1/2, 1/2) = (1, 1/2, 1/2)

Planes in Crystals ( Miller Indices ):

It is possible for defining a system of parallel and equidistant planes which can be
imagined to pass through the atoms in a space lattice, such that they include all the atoms in
the crystal. Such a system of planes is called crystal planes. Many different systems of planes
could be identified for a given space lattice.

The position of a crystal plane can be specified in terms of three

integers called Miller indices.

Consider a crystal plane intersecting the crystal axes.

Procedure for finding Miller indices

1. Find the intercepts of the desired plane on the three coordinate axes.
Let these be ( pa, qb, rc).

2. Express the intercepts as multiples of unit cell dimensions or lattice parameters i.e.
(p, q, r)

3. Take the reciprocals of these numbers i.e. 1/p: 1/q: 1/r

4. Convert these reciprocals into whole numbers by multiplying each with their LCM to
get the smallest whole number.

This gives the Miller indices (h k l) of the plane.

Ex: (3a, 4b, αc)

(3, 4, α)

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1/3 1/4 1/α

(4 3 0) = (h, k, l)

Def: Miller indices is a set of 3 lowest possible integers whose ratio taken in order is the
same as that of the reciprocals of the intercepts of the planes on the corresponding axes in the
same order.

Important features of Miller indices:

1. When a plane is parallel to any axis, the intercept of the plane on that axis is infinity.
Hence its Miller index for that axis is zero.
2. When the intercept of a plane on any axis is negative, a bar is put on the
corresponding Miller index.
3. All equally spaced parallel planes have the same index number (h k l)

Ex : The planes ( 1 1 2) and (2 2 4) are parallel to each other.

Separation Between successive (h k l) Planes:

Let (h k l) be the Miller indices of the plane ABC.

Let OP=d h k l be the normal to the plane ABC passing through the origin O.

Let OP make angles α, β, γ with X, Y & Z axes respectively.

Then cos α =d / OA = d / x = d / ( a / h)

Fig. Interplanar Spacing.

Cos β =d /OB = d / y = d / ( b / k)

Cos γ =d /OC = d/z =d/(c/l)

(Since convention in designing Miller indices x=a/h, y=b/k, z=c/l)

Now cos2 α + cos2 β +cos2 γ = 1

Hence d2 / (a / h) 2 + d2 / (b/k) 2 + d2 / (c/l) 2 = 1

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 (d h / a )2 + (d k / b)2 +(d l / c)2 =1

2 2 2 2 2 2
 d (h k l) = OP = 1 / √ (h /a +k /b + l /c ).

Therefore for cubic structure, a=b=c,

2 2 2
d (h k l) = a / √ ( h + k + l )

Let the next plane be parallel to ABC be at a distance OQ from the origin. Then its intercepts
are 2a / h, 2a / k, 2a / l.

Therefore OQ = 2d = 2a / √ (h2 + k2 + l2 )

Hence the spacing between adjacent planes = OQ - OP = PQ.

i.e. d = a / √( h2 + k2 + l2)

Expression for Space Lattice Constant ‘a’ For a Cubic Lattice:

Density р = (total mass of molecules belonging to unit cell ) / (volume of unit cell)

Total mass of molecule belonging to unit cell = nM / NA

Where n-number of molecules belonging to unit cell

M-Molecular weight
NA -Avagadro Number

Volume of cube = a3
3
Therefore р= nM/ a NA
3
Or a = nM / р NA
1/3
Lattice Constant for Cubic Lattice a = ( nM / р NA ) .

Diffraction of X- Rays by Crystal Planes:

X-Rays are electromagnetic waves like ordinary light, therefore, they should exhibit
interference and diffraction .Diffraction occurs when waves pass across an object whose
dimensions are of the order of their own wavelengths. The wavelength of X-rays is of the
order of 0.1nm or 10 -8 cm so that ordinary devices such as ruled diffraction gratings do
not produce observable effects with X-rays. Laue suggested that a crystal which consisted
of a 3-dimensional array of regularly spaced atoms could serve the purpose of a grating.
The crystal differs from ordinary grating in the sence that the diffracting centers in the
crystal are not in one plane. Hence the crystal acts as a space grating rather than a plane
grating. There are 3 main X-ray diffraction methods by which the crystal structure can be
analysed.

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(1) Laue Method – for single crystal

(2) Powder Method- for finely divided crystalline or polycrystalline powder

(3) Rotating crystal Method - for single crystal

Bragg’s Law:

It states that the X-rays reflected from different parallel planes of a crystal interfere
constructively when the path difference is integral multiple of wavelength of X-rays.

Consider a crystal made up of equidistant parallel planes of atoms with the interplanar
spacing d.

Let wave front of a monochromatic X-ray beam of wavelength ‫ ג‬fall at an angle θ on

these atomic planes. Each atom scatters the X-rays in all directions.

In certain directions these scattered radiations are in phase ie they interfere constructively
while in all other directions, there is destructive interference.

Figure 1 X-Ray Scattering by Crystal.

Consider the X-rays PE and P‘A are inclined at an angle θ with the top of the crystal
plane XY. They are scattered along AQ and EQ‘ at an angle θ w.r.t plane XY. Consider
another incoming beam P‘C is scattered along CQ‖

Let normal EB & ED be drawn to AC &CF . if EB & ED are parallel incident and reflected
wave fronts then the path difference between the incident and reflected waves is given by

Δ = BC + CD ---------------(1)

In Δ ABC , sin θ = BC / EC = BC / d

i e BC = d sin θ

Similarly, in Δ DEC , CD = d sin θ

Hence path difference Δ = 2d sin θ

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If the 2 consecutive planes scatter waves in phase with each other , then the path difference
must be an integral multiple of wavelength.

ie Δ = nλ where n = 0 ,1 , 2 , 3 ,…….is the order of reflection

Thus the condition for in phase scattering by the planes in a crystal is given by

2d sin θ = n λ …………….(2)

This condition is known as Bragg‘s Law .

The maximum possible value for θ is 1 .

nd/2d ≤ 1

the wavelength λ should not exceed twice the inter planar spacing for diffraction to occur.

Laue Method : S1 & S2 are 2 lead screens in which 2 pin holes act as slits . X-ray beam
from an X –ray tube is allowed to pass through these 2 slits S1 & S2 . the beam transmitted
through S2 will be a narrow pencil of X – rays . the beam proceeds further to fall on a single
crystal such that Zinc blended (ZnS) which is mounted suitably on a support . the single
crystal acts as a 3 – dimensional diffraction grating to the incident beam. Thus, the beam
undergoes diffraction in the crystal and then falls on the photographic film. The diffracted
waves undergo constructive interference in certain directions, and fall on the photographic
film with reinforced intensity. In all other directions, the interference will be destructive and
the photographic film remains unaffected.
The resultant interference pattern due to diffraction through the crystal as a whole will be
recorded on the photographic film (which requires many hours of exposure to the incident
beam). When the film is developed, it reveals a pattern of fine spots, known as Laue spots.

The distribution spots follow a particular way of arrangement that is the characteristic of the
specimen used in the form of crystal to diffract the beam. The Laue spot photograph obtained
by diffracting the beam at several orientations of the crystal to the incident beam are used for
determining the symmetry and orientations of the internal arrangement of atoms, molecules
in the crystal lattice . it is also used to study the imperfections in the crystal .

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POWDER METHOD ( Debye – Scherrer Method ):

This method is widely used for experimental determination of crystal structures. A
monochromatic X- ray beam is incident on randomly oriented crystals in powder form. In this
we used a camera called Debye – Scherrer camera. It consists of a cylindrical cassette, with a
strip of photographic film positioned around the circular periphery of cassette. The powder
specimen is placed at the centre, either pasted on a thin fibre of glass or filled in a capillary
glass tube. The X- ra
y beam enters through a small hole in the camera and falls on the powder specimen. Some
part of the beam is diffracted by the powder while the remaining passes out through the exit
port.

Since large no. of crystals is randomly oriented in the powder, set of planes which make an
angle θ with the incident beam can have a no. of possible orientations. Hence reflected
radiation lies on the surface of a cone whose apex is at the point of contact of the radiation
with the specimen. If all the crystal planes of interplanar spacing d reflect at the same bragg
angle θ, all reflections from a family lie on the same cone.

After taking n=1 in the Bragg‘s law

2dsin θ = λ

There are still a no of combinations of d and θ, which satisfies Bragg‘s law. Hence many
cones of reflection are emitted by the powder specimen. In the powder camera a part of each
cone is recorded by the film strip.

The full opening angle of the diffracted cone 4θ is determined by measuring the distance S
between two corresponding arcs on the photographic film about the exit point direction beam.
The distance S on the film between two diffraction lines corresponding to a particular plane is
related to bragg‘s angle by the equation

4θ = (S / R) radians (or)

4θ = (S / R) x (180 /Π ) degrees where R- radius of the camera

A list of θ values can be thus be obtained from measured values of S. Since the wavelength
‗λ‘ is known, substitution of λ gives a list of spacing‗d‘.

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Each spacing is the distance between neighbouring plane (h k l). From the ratio of interplanar
spacing, the type of lattice can be identified.

Questions
1. Explain the various types of bonding in crystals. Illustrate with examples.

2. Distinguish between ionic and covalent bonding in solids.

3. Obtain a relation between potential energy and inter atomic spacing of a molecule.

4. Derive an expression for cohesive energy of a solid.

5. Obtain an equation for total binding energy of sodium chloride crystal.

6. Differentiate between crystalline and amorphous solids.

7. Explain the terms i) Basis ii) Space lattice iii) Unit cell

8. Explain with neat diagram the following crystal structures.

i) simple cubic structure(SC)
ii) body centered cubic structure(BCC)
iii) face centered cubic structure (FCC)

9. What do you understand by packing density? Show that packing density for simple
lattice, body centered lattice and face centered lattice is /6 , 3/8 , 2/6 respectively

10. Show that FCC is the most closely packed of the three cubic structures.

11. a) For a crystal having a  b  c and  =  =  = 900, what is the crystal system?
b) For a crystal having a  b  c and       900, what is the crystal system?
c) Can you specify the Bravais lattices for parts (a) and (b) explain.

12. Explain the special features of the three types of lattices of cubic crystals?

13. What are ionic crystals? Explain the formation of an ionic crystal and obtain an
expression for its cohesive energy?

14. What is a Bravais lattice? What are the different space lattices in the cubic system?

15. What are the miller indices? How they obtained?

16. Derive the expression for the interplannar spacing between two adjacent planes of miller
indices (h k l ) in a cubic lattice of edge length ‗a ‗.

17. Derive bragg‘s law

18. Describe Laue‘s method of determination of crystal structure.

19. Explain the power method of crystal structure analysis.

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4.DEFECTS IN CRYSTALS

Introduction: In actual crystals, imperfections or defects are always present and their nature
and effects are important in understanding the properties of crystals.

The properties of materials which are not affected by the presence of defects
in crystals are termed as the structure-insensitive properties. Ex: stiffness, density and
electrical conductivity.

The properties of materials which are affected by the presence of defects

in crystals are termed as the structure-sensitive properties. Ex: mechanical strength, crystal
growth, magnetic hysteresis, dielectric strength, conduction in semiconductors, e.t.c.

The structural imperfections can be classified on the basis of their geometry as point, line,
surface and the volume imperfections. The common types of point defects in solid materials
can be divided into 3 classes:
(1) lattice site defects such as vacancies and interstitial defects
(2) compositional defects and
(3) electronic defects

Line defects may be classified as

(1) edge dislocation and
(2) screw dislocation

Surface defects may be classified as

(1) external surface defect represented by the discontinuity at the surface and
(2) internal surface defect like grain boundaries, tilt boundaries, twin boundaries and
stacking fault etc.

Volume defects occur due to the presence of air bubbles, internal cracks and empty spaces in
crystals.

Thermal Vibrations: Mathematically, atoms in a perfect lattice should occupy exactly the
sites to which they are attached. No crystal is perfectly rigid, since it can be deformed by
finite forces. It is possible to displace the atoms from their ideal sites with a finite expenditure
of energy due to thermal vibrations. The frequency of vibration is almost independent of
temperature, but the amplitude increases with increasing temperature. When the vibrations
become strong enough the atoms may break the bonds between them. Since the atoms
interact with one another they tend to vibrate in synchronism. The thermal vibration of atoms
of a solid, does not seriously disturb the perfect structure of the crystal.

Point Defects: point imperfections are lattice errors at isolated lattice points. They are
imperfect point-like regions in the crystal and, therefore, they may be referred to as zero-
dimensional imperfections. A point imperfection arises because of the absence of a matrix
atom( an atom that would be present in a perfect crystal), the presence of an impurity atom or
a matrix atom in the wrong place.

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Vacancy Defect: It is the simplest point defect in a crystal. This refers to a missing atom or
vacant atomic site. Such defects may arise either from imperfect packing during the original
crystallization or from thermal vibration of the atoms at high temperatures. When thermal
energy due to vibration is increased there is an increased probability that individual atoms
will jump out of their positions of lowest energy. Vacancies may be single or two.

Interstitialcies: In a closely packed structure, if the atomic packing factor is low, an extra
atom may be lodged or introduced within the crystal structure. This is known as interstitial.
An atom can enter the interstitial void or space between the regularly positioned atoms only
when it is substantially smaller than the parent atoms, otherwise it will produce atomic
distortions. Interstitials may be single, di and tri interstitials.

Schottky Defect and Frenkel Defect: In non-metallic crystals, the formation of a vacancy
involves a local readjustment of charge in the surrounding crystal such that charge neutrality
is maintained in the crystal. If in an ionic crystal there is a vacancy in a positive-ion site,
charge neutrality may be achieved by creating vacancy in a neighbouring negative-ion site.
Such a pair of vacant sites is called schottky defect.

On the other hand, if the charge neutrality is maintained by having a

positive ion in an interstitial position, the pair constitutes a Frenkel defect.

Close-packed structures have fewer interstitials and Frenkel defects

than vacancies and Schottky defects, as additional energy is required to force the atoms in
their new positions.

As a result of thermal fluctuations, vacancies are produced and

destroyed constantly in crystal. As a result the disorder increases resulting in an increase in
the entropy. In thermal equilibrium, a certain number of lattice vacancies are always present
which can be estimated as follows:

Let Ev be the energy required to take an atom from the lattice site.

n Ev – increase in energy associated with the generation of n isolated vacant sites.

Total number of ways in which n-atoms can be picked up from the crystal consisting of N
atoms is given by

P = N  / (N–n)  n  -----------------------(1)

Since disorder increases due to the creation of n vacancies the increase in entropy is given by

S = KB log P

= KB log [N  / ( N – n )  n  ] ----------------------( 2 )

Increase in entropy further produces a change in free energy F.

F=U–TS

= n Ev - KB T log [N  / ( N – n )  n  ] -------------------( 3 )

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According to Sterling‘s approximation,

Log x  = x log x – x ------------------------( 4 )

Using eq ( 4 ) in eq (3),we get

F = n Ev - KB T [ N log N – N -{ ( N – n ) log ( N – n ) – ( N – n ) }- { n log n – n }]

= n Ev - KB T [ N log N – N - ( N – n ) log ( N – n ) + N – n - n log n + n ]

= n Ev - KB T [ N log N – ( N – n ) log ( N – n ) – n log n ]

Free energy in thermal equilibrium at constant volume must be minimum w.r.to change in n,

[  F /  n ]T =0= Ev + KB T [ - ( N – n ) { 1 / ( N – n ) }- log ( N – n ) + n ( 1 / n ) + log n]

= Ev + KB T [ - 1 – log ( N – n ) + 1 + log n ]

= Ev - KB T [ log ( N – n ) – log n ]

= Ev - KB T log [ ( N – n ) / n ]

 Ev = KB T log [ ( N – n ) / n ]

Ev / KB T = log [ ( N – n ) / n ]
Ev / K
(N–n)/n = e
T
B
T -(Ev / K T)
B =(N–n)e B
Ev / K
n =(N–n)/e

If n << N , we can neglect n in ( N – n ) , so that

n  Ne -(Ev / K T)
B -------------------------( 5 )

Therefore n represents the number of vacancies created in the crystal.

-11.6 -6 -5
If n Ev = 1 eV and T = 1000K, then n/N = e = 9.1 x 10  10

The equilibrium concentration of vacancies decreases as the temperature decreases.

Equilibrium Concentration Of Schottky defect: In ionic crystals, the formation of paired

vacancies is most favoured ie, an equal number of positive and negative ion vacancies are
produced. The formation of pairs makes it possible to keep the surface of the crystal
electrostatically neutral.

The different ways in which n separated pairs can be formed are

P = [ N  / ( N – n )  n  ]2 -----------------------(1)
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Increase in entropy is given by

S = KB log P
2
= KB log [N  / ( N – n )  n  ] ----------------------( 2 )

Increase in entropy further produces a change in free energy F.

F=U–TS
2
= n EP - KB T log [N  / ( N – n )  n  ] -------------------( 3 )

where EP is the energy of formation of a pair

According to Sterling‘s approximation,

log x  = x log x – x ------------------------( 4 )

Using eq ( 4 ) in eq (3),we get

F = n EP –2 KB T [ N log N – N -{ ( N – n ) log ( N – n ) – ( N – n ) }- { n log n – n }]

= n EP – 2 KB T [ N log N – N - ( N – n ) log ( N – n ) + N – n - n log n + n ]

= n EP – 2 KB T [ N log N – ( N – n ) log ( N – n ) – n log n ]

Free energy in thermal equilibrium at constant volume must be minimum w.r.to change in n,

[  F /  n ]T =0= EP +2KB T [( N – n ) { -1 / ( N – n ) }- log ( N – n ) + n ( 1 / n ) + log n]

= EP + 2 KB T [ - 1 – log ( N – n ) + 1 + log n ]

= EP - 2KB T [ log ( N – n ) – log n ]

= EP - 2KB T log [ ( N – n ) / n ]

 EP = 2 KB T log [ ( N – n ) / n ]

EP / 2KB T = log [ ( N – n ) / n ]
Ep / 2 K
(N–n)/n = e
T
B
T -(Ep / 2 K T)
B =(N–n)e B
Ep / 2 K
n =(N–n)/e

If n << N , we can neglect n in ( N – n ) , so that

n  Ne -(Ep / 2 K T)
B -------------------------( 5 )
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Equilibrium Concentration Of Frenkel defects:

Let in a perfect crystal,

Ei be the energy required to displace an atom from a regular lattice site to an interstitial
position

Ni be the number of interstitial atoms

N be the number of atoms

The total number of ways in which n Frenkel defects can be formed can be given by

P = [ N  / ( N – n )  n  ] x [ Ni  / ( Ni – n )  n  ] -----------------------(1)

Since disorder increases due to the creation of Frenkel defects, the increase in entropy is
given by

S = KB log P

= KB log [{ N  / ( N – n )  n  }x { Ni  / ( Ni – n )  n  }] ------------( 2 )

Increase in entropy further produces a change in free energy F.

F=U–TS

= Ei - KB T log [{ N  / ( N – n )  n  }x { Ni  / ( Ni – n )  n  }] ------( 3 )

According to Sterling‘s approximation,

Log x  = x log x – x ------------------------( 4 )

Using eq ( 4 ) in eq (3),we get

F = Ei - KB T [ N log N – N -{ ( N – n ) log ( N – n ) –
( N – n ) }- { n log n – n }+ Ni log Ni – Ni -{ ( Ni – n ) log ( Ni – n ) – ( Ni – n )}- {n log n –
n }]

= Ei - KB T [ N log N – N - ( N – n ) log ( N – n ) -N + n - n log n + n + Ni log Ni –

Ni - ( Ni – n ) log ( Ni – n ) + Ni – n - n log n + n ]

= Ei - KB T [ N log N – ( N – n ) log ( N – n ) + Ni log Ni - ( Ni – n ) log ( Ni – n ) – 2

n log n ]

Free energy in thermal equilibrium at constant volume must be minimum w.r.to change in n,
2
[  F /  n ]T =0= Ei - KB T log [ ( N – n ) ( N i - n) / n ]

2
= Ei- KB T log [ ( N – n ) ( N i - n) / n ]

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2
 Ei = KB T log [ ( N – n ) ( N i - n) / n ]
2
Ei / KB T = log [ ( N – n ) ( N i - n) / n ]

If n << N and n << N i,

2
then E i  KB T log ( N Ni / n )

Thus E i  KB T [ log ( N Ni ) – 2 log n ]

log n = ½ log ( N Ni ) – E i / 2KB T

½
n = ( N Ni ) exp ( – E i / 2KB T )

½
Therefore n should be proportional to ( N Ni ) .

Line Imperfections: If a plane of atoms lies only partway through a crystal, the edge of such
a plane is a defect in the form of a line, and is known as dislocation. There are two types of
dislocation ( 1 ) Edge dislocation and ( 2 ) Screw dislocation.

In a perfect crystal, atoms are arranged in both vertical and

horizontal planes parallel to the side faces full length, but ends in between, within the crystal
then it is called edge dislocation. Because of dislocation, just above the discontinuity, atoms
are squeezed and are in a state of tension. The distorted configuration extends all along the
edge into the crystal. Thus as the region of maximum distortion is centered around the edge
of the incomplete plane, this distortion represents a line imperfection called an edge
dislocation.

If the extra plane of atoms is from top of the crystal, this

dislocation is called as positive dislocation and is represented by ‗  ‗ . If the extra plane of
atoms is from bottom of the crystal, this dislocation is called as negative dislocation and is
represented by ‗ T ‗ .

Burgers Vector: The magnitude and the direction of the displacement are defined by the
vector called the Burgers vector. To determine the Burger vector, Burger circuit has to be
constructed.

FIG.

Let us consider one perfect crystal and another crystal with edge dislocation. In the perfect
crystal, starting from the point P, we go up by 6 steps, then move towards right by 5 steps,
and move down by 6 steps and finally move towards left by 5 steps to reach the starting point
P, the Burger circuit gets closed. When the same operation is performed on the dislocated
crystal, we end up at Q instead of the starting point P. In order to close the Burger‘s circuit an

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extra step QP has to be made. The magnitude and the direction of the step defines the
Burgers vector. The Burgers vector is perpendicular to the edge dislocation line.

Screw Dislocation: Screw dislocation results from a displacement of the atoms in one part of
a crystal relative to the rest of the crystal, forming a spiral ramp around the dislocation line.

FIG.

In screw dislocation, the Burger vector b is parallel to the dislocation line.

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UNIT – III

5.Elements Of Statistical Mechanics

Introduction:Statistical mechanics provides the mathematical language for understanding the

nature of materials and applies to microstates and ultimately to arrive at the bulk property
estimation. Statistical mechanics mainly deals with the distribution of identical,
distinguishable and indistinguishable particles of a system in different states of the system.

Phase space or hyper space or µ - space:Consider a system consisting of a large number of

particles. The state of the particle at an instant can be represented with 3 position and 3
momentum coordinates.To specify the position and momentum of a particle in a system,a 6-
dimentional space called phase space or hyper space or µ - space is used. Any point in this
space can be represented with 3 position coordinates x, y, z and the 3 momentum coordinates
Px,Py,Pz. The space points in this space are called phase points or representative points. The
space can be divided into large number of small elements called cells or groups. The volume
3
of each element is dx, dy, dz, dpx ,dpy,dpz and is equal to h .

Maxwell – Boltzman Distribution (Classical Statistics) :This distribution is applied to a

macroscopic system consisting of a large number of identical but distinguishable particles
such as gas molecules in a container. This distribution tells us the way of distribution of total
energy E of the system among the various identical particles.

The main assumptions of Maxwell –Boltzman statistics are:

1.The particles are identical and distinguishable.
2.Any number of particles can occupy a single cell in phase space ie., there is no limit on the
number of particles which can occupy a phase space cell or an energy level .
3.The particles have any value of the spin ie., any spin is possible.
4.Energy levels are continuous.

Consider a system consisting of n1 particles in E1 level, n2 particles in E2 level, …. , ni

particles in Ei level ,etc.

The total number of particles in the system is constant

ie ., ∑ ni = N ………………. (1)

The total energy (E)of the system is constant .

ie., ∑ niEi = E ………………. (2)

Let g1, g2, g3, …., gi be the number of electron states called degeneracy parameter .

The probability of distribution of particles in different energy levels is given by

n
W = (N!gi i )/(n1!n2!....ni!) ………………… (3)

Applying logarithm on both sides we get,

log W = log N! – (log n1! + log n2! + ….. + log ni!) + (n1log g1+n2log g2+….
+nilog gi)

Using Sterling‘s approximation , log x! = xlog x – x

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log W = (Nlog N - N) – {(n1log n1 – n1+ n2log n2 - n2 + ….+nilog ni – ni)}+(n1log

g1+n2log g2+ …+ nilog gi)

Differentiating on both sides w.r.t n and N and g are constants

0 = - {n1 dn1/n1 + log n1 dn1+ …..+ ni dni/ni + log ni dni} + {log g1dn1 + ….
+log gi dni}

0 = dni (1+log n1 – log g1 ) + dn2 (1+log n2 – log g2) + …. +dni (1 + log ni –

log gi) ………..(4)

We know that
n1+n2+….+ni = N …………….(5)

dn1+dn2+….+dni = 0 ………….(6)

and also n1 E1+n2E2+…..+niEi = E ………...(7)

E1dn1+E2dn2+ …..+Eidni = 0 ………..(8)

To solve equation (4) multiply equation (6) by α and equation(8) by β and add to (4) where α
and β are constants known as Lagrangean multipliers.

Bose Einstein Distribution:The Bose Einstein Distribution deals with the

distribution of identical indistinguishable particles like photons or phonons called
Bonons. They do not obey Pauli’s Principle.

The assumptions of Bose Einstein statistics are :

1.Particles are identical and indistinguishable.
2.There is no limit to the number of particles per state.
3.They have integral multiples of h/2.
4.Energy states are discrete.

Consider a system consisting of N identical indistinguishable particles. Let n1

number of particles have each of energy E1 which has g1 states and n2 number of
particles have each of energy E2 which has g2 states and so on. The gi states will
have (gi – 1) partitions.

Fermi-Dirac Distribution:The Fermi-Dirac Distribution deals with the

indistinguishable particles like electrons called Fermions. They obey Pauli’s Principle
( no two electrons in an atom have the same quantum state).

The assumptions of Bose Einstein statistics are :

1.Particles are identical and indistinguishable.
2.There is no limit to the number of particles per state.
3.They have integral multiples of h/2
4.Energy states are discrete.

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Black Body Radiation : A body that completely absorbs all wavelengths of radiation
incident on it at low temperatures or emits different wavelengths of radiation at
higher temperatures is known as a black body.

A graph has been plotted between intensity versus wavelength of

radiation from a black body.The temperature of the body is raised to different values
and distribution curves are plotted for different temperatures.

From graph,

1. The intensity of radiation increases for each wavelength as the temperature of

the body increases.
2. At any given temperature , the intensity of radiation from the body is maximum
for a particular wavelength represented as 1m, 2m, 3m,……… This
wavelength shifts towards shorter wavelength region with increase of
temperature.
3. The area under the curve is proportional to the total radiation energy emitted
by the body in unit time.

(a) Wien’s Law:Wien showed that the maximum energy ,Em of the emitted
radiation from black body is proportional to fifth power of absolute temperature
(T5).
5 5
i.e, Em α T or Em = constant x T

Wien deduced the relation between the wavelength of emission and the
temperature of the body as
5 –( c2 /  T )
U  d  = (c1 /  ) e d
5 ( h c /  K T)
= ( 8  c h /  ) { 1 / [e B - 1]}d 

Where U  d  is the energy per unit volume in the wavelength

range  and +d .Here c1 and c2 are constants.Wien’s law is valid at lower
wavelength region,whereas it deviates from experimental values at higher
wavelength regions.

( b ) Rayleigh-Jeans Law: Rayleigh deduced an equation for the black body radiation
based on the principle of equipartition of energy,each mode of vibration has
assigned an average energy of KBT.The number of vibrations per unit volume in the
wavelength range  and +d  is given by 8  -4 d.

The vibration energy per unit volume in the range of  and +d  is
-4
U  d  = 8  KBT  d

This is Rayleigh-Jeans equation.This law correctly predicts the fall of intensity in

the longer wavelength side.However,it fails to explain the lower wavelength side of
the spectrum.

( c ) Planck’s Law: Planck assumed that the walls of the black body consists of a
large number of electrical oscillators,vibrating with their own natural frequencies.An

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oscillator possesses an energy equal to h where h is Planck’s constant and  is the

frequency of the oscillator.

An oscillator may lose or gain energy by emitting or by absorbing

photons respectively.Planck derived an equation for the energy per unit volume of
black body in the entire spectrum of black body radiation and is given by
5 ( h  / K T)
U d = 8hc/ {[1/ e B ]- 1 }d 

Concept of Electron gas and Fermi Energy:

(a) Electron gas: A metal consists of immobile positive ions and free electrons.These
free electrons are very large in metals.They move in random directions inside a
metal like the gas molecules in a container.They are referred as free electron gas or
electron gas.

When an electric field is applied on metals,the free

electrons drift in a direction opposite to the applied field.They obey gas laws.

(b)Fermi Energy: The electron gas obey Fermi-Dirac distribution.Let g(E) be the
density of electron states i.e,the number of available electron states per unit volume
of metal in unit range of energies E.

Let the number of electron filled states be N(E) in g(E).

Then the Fermi-Dirac distribution function F(E) is

F(E) = N(E) / g(E) = 1 / [ 1 + exp ( E – EF / KBT) ]

The distribution function F(E) is defined as the probability that an energy level E is
occupied by an electron.

Suppose,if the level is empty then F(E) = 0 or if the level is filled ,then F(E) = 1.

In general the value of F(E) lies in between 0 and 1.

At 0K, F(E) = 1 for E < EF

 …………………..(2)
= 0 for E > EF

This shows that all states below EF are completely filled and all states above EF are
completely empty.As temperature increases , then F(E) decreases below EF .At
higher temperatures the curve passes through a point at which the probability of the
electron being in the conduction or valence band is 0.5.The energy at which the
probability of occupation is 0.5 at all temperatures is called Fermi
energy.Alternatively,the highest energy possessed by an electron at absolute zero of
temperature ( 0K ) in a metal is called Fermi energy.

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Density of States: To calculate the carrier concentration ie, the number of electrons
per unit volume in a given energy range :
Let us consider the product of the density of states Z(E) and occupancy probability
F(E)

i.e, nc =  Z (E) F(E) dE …………………….(1)

The number of energy states with a particular value of E depends on how many
combinations of quantum numbers result in the same value of n ( degeneracy ).

To calculate the number of energy states with all possible energies,with n as radius
2 2 2 2
(where n = n1 + n2 + n3 ) a sphere is constructed in 3-dimensional space and
every point (n1, n2 , n3 ) within this space represents an energy state.

And also as every integer represents one energy state,unit volume of this space
contains exactly one state.Hence the number of states in any volume is equal to the
volume expressed in units of cubes of lattice parameters.

The number of energy states within a sphere of radius n = ( 4 / 3)  n3

Since n1, n2 , n3 can have only positive integer values,we have to consider only one
octant of the sphere.

Hence available energy states = ( 1 / 8 ) ( 4  n3 / 3 )

In order to calculate the number of states within a small energy interval E and E+dE
,we have to construct two spheres with radii n and (n+dn) and calculate the space
occupied within these two spheres.

Thus the number of energy states having energy values between E and E+dE is
given by

Z(E) dE = ( 1 / 8 ) ( 4  / 3 ) ( n+dn)3 - ( 1 / 8 ) ( 4  n3 / 3 )

= (  n2 / 2 ) dn …………………(2) ( neglecting higher

powers of dn as it is very small)

The expression for the energy of electron is given by

E = n2 h2 / 8 m L2

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n2 = 8 m L2 E / h2

n = [ 8 m L2 E / h2 ]1/2 ………………………(3)

Differentiating n2 ,we get

2n dn = 8 m L2 dE / h2 ………………………..(4)

dn = 8 m L2 dE / 2n h2

= ( 8 m L2 / h2 ) ( 1 / 2 ) ( h2 / 8 m L2 )½ (dE / E1/2 )

= ( 1 / 2 ) ( 8 m L2 / h2 )1/2 (dE / E1/2 )

……………(5)

Substituting the values of n2 and dn in eq (2) , we get

Z(E) dE = (  / 2 ) ( 8 m L2 E / h2 ) ( 1 / 2 ) [ 8 m L2 / h2 ] 1/2 (dE /

1/2
E )

= (  / 4 ) ( 8 m L2 / h2 )3/2 E1/2 dE

According to Pauli’s exclusion principle two electrons of opposite spin can occupy
each state and hence the number of energy states available for electron occupancy
is given by

Z(E) dE = 2 x (  / 4 ) ( 8 m L2 / h2 )3/2 E1/2 dE

= ( 4  / h3 ) ( 2 m ) 3/2 L3 E1/2 dE ………………………..(6)

Density of energy states is given by number of energy states per unit volume

i.e, density of states = Z(E) dE = ( 4  / h3 ) ( 2 m ) 3/2 E1/2 dE

………………………..(7)

Free electron density in metals:

Substituting the values F(E) and Z(E) in eq(1) for calculation of electron density,

nc =  Z (E) F(E) dE
3 3/2 1/2
=(4/h )(2m) E {1 / [ 1 + exp ( E – EF / KBT) ] }
dE ………………………..(8)

This is the expression for free carriers ie, electron density at any temperature.This
can be used to calculate the free electron density in metals and carrier concentration
in semiconductors.

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6. PRINCIPLES OF QUANTUM MECHANICS

Introduction: Quantum mechanics is a new branch of study in physics which is
indispensable in understanding the mechanics of particles in the atomic and sub-atomic scale.

The motion of macro particles can be observed either directly or through

microscope. Classical mechanics can be applied to explain their motion. But classical
mechanics failed to explain the motion of micro particles like electrons, protons etc...

Max Plank proposed the Quantum theory to explain Blackbody radiation.

Einstein applied it to explain the Photo Electric Effect. In the mean time, Einstein‘s mass –
energy relationship (E = mc2) had been verified in which the radiation and mass were
mutually convertible. Louis deBroglie extended the idea of dual nature of radiation to matter,
when he proposed that matter possesses wave as well as particle characteristics.

The classical mechanics and the quantum mechanics have fundamentally

different approaches to solve problems. In the case of classical mechanics it is
unconditionally accepted that position, mass, velocity, acceleration etc of a particle can be
measured accurately, which, of course, true in day to day observations. In contrast, the
structure of quantum mechanics is built upon the foundation of principles which are purely
probabilistic in nature. As per the fundamental assumption of quantum mechanics, it is
impossible to measure simultaneously the position and momentum of a particle, whereas in
the case of classical mechanics, there is nothing which contradicts the measurements of both
of them accurately.

Plank’s Quantum Theory:

Max Plank, a German physicist derived an equation which successfully accounted for the
spectrum of the blackbody radiation. He incorporated a new idea in his deduction of Plank
eqn. that the probability of emission of radiation decreases as its frequency increases so that,
the curve slopes down in the high frequency region. The oscillators in the blackbody can have
only a discrete set of energy values. Such an assumption was radically different from the
basic principles of physics.

The assumption in the derivation of Plank‘s law is that the wall of the
experimental blackbody consists of a very large number of electrical oscillators, with each
oscillator vibrating with a frequency of its own. Plank brought two special conditions in his
theory.They are

(1) Only an integral multiple of energies h ν where ‗h‘ is Plank‘s constant and ‗ν ‗ is
frequency of vibration i e, the allowed energy values are E = n h ν where n = 0 , 1 ,
2 , ………

(2) An oscillator may lose or gain energy by emitting or absorbing radiation of frequency
ν = (ΔE / h), where ΔE is the difference in the values of energies of the oscillator
before and the emission or absorption had taken place.

Based on the above ideas, he derived the law governing the entire spectrum of the Blackbody
radiation, given by

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5) h ν /kT
U λ d λ = (8Πhc / λ [1 / (e – 1)] d λ (since ν = c / λ)

This is called Plank‘s radiation law.

Waves and Particles: deBroglie suggested that the radiation has dual nature i e both
particle as well as wave nature. The concept of particle is easy to grasp. It has mass,
velocity, momentum and energy. The concept of wave is a bit more difficult than that of a
particle. A wave is spread out over a relatively large region of space, it cannot be said to
be located just here and there, and it is hard to think of mass being associated with a
wave. A wave is specified by its frequency, wavelength, phase, amplitude, intensity.

Considering the above facts, it appears difficult to accept the

conflicting ideas that radiation has dual nature. However this acceptance is essential
because radiation sometimes behaves as a wave and at other times as a particle.

(1) Radiations behaves as waves in experiments based on interference, diffraction,

polarization etc. this is due to the fact that these phenomena require the presence of
two waves at the same position and at the same time. Thus we conclude that radiation
behaves like wave.

(2) Plank‘s quantum theory was successful in explaining blackbody radiation,

photoelectric effect, Compton Effect and had established that the radiant energy, in its
interaction with the matter, behaves as though it consists of corpuscles. Here radiation
interacts with matter in the form of photons or quanta. Thus radiation behaves like
particle.

Hence radiation cannot exhibit both particle and wave nature simultaneously.

deBroglie hypothesis :The dual nature of light possessing both wave and particle
properties was explained by combining Plank‘s expression for the energy of a photon E =
h ν with Einstein‘s mass energy relation E = m c2 (where c is velocity of light , h is
Plank‘s constant , m is mass of particle )

 h ν = m c2

Introducing ν = c / λ, we get h c / λ = m c2

==> λ = h / mc = h / p where p is momentum of particle

λ is deBroglie wavelength associated with a photon.

deBroglie proposed the concept of matter waves , according to which a material particle of
mass ‗m‘ moving with velocity ‗v‘ should be associated with deBroglie wavelength ‗λ‘ given
by

λ =h/mv=h/p

The above eqn. represents deBroglie wave eqn.

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Characteristics of Matter waves:

Since λ =h/mv

1. Lighter the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.

2. Lesser the velocity of the particle, longer the wavelength associated with it.

3. For v = 0, λ = ∞. This means that only with moving particle, matter waves is
associated.

4. Whether the particle is changed or not, matter waves is associated with it.

5. It can be proved that matter waves travel faster than light.

We know that E = h ν and E = m c2

h ν = m c2
 or ν = m c2 / h

Wave velocity (ω) is given by

ω = ν λ = m c2 λ / h = (m c2 / h) (h / m v)

 ω =c 2 /v
As the particle velocity ‗v‘ cannot exceed velocity of light, ω is greater than the
velocity of light.

6. No single phenomena exhibit both particle nature and wave nature simultaneously.

7. The wave nature of matter introduces an uncertainty in the location of the particle &
the momentum of the particle exists when both are determined simultaneously.

Davisson and Germer’s experiment:

C. J. Davisson and L. H. Germer were studying scattering of electrons by a metal target and
measuring the intensity of electrons scattered in different directions.

Experimental Arrangement:

An electron gun, which comprises of a tungsten filament is heated by a low

tension battery B1, produces electrons. These electrons are accelerated to desired velocity by
applying suitable potential from a high tension source B2. The accelerated electrons are
collimated into a fine beam by allowing them to pass through a system of pin holes provided
in the cylinder. The whole instrument is kept in an evacuated chamber.

The past moving beam of electrons is made to strike the Nickel target capable
of rotating about an axis perpendicular to the plane. The electrons are now scattered in all
directions by the atomic planes of crystals. The intensity of the electron beam scattered in a
direction can be measured by the electron collector which can be rotated about the same axis

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as the target. The collector is connected to a galvanometer whose deflection is proportional

to the intensity of the electron beam entering the collector.

Fig. Davisson and Germer's Apparatus

The electron beam is accelerated by 54 V is made to strike the Nickel crystal

and a sharp maximum is occurred at angle of 50o with the incident beam. The incident beam
and the diffracted beam in this experiment make an angle of 65o with the family of Bragg‘s
planes.

d = 0.091nm (for Ni crystals)

According to Bragg‘s law for maxima in diffracted pattern,

2d sin θ = n λ

For n =1, λ = 2d sin θ

= 2 x0.91x 10-10x sin 65o

= 0.165 nm

For a 54 V electron, the deBrogllie wavelength associated with the electron is given by

= 12.25 / √ V = (12.25 / √54) oA

= 0.166 nm.

This value is in agreement with the experimental value. This experiment provides a direct
verification of deBroglie hypothesis of wave nature of moving particles.

G.P. Thomson’s Experiment:

G.P. Thomson investigated high speed electrons produced by applying the

high voltage ranges from10 to 50kV. The principle is similar too that of that of powdered
crystal method of X- ray diffraction.

In this experiment, an extremely thin ( 10-8m ) metallic film F of gold, aluminium etc., is
used as a transmission grating to a narrow beam of high speed electrons emitted by a cathode

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C and accelerated by anode A. A fluorescent screen S or a suitable photographic plate P is

used to observe the scattered electron beam. The whole arrangement is enclosed in a vacuum
chamber.

The electron beam transmitted through the metal foil gets scattered
producing diffraction pattern consisting of concentric circulars rings around a central spot.
The experimental results and its analysis are similar to those of powdered crystal experiment
of X- ray diffraction.

Fig. Thomson Apparatus

L: distance between the foil and screen

R(r): radius of the diffraction ring
θ: glancing angle

The method of interpretation of the experimental results is same as that of the Davisson and
Germer experiment. Here also we use Bragg‘s law and deBroglie wavelength.

We have 2d sin θ = n λ

θ = n λ / 2d -- I since θ is small sin θ = θ

From fig.

R/L = tan2 θ ≈ 2 θ

R = L 2 θ - II

From eqn I, II
R = L 2 n λ / 2d = L n λ / d

Since L and d are fixed in the experiment

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R α n λ or D α nλ D is diameter of the ring

Combing with the deBroglie expression

λ = √ (150 / V (1+r))

Where (1+r) is the relativistic correction we notice that D√ (V (1+r)) must be constant for a
given order the experiment repeated with different voltages. The data shows that D√
(V(1+r)) is constant, thus supporting the deBroglie concept of matter waves.

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:

According to classical mechanics, a moving particle at any instant has a fixed

position in space and a definite momentum which can be determined simultaneously with any
desired accuracy. The classical point of view represents an approximation which is adequate
for the objects of appreciable size, but not for the particles of atomic dimensions.

Since a moving particle has to be regarded as a deBroglie group, there

is a limit to the accuracy with which we can measure the particle properties. The particle
may be found anywhere within the wave group, moving with the group velocity. If the
group is narrow, it is easy to locate its position but the uncertainty in calculating its
velocity or momentum increases. On the other hand, if the group is wide, its momentum
can be estimated satisfactorily, but the uncertainty in finding the location of the particle is
great. Heisenberg stated that the simultaneous determination of exact position and
momentum of a moving particle is impossible.

If Δ x is Error in the measurement of position of the particle along X-axis

Δ p is Error in the measurement of momentum

Then Δ x. Δ p = h ---------- (1) where h is Plank‘s constant

The above relation represents the uncertainty involved in measurement of both the
position and momentum of the particle.

To optimize the above error, lower limit is applied to the eqn. (1)

Then (Δ x). (Δ p) ≥ Ђ / 2 where ђ=h/2Π

A particle can be exactly located (Δ x → 0) only at the expense of an infinite momentum

(Δ p → ∞).

There are uncertainty relatio0ns between position and momentum, energy and time, and
angular momentum and angle.

If the time during which a system occupies a certain state is not greater than Δ t, then the
energy of the state cannot be known within Δ E,

i e (Δ E ) ( Δ t ) ≥ ђ / 2 .

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Schrödinger’s Time Independent Wave Equation:

Schrödinger, in 1926, developed wave equation for the moving particles.

One of its forms can be derived by simply incorporating the deBroglie wavelength
expression into the classical wave eqn.

If a particle of mass ‗m‘ moving with velocity ‗v‘ is associated with a

group of waves.

Let ψ be the wave function of the particle. Also let us consider a simple form of
progressing wave like the one represented by the following equation,

Ψ = Ψ0 sin (ω t – k x) --------- (1)

Where Ψ = Ψ (x, t) and Ψ0 is the amplitude.

Differentiating Ψ partially w.r.to x,

∂ Ψ / ∂ x = Ψ0 cos (ω t – k x) (- k)

= -k Ψ0 cos (ω t – k x)

Once again differentiate w.r.to x

2 2
∂ ψ / ∂ x = (- k) Ψ0 (- sin (ω t – k x)) (- k)

= - k 2 Ψ0 sin (ω t – k x)

∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 = - k 2 ψ (from eqn (1))

∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 + k 2 ψ = 0 ----------- (2)

∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 + (4 Π2 / λ2) ψ = 0 --------- (3) (since k = 2 Π / λ)

From eqn. (2) or eqn. (3) is the differential form of the classical wave eqn. now we incorporate
deBroglie wavelength expression λ = h / m v.

Thus we obtain

∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 + (4 Π2 / (h / m v) 2) ψ = 0

∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 + 4 Π2 m2 v 2 ψ / h2 = 0 -------------- (4)

The total energy E of the particle is the sum of its kinetic energy K and potential energy V

i e E = K + V -------------- (5)

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And K = mv2 / 2 ---------- (6)

Therefore m2 v 2 = 2 m (E – V) ------------ (7)

From (4) and (7)

=> ∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 + [8Π2 m (E-V) / h2] ψ = 0 ------------ (8)

In quantum mechanics, the value h / 2 Π occurs more frequently. Hence we denote,

ђ =h/2 Π

Using this notation, we have

∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 + [2 m (E – V) / ђ 2] ψ = 0 ------------ (9)

For simplicity, we considered only one – dimensional wave. Extending eqn. (9) for a three –
dimensional, we have

∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 + ∂2 ψ / ∂ y2 + ∂2 ψ / ∂ z2 + [2 m (E – V) / ђ 2] ψ = 0 ------------ (10)

Where Ψ = Ψ (x, y, z).

Here, we have considered only stationary states of ψ after separating the time dependence of Ψ.

Using the Laplacian operator,

2= 2 2 2 2 2 2
▼ ∂ / ∂ x + ∂ / ∂ y + ∂ / ∂ z ------------- (11)

Eqn. (10) can be written as

▼2 Ψ + [2 m (E – V) / ђ 2] ψ = 0 --------------- (12)

This is the Schrödinger Time Independent Wave Equation.

Physical Significance of Wave Function:

Max Born in 1926 gave a satisfactory interpretation of the wave function  associated with a
moving particle. He postulated that the square of the magnitude of the wave function ||2
(or  * it  is complex), evaluated at a particular point represents the probability of finding
the particle at the point. ||2 is called the probability density and  is the probability
amplitude. Thus the probability of the particle within an element volume dt is ||2 d. Since
the particle is certainly somewhere, the integral at ||2 d over all space must be unity i.e.

-  || 2 .d = 1 ___________________ (28)

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A wave function that obeys the above equations is said to be normalized. Energy
acceptable wave function must be normalizable besides being normalizable; an acceptable
wave function should fulfill the following requirements (limitations)
.
1. It must be finite everywhere.
2. It must be single valued.
3. It must be continuous and have a continuous first derivative everywhere.

Normalization Of a wave function:

Since |(x, y, z) 2| .d is the probability that the particle will be found in a volume element d.
Surrounding the point at positron (x, y, z), the total probability that the particle will be
somewhere in space must be equal to 1. Thus, we have
-  |(x, y, z) 2| .d = 1

Where  is a function of the space coordinates (x, y, z) from this ‗normalization

condition‘ we can find the value of the complaint and its sign. A wave function which
satisfies the above condition is said to be normalized (to unity).

The normalizing condition for the wave function for the motion of a particle in one
dimension is
-  |(x) | 2.dx = 1

From these equations, we see that for one – dimensional case, the dimension of (x) in L-1/2
and for the three – dimensional case the dimension of (x, y, z) in L-3/2.

Particle in One Dimensional Potential Box:

Consider a particle of mass ‗m‘ placed inside a one-dimensional box of infinite
height and width L.

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Fig. Particle in a potential well of infinite height.

Assume that the particle is freely moving inside the box. The motion of the particle is
restricted by the walls of the box. The particle is bouncing back and forth between the walls of
the box at x = 0 and x = a. For a freely moving particle at the bottom of the potential well, the
potential energy is very low. Since the potential energy is very low, moving particle energy is
assumed to be zero between x =0 and x = a.

The potential energy of the particle outside the walls is infinite due to the infinite P.E outside
the potential well.

The particle cannot escape from the box

i.e. V = 0 for 0 < x < a

V = ∞ for 0 ≥ x ≥ a

Since the particle cannot be present outside the box, its wave function is zero

i e │ψ│2 = 0 for 0>x>a

│ψ│2 = 0 for x=a&x=0

The Schrödinger one – dimensional time independent eqn. is

▼2 Ψ + [2 m (E – V) / ђ 2] ψ = 0 ----------(1)

For freely moving particle V = 0

▼2 Ψ + [ 2 m E / ђ 2 ] ψ = 0 ----------(2)
2 2
Taking 2mE/ђ =K ------------ (3)

Eqn.(1) becomes ∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 + k2 Ψ = 0 -------------(4)

Eqn. (1) is similar to eq. of harmonic motion and the solution of above eqn. is written as

Ψ = A sin kx + B cos kx -----------(5) where A, B and k are unknown quantities

and to calculate them it is necessary to construct boundary conditions.

Hence boundary conditions are

When x = 0, Ψ = 0 => from (5) 0 = 0 + B => B = 0 -------- (6)

When x = a, Ψ = 0 => from (5) 0 = A sin ka + B cos ka ---------- (7)

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But from (6) B = 0 therefore eqn. (7) may turn as

A sin ka = 0

Since the electron is present in the box a ≠ 0

Sin ka = 0

Ka = n Π

k=n Π / a -------------- (8)

Substituting the value of k in eqn. (3)

2 m E / ђ 2 = (n Π / a )2

E = ( n Π / a )2 ( ђ 2 / 2 m ) = ( n Π / a )2 ( h2 / 8 m Π2 )

E = n2 h2 / 8 m a2
2 2 2
In general En = n h / 8 m a ------------(9)

The wave eqn. can be written as

Ψ = A sin (n Π x / a) ---------- (10)

Let us find the value of A, if an electron is definitely present inside the box, then
∞ 2
=>∫ -∞ │ψ│ dx = 1
a 2 2
=>∫ 0 A sin ( n Π x / a ) dx = 1
a 2 2
=>∫ 0 sin (n Π x / a) dx = 1 / A
a 2
=>∫ 0 [1 - cos (2 Π n (x / a)) / 2] dx = 1 / A

A=√2/a ---------- (11)

From eqn‘s. (10) & (11)

Ψn = √ 2 / a sin ( n Π x / a ) ----------(12)

Eqn. (9) represents an energy level for each value of n. the wave function this energy level is
given in eqn. (12). Therefore the particle in the box can have discrete values of energies.
These values are quantized. Not that the particle cannot have zero energy .The normalized
wave functions Ψ1 , Ψ2, Ψ3 given by eqn (12) is plotted. the values corresponding to each En
value is known as Eigen value and the corresponding wave function is known as Eigen
function.

The wave function Ψ1, has two nodes at x = 0 & x = a

The wave function Ψ2, has three nodes at x = 0, x = a / 2 & x = a

The wave function Ψ3, has three nodes at x = 0, x = a / 3, x = 2 a / 3 & at x = a

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The wave function Ψn, has (n + 1) nodes

Substituting the value of E in (3), we get

2 2 2
(2 m / ђ ) ( p / 2 m) = k

=> p2 / ђ 2 = k2

k = p / ђ = p / (h / 2 Π) = 2 Π p / h

k=2 Π / λ where k is known as wave vector.

Questions:
1. What are the matter waves? Explain their properties.

2. Explain de Broglie hypothesis.

3. Explain the duality of matter waves

4. Describe Davisson and Germer‘s experiment an explain how it enabled the

verification of the de Broglie equation.

5. Explain G.P. Thompson‘s experiment in support of de Broglie hypothesis

6. Explain Heisenberg‘s uncertainty principle. Give its physical significance.

7. Derive time independent one dimensional Schrödinger‘s equation.

8. Explain the physical significance of wave function.

9. Write down Schrödinger‘s wave equation for a particle in one dimensional potential
box.

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UNIT – IV

7. BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS

Bloch Theorem: A crystalline solid consists of a lattice which is composed of a large

number of ionic cores at regular intervals, and, the conduction electrons can move freely
throughout the lattice.

Let the lattice is in only one-dimension ie only an array of ionic cores along x-axis is
considered. If we plot the potential energy V of a conduction electron as a function of its
position in the lattice, the variation of potential energy.

Since the potential energy of any body bound in a field of attraction is negative, and
since the conduction electron is bound to the solid, its potential energy V is negative.

Further, as it approaches the site of an ionic core V → - ∞. Since this occurs symmetrically
on either side of the core, it is referred to as potential well. The width of the potential well b
is not uniform, but has a tapering shape.

If V0 is the potential at a given depth of the well, then the variation is such that

b→0, as V0 → ∞ ., and ,
The product b V0 is a constant.

Now, since the lattice is a repetitive structure of the ion arrangement in a crystal, the type of
variation of V also repeats itself. If a is the interionic distance, then , as we move in x-
direction , the value of V will be same at all points which are separated by a distance equal
to a.

ie V(x) = V( x + a ) where, x is distance of the electron from the core.

Such a potential is said to be a periodic potential.

The Bloch‘s theorem states that, for a particle moving in a periodic potential,
the Eigen functions for a conduction electron are of the form,

χ ( x ) = U (x) cos kx

Where U ( x ) = U ( x + a )

The Eigen functions are the plane waves modulated by the function U (x). The function U
(x) has the same periodicity as the potential energy of the electron, and is called the
modulating function.

In order to understand the physical properties of the system, it is required to solve

the Schrödinger‘s equation. However, it is extremely difficult to solve the Schrödinger‘s
equation with periodic potential described above. Hence the Kronig – Penney Model is
adopted for simplification.

THE KRONIG -PENNEY MODEL:

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It is assumed in quantum free electron theory of metals that the free electrons in a
metal express a constant potential and is free to move in the metal. This theory explains
successfully most of the phenomena of solids. But it could not explain why some solids are
good conductors and some other are insulators and semi conductors. It can be understood
successfully using the band theory of solids.

According to this theory, the electrons move in a periodic potential

produced by the positive ion cores. The potential of electron varies periodically with
periodicity of ion core and potential energy of the electrons is zero near nucleus of the
positive ion core. It is maximum when it is lying between the adjacent nuclei which are
separated by interatomic spacing. The variation of potential of electrons while it is
moving through ion core is shown fig.

Fig. One dimensional periodic potential

V ( x ) = { 0 , for the region 0 < x < a

{ V0 for the region -b < x < a ---------------------(1)

Applying the time independent Schrödinger‘s wave equation for above two regions

d2Ψ / dx2 + 2 m E Ψ / ħ2 = 0 for region 0 < x < a -----------(2)

and d2Ψ / dx2 + 2 m ( E – V ) Ψ / ħ2 = 0 for region -b < x < a -----------(3)

Substituting α2 = 2 m E / ħ2 ---------------(4)

β2 = 2 m ( E – V ) / ħ2 -----------(5)
2 2 2
d Ψ / dx + α Ψ = 0 for region 0 < x < a -----------(6)

d2Ψ / dx2 + β2 Ψ = 0 for region -b < x < a -----------(7)

The solution for the eqn.s (6) and (7) can be written as
ikx
Ψ ( x ) = Uk ( x ) e ------------------(8)

The above solution consists of a plane wave eikx modulated by the periodic function.

Uk(x), where this Uk(x) has the periodicity of the ion such that

Uk(x) = Uk(x+a) ------------------(9)

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and where k is propagating vector along x-direction and is given by k = 2 Π / λ . This k is

also known as wave vector.

Differentiating equation (8) twice with respect to x, and substituting in equation (6) and
(7), two independent second order linear differential equations can be obtained for the
regions 0 < x < a and -b < x < 0 .

Applying the boundary conditions to the solution of above equations, for linear equations
in terms of A,B,C and D it can be obtained (where A,B,C,D are constants ) the solution
for these equations can be determined only if the determinant of the coefficients of A , B ,
C , and D vanishes, on solving the determinant.

(β2 - α2 / 2 α β)sin hβb sin αa + cos hβb cos αa = cos k ( a + b ) ---------- ---- (10)

The above equation is complicated and Kronig and Penney could conclude with the
equation. Hence they tried to modify this equation as follows

Let Vo is tending to infinite and b is approaching to zero. Such that Vob remains finite.
Therefore sin hβb → βb and cos hβb→1
2 2 2 2
β - α = ( 2 m / ħ ) (Vo – E ) – ( 2 m E / ħ )
2 2
= ( 2 m / ħ ) (Vo – E - E ) = ( 2 m / ħ ) (Vo – 2 E )
2
= 2 m Vo / ħ ( since Vo >> E )

Substituting all these values in equation (10) it verities as

2
( 2 m Vo / 2 ħ α β ) β b . sin α a + cos α a == cos k a
2
( m Vo b a / ħ ) ( sin α a / α a ) + cos α a == cos k a

( P / α a ) sin α a + cos α a == cos k a -------------------(11)

2
Where P = [ m Vo b a / ħ ] ------------------(12)

and is a measure of potential barrier strength.

The left hand side of the equation (11) is plotted as a function of α for the value of P = 3
Π / 2 which is shown in fig, the right hand side one takes values between -1 to +1 as
indicated by the horizontal lines in fig. Therefore the equation (11) is satisfied only for
those values of ka for which left hand side between ± 1.

From fig , the following conclusions are drawn.

1) The energy spectrum of the electron consists of a number of allowed and forbidden
energy bands.
2) The width of the allowed energy band increases with increase of energy values ie
increasing the values of αa. This is because the first term of equation(11) decreases
with increase of αa.

( P / α a ) sin α a + cos α a == 3 Π / 2

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Fig. a) P=6pi b) p--> infinity c) p--> 0

3) With increasing P, ie with increasing potential barrier, the width of an allowed band
decreases. As P→∞, the allowed energy becomes infinitely narrow and the energy
spectrum is a line spectrum as shown in fig.

If P→∞, then the equation (11) has solution ie

Sin αa = 0

αa = ± n Π

α =±n Π / a

α2 = n2 Π2 / a2

But α2 = 2 m E / ħ2

Therefore 2 m E / ħ2 = n2 Π2 / a2

E = [ ħ2 Π2 / 2 m a2] n2

E = n h2 / 8 m a2 ( since ħ = h / 2 Π )

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This expression shows that the energy spectrum of the electron contains discrete energy
levels separated by forbidden regions.

4) When P→0 then

Cos αa = cos ka

α =k, α2 = k2

but α2 = 2 m E / ħ2

therefore k2 = (h2 / 2 m ) ( 1 / λ2 ) = (h2 / 2 m ) (P2 / h2 )

E = P2 / 2 m

E =1/2mv2 ----------------(14)

The equation (11) shows all the electrons are completely free to move in the crystal without
any constraints. Hence , no energy level exists ie all the energies are allowed to the electrons
and shown in fig(5). This case supports the classical free electrons theory.

[ ( P / α a ) sin α a + cos α a ] , P → 0

Velocity of the electron in periodic potential.:

According to quantum theory, an electron moving with a velocity can be treated as a wave
packet moving with the group velocity vg

v = vg = dω / dk -----------------(1)

where ω is the angular frequency of deBroglie wave and k = 2 Π / λ is the wave vector.

The energy of an electron can be expressed as

E = ħ ω ---------------------(2)

Differentiating the equation (2) with respect to k

dE / dk = ħ dω / dk -------------(3)

from (1) & (3)

vg = 1 / ħ (dE / dk ) -----------------(4)

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According to band theory of solids, the variations of E with k as shown in fig(1). Using this
graph and equation (4), the velocity of electron can be calculated. The variation of velocity
with k is shown in fig(2). From this fig, it is clear that the velocity of electron is zero at the
bottom of the energy band. As the value of k increases, the velocity of electron increases and
reaches to maximum at K=k.Further ,the increases of k, the velocity of electron decreases
and reaches to zero at K= Π / a at the top of energy band.

Origin Of Energy Bands In Solids:

Solids are usually moderately strong, slightly elastic structures. The

individual atoms are held together in solids by interatomic forces or bonds. In addition to
these attractive forces, repulsive forces also act and hence solids are not easily compressed.

The attractive forces between the atoms are basically electrostatic in

origin. The bonding is strongly dependent on the electronic structure of the atoms. The
attraction between the atoms brings them closer until the individual electron clouds begin to
overlap. A strong repulsive force arises to comply with Pauli‘s exclusion principle. When the
attractive force and the repulsive force between any two atoms occupy a stable position with
a minimum potential energy. The spacing between the atoms under this condition is called
equilibrium spacing.

In an isolated atom, the electrons are tightly bound and have

discrete, sharp energy levels. When two identical atoms are brought closer , the outermost
orbits of these atoms overlap and interact. When the wave functions of the electrons on
different atoms begin to overlap considerably, the energy levels corresponding to those wave
functions split. if more atoms are brought together more levels are formed and for a solid of
N atoms, each of the energy levels of an atom splits into N levels of energy. The levels are so
close together that they form an almost continuous band. The width of this band depends on
the degree of overlap of electrons of adjacent atoms and is largest for the outermost atomic
electrons. In a solid many atoms are brought together so that the split energy levels form a set
of bands of very closely spaced levels with forbidden energy gaps between them.

Classification Of Materials:

The electrons first occupy the lower energy bands and are of no importance in
determining many of the electrical properties of solids. Instead, the electrons in the higher
energy bands of solids are important in determining many of the physical properties of solids.
Hence the two allowed energy bands called valence and conduction bands are required. The
gap between these two allowed bands is called forbidden energy gap or band gap since
electrons can‘t have any energy values in the forbidden energy gap. The valence band is
occupied by valence electrons since they are responsible for electrical, thermal and optical
properties of solids. above the valence band we have the conduction band which is vacant at
0K. According to the gap between the bands and band occupation by electrons, all solids can
be classified broadly into two groups.

In the first group of solids called metals there is a partially filled band
immediately above the uppermost filled band .this is possible when the valence band is
partially filled or a completely filled valence band overlaps with the partially filled
conduction band.

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In the second group of solids , there is a gap called band gap between the
completely filled valence band and completely empty conduction band. Depending on the
magnitude of the gap we can classify insulators and semiconductors.

Insulators have relatively wide forbidden band gaps. For typical

insulators the band gap Eg > 3 eV. On the other hand , semiconductors have relatively narrow
forbidden bands. For typical semiconductors Eg ≤ 1 eV.

Effective mass of the electron: When an electron in a period potential is accelerated by an

electric field (or) magnetic field, then the mass of the electron is called effective mass ( m*).

Let an electron of charge ‗e‘ and mass ‗m‘ moving inside a crystal lattice of electric field E.

Acceleration a = eE / m is not a constant in the periodic lattice of the crystal. It can be

considered that its variation is caused by the variation of electron‘s mass when it moves in the
crystal lattice.

Therefore Acceleration a = eE / m*

Electrical force on the electron F = m* a --------------(1)

Considering the free electron as a wave packet , the group velocity vg corresponding to the
particle‘s velocity can be written as

vg = dw / dk = 2 Π dv/ dk = (2 Π / h ) dE / dk ------------------(2)

where the energy E = h υ and ħ = h / 2 Π.

2 2 2
Acceleration a = d vg / dt = ( 1 / ħ ) d E / dk dt = ( 1 / ħ ) ( d E / dk ) dk / dt

Since ħ k=p and dp / dt = F,

dk / dt = F / ħ

Therefore a = ( 1 / ħ2 ) ( d2E / dk2 ) F

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Or F = ( ħ2 / ( d2E / dk2 ) ) a -----------------------(3)

Comparing eqns . (1) and (3) we get

m*= ħ2 / ( d2E / dk2 ) ---------------(4)

This eqn indicates that the effective mass is determined by d2E / dk2 .

Questions:
1. Explain classical free- electron theory of metals.
2. Define electrical resistance
3. Give the basic assumptions of the classical free electron theory.
4. Explain the following: Drift velocity, mobility, relaxation time and
mean free path.
5. Based on free electron theory derive an expression for electrical
conductivity of metals.
6. Explain the failures of classical free theory.
7. Explain the salient features of quantum free electron theory.
8. Explain the Fermi- Dirac distribution for free electrons in a metal.
Discuss its variation with temperature.
9. Explain the following i) Effective mass, ii) Bloch theorem.
10. Discuss the band theory of solids based on Kronig –Penney model.
Explain the important features of this model.
11. Explain the origin of energy bands in solids.
12. Distinguish between metals, semiconductors and insulators.

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UNIT- V
8. SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

INTRODUCTION:

Semiconductors are materials whose electronic properties are intermediate between those
of conductors and insulators. These electrical properties of a solid depend on its band
structure. A semiconductor has two bands of importance (neglecting bound electrons as they
play no part in the conduction process) the valence and the conduction bands. They are
separated by a forbidden energy gap. At OK the valence band is full and the conduction band
is empty, the semiconductor behaves as an insulator. Semiconductor has both positive (hole)
and negative (electron) carriers of electricity whose densities can be controlled by doping the
pure semiconductor with chemical impurities during crystal growth.
At higher temperatures, electrons are transferred across the gap into the conduction band
leaving vacant levels in the valence band. It is this property that makes the semiconductor a
material with special properties of electrical conduction.
Generally there are two types of semiconductors. Those in which electrons and holes are
produced by thermal activation in pure Ge and Si are called intrinsic semiconductors. In other
type the current carriers, holes or free electrons are produced by the addition of small
quantities of elements of group III or V of the periodic table, and are known as extrinsic
semiconductors. The elements added are called the impurities or dopants.

Intrinsic semiconductors:

A pure semiconductor which is not doped is termed as intrinsic semiconductor. In Si crystal,

the four valence electrons of each Si atom are shared by the four surrounding Si atoms. An
electron which may break away from the bond leaves deficiency of one electron in the bond.
The vacancy created in a bond due to the departure of an electron is called a hole. The
vacancy may get filled by an electron from the neighboring bond, but the hole then shifts to
the neighboring bond which in turn may get filled by electron from another bond to whose
place the hole shifts, and so on thus in effect the hole also undergoes displacement inside a
crystal. Since the hole is associated with deficiency of one electron, it is equivalent for a
positive charge of unit magnitude. Hence in a semiconductor, both the electron and the hole
act as charge carriers.

In an intrinsic semiconductor, for every electron freed from the bond, there will be one hole
created. It means that, the no of conduction electrons is equal to the no of holes at any given
temperature. Therefore there is no predominance of one over the other to be particularly
designated as charge carriers.

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Carriers Concentration in intrinsic semiconductors:

A broken covalent bond creates an electron that is raised in energy, so as to occupy

the conduction bond, leaving a hole in the valence bond. Both electrons and holes contribute
to overall conduction process.

In an intrinsic semiconductor, electrons and holes are equal in numbers. Thus

n = p = ni

Where n is the number of electrons in the conduction band in a unit volume of the material
(concentration), p is the number of holes in the valance band in a unit volume of the material.
And ni, the number density of charge carriers in an intrinsic semi conductor. It is called
intrinsic density.

For convenience, the top of the valence bond is taken as a zero energy reference level
arbitrarily.

The number of electrons in the conduction bond is

n = N P(Eg)

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Where P(Eg) is the probability of an electron having energy Eg. It is given by Fermi Dirac
function eqn., and N is the total number of electrons in both bands.
Thus,
N
n = -----------------------------------
1 + exp [(Eg – EF)/KT]

Where EF is the Fermi Level

The probability of an electron being in the valence bond is given by putting Eg = 0 in eqn.
Hence, the number of electrons in the valence bond is given by

N
nv = ------------------------------
1 + exp(-EF/KT)

The total number of electrons in the semiconductor. N is the sum of those in the conduction
band n and those in the valence bond nv. Thus,

N N
N = -------------------------------- + --------------------------
1 + exp [ (Eg – EF) / KT ] 1 + exp(-EF/KT)

For semiconductors at ordinary temperature, Eg >> KT as such in equation one may be

neglected when compared with exp Eg – EF Then
RT

1 1
1 = +
exp Eg – EF 1 + exp – EF
RT RT

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Rearranging the terms, we get

- Eg + EF exp (-EF/RT)
exp =
RT 1 + exp (-EF/RT)

-EF
 exp
RT

2 EF - Eg
or exp =1
RT

This leads to

EF = Eg/2

Thus in an intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies mid way between the conduction and
the valence bonds. The number of conduction electrons at any temperature T is given by
N
n= ( EF = Eg/2)
1 + exp(Eg/2KT)

In eqn may be approximated as

n  N exp(-Eg / 2RT)

From the above discussion, the following conclusions may be drawn.

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a) The number of conduction electrons and hence the number of holes in an intrinsic
semiconductor, decreases exponentially with increasing gap energy Eg this accounts for
lack of charge carries in insulator of large forbidden energy gap.
b) The number of available charge carries increases exponentially with increasing
temperature.

The above treatment is only approximate as we have assumed that all states in a bond have
the same energy. Really it is not so. A more rigorous analysis must include additions terms
in eqn.

The no of conduction bond, in fact is given by

n =  S(E) P(E) dE

Where S(E) is the density of available states in the energy range between E and E + dE, and
P(E) is the probability, that an electron can occupy a state of energy E.

S(E) 82  m3/2 E1/2

n3

Inclusion of S(E) and integration over the conduction bond leads to

n = Ne exp [(-Eg-EF)/RT]

In a similar way, we arrive at

p = NV exp [ -EF/RT]

If we multiply eq: we get

2
np = ni = Ne NV exp(-Eg/RT)

For the intrinsic material

3/2 3/4
Ni = 2 (2RT) (me* mn*) exp(-Eg/2RT)
2
h

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Notice that this expression agress with the less rigorous one derived earlier since the
temperature dependence is largely controlled by the rapidly varying exponential term.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:

Intrinsic Semiconductors are rarely used in semiconductor devices as their

conductivity is not sufficiently high. The electrical conductivity is extremely sensitive to
certain types of impurity. It is the ability to modify electrical characteristics of the material
by adding chosen impurities that make extrinsic semiconductors important and interesting.

Addition of appropriate quantities of chosen impurities is called doping, usually, only minute
quantities of dopants (1 part in 103 to 1010) are required. Extrinsic or doped semiconductors
are classified into main two main types according to the type of charge carries that
predominate. They are the n-type and the p-type.

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS:

Doping with a pentavalent impurity like phosphorous, arsenic or

antimony the semiconductor becomes rich in conduction electrons. It is called n-type the
bond structure of an n-type semiconductor is shown in Fig below.

Even at room temperature, nearby all impurity atoms lose an electron into the conduction
bond by thermal ionization. The additional electrons contribute to the conductivity in the
same way as those excited thermally from the valence bond. The essential difference beam

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the two mechanisms is that ionized impurities remain fixed and no holes are produced. Since
penta valent impurities denote extra carries elections, they are called donors.

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS:-

p-type semiconductors have holes as majority charge carries. They are

produced by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with trivalent impurities.(e.g. boron,
aluminium, gallium, or indium). These dopants have three valence electrons in their outer
shell. Each impurity is short of one electron bar covalent bonding. The vacancy thus created
is bound to the atom at OK. It is not a hole. But at some higher temperature an electron from
a neighbouring atom can fill the vacancy leaving a hole in the valence bond for conduction.
It behaves as a positively charge particle of effective mass mh*. The bond structure of a p-
type semiconductor is shown in Fig below.

Dopants of the trivalent type are called acceptors, since they accept electrons to create holes
above the tope of the valence bond. The acceptor energy level is small compared with
thermal energy of an electron at room temperature. As such nearly all acceptor levels are
occupied and each acceptor atom creates a hole in the valence bond. In extrinsic
semiconductors, there are two types of charge carries. In n-type, electrons are more than
holes. Hence electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carries. Holes are
majority carries in p-type semiconductors; electrons are minority carriers.

CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:

Equation gives the relation been electron and hole concentrations in a semiconductor.
Existence of charge neutrality in a crystal also relates n and p. The charge neutrality
may be stated as

ND + p = NA + n

Since donors atoms are all ionized, ND positive charge per cubic meter are
contributed by ND donor ions. Hence the total positive charge density = ND + p.
Similarly if NA is the concentration of the acceptor ions, they contribute NA negative
charge per cubic meter. The total negative charges density = NA + n. Since the

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semiconductor is electrically neutral the magnitude of the positive charge density

must be equal to the magnitude of the total negative charge density.

n-type material : NA = 0 Since n >> p, eqn reduces to n  ND i.e., in an n-type

material the where subscript n indicates n-type material. The concentration pn of
holes in the n-type semiconductor is obtained from eqn i.e.,

2
nn pn = n i

2
Thus pn  n i

ND

2
Similarly, for a p-type semiconductor pp  NA and np  n i

NA

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Expression for electrical conductivity:

There are two types of carries in a Semiconductor electrons and holes. Both these
carries contribute to conduction. The general expression for conductivity can be written
down as
 = e (ne +  h)

Where e and h are motilities of electrons and holes respectively.

A. Intrinsic Semiconductor; For an intrinsic Semiconductor

n = p = ni

eqn becomes

i = eni (n + p)

If the scattering is predominantly due to lattice vibrations.

3/2
e = AT
3/2
h = BT

3/2 3/2
We may put e + h = (A + B)T = CT
3/2
i = ni CT
Substituting for ni from eq we get

3/2 3/4
i = 2 2RT 3/2
CT (me* mh*) exp -Eg .
h2 2RT

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log i = log x - Eg
2RT

A graph of log i Vs 1/T gives a straight line shown in fig below:

LIFE TIME OF MINORITY CARRIER:

In Semiconductor devices electron and hole concentrations are very often disturbed
from their equilibrium values. This may happen due to thermal agitation or incidence of
optical radiation. Even in a pure Semiconductor there will be a dynamic equilibrium. In a
pure Semiconductor the number of holes is equal to the number of free electrons. Thermal
agitation continuously produces of new EHP per unit volume per second while other EHP
disappear due to recombination. On the average a hole exists for a time period of Tp while an
electron exists for a time period Tn before recombination take place. This time is called the
mean life time. If we are dealing with holes in an n-type Semiconductor, Tp is called the
minority carrier life time. These parameters are important in Semiconductor devices as they
indicate the time required for electron and hole concentration to return to their equilibrium
values after they are disturbed.

Let the equilibrium concentration of electrons and holes in an n-type Semiconductor

be n0 and p0 respectively. If the specimen is illuminated at t = ti , additional EHPS are
generated throughout the specimen. The existing equilibrium is disturbed and the new
equilibrium concentrations are p and n. The excess concentration of
holes = p – p0 – Excess concentration of electrons = n – n0 Since the radiation creates EHPS.

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p – p0 = n – n0

Due to incident radiation equal no of holes and electrons are created. How ever, the
percentage increase of minority carriers is much more than the percentage of majority carries.
In fact, the majority charge carrier change is negligibly small. Hence it is the minority charge
carrier density that is important. Hence, we shall discuss the behaviour of minority carriers.

As indicated in radiation is removed at t = 0. Let us investigate how the minority

carrier density returns to its original equilibrium value.

The hole concentration decreases as a result of recombination. Decrease in hole

concentration per second due to recombination = p/Tp. But the increase in hole
concentration per second due to thermal generation = g Since charge can neither be created
nor destroyed

dp = g - p
dt Tp

When the radiation is with drawn, the hole concentration p reaches equilibrium value
p0 Hence g = p0/Tp. Then eqn may be rewritten as

dp = p0 – p
dt Tp

We define excess carrier concentration. Since p is a function of time.

p = p – p0 = p(t)
from we may write dp = -p
dt Tp

The solution to the above differential equation is given by

p(t) = p (0) e-t/Tp

The excess concentration decreases exponentially to zero with a time constant Tp.

DRIFT CURRENT:

In an electric field E, the drift velocity Vd of carriers superposes on the thermal

velocity Vth. But the flow of charge carriers results in an electric current, known as the drift
current. Let a field E be applied, in the positive creating drifts currents Jnd and Jpd of
electrons and holes respectively.

Without E, the carriers move randomly with rms velocity Vth. Their mean velocity
is zero. The current density will be zero. But the field E applied, the electrons have the
velocity Vde and the holes Vdh.

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Consider free electrons in a Semiconductor moving with uniform velocity Vde in the
negative x direction due to an electric field E. Consider a smaller rectangular block of AB of
length Vde inside the Semiconductor. Let the area of the side faces each be unity. The total
charge Q in the elements AB is

Q = Volume of the element x density of partially change on each particle

= (Vde x 1x 1) x n x –q
Thus Q = -qnVde

Where n is the number density of electrons. The entire charge of the block will cross
the face B, in unit time. Thus the drift current density Jnd due to free electrons at the face B
will be.

Jnd = - q nVde

Similarly for holes Jpd = q nVdh

but Vde = -nE

and Vdh = pE
hence Jnd = n qnE
and Jpd = p qnE

The total drift current due to both electrons and holes Jd is

Jd = Jnd + Jpd = (nqn + pq p)E

Even though electrons and holes move in opposite direction the effective direction of current
flow, is the same for both and hence they get added up. Ohm‘s Law can be written in terms
of electrical conductivity, as

Jd = E

Equating the RHS of eq we have

 = nqn + pqp = n + p

For an intrinsic Semiconductor n = p = ni

i = ni q(n + p)

DIFFUSION CURRENTS:

1. Diffusion Current: Electric current is Setup by the directed movement of charge

carriers. The movements of charge carriers could be due to either drift or diffusion. Non-
uniform concentration of carriers gives rise to diffusion. The first law of diffusion by Fick
States that the flux F, i.e., the particle current is proportional and is directed to opposite to the
concentration gradient of particles. It can be written mathematically, in terms of
concentration N, as

F = -D V N

Where D stands for diffusion constant.

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In one dimension it is written as

F = -D N
x

In terms of Je and Jp the flux densities of electrons holes and their densities n and p
respectively.
We get Je = -Dn N
x

and Jn = -Dp p
x

Where Dn and Dp are the electron and hole diffusion constant constants respectively.
Then the diffusion current densities become

Jn diff = q Dn N
x

Jp diff = - q Dp p
x

THE EINSTEIN RELATIONS:

When both the drift and the diffusion currents are present total electron and hole current
densities can be summed up as

Jn = Jnd + Jn diff
n
Jn = nqn E + qDn -----
x

p
Jp = pqp E - qDp -----
x

Now, let us consider a non uniformly doped n-type slab of the Semiconductor fig shown
below (9) under thermal equilibrium. Let the slab be intrinsic at x = 0 while the donor
concentration, increases gradually upto x = 1, beyond which it becomes a constant. Assume
that the Semiconductor is non-degenerate and that all the donors are ionized. Due to the
concentration gradient, electrons tend to diffuse to the left to x = l. This diffusion leaves
behind a positive charge of ionized donors beyond x = 1 and accumulates electron near x = 0

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plane. This charge imbalance. Sets up an electric field in which the electrons experience fill
towards x = 1.

Fig shows illustrates the equilibrium potential (x) fig shown refers to the bond diagram of
the Semiconductor.

Both E1 and EF coincide till x = 0 when n0 = ni that EF continues to be the same throughout
the slab. But since the bond structure is not changed due to doping, the bond edges bond
with equal separation all along. How ever, the level Ei continues to lie midway between EV
and E.

In thermal equilibrium, the electrons tend to diffuse down the concentration tending to setup
a current from the right to left. The presence of electric field tends to set up drift current of
electrons in the opposite direction. Both the currents add upto zero. Thus we obtain

n
Jn = qDn ----- + nqn E = 0
x

n
i.e., Dn ----- + nn E = 0
x

For a non degenerate Semi conductor.

EF – Ei(x)
n(x) = ni exp -------------
RT

Thus relation is valid at all points in the Semiconductor further. The electronic concentration
is not influenced by the small in balance of charge. Energy is defined in terms of (x) the
potential.
E(x) = -q(x)
Then EF – Ei(x) = Ei(0)– Ei(x) = -q[(0) - (x)]
q(x)
Assuming (0) = 0 we get n(x) = ni exp ------
RT
dn -d

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Substituting ------ from eqn along with E = ----- we get

dx dx

nq d d
Dn ------- ------- = n n -----
RT dx dx

RT
Simplifying we obtain, Dn = ------ n
q

RT
Simplifying for holes Dp = ----- p
q

These are known as Einstein relations and the factor (RT/q) as thermal voltage. The above
relations hold good only for non degenerate Semiconductors. For the degenerate case the
Einstein‘s relations are complex.

It is clear from the Einstein‘s relation that Dp p and Dn,n are related and they are functions
of temperature also. The relation of diffusion constant D and the mobility  confirms the
fact, that both the diffusion an drift processes arise due to thermal motion and scattering of
free electrons, even though they appear to be different.

EQUATION OF CONTINUITY:

If the equilibrium concentrations of carriers in a Semiconductor are disturbed, the

concentrations of electrons and holes vary with time. How ever the carrier concentration in a
Semiconductor is a function of both time and position.

The fundamental law governing the flow of charge is called the continuity equation. It is
arrived at by assuming law to conservation of charge provided drift diffusion and
recombination processes are taken into account.

Consider a small length x of a Semiconductor sample with area A in the Z plane fig
shown above. The hole current density leaving the volume (x) under consideration is Jp (
x + x) and the current density entering the volume is Jp(x). Jp (x + x) may be smaller or

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larger than Jp(x) depending upon the generation and recombination of carriers in the
element. The resulting change in hole concentration per unit time.

p = hole flux entering per unit time – hole flux leaving per unit

p Jp(x+x) p
----- = Jp(x) - --------------- - ------
t x x+x q x Tp

Where Tp is the recombination life time. According to eqn, the rate of hole build up is equla
to the rate of increase of hole concentration remains the recombination rate. As x
approaches zero, we may write

p  p - 1  Jp p
-----(x,t) = ------ = ----------- - ------
t t q x Tp

The above is called the continuity equation for holes for electrons

n 1 Jn n
----- = -------- - -----
t q dx Tn

If there is no drift we may write


Jn(diff) = qDn ----
x

Substituting the above eqn we get the following diffusion eqn for electrons.

n 2n n
----- = Dn -------- - -----
2
t x Tn
For holes we may write

p 2p p
----- = Dp -------- - -----
2
t x Tp

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HALL EFFECT:

When a material carrying current is subjected to a magnetic field in a direction

perpendicular to the direction of current, an electric field is developed across the material in a
direction perpendicular to both the direction of the magnetic field and the current direction.
This phenomenon is called Hall Effect.

Hall Effect finds important application in studying the electron properties of semi
conductor, such as determination of carrier concentration and carrier mobility. It also used to
determine whether a semi conductor is n-type, or p- type.

THEORY:

Consider a rectangular slab of an n-type Semiconductor carrying current in the

positive x-direction. The magnetic field B is acting in the positive direction as indicated in
fig above. Under the influence of the magnetic field, electrons experience a force FL given
by

FL = - Bev --------------- (1)

Where e = magnitude of the charge of the electron

v = drift velocity

Appling the Fleming‘s Left Hand Rule, it indicates a force FH acting on the electrons in the
negative y-direction and electron are deflected down wards. As a consequence the lower face
of the specimen gets negatively charged (due to increases of electrons) and the upper face

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positively charged (due to loss of electrons). Hence a potential VH, called the Hall voltage
appears between the top and bottom faces of the specimen, which establishes an electric field
EH, called the Hall field across the conductor in negative y-direction. The field EH exerts an
upward force FH on the electrons. It is given by

FH = - eEH --------------------------------------(2)

FH acts on electrons in the upward direction. The two opposing forces FL and FH establish an
equilibrium under which

|FL = FH

using eqns 1 and 2 -Bev = -eEH

EH = Bv --------------(3)

If ‗d‘ is the thickness of the Specimen

VH
EH = ------
d

VH = EH d = Bvd from eqn (3)------------------------- 4

If  is the width of the specimen in z- direction.

The current density

I
J = -----
d

But J = nev = ρv -------------------- 5

Where n = electron concentration

And ρ = charge density
I
 ρv = ----
d

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I
or v = ------ --------------------------------- 6
ρd

Substitutinf for v, from eqns 6 and 4

VH = BI / ρ

BI
or ρ= --------
VH 

Thus, by measuring VH, I, and  and by knowing B, the charge density ρ can be determined.

Hall Coefficient:

The Hall field EH, for a given material depends on the current density J, and the
applied field B

i.e., EH  JB

EH= RH JB

Where RH is called the Hall Coefficient

BI
Since VH = --------

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ρ

VH
EH = -----
Jd

I
J = ------
d

BI I
-------- = RH ------- B
Jd d

I
This leads to RH = -----
ρ

Mobility of charge carriers:

The mobility  is given by  = v

E

But J = E = nev = ρv

 E = ρv

ρv
or E = -----


  = ---- = RH ( 1/ρ = RH)
ρ
σ is the conductivity of the semi conductor.

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(C) Applications

(a) Determination of the type of Semiconductor: The Hall Coefficient RH is

negative for an n-type Semiconductor and positive for a p-type material. Thus,
the sign of the Hall coefficient can be utilized to determine whether a given
Semiconductor is n or p type.
(b) Determination of Carrier Concentration: Equation relates the Hall Coefficient
RH and charge density is

1 -1
RH = ------ = ------ ( for n-type
p ne

1
= ------ ( for p-type
pe
1
Thus n = ------
eRH

1
and -------
eRH

(c) Determination of mobility: According to equation the mobility of charge carriers

is given by

 = |RH|
Determination of  and RH leads to a value of mobility of charge carriers.

(d) Measurement of Magnetic Induction (B):- The Hall Voltage is proportional to

the flux density B. As such measurement of VH can be used to9 estimate B.

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9. PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

To describe the basic structure and general properties of semiconductor devices. We will not
be showing such devices in working circuits in this set of pages; other pages already under
development will serve that purpose. However, I have received a number of inquiries on the
order of "What is a MOSFET?" and "What's inside a transistor?" This set of pages is intended
to answer such questions.In some cases we'll be dealing with some rather technical terms, and
we will sometimes have to deal with some essential concepts involved in physics. More
general explanations and definitions will also be given, so if you don't need the technical
definitions, don't worry about them. The terms are present in case you actually need them.
These pages will begin with basic semiconductor structure and what happens when impurities
are added to a pure silicon crystal through a process known as "doping." We'll look at what
happens when two or three different regions are created within a single silicon crystal. Then
we'll start to look at variations: field-effect devices, devices with four and even five different
regions, and finally the kinds of effects we can get when we change the amount of impurities
within the crystal.

Semiconductor diodes are normally one of the following types:

1. Grown junction diode
2. Alloy type or fused junction diode
3. Diffused junction diode
4. Epitaxial grown or planar diffused diode
5. Point contact diode

Semiconductor diode fabrication types

Fabrication techniques of a P-N junction diode
1. Grown Junction Diode: Diodes of this type are formed during the crystal pulling process.
P and N-type impurities can be alternately added to the molten semiconductor material in the
crucible, which results in a P-N junction, as shown when crystal is pulled. After slicing, the
larger area device can then be cut into a large number (say in thousands) of smaller-area
semiconductor diodes. Though such diodes, because of larger area, are capable of handling
large currents but larger area also introduces more capacitive effects, which are undesirable.
Such diodes are used for low frequencies.

2. Alloy Type or Fused Junction Diode: Such a diode is formed by first placing a P- type
impurity (a tiny pellet of aluminium or some other P- type impurity) into the surface of an N-
type crystal and heating the two until liquefaction occurs where the two materials meet. An
alloy will result that on cooling will give a P-N junction at the boundary of the alloy
substrate. Similarly, an N-type impurity may be placed into the surface of a P- type crystal
and the two are heated until liquefaction occurs. Alloy type diodes have a high current rating
and large PIV (peak inverse voltage) rating. The junction capacitance is also large, due to the
large junction area.

3. Diffused Junction Diode: Diffusion is a process by which a heavy concentration of

particles diffuse into a surrounding region of lower concentration. The main difference
between the diffusion and alloy process is the fact that liquefaction is not reached in the diffu-
sion process. In the diffusion process heat is applied only to increase the activity of elements
involved. For formation of such diodes, either solid or gaseous diffusion process can be
employed. The process of solid diffusion starts with formation of layer of an acceptor
impurity on an N- type substrate and heating the two until the impurity diffuses into the
substrate to form the P-type layer, as illustrated in figure. A large P-N junction is divided into
parts by cutting process. Metallic contacts are made for connecting anode and cathode leads.

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In the process of gaseous diffusion instead of layer formation of an acceptor impurity, an N-

type substrate is placed in a gaseous atmosphere of acceptor impurities and then heated. The
impurity diffuses into the substrate to form P- type layer on the N- type substrate. Though,
the diffusion process requires more time than the alloy process but it is relatively
inexpensive, and can be very accurately controlled. The diffusion technique leads itself to the
simultaneous fabrication of many hundreds of diodes on one small disc of semiconductor
material and is most commonly used in the manufacture of semiconductor diodes. This
technique is also used in the production of transistors and ICs (integrated circuits).

4. Epitaxial Growth or Planar Diffused Diode. The term ―epitaxial‖ is derived from the
Latin terms epi meaning ‗upon‘ and taxis meaning ―arrangement‖.To construct an epitaxially
grown diode, a very thin (single crystal) high impurity layer of semiconductor material
(silicon or germanium) is grown on a heavily doped substrate (base) of the same material.
This complete structure then forms the N- region on which P- region is diffused. Si02 layer is
thermally grown on the top surface, photo-etched and then aluminium contact is made to the
P- region. A metallic layer at the bottom of the substrate forms the cathode to which lead is
attached.This process is usually employed in the fabrication of IC chips.

5. Point Contact Diode. It consists of an N-type germanium or silicon wafer about 12.5 mm
square by 0.5 mm thick, one face of which is soldered to a metal base by radio-frequency
heating and the other face has a phosphor bronze or tungsten spring pressed against it. A
barrier layer is formed round the point contact by a pulsating current forming process. This
causes a P-region to be formed round the wire and since pure germanium is N-type, a very
small P-N junction in the shape of a hemisphere is formed round the point contact. The
forming process cannot be controlled with precision. Because of small area of the junction,
point contact diode can be used to rectify only very small currents (of the order of m A). On
the other hand, the shunting capacitance of point contact diodes are very valuable in
equipment operating at super high frequencies (as high as 25,000 MHz).

The PN Junction
We've seen that it is possible to turn a crystal of pure silicon into a moderately good electrical
conductor by adding an impurity such as arsenic or phosphorus (for an N-type
semiconductor) or aluminum or gallium (for a P-type semiconductor). By itself, however, a
single type of semiconductor material isn't very useful. Useful applications start to happen
only when a single semiconductor crystal contains both P-type and N-type regions. Here we
will examine the properties of a single silicon crystal which is half N-type and half P-type.

Consider the silicon crystal represented to the right. Half is N-type while the other half is P-
type. We've shown the two types separated slightly, as if they were two separate crystals. The
free electrons in the N-type crystal are represented by small black circles with a "-" sign
inside to indicate their polarity. The holes in the P-type crystal are shown as small white
circles with a "+" inside.
In the real world, it isn't possible to join two such crystals together usefully. Therefore, a
practical PN junction can only be created by inserting different impurities into different parts
of a single crystal. So let's see what happens when we join the N- and P-type crystals
together, so that the result is one crystal with a sharp boundary between the two types.

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You might think that, left to itself, it would just sit there. However, this is not the case.
Instead, an interesting interaction occurs at the junction. The extra electrons in the N region
will seek to lose energy by filling the holes in the P region. This leaves an empty zone, or
depletion region as it is called, around the junction as shown to the right. This action also
leaves a small electrical imbalance inside the crystal. The N region is missing some electrons
so it has a positive charge. Those electrons have migrated to fill holes in the P region, which
therefore has a negative charge. This electrical imbalance amounts to about 0.3 volt in a
germanium crystal, and about 0.65 to 0.7 volt in a silicon crystal. This will vary somewhat
depending on the concentration of the impurities on either side of the junction.
Unfortunately, it is not possible to exploit this electrical imbalance as a power source; it
doesn't work that way. However, we can apply an external voltage to the crystal and see what
happens in response. Let's take a look at the possibilities.

Suppose we apply a voltage to the outside ends of our PN crystal. We have two choices. In
this case, the positive voltage is applied to the N-type material. In response, we see that the
positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts any free electrons towards the end of
the crystal and away from the junction, while the negative voltage applied to the P-type end
attracts holes away from the junction on this end. The result is that all available current
carriers are attracted away from the junction, and the depletion region grows correspondingly
larger. There is no current flow through the crystal because all available current carriers are
attracted away from the junction, and cannot cross. (We are here considering an ideal crystal
-- in real life, the crystal can't be perfect, and some leakage current does flow.) This is known
as reverse bias applied to the semiconductor crystal.

Here the applied voltage polarities have been reversed. Now, the negative volatge applied to
the N-type end pushes electrons towards the junction, while the positive voltage at the P-type
end pushes holes towards the junction. This has the effect of shrinking the depletion region.
As the applied voltage exceeds the internal electrical imbalance, current carriers of both types
can cross the junction into the opposite ends of the crystal. Now, electrons in the P-type end
are attracted to the positive applied voltage, while holes in the N-type end are attracted to the
negative applied voltage. This is the condition of forward bias.
Because of this behavior, an electrical current can flow through the junction in the forward
direction, but not in the reverse direction. This is the basic nature of an ordinary
semiconductor diode.

It is important to realize that holes exist only within the crystal. A hole reaching the negative
terminal of the crystal is filled by an electron from the power source and simply disappears.
At the positive terminal, the power supply attracts an electron out of the crystal, leaving a
hole behind to move through the crystal toward the junction again.
In some literature, you might see the N-type connection designated the cathode of the diode,
while the P-type connection is called the anode. These designations come from the days of
vacuum tubes, but are still in use. Electrons always move from cathode to anode inside the
diode.
One point that needs to be recognized is that there is a limit to the magnitude of the reverse
voltage that can be applied to any PN junction. As the applied reverse voltage increases, the
depletion region continues to expand. If either end of the depletion region approaches its
electrical contact too closely, the applied voltage has become high enough to generate an
electrical arc straight through the crystal. This will destroy the diode.

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It is also possible to allow too much current to flow through the diode in the forward
direction. The crystal is not a perfect conductor, remember; it does exhibit some resistance.
Heavy current flow will generate some heat within that resistance. If the resulting
temperature gets too high, the semiconductor crystal will actually melt, again destroying its
usefulness.

Drift-Diffusion Current Equations

The popular drift-diffusion model can be derived directly from Boltzmann's transport
equation by the method of moments [104] or from the basic principles of irreversible
thermodynamics [105]. In this model the electron current density is expressed as a sum of
two components: The drift component which is driven by the electric field and the diffusion
component caused by the gradient of the electron concentration
(3.13)

where and are the mobility and the diffusivity of the electron gas, respectively. It is

clear from the above reasoning that for anisotropic materials and are all tensors of
second rank and have the same form as the representative tensor in (3.2). They are related
by the Einstein relation

(3.14)

where is the Boltzmann constant and the lattice temperature which is constant
as the electron gas at drift diffusion is assumed to be in thermal equilibrium.
The current relation (3.13) is inserted into the continuity (3.11) and (3.12) to give a second
order parabolic differential equation which is then solved together with POISSON's
equation (3.10). More generally, according to the phenomenological equations of drift-

diffusion the electron and hole current densities and can be expressed as

(3.15)

(3.16)

These current relations account for position-dependent band edge energies, and , and
position-dependent effective masses, which are included in the effective density of states,

and . The index 0 indicates that and are evaluated at some (arbitrary)

reference temperature, , which is constant in real space regardless of what the local values
of the lattice and carrier temperatures are.

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Current–voltage characteristic
A semiconductor diode‘s behavior in a circuit is given by its current–voltage characteristic, or
I–V graph (see graph at right). The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of
charge carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the p-n
junction between differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is first created, conduction
band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there
is a large population of holes (places for electrons in which no electron is present) with which
the electrons ―recombine‖. When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and
electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor (the dopant) on the N-
side and negatively charged acceptor (the dopant) on the P-side. The region around the p-n
junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator. However, the
width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow without limit. For each
electron-hole pair that recombines, a positively-charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-
doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As
recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops
through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this
point, there is a ―built-in‖ potential across the depletion zone.If an external voltage is placed
across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues
to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow (unless electron/hole
pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light. see photodiode). This is
the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the
built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in substantial electric
current through the p-n junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at
the junction).. For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.6 V. Thus, if an
external current is passed through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the diode
such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is
said to be ―turned on‖ as it has a forward bias.

Figure 5: I–V characteristics of a P-N junction diode

A diode‘s I–V characteristic can be approximated by four regions of operation (see the figure
at right).
At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a process called reverse
breakdown occurs which causes a large increase in current (i.e. a large number of electrons
and holes are created at, and move away from the pn junction) that usually damages the
device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in the avalanche
region. In the zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A zener diode contains a
heavily doped p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type

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material to the conduction band of the n-type material, such that the reverse voltage is
―clamped‖ to a known value (called the zener voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both
devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum current and power in the clamped reverse
voltage region. Also, following the end of forward conduction in any diode, there is reverse
current for a short time. The device does not attain its full blocking capability until the
reverse current ceases.The second region, at reverse biases more positive than the PIV, has
only a very small reverse saturation current. In the reverse bias region for a normal P-N
rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the µA range). However, this is
temperature dependent, and at suffiently high temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse
current can be observed (mA or more).
The third region is forward but small bias, where only a small forward current is conducted.
As the potential difference is increased above an arbitrarily defined ―cut-in voltage‖ or ―on-
voltage‖ or ―diode forward voltage drop (Vd)‖, the diode current becomes appreciable (the
level of current considered ―appreciable‖ and the value of cut-in voltage depends on the
application), and the diode presents a very low resistance. The current–voltage curve is
exponential. In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the arbitrary ―cut-in‖ voltage is
defined as 0.6 to 0.7 volts.
The junction is biased with a voltage Va as shown in Figure 4.2.1. We will call the junction
forward-biased if a positive voltage is applied to the p-doped region and reversed-biased if
a negative voltage is applied to the p-doped region. The contact to the p-type region is also
called the anode, while the contact to the n-type region is called the cathode, in reference
to the anions or positive carriers and cations or negative carriers in each of these regions.

Figure 4.2.2 : Energy band diagram of a p-n junction (a) before and (b) after merging the n-type
and p-type regions
Note that this does not automatically align the Fermi energies, EF,n and EF,p. Also, note that this
flatband diagram is not an equilibrium diagram since both electrons and holes can lower their
energy by crossing the junction. A motion of electrons and holes is therefore expected before
thermal equilibrium is obtained. The diagram shown in Figure 4.2.2 (b) is called a flatband
diagram. This name refers to the horizontal band edges. It also implies that there is no field and no
net charge in the semiconductor.
4.2.2. Thermal equilibrium
To reach thermal equilibrium, electrons/holes close to the metallurgical junction diffuse across the
junction into the p-type/n-type region where hardly any electrons/holes are present. This process
leaves the ionized donors (acceptors) behind, creating a region around the junction, which is
depleted of mobile carriers. We call this region the depletion region, extending from x = -xp to x =
xn. The charge due to the ionized donors and acceptors causes an electric field, which in turn
causes a drift of carriers in the opposite direction. The diffusion of carriers continues until the drift
current balances the diffusion current, thereby reaching thermal equilibrium as indicated by a

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constant Fermi energy. This situation is shown in Figure 4.2.3:

Figure 4.2.3 : Energy band diagram of a p-n junction in thermal equilibrium

While in thermal equilibrium no external voltage is applied between the n-type and p-type
material, there is an internal potential, i, which is caused by the workfunction difference
between the n-type and p-type semiconductors. This potential equals the built-in potential,
which will be further discussed in the next section.
4.2.3. The built-in potential
The built-in potential in a semiconductor equals the potential across the depletion region in
thermal equilibrium. Since thermal equilibrium implies that the Fermi energy is constant
throughout the p-n diode, the built-in potential equals the difference between the Fermi energies,
EFn and EFp, divided by the electronic charge. It also equals the sum of the bulk potentials of
each region, n and p, since the bulk potential quantifies the distance between the Fermi energy
and the intrinsic energy. This yields the following expression for the built-in potential.

(4.2.1)
16 -
Example 4.1 An abrupt silicon p-n junction consists of a p-type region containing 2 x 10 cm
3 16 -3
acceptors and an n-type region containing also 10 cm acceptors in addition
17 -3
to 10 cm donors.

a. Calculate the thermal equilibrium density of electrons and holes in the p-

type region as well as both densities in the n-type region.
b. Calculate the built-in potential of the p-n junction
c. Calculate the built-in potential of the p-n junction at 400 K.

Solution a. The thermal equilibrium densities are:

In the p-type region:
16 -3
p = Na = 2 x 10 cm
2 20 16 3 -3
n = ni /p = 10 /2 x 10 = 5 x 10 cm

In the n-type region

16 -3
n = Nd - Na = 9 x 10 cm

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20 16 3 -3
p = ni2/n = 10 /(1 x 10 ) = 1.11 x 10 cm

b. The built-in potential is obtained from:

c. Similarly, the built-in potential at 400 K equals:

where the instrinsic carrier density at 400 K was obtained from example
2.4.b
4.2.4. Forward and reverse bias
We now consider a p-n diode with an applied bias voltage, Va. A forward bias corresponds to
applying a positive voltage to the anode (the p-type region) relative to the cathode (the n-type
region). A reverse bias corresponds to a negative voltage applied to the cathode. Both bias
modes are illustrated with Figure 4.2.4. The applied voltage is proportional to the difference
between the Fermi energy in the n-type and p-type quasi-neutral regions.
As a negative voltage is applied, the potential across the semiconductor increases and so does
the depletion layer width. As a positive voltage is applied, the potential across the
semiconductor decreases and with it the depletion layer width. The total potential across the
semiconductor equals the built-in potential minus the applied voltage, or:
(4.2.1)

Figure 4.2.4: Energy band diagram of a p-n junction under reverse and forward bias

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Introduction to Light Emitting Diodes

The past few decades have brought a continuing and rapidly evolving sequence of technological
revolutions, particularly in the digital arena, which has dramatically changed many aspects of our daily
lives. The developing race among manufacturers of light emitting diodes (LEDs) promises to produce,
literally, the most visible and far-reaching transition to date. Recent advances in the design and
manufacture of these miniature semiconductor devices may result in the obsolescence of the common light
bulb, perhaps the most ubiquitous device utilized by modern society.

The incandescent lamp is the best known of

Thomas Edison's major inventions, and the only one to have persisted in use (and in nearly its
original form) to the present day, now more than a century after its introduction. The
phonograph, tickertape, and mimeograph machines have been replaced by digital
technologies in the last few decades, and recently, full-spectrum light emitting diode devices
are becoming widespread, and could force incandescent and fluorescent lamps into
extinction. While some applications of LED technology may be as straightforward as
replacing one light bulb with another, far more visionary changes may involve dramatic new
mechanisms for utilizing light. As a result of the predicted evolution, walls, ceilings, or even
entire buildings could become the targets for specialized lighting scenarios, and interior
design changes might be accomplished through illumination effects rather than by repainting
or refurnishing. At the very least, a widespread change from incandescent to LED
illumination would result in enormous energy savings. Although light emitting diodes are in
operation all around us in videocassette recorders, clock radios, and microwave ovens, for
example, their use has been limited mainly to display functions on electronic appliances. The
tiny red and green indicator lights on computers and other devices are so familiar, the fact
that the first LEDs were limited to a dim red output is probably not widely recognized. In
fact, even the availability of green-emitting diodes represented a significant developmental
step in the technology. In the past 15 years or so, LEDs have become much more powerful,
and available in a wide spectrum of colors. A breakthrough that enabled fabrication of the
first blue LED in the early 1990s, emitting light at the opposite end of the visible light
spectrum from red, opened up the possibility to create virtually any color of light. More
important, the discovery made it technically feasible to produce white light from the tiny
semiconductor devices. An inexpensive, mass-market version of white LED is the most
sought-after goal of researchers and manufacturers, and is the device most likely to end a
hundred-year reliance on inefficient incandescent lamps. The widespread utilization of diode
devices for general lighting is still some years away, but LEDs are beginning to replace
incandescent lamps in many applications. There are a number of reasons for replacing
conventional incandescent light sources with modern semiconductor alternatives. Light
emitting diodes are far more efficient than incandescent bulbs at converting electricity into
visible light, they are rugged and compact, and can often last 100,000 hours in use, or about
100 times longer than incandescent bulbs. LEDs are fundamentally monochromatic emitters,
and applications requiring high-brightness, single-color lamps are experiencing the greatest
number of applications within the current generation of improved devices. The use of LEDs
is increasing for automotive taillights, turn signals, and side marker lights. As one of the first
automotive applications, the high-mount brake light on cars and trucks is a particularly

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appealing location for incorporating LEDs. Long LED lifespans allow manufacturers more
freedom to integrate the brake light into the vehicle design without the necessity of providing
for frequent (and easy) replacement, as is required when incandescent bulbs are used.
Approximately 10 percent of the red traffic lights in the United States have now been
replaced with LED-based lamps. The higher initial cost of the LEDs can be recovered in as
little as one year, due to their higher efficiency in producing red light, which is accomplished
without the need for filtering. The LEDs in a red traffic light consume about 10 to 25 watts,
compared with 50 to 150 for a red-filtered incandescent light of similar brightness. The
longevity of the LEDs is an obvious advantage in reducing expensive maintenance of the
signals. Single-color LEDs are also being utilized as runway lights at airports and as warning
lights on radio and television transmission towers. As improvements have been made in
manufacturing efficiency and toward the ability to produce light emitting diodes with
virtually any output color, the primary focus of researchers and industry has become the
white light diode. Two primary mechanisms are being employed to produce white light from
devices that are fundamentally monochromatic, and both techniques will most likely continue
to be utilized for different applications. One method involves mixing different colors of light
from multiple LEDs, or from different materials in a single LED, in proportions that result in
light that appears white. The second technique relies on using LED emission (commonly non-
visible ultraviolet) to provide energy for excitation of another substance, such as a phosphor,
which in turn produces white light. Each method has both advantages and disadvantages that
are likely to be in constant flux as further developments occur in LED technology.
Fundamentals of Semiconductor Diodes Details of the fundamental processes underlying the
function of light emitting diodes, and the materials utilized in their construction, are
presented in the ensuing discussion. The basic mechanism by which LEDs produce light can
be summarized, however, by a simple conceptual description. The familiar light bulb relies
upon temperature to emit visible light (and significantly more invisible radiation in the form
of heat) through a process known as incandescence. In contrast, the light emitting diode
employs a form of electroluminescence, which results from the electronic excitation of a
semiconductor material. The basic LED consists of a junction between two different
semiconductor materials (illustrated in Figure 2), in which an applied voltage produces a
current flow, accompanied by the emission of light when charge carriers injected across the
junction are recombined.

The fundamental element of the

LED is a semiconductor chip (similar to an integrated circuit), which is mounted in a reflector
cup supported by a lead frame connected to two electrical wires, and then embedded in a
solid epoxy lens (see Figure 1). One of the two semiconductor regions that comprise the
junction in the chip is dominated by negative charges (n-type region; Figure 2)), and the other
is dominated by positive charges (p-type region). When a sufficient voltage is applied to the
electrical leads, current flows and electrons move across the junction from the n region into
the p region where the negatively charged electrons combine with positive charges. Each
combination of charges is associated with an energy level reduction that may release a

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quantum of electromagnetic energy in the form of a light photon. The frequency, and
perceived color, of emitted photons is characteristic of the semiconductor material, and
consequently, different colors are achieved by making changes in the semiconductor
composition of the chip. The functional details of the light emitting diode are based on
properties common to semiconductor materials, such as silicon, which have variable
conduction characteristics. In order for a solid to conduct electricity, its resistance must be
low enough for electrons to move more or less freely throughout the bulk of the material.
Semiconductors exhibit electrical resistance values intermediate between those of conductors
and insulators, and their behavior can be modeled in terms of the band theory for solids. In a
crystalline solid, electrons of the constituent atoms occupy a large number of energy levels
that may differ very little either in energy or in quantum number. The wide spectrum of
energy levels tend to group together into nearly continuous energy bands, the width and
spacing of which differ considerably for different materials and conditions. At progressively
higher energy levels, proceeding outward from the nucleus, two distinct energy bands can be
defined, which are termed the valence band and the conduction band (Figure 3). The valence
band consists of electrons at a higher energy level than the inner electrons, and these have
some freedom to interact in pairs to form a type of localized bond among atoms of the solid.
At still-higher energy levels, electrons of the conduction band behave similarly to electrons in
individual atoms or molecules that have been excited above ground state, with a high degree
of freedom to move about within the solid. The difference in energy between the valence and
conduction bands is defined as the band gap for a particular material. In conductors, the
valence and conduction bands partially overlap in energy (see Figure 3), so that a portion of
the valence electrons always resides in the conduction band. The band gap is essentially zero
for these materials, and with part of the valence electrons moving freely into the conduction
band, vacancies or holes occur in the valence band. Electrons move, with very little energy
input, into holes in bands of adjacent atoms, and the holes migrate freely in the opposite
direction. In contrast to these materials, insulators have fully occupied valence bands and
larger band gaps, and the only mechanism by which electrons can move from atom to atom is
for a valence electron to be displaced into the conduction band, requiring a large energy
expenditure.
Semiconductors have band gaps that are small but finite, and at normal temperatures, thermal
agitation is sufficient to move some electrons into the conduction band where they can
contribute to electrical conduction. Resistance can be reduced by increasing the temperature,
but many semiconductor devices are designed in such a manner that the application of a
voltage produces the required changes in electron distribution between the valence and
conduction bands to enable current flow. Although the band arrangement is similar for all
semiconductors, there are large differences in the band gap (and in the distribution of
electrons among the bands) at specific temperature conditions.

The element silicon is the simplest intrinsic semiconductor, and is often used as a model for
describing the behavior of these materials. In its pure form, silicon does not have sufficient
charge carriers, or appropriate band gap structure, to be useful in light emitting diode
construction, but is widely used to fabricate other semiconductor devices. The conduction

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characteristics of silicon (and other semiconductors) can be improved through the

introduction of impurities in small quantities to the crystal, which serve to provide either
additional electrons or vacancies (holes) in the structure. Through this process, referred to as
doping, producers of integrated circuits have developed considerable ability to tailor the
properties of semiconductors to suit specific applications.The process of doping to modify the
electronic properties of semiconductors is most easily understood by considering the
relatively simple silicon crystal structure. Silicon is a Group IV member of the periodic table,
having four electrons that may participate in bonding with neighboring atoms in a solid. In
pure form, each silicon atom shares electrons with four neighbors, with no deficit or excess of
electrons beyond those required in the crystal structure. If a small amount of a Group III
element (those having three electrons in their outermost energy level) is added to the silicon
structure, an insufficient number of electrons exist to satisfy the bonding requirements. The
electron deficiency creates a vacancy, or hole, in the structure, and the resulting positive
electrical character classifies the material as p-type. Boron is one of the elements that is
commonly utilized to dope pure silicon to achieve p-type characteristics.
Doping in order to produce the opposite type of material, having a negative overall charge
character (n-type), is accomplished through the addition of Group V elements, such as
phosphorus, which have an "extra" electron in their outermost energy level. The resulting
semiconductor structure has an excess of available electrons over the number required for
covalent silicon bonding, which bestows the ability to act as an electron donor (characteristic
of n-type material).Although silicon and germanium are commonly employed in
semiconductor fabrication, neither material is suitable for light emitting diode construction
because junctions employing these elements produce a significant amount of heat, but only a
small quantity of infrared or visible light emission. Photon-emitting diode p-n junctions are
typically based on a mixture of Group III and Group V elements, such as gallium arsenide,
gallium arsenide phosphide, and gallium phosphide. Careful control of the relative
proportions of these compounds, and others incorporating aluminum and indium, as well as
the addition of dopants such as tellurium and magnesium, enables manufacturers and
researchers to produce diodes that emit red, orange, yellow, or green light. Recently the use
of silicon carbide and gallium nitride has permitted blue-emitting diodes to be introduced,
and combining several colors in various combinations provides a mechanism to produce
white light. The nature of materials comprising p-type and n-type sides of the device junction,
and the resulting energy band structure, determines the energy levels that are available during
charge recombination in the junction region, and therefore, the magnitude of the energy
quanta released as photons. As a consequence, the color of light emitted by a particular diode
depends upon the structure and composition of the p-n junction.The fundamental key to
manipulating properties of solid-state electronic devices is the nature of the p-n junction.
When dissimilar doped materials are placed in contact with each other, the flow of current in
the region of the junction is different than it is in either of the two materials alone. Current
will readily flow in one direction across the junction, but not in the other, constituting the
basic diode configuration. This behavior can be understood in terms of the movement of
electrons and holes in the two material types and across the junction. The extra free electrons
in the n-type material tend to move from the negatively charged area to a positively charged
area, or toward the p-type material. In the p-type region, which has vacant electron sites
(holes), lattice electrons can jump from hole to hole, and will tend to move away from the
negatively charged area. The result of this migration is that the holes appear to move in the
opposite direction, or away from the positively charged region and toward the negatively
charged area (Figure 4). Electrons from the n-type region and holes from the p-type region
recombine in the vicinity of the junction to form a depletion zone (or layer), in which no
charge carriers remain. In the depletion zone, a static charge is established that inhibits any
additional electron transfer, and no appreciable charge can flow across the junction unless
assisted by an external bias voltage.

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In a diode configuration, electrodes on opposite ends of the

device enable a voltage to be applied in a manner that can overcome the effect of the
depletion region. Connecting the n-type region of the diode to the negative side of an
electrical circuit, and the p-type region to the positive side will cause electrons to move from
the n-type material toward the p-type, and holes to move in the opposite direction. With
application of a sufficiently high voltage, the electrons in the depletion region are elevated in
energy to dissociate with the holes, and to begin moving freely again. Operated with this
circuit polarity, referred to as forward biasing of the p-n junction, the depletion zone
disappears and charge can move across the diode. Holes are driven to the junction from the p-
type material and electrons are driven to the junction from the n-type material. The
combination of holes and electrons at the junction allows a continuous current to be
maintained across the diode.
If the circuit polarity is reversed with respect to the p-type and n-type regions, electrons and
holes will be pulled in opposite directions, with an accompanying widening of the depletion
region at the junction. No continuous current flow occurs in a reverse-biased p-n junction,
although initially a transient current will flow as the electrons and holes are pulled away from
the junction. Current flow will cease as soon as the growing depletion zone creates a potential
that is equal to the applied voltage.
Light Emitting Diode Construction
Manipulation of the interaction between electrons and holes at the p-n junction is
fundamental in the design of all semiconductor devices, and for light emitting diodes, the
primary design goal is the efficient generation of light. Injection of carriers across the p-n
junction is accompanied by a drop in electron energy levels from the conduction band to
lower orbitals. This process takes place in any diode, but only produces visible light photons
in those having specific material compositions. In a standard silicon diode, the energy level
difference is relatively small, and only low frequency emission occurs, predominately in the
infrared region of the spectrum. Infrared diodes are useful in many devices, including remote
controls, but the design of visible-light emitting diodes requires fabrication with materials
exhibiting a wider gap between the conduction band and orbitals of the valence band. All
semiconductor diodes release some form of light, but most of the energy is absorbed into the
diode material itself unless the device is specifically designed to release the photons
externally. In addition, to be useful as a light source, diodes must concentrate light emission
in a specific direction. Both the composition and construction of the semiconductor chip, and
the design of the LED housing, contribute to the nature and efficiency of energy emission
from the device. The basic structure of a light emitting diode consists of the semiconductor
material (commonly referred to as a die), a lead frame on which the die is placed, and the
encapsulation epoxy surrounding the assembly (see Figure 1). The LED semiconductor chip
is supported in a reflector cup coined into the end of one electrode (the cathode), and, in the
typical configuration, the top face of the chip is connected with a gold bonding wire to a
second electrode (anode). Several junction structure designs require two bonding wires, one

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to each electrode. In addition to the obvious variation in the radiation wavelength of different
LEDs, there are variations in shape, size, and radiation pattern. The typical LED
semiconductor chip measures approximately 0.25 millimeter-square, and the epoxy body
ranges from 2 to about 10 millimeters in diameter. Most commonly, the body of the LED is
round, but they may be rectangular, square, or triangular.

Although the color of light emitted from a semiconductor die is determined by the
combination of chip materials, and the manner in which they are assembled, certain optical
characteristics of the LED can be controlled by other variables in the chip packaging. The
beam angle can be narrow or wide (see Figure 5), and is determined by the shape of the
reflector cup, the size of the LED chip, the distance from chip to the top of the epoxy housing
or lens, and the geometry of the epoxy lens. The tint of the epoxy lens does not determine the
emission color of the LED, but is often used as a convenient indicator of the lamp's color
when it is inactive. LEDs intended for applications that require high intensity, and no color in
the off-state, have clear lenses with no tint or diffusion. This type produces the greatest light
output, and may be designed to have the narrowest beam, or viewing angle. Non-diffused
lenses typically exhibit viewing angles of plus or minus 10 to 12 degrees (Figure 5). Their
intensity allows them to be utilized for backlighting applications, such as the illumination of
display panels on electronic devices. For creation of diffused LED lenses, minute glass
particles are embedded in the encapsulating epoxy. The diffusion created by inclusion of the
glass spreads light emitted by the diode, producing a viewing angle of approximately 35
degrees on either side of the central axis. This lens style is commonly employed in
applications in which the LED is viewed directly, such as for indicator lamps on equipment
panels. The choice of material systems and fabrication techniques in LED construction is
guided by two primary goals—maximization of light generation in the chip material, and the
efficient extraction of the generated light. In the forward-biased p-n junction, holes are
injected across the junction from the p region into the n region, and electrons are injected
from the n region into the p region. The equilibrium charge carrier distribution in the material
is altered by this injection process, which is referred to as minority-carrier injection.
Recombination of minority carriers with majority carriers takes place to reestablish thermal
equilibrium, and continued current flow maintains the minority-carrier injection. When the
recombination rate is equal to the injection rate, a steady-state carrier distribution is
established. Minority-carrier recombination can take place in a radiative fashion, with the
emission of a photon, but for this to occur the proper conditions must be established for
energy and momentum conservation. Meeting these conditions is not an instantaneous
process, and a time delay results before radiative recombination of the injected minority
carrier can take place. This delay, the minority carrier lifetime, is one of the primary variables
that must be considered in LED material design. Although the radiative recombination
process is desirable in LED design, it is not the only recombination mechanism that is
possible in semiconductors. Semiconductor materials cannot be produced without some
impurities, structural dislocations, and other crystalline defects, and these can all trap injected
minority carriers. Recombinations of this type may or may not produce light photons.
Recombinations that do not produce radiation are slowed by the diffusion of the carriers to

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suitable sites, and are characterized by a nonradiative process lifetime, which can be
compared to the radiative process lifetime. An obvious goal in LED design, given the factors
just described, is to maximize the radiative recombination of charge carriers relative to the
nonradiative. The relative efficiency of these two processes determines the fraction of
injected charge carriers that combine radiatively compared to the total number injected,
which can be stated as the internal quantum efficiency of the material system. The choice of
materials for LED fabrication relies upon an understanding of semiconductor band structure
and the means by which the energy levels can be chosen or manipulated to produce favorable
quantum efficiency values. Interestingly, certain groups of III-V compounds have internal
quantum efficiencies of nearly 100 percent, while other compounds utilized in
semiconductors may have internal quantum efficiencies as low as 1 percent. The radiative
lifetime for a particular semiconductor largely determines whether radiative recombinations
occur before nonradiative. Most semiconductors have similar simple valence band structure
with an energy peak situated around a particular crystallographic direction, but with much
more variation in the structure of the conduction band. Energy valleys exist in the conduction
band, and electrons occupying the lowest-energy valleys are positioned to more easily
participate in recombination with minority carriers in the valence band. Semiconductors can
be classified as direct or indirect depending upon the relative positioning of the conduction
band energy valleys and the energy apex of the valence band in energy/momentum space.
Direct semiconductors have holes and electrons positioned directly adjacent at the same
momentum coordinates, so that electrons and holes can recombine relatively easily while
maintaining momentum conservation. In an indirect semiconductor, the match between
conduction band energy valleys and holes that would allow momentum conservation is not
favorable, most of the transitions are forbidden, and the resulting radiative lifetime is long.

Silicon and germanium are examples of indirect

semiconductors, in which radiative recombination of injected carriers is extremely unlikely.
The radiative lifetime in such materials occurs in the range of seconds, and nearly all injected
carriers combine nonradiatively through defects in the crystal. Direct semiconductors, such as
gallium nitride or gallium arsenide, have short radiative lifetimes (approximately 1 to 100
nanoseconds), and materials can be produced with sufficiently low defect density that
radiative processes are as likely as nonradiative. For a recombination event to occur in
indirect gap materials, an electron must change its momentum before combining with a hole,
resulting in a significantly lower recombination probability for the occurrence of a band-to-
band transition. The quantum efficiencies exhibited by LEDs constructed of the two types of
semiconductor material clearly reflect this fact. Gallium nitride LEDs have quantum
efficiencies as high as 12 percent, compared to the 0.02 percent typical of silicon carbide
LEDs. Figure 6 presents an energy band diagram for direct band gap GaN and indirect band
gap SiC that illustrates the nature of the band-to-band energy transition for the two types of
material. The wavelength (and color) of light emitted in a radiative recombination of carriers
injected across a p-n junction is determined by the difference in energy between the
recombining electron-hole pair of the valence and conduction bands. The approximate
energies of the carriers correspond to the upper energy level of the valence band and the

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lowest energy of the conduction band, due to the tendency of the electrons and holes to
equilibrate at these levels. Consequently, the wavelength () of an emitted photon is
approximated by the following expression:
 = hc/Ebg where h represents Planck's constant, c is the velocity of light, and E(bg) is the
band gap energy. In order to change the wavelength of emitted radiation, the band gap of the
semiconducting material utilized to fabricate the LED must be changed. Gallium arsenide is a
common diode material, and may be used as an example illustrating the manner in which a
semiconductor's band structure can be altered to vary the emission wavelength of the device.
Gallium arsenide has a band gap of approximately 1.4 electron-volts, and emits in the
infrared at a wavelength of 900 nanometers. In order to increase the frequency of emission
into the visible red region (about 650 nanometers), the band gap must be increased to
approximately 1.9 electron-volts. This can be achieved by mixing gallium arsenide with a
compatible material having a larger band gap. Gallium phosphide, having a band gap of 2.3
electron-volts, is the most likely candidate for this mixture. LEDs produced with the
compound GaAsP (gallium arsenide phosphide) can be customized to produce band gaps of
any value between 1.4 and 2.3 electron-volts, through adjustment of the content of arsenic to
phosphorus. As previously discussed, maximization of light generation in the diode
semiconductor material is a primary design goal in LED fabrication. Another requirement is
the efficient extraction of the light from the chip. Because of total internal reflection, only a
fraction of the light that is generated isotropically within the semiconductor chip can escape
to the outside. According to Snell's law, light can travel from a medium of higher refractive
index into a medium of lower refractive index only if it intersects the interface between the
two media at an angle less than the critical angle for the two media. In a typical light-emitting
semiconductor having cubic shape, only about 1 to 2 percent of the generated light escapes
through the top surface of the LED (depending upon the specific chip and p-n junction
geometry), the remainder being absorbed within the semiconductor materials.

Figure 7 illustrates the escape of light from a layered

semiconductor chip of refractive index n(s) into epoxy of lower index (n(e)). The angle
subtended by the escape cone is defined by the critical angle, (c), for the two materials. Light
rays emerging from the LED at angles less than (c) escape into the epoxy with minimal
reflection loss (dashed ray lines), while those rays propagating at angles greater than (c)
undergo total internal reflection at the boundary, and do not escape the chip directly. Because
of the curvature of the epoxy dome, most light rays leaving the semiconductor material meet
the epoxy/air interface at nearly right angles, and emerge from the housing with little
reflection loss.
The proportion of light emitted from an LED chip into the surroundings is dependent upon
the number of surfaces through which light can be emitted, and how effectively this occurs at
each surface. Nearly all LED structures rely on some form of layered arrangement in which
epitaxial growth processes are utilized to deposit several lattice-matched materials on top of
one another to tailor the properties of the chip. A wide variety of structures is employed, with
each material system requiring different layer architecture in order to optimize performance
properties.

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Most of the LED structural arrangements rely on a secondary growth step to deposit a single-
crystal layer on top of a single-crystal bulk-grown substrate material. Such a multilayering
approach enables designers to satisfy seemingly contradictory or inconsistent requirements. A
common feature of all of the structural types is that the p-n junction, where the light emission
occurs, is almost never located in the bulk-grown substrate crystal. One reason for this is that
bulk-grown material generally has a high defect density, which lowers the light generation
efficiency. In addition, the most common bulk-grown materials, including gallium arsenide,
gallium phosphide, and indium phosphide, do not have the appropriate band gap for the
desired emission wavelengths. Another requirement in many LED applications is for a low
series resistance that can be met by appropriate substrate choice, even in cases in which the
low doping required in the p-n junction region would not provide adequate conduction.
The techniques of epitaxial crystal growth involve deposition of one material on another,
which is closely matched in atomic lattice constants and thermal expansion coefficient to
reduce defects in the layered material. A number of techniques are in use to produce epitaxial
layers. These include Liquid Phase Epitaxy (LPE), Vapor Phase Epitaxy (VPE), Metal-
Organic Epitaxial Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD), and Molecular Beam Epitaxy
(MBE). Each of the growth techniques has advantages in particular materials systems or
production environments, and these factors are extensively discussed in the literature.
The details of the various epitaxial structures employed in LED fabrication are not presented
here, but are discussed in a number of publications. Generally, however, the most common
categories of such structures are grown and diffused homojunctions, and single confinement
or double confinement heterojunctions. The strategies behind the application of the various
layer arrangements are numerous. These include structuring of p and n regions and reflective
layers to increase the internal quantum efficiency of the system, graded-composition buffer
layers to overcome lattice mismatch between layers, locally varying energy band gap to
accomplish carrier confinement, and lateral constraint of carrier injection to control light
emission area or to collimate the emission. Even though it does not typically contain the p-n
junction region, the LED substrate material becomes an integral part of the function, and is
chosen to be appropriate for deposition of the desired epitaxial layers, as well as for its light
transmission and other properties. As previously stated, the fraction of generated light that is
actually emitted from an LED chip is a function of the number of surfaces that effectively
transmit light. Most LED chips are categorized as absorbing substrate (AS) devices, where
the substrate material has a narrow band gap and absorbs all emission having energy greater
than the band gap. Therefore, light traveling toward the sides or downward is absorbed, and
such chips can only emit light through their top surfaces. The transparent substrate (TS) chip
is designed to increase light extraction by incorporating a substrate that is transparent to the
wavelength of emitted light. In some systems, transparency in the upper epitaxial layers will
allow light transmitted toward the side surfaces, within certain angles, to be extracted as well.
Hybrid designs, having substrate properties intermediate between AS and TS devices, are
also utilized, and significant increases in extraction efficiency can be achieved by
employment of a graded change in refractive index from the LED chip to air. There remain
numerous other absorption mechanisms in the LED structure that reduce emission and are
difficult to overcome, such as the front and back contacts on the chip, and crystal defects.
However, chips made on transparent, as opposed to absorbing, substrates can exhibit a
nearly-fivefold improvement in extraction efficiency.

Dyes are another suitable type of wavelength converter for white diode applications, and can be
incorporated into the epoxy encapsulant or in transparent polymers. The commercially available
dyes are generally organic compounds, which are chosen for a specific LED design by
consideration of their absorption and emission spectra. The light generated by the diode must
match the absorption profile of the converting dye, which in turn emits light at the desired longer
wavelength. The quantum efficiencies of dyes can be near 100 percent, as in phosphor
conversion, but they have the disadvantage of poorer long-term operational stability than
phosphors. This is a serious drawback, as the molecular instability of the dyes causes them to

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lose optical activity after a finite number of absorptive transitions, and the resulting change in
light emitting diode color will limit its lifetime. White light LEDs based on semiconductor
wavelength converters have been demonstrated that are similar in principle to the phosphor
conversion types, but which employ a second semiconductor material that emits a different
wavelength in response to the emission from the primary source wafer. These devices have
been referred to as photon recycling semiconductors (or PRS-LEDs), and incorporate a blue-
emitting LED die bonded to another die that responds to the blue light by emitting light of a
complementary wavelength. The two wavelengths then combine to produce white. One possible
structure for this type of device utilizes a GaInN diode as a current-injected active region coupled
to an AlGaInP optically-excited active region. The blue light emitted by the primary source is
partially absorbed by the secondary active region, and "recycled" as reemitted photons of lower
energy. The structure of a photon recycling semiconductor is illustrated schematically in Figure
11. In order for the combined emission to produce white light, the intensity ratio of the two
sources must have a specific value that can be calculated for the particular dichromatic
components. The choice of materials and the thickness of the various layers in the structure can
be modified to vary the color of the device output.

Because white light can be created by several different mechanisms, utilizing white LEDs in a
particular application requires consideration of the suitability of the method employed to generate
the light. Although the perceived color of light emitted by various techniques may be similar, its
effect on color rendering, or the result of filtration of the light, for example, may be entirely
different. White light created through broadband emission, through mixing of two complementary
colors in a dichromatic source, or by mixing of three colors in a trichromatic source, can be
located at different coordinates on the chromaticity diagram and have different color
temperatures with respect to illuminants designated as standards by the CIE.

Photodiode

Photodetector from a CD-ROM Drive. 3 photodiodes are visible.

A photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either current or
voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.

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Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either
exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber
connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for
use specifically as a photodiode will also use a PIN junction rather than the typical PN
junction.
Polarity

Photodiode schematic symbol

Some photodiodes will look like the picture to the right, that is, similar to a light emitting
diode. They will have two leads, or wires, coming from the bottom. The shorter end of the
two is the cathode, while the longer end is the anode. See below for a schematic drawing of
the anode and cathode side. Under forward bias, conventional current will pass from the
anode to the cathode, following the arrow in the symbol. Photocurrent flows in the opposite
direction.

Principle of operation
A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes
the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a mobile electron and a positively charged
electron hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion
length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field of the
depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a
photocurrent is produced.
Photovoltaic mode When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of
photocurrent out of the device is restricted and a voltage builds up. The diode becomes
forward biased and "dark current" begins to flow across the junction in the direction opposite
to the photocurrent. This mode is responsible for the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis
for solar cells—in fact, a solar cell is just a large area photodiode.
Photoconductive mode
In this mode the diode is often reverse biased, dramatically reducing the response time at the
expense of increased noise. This increases the width of the depletion layer, which decreases
the junction's capacitance resulting in faster response times. The reverse bias induces only a
small amount of current (known as saturation or back current) along its direction while the
photocurrent remains virtually the same. The photocurrent is linearly proportional to the
illuminance. Although this mode is faster, the photoconductive mode tends to exhibit more
electronic noiseThe leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low (< 1nA) that the Johnson–
Nyquist noise of the load resistance in a typical circuit often dominates.

Applications
P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as
photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes.
Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke
detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions.
In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones that dim the
display when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often used rather than
photodiodes, although in principle either could be used.Photodiodes are often used for
accurate measurement of light intensity in science and industry. They generally have a better,
more linear response than photoconductors.They are also widely used in various medical
applications, such as detectors for computed tomography (coupled with scintillators) or
instruments to analyze samples (immunoassay). They are also used in pulse oximeters.
PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction diodes, and hence
are often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation.P-N photodiodes are not
used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if high sensitivity is needed,

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avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are used

for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser
rangefinding.

Comparison with photomultipliers Advantages compared to photomultipliers:

Excellent linearity of output current as a function of incident light
Spectral response from 190 nm to 1100 nm (silicon), longer wavelengths with other
semiconductor materials Low noise Ruggedized to mechanical stress Low cost
Compact and light weight Long lifetime High quantum efficiency, typically 80%
No high voltage required

Disadvantages compared to photomultipliers:

Small area No internal gain (except avalanche photodiodes, but their gain is typically 10²–10³
compared to up to 108 for the photomultiplier) Much lower overall sensitivity
Photon counting only possible with specially designed, usually cooled photodiodes, with
special electronic circuits Response time for many designs is slower
P-N vs. P-I-N photodiodes
Due to the intrinsic layer, a PIN photodiode must be reverse biased (Vr). The Vr increases the
depletion region allowing a larger volume for electron-hole pair production, and reduces the
capacitance thereby increasing the bandwidth. The Vr also introduces noise current, which
reduces the S/N ratio. Therefore, a reverse bias is recommended for higher bandwidth
applications and/or applications where a wide dynamic range is required. A PN photodiode
is more suitable for lower light applications because it allows for unbiased operation.

A simple model of a photodiode

The PD can be connected directly to an ammeter, permitting the most sensitive measurement
of the light power.

The diode can also be reverse biased to measure higher powers at faster speeds.
In either mode of operation, the photocurrent I is proportional to the power P of the light
illuminating the photodiode. I = KPD P, where KPD is the responsivity of the photodiode.
KPD depends on the diode construction, the wavelength of the light, and on the temperature.
The photodiode is a quantum device. Almost every incident photon generates an electron-
hole charge pair. We therefore have I = e N Q where Q is the quantum efficiency and e is
the magnitude of the electron's charge. Q is less than or equal to 100 %. The optical power is
equal to the number of photons per second, N, times the energy per photon, E = hc/λ.
P = N E = Nhc/λ The PD responsivity therefore is given by KPD = Qeλ/(hc).

Introduction to Liquid Crystal Displays

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The most common application of liquid crystal technology is in liquid

crystal displays (LCDs). From the ubiquitous wrist watch and pocket calculator to an
advanced VGA computer screen, this type of display has evolved into an important and
versatile interface.A liquid crystal display consists of an array of tiny segments (called pixels)
that can be manipulated to present information. This basic idea is common to all displays,
ranging from simple calculators to a full color LCD television.Why are liquid crystal displays
important? The first factor is size. As will be shown in the following sections, an LCD
consists primarily of two glass plates with some liquid crystal material between them. There
is no bulky picture tube. This makes LCDs practical for applications where size (as well as
weight) are important. In general, LCDs use much less power than their cathode-ray tube
(CRT) counterparts. Many LCDs are reflective, meaning that they use only ambient light to
illuminate the display. Even displays that do require an external light source (i.e. computer
displays) consume much less power than CRT devices.Liquid crystal displays do have
drawbacks, and these are the subject of intense research. Problems with viewing angle,
contrast ratio, and response time still need to be solved before the LCD replaces the cathode-
ray tube. However with the rate of technological innovation, this day may not be too far into
the future.
We will restrict this discussion to traditional nematic LCDs since the major technological
advances have been developed for this group of devices. Other LC applications, such as those
employing polymer stabilization of LC structure, are discussed in the appropriate section
covering those materials.

Liquid Crystal

Ordinary fluids are isotropic in nature: they appear optically, magnetically, electrically, etc. to
be the same from any perspective. Although the molecules which comprise the fluid are
generally anisometric in shape, this anisometry generally plays little role in anisotropic
macroscopic behavior (aside from viscosity). Nevertheless, there exists a large class of highly
anisometric molecules which gives rise to unusual, fascinating, and potentially
technologically relevant behavior. There are many interesting candidates for study, including
polymers, micelles, microemulsions, and materials of biological significance, such as DNA
and membranes. Although at times we have investigated all of these materials, our primary
effort centers on liquid crystals. Liquid crystals are composed of moderate size organic
molecules which tend to be elongated and shaped like a cigar, although we have studied, and
the literature is full of variety of other, highly exotic shapes as well. Because of their
elongated shape, under appropriate conditions the molecules can exhibit orientational order,
such that all the axes line up in a particular direction. In consequence, the bulk order has
profound influences on the way light and electricity behave in the material. For example, if
the direction of the orientation varies in space, the orientation of the light (i.e., the
polarization) can follow this variation. A well-known application of this phenomenon is the
ubiquitous liquid crystal display, now comprising a $15b annual industry world-wide. Under
other conditions the molecules may form a stack of layers along one direction, but remain
liquid like (in terms of the absence of translational order) within the layers. As the system
changes from one of these phases to another, a variety of physical parameters such as
susceptibility and heat capacity, will exhibit "pretransitional behavior." Based solely on
symmetry, this behavior may be related to other physical systems, such as superconductivity,
magnetism, or superfluidity; this is the so-called "universality" of these phase transitions.

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Using a battery of optical techniques, in addition to dielectric and certain surface probes, our
research centers on the role of symmetry on liquid crystalline phases and phase transitions,
how these systems behave in the presence of intense magnetic and electric fields, and the
effects of confining these materials in spaces not much larger than the molecules themselves.
By observing this behavior, we learn not only about the particular material under
consideration, but about the global properties of anisotropic fluids and their relationships to
other physical systems. Finally, we should point out that although our research is primarily
fundamental in nature, determining critical exponents, surface potentials, induced
polarizations, etc., a small but important component of our effort involves technology. For
example, we have developed a new liquid crystal display architecture which is being
developed for commercialization by American industry. This is a symbiotic approach to
research, and has been an intellectual stimulation to our effort.

Liquid crystal display

Reflective twisted nematic liquid crystal display.

Polarizing filter film with a vertical axis to polarize light as it enters.
Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these electrodes will determine the shapes
that will appear when the LCD is turned ON. Vertical ridges etched on the surface are
smooth.
Twisted nematic liquid crystal. Glass substrate with common electrode film (ITO) with
horizontal ridges to line up with the horizontal filter. Polarizing filter film with a horizontal
axis to block/pass light. Reflective surface to send light back to viewer. (In a backlit LCD,
this layer is replaced with a light source.)

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat panel used for electronically displaying
information such as text, images, and moving pictures. Its uses include monitors for
computers, televisions, instrument panels, and other devices ranging from aircraft cockpit
displays, to every-day consumer devices such as video players, gaming devices, clocks,
watches, calculators, and telephones. Among its major features are its lightweight
construction, its portability, and its ability to be produced in much larger screen sizes than are
practical for the construction of cathode ray tube (CRT) display technology. Its low electrical
power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an
electronically-modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled with liquid
crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in
color or monochrome. The earliest discovery leading to the development of LCD technology,
the discovery of liquid crystals, dates from 1888. By 2008, worldwide sales of televisions
with LCD screens had surpassed the sale of CRT units.

LCD alarm clock

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two
transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are (in
most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. With no actual liquid crystal between the
polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second

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(crossed) polarizer.The surface of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal
material are treated so as to align the liquid crystal molecules in a particular direction. This
treatment typically consists of a thin polymer layer that is unidirectionally rubbed using, for
example, a cloth. The direction of the liquid crystal alignment is then defined by the direction
of rubbing. Electrodes are made of a transparent conductor called Indium Tin Oxide (ITO).
Before applying an electric field, the orientation of the liquid crystal molecules is determined
by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device (still the most
common liquid crystal device), the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are
perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or
twist. This reduces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device
appears grey. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center
of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not
rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized
perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By
controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be
allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray.

Energy efficiency
Among newer TV models, LCDs require less energy on average than their plasma
counterparts. A 42-inch LCD consumes 203 watts on average compared to 271 watts
consumed by a 42-inch plasma display. (This information is outdated - current plasma tv's
such as the panasonic TH-42 X10 consume between 80-200W. When measuring the average
powerconsumption, it is usually between 120W and 150W.) Energy use per inch is another
metric for comparing different display technologies. CRT technology is more efficient per
square inch of display area, using 0.23 watts/square inch, while LCDs require 0.27
watts/square inch. Plasma displays are on the high end at 0.36 watts/square inch and
DLP/rear projection TVs represent the low end at 0.14 watts/square inch.
Bistable displays do not consume any power when displaying a fixed image, but require a
notable amount of power for changing displayed image.

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UNIT - VI

10. DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES

Introduction: Dielectrics are insulating materials. In dielectrics, all the electrons are bound to
their parent molecules and there are no free charges. Even with normal voltage or thermal
energy, electrons are not released.

Electric Dipole: A system consisting of two equal and opposite charges separated by a distance
is called electric dipole.

Dipole moment: The product of charge and distance between two charges is called dipole
moment.

i e, μ = q x dl

Permittivity: It is a quantity, which represents the dielectric property of a medium. Permittivity

of a medium indicates the easily Polarisable nature of the material.

Units: Faraday / Meter or Coulomb / Newton-meter .

Dielectric constant: The dielectric characteristics are determined by the dielectric constant. The
dielectric constant or relative permittivity of a medium is defined as the ratio between the
permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of the free space.

ε r = ε / ε 0 = C / C 0 where

ε is permittivity of the medium

ε 0 is permittivity of the free space
C is the capacitance of the capacitor with dielectric
C 0 is the capacitance of the capacitor without dielectric

Units: No Units.

Capacitance: The property of a conductor or system of conductor that describes its ability to
store electric charge.

C=q/V=A ε / d where

C is capacitance of capacitor
q is charge on the capacitor plate

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V is potential difference between plates

A is area of capacitor plate
ε is permittivity of medium
d is distance between capacitor plates

Units: Farad .

Polarizability (α ) : When the strength of the electric field E is increased the strength of the
induced dipole μ also increases . Thus the induced dipole moment is proportional to the
intensity of the electric field.

μ=αE where α the constant of proportionality is called polarizability

.It can be defined as induced dipole moment per unit electric field.

α = μ /E

Units: Farad – meter2

Polarization Vector ( P ) : The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric material is
called polarization vector P .if μ is the average dipole moment per molecule and N is the
number of molecules per unit volume then polarization vector

P=N μ

The dipole moment per unit volume of the solid is the sum of all the individual dipole
moments within that volume and is called the polarization of the solid.

Electric Flux Density or Electric Displacement (D): The Electric Flux Density or Electric
Displacement at a point in the material is given by

D = ε r ε 0 E -------------(1) where

E is electric field strength

ε r is relative permittivity of material
ε 0 is permittivity of free space

As polarization measures additional flux density arising from the presence of the material as
compared to free space, it has same units as D.

Hence D = ε 0 E + P -----------(2)

Since D = ε 0 ε r E

ε 0 ε r E= ε 0 E + P

P = ε 0 ε r E- ε 0 E

P = ε 0(ε r - 1 ) E.

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Electric Susceptibility ( χe ) : The polarization P is proportional to the total electronic flux

density E and is in the same direction of E . Therefore, the polarization vector can be written
as

P = ε 0 χe E

Therefore χe = P / ε 0 E = ε 0(ε r - 1 ) E / ε 0 E

χe = (ε r - 1 )

Dielectric Strength: It can be defined as the minimum voltage required for producing
dielectric breakdown. Dielectric strength decreases with raising the temperature, humidity
and age of the material.

Various polarization Process: polarization occurs due to several atomic mechanisms.

When a specimen is placed in a d.c. electric field, polarization is due to four types of
processes. They are

(1) electronic polarization

(2) ionic polarization
(3) orientation polarization and
(4) space charge polarization

Electronic Polarization: the process of producing electric dipoles which are oriented along
the field direction is called polarization in dielectrics

Consider an atom placed inside an electric field. The centre of positive

charge is displaced along the applied field direction while the centre of negative charge is
displaced in the opposite direction .thus a dipole is produced.
The displacement of the positively charged nucleus and the negative electrons of an atom in
opposite directions, on application of an electric field, result in electronic polarization.

Induced dipole moment

μ α E or μ = αe E where αe is electronic polarizability

Electronic polarizability is independent of temperature.

Derivation: Consider the nucleus of charge Ze is surrounded by an electron cloud of charge

-Ze distributed in a sphere of radius R.

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Charge density ρ is given by

4 3 3
ρ = -Ze / ( /3ΠR ) = - (3/4) (Ze / ΠR ) ----------(1)

When an external field of intensity E is applied, the nucleus and electrons experiences Lorentz
forces in opposite direction. Hence the nucleus and electron cloud are pulled apart.

Then Coulomb force develops between them, which tends to oppose the
displacement. When Lorentz and coulomb forces are equal and opposite, equilibrium is reached.

Let x be the displacement

Lorentz force = -Ze E ( since = charge x applied field )

2
Coulomb force = Ze x [ charge enclosed in sphere of radius ‗x‘ / 4 Π ε 0 x ]

Charge enclosed = ( 4 / 3 ) Π x3 ρ

= ( 4 / 3 ) Π x3 [( - 3 / 4 ) ( Z e / Π R3 ) ]

= - Z e x3 / R3

3 3 2 2 2 3
Therefore Coulomb force = ( Ze )( - Z e x / R ) / 4 Π ε 0 x = - Z e x / 4 Π ε 0 R

At equilibrium, Lorentz force = Coulomb force

 2 2 3
-Ze E = - Z e x / 4 Π ε 0 R
3
 E = -Ze x / 4 Π ε 0 R
3
 or x = 4 Π ε 0 R E / Ze

Thus displacement of electron cloud is proportional to applied field.

The two charges +Ze and -Ze are separated by a distance ‗x‗ under applied field constituting
induced electric dipoles .
3
μe = Ze
Induced
Therefore dipole ε0 R E/μ
(4 Πmoment = x4 Π ε 0 R E
e =)Ze
Ze
3

3
Therefore μe α E , μe = αe E where αe = 4 Π ε 0 R is electronic polarizability

The dipole moment per unit volume is called electronic polarization. It is independent of
temperature.

P = N μe = N αe E where

N is Number of atoms / m3
3 3
Pe = N (4 Π ε 0 R E ) = 4 Π ε 0 R N E where

R is radius of atom

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Electric Susceptibility χ = P / ε 0 E

Therefore P = ε 0 E χ
3 3
P = (4Π R N)ε 0E where χ = 4 Π R N

Also Pe = ε 0 E (ε r - 1 ) = N αe E

Or ε r - 1 = N αe / ε 0

Hence αe = ε 0 (ε r - 1 ) / N .

Ionic Polarization: It is due to the displacement of cat ions and anions in opposite directions and
occurs in an ionic solid .

Consider a NaCl molecule. Suppose an electric field is applied in the positive direction . The
positive ion moves by x1 and the negative ion moves by x2

Let M is mass of positive ion

M is mass of negative ion

x1 is displacement of positive ion

x2 is displacement of negative ion

Total displacement x = x1 + x2 --------------(1)

Lorentz force on positive ion = + e E ----------(2)

Lorentz force on negative ion = - e E ----------(3)

Restoring force on positive ion = -k1 x1----------(2 a)

Restoring force on negative ion = +k2 x2----------(3 a) where k1, k2 Restoring force constants

At equilibrium, Lorentz force and restoring force are equal and opposite

For positive ion, e E = k1 x1

For negative ion, e E = k2 x2 ] ---------- (4)
2
Where k1 = M ω02 & k2 = m ω0 where ω0 is angular velocity of ions
2
Therefore x = x1 + x2 = ( e E / ω0 ) [ 1/M + 1/m ] ------------(5)

From definition of dipole moment

μ = charge x distance of separation

2 2
μ = e x = ( e E / ω0 ) [ 1/M + 1/m ] ------------(6)

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But μα E or μ = αi E
2
Therefore αi = (e2 / ω0 ) [1/M + 1/m ]

This is ionic polarizability.

Orientational Polarization:

In methane molecule, the centre of negative and positive charges coincides, so that there is no
permanent dipole moment. On the other hand, in certain molecules such as Ch3Cl, the
positive and negative charges do not coincide .Even in the absence of an electric field, this
molecule carries a dipole moment, they tend to align themselves in the direction of applied
field. The polarization due to such alignment is called orientation polarization. It is dependent
on temperature. With increase of temperature the thermal energy tends to randomize the
alignment.

Orientational polarization Po = Nµ = Nµ2E / 3kT

= N α0 E

Therefore Orientational polarizability α0 = Po / NE = µ2 / 3kT

Thus orintational polarizability α0 is inversely proportional t absolute temperature of

material.

Internal field or Local field or Lorentz field: Internal field is the total electric field at atomic
site.

Internal field A = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 ------- (I) where

E1 is field intensity due to charge density on plates

E2 is charge density induced on two sides of dielectric

E3 is field intensity due to other atoms in cavity and

E4 is field intensity due to polarization charges on surface of cavity

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Field E1 : E1 is field intensity due to charge density on plates

From the field theory

E1 = D / ε 0

D=P+ ε 0 E

Therefore E1 = P + ε 0 E / ε 0 = E + P/ ε 0 ----------(1)

Field E2 : E2 is the field intensity at A due to charge density induced on two sides of dielectric

Therefore E2 = - P/ ε 0 -----------(2)

Field E3 : E3 is field intensity at A due to other atoms contained in the cavity and for a cubic
structure,

E3 = 0 because of symmetry. ----------- (3)

Field E4: E4 is field intensity due to polarization charges on surface of cavity and was calculated
by Lorentz in the following way:

If dA is the surface area of the sphere of radius r lying between θ and θ + dθ, where θ is the
direction with reference to the direction of applied force.

Then dA = 2 Π (PQ) (QR)

But sin θ = PQ / r => PQ = r sin θ

And dθ = QR / r => QR = r dθ

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Hence dA = 2 Π (r sin θ) (r dθ) = 2 Π r2 sin θ dθ

Charge on surface dA is dq = P cos θ dA (cos θ is normal component)

dq = P cos θ (2 Π r2 sin θ dθ) = P (2 Π r2 sin θ cos θ dθ )

The field due to the charge dq at A, is denoted by dE4 in direction θ = 0

2
dE4 = dq cos θ / 4 Π ε 0 r2 = P (2 Π r sin θ cos θ dθ) cos θ
2
dE4 = P sin θ cos θ dθ / 2 ε 0
Π 2 Π 2
∫ dE4 = P / 2 ε 0 ∫0 sin θ cos θ dθ = P / 2 ε 0 ∫0 cos θ d (- cos θ)

Let cos θ = x
Π 2
∫ dE4 = - P / 2 ε 0 ∫0 x dx
Π
Therefore E4= - P / 2 ε 0 [x3 / 3]0
Π
=-P/2 ε 0 [cos3 θ/ 3] 0 = - P / 6 ε 0 [-1 – 1] = P / 3 ε 0 ------- (4)

Local field Ei = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4

=E+P/ ε 0 -P/ ε 0 +0+P/3 ε 0

=E+P/3 ε 0

Clausius – Mosotti Relation:

Let us consider the elemental dielectric having cubic structure. Since there are no ions and
perment dipoles in these materials, them ionic polarizability αi and orientational
polarizability α0 are zero.

i.e. αi = α0 = 0

Hence polarization P = N αe Ei

= N αe ( E + P / 3ε0)

i.e. P [ 1 - N αe / 3 ε0 ] = N αe E

P = N αe E / P [ 1 - N αe / 3 ε0 ] ------------- 1

D = P + ε0E

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P = D - ε0E

Dividing on both sides by E

P / E = D / E - ε0 = ε - ε0 = ε0 εr - ε0

P = E ε0 (εr - 1) ---------------------------- 2

From eqn 1 and 2 , we get

P = E ε0 (εr - 1) = N αe E / [ 1 - N αe / 3 ε0 ]

[ 1 - N αe / 3 ε0 ] = N αe / ε0 (εr - 1)

1 = N αe / 3 ε0 + N αe / ε0 (εr - 1)

1 = (N αe / 3 ε0 ) ( 1 + 3 / (εr - 1))

1 = (N αe / 3 ε0 )[ (εr - 1 + 3) / (εr - 1) ]

1 = (N αe / 3 ε0 )[ (εr + 2) / (εr - 1) ]

(εr + 2) / (εr - 1) = N αe / 3 ε0 Where N – no of molecules per unit volume

This is Clausius – Mosotti Relation.

Dielectric Breakdown : The dielectric breakdown is the sudden change in state of a dielectric
material subjected to a very high electric field , under the influence of which , the electrons are
lifted into the conduction band causing a surge of current , and the ability of the material to resist
the current flow suffers a breakdown .

Or

When a dielectric material loses its resistivity and permits very large current to flow through it,
then the phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown.

There are many factors for dielectric breakdown which are (1) Intrinsic breakdown (2) Thermal
breakdown (3) Discharge breakdown (4) Electro Chemical breakdown (5) Defect breakdown.

(1) Intrinsic breakdown: The dielectric strength is defined as the breakdown voltage per unit
thickness of the material. When the applied electric field is large, some of the electrons in the
valence band cross over to the conduction band across the large forbidden energy gap giving
rise to large conduction currents. The liberation or movement of electrons from valence band is
called field emission of electrons and the breakdown is called the intrinsic breakdown or zener
breakdown.

The number of covalent bonds broken and the number of charge

carriers released increases enormously with time and finally dielectric breakdown occurs. This type
of breakdown is called Avalanche breakdown.

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(2) Thermal breakdown: It occurs in a dielectric when the rate of heat generation is greater than
the rate of dissipation. Energy due to the dielectric loss appears as heat. If the rate of generation
of heat is larger than the heat dissipated to the surrounding, the temperature of the dielectric
increases which eventually results in local melting .once melting starts, that particular region
becomes highly conductive, enormous current flows through the material and dielectric
breakdown occurs.

Thus thermal breakdown occurs at very high temperatures. Since the

dielectric loss is directly proportional to the frequency, for a.c fields, breakdown occurs at
relatively lower field strengths.

(3) Discharge breakdown: Discharge breakdown is classified as external or internal. External

breakdown is generally caused by a glow or corona discharge .Such discharges are normally
observed at sharp edges of electrodes. It causes deterioration of the adjacent dielectric medium.
It is accompanied by the formation of carbon so that the damaged areas become conducting
leading to power arc and complete failure of the dielectric. Dust or moisture on the surface of
the dielectric may also cause external discharge breakdown. Internal breakdown occurs when
the insulator contains blocked gas bubbles .If large number of gas bubbles is present, this can
occur even at low voltages.

(4) Electro Chemical breakdown: Chemical and electro chemical breakdown are related to
thermal breakdown. When temperature rises, mobility of ions increases and hence
electrochemical reaction takes place. When ionic mobility increases leakage current also
increases and this may lead to dielectric breakdown. Field induced chemical reaction gradually
decreases the insulation resistance and finally results in breakdown.

(5) Defect breakdown: if the surface of the dielectric material has defects such as cracks and
porosity, then impurities such as dust or moisture collect at these discontinuities leading to
breakdown. Also if it has defect in the form of strain in the material, that region will also break
on application of electric field.

Frequency dependence of polarizability:

On application of an electric field, polarization process occurs as a function

of time. The polarization P(t) as a function of time. The polarization P(t) as a function of time
t is given by

P(t) = P[ 1- exp ( - t / tr )]

Where P – max. Polarization attained on prolonged application of static field.

tr - relaxation time for particular polarization process

The relaxation time tr is a measure of the time scale of polarization process. It is the time
taken for a polarization process to reach 0.63 of the max. value.

Electronic polarization is extremely rapid. Even when the frequency of the applied voltage
is very high in the optical range (≈1015 Hz), electronic polarization occurs during every cycle
of the applied voltage.

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Ionic polarization is due to displacement of ions over a small distance due to the applied
field. Since ions are heavier than electron cloud, the time taken for displacement is larger.
The frequency with which ions are displaced is of the same order as the lattice vibration
frequency (≈1013Hz). Hence, at optical frequencies, there is no ionic polarization. If the
frequency of the applied voltage is less than 1013 Hz, the ions respond.

Orientation polarization is even slower than ionic polarization. The relaxation time for
orientation polarization in a liquid is less than that in a solid. Orientation polarization occurs,
when the frequency of applied voltage is in audio range (1010 Hz).

Space charge polarization is the slowest process, as it involves the diffusion of ions over
several interatomic distances. The relaxation time for this process is related to frequency of
ions under the influence of applied field. Space charge polarization occurs at power
frequencies (50-60 Hz).

Piezo – Electricity: These materials have the property of becoming electrically polarized when
mechanical stress is applied. This property is known as Piezo – electric effect has an inverse
.According to inverse piezo electric effect, when an electric stress or voltage is applied, the
material becomes strained. The strain is directly proportional to the applied field E.

When piezo electric crystals are subjected to compression or tension,

opposite kinds of charges are developed at the opposite faces perpendicular to the direction of
applied force. The charges produced are proportional to the applied force.

Piezo – Electric Materials and Their Applications: Single crystal of quartz is used for filter,
resonator and delay line applications. Natural quartz is now being replaced by synthetic material.

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Rochelle salt is used as transducer in gramophone pickups, ear phones,

hearing aids, microphones etc. the commercial ceramic materials are based on barium titanate, lead
zirconate and lead titanate. They are used for high voltage generation (gas lighters),
accelerometers, transducers etc.

Piezo electric semiconductors such as GaS, ZnO & CdS are used as amplifiers
of ultrasonic waves.

Ferro electricity: Ferro electric materials are an important group not only because of intrinsic
Ferro electric property, but because many possess useful piezo electric, birefringent and electro
optical properties.

The intrinsic Ferro electric property is the possibility of reversal or

change of orientation of the polarization direction by an electric field. This leads to hysteresis
in the polarization P, electric field E relation , similar to magnetic hysteresis. Above a critical
temperature, the Curie point Tc, the spontaneous polarization is destroyed by thermal disorder. The
permittivity shows a characteristic peak at Tc.

Pyroelectricity: It is the change in spontaneous polarization when the temperature of

specimen is changed.

Pyroelectric coefficient ‗λ‘ is defined as the change in polarization per unit temperature change
of specimen.

λ= dP / dT

change in polarization results in change in external field and also changes the surface.

Required Qualities of Good Insulating Materials: The required qualities can be classified as
under electrical, mechanical, thermal and chemical applications.

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i) Electrical: 1. electrically the insulating material should have high electrical resistivity and high
dielectric strength to withstand high voltage.
2 .The dielectric losses must be minimum.
3. Liquid and gaseous insulators are used as coolants. For example transformer oil, hydrogen and
helium are used both as insulators and coolant.
ii) Mechanical: 1. insulating materials should have certain mechanical properties depending on the
use to which they are put.
2. When used for electric machine insulation, the insulator should have sufficient mechanical
strength to withstand vibration.
iii) Thermal: Good heat conducting property is also desirable in such cases. The insulators should
have small thermal expansion and it should be non-ignitable.
iv) Chemical: 1. chemically, the insulators should be resistant to oils, liquids, gas fumes, acids and
alkali‘s.
2. The insulators should be water proof since water lowers the insulation resistance and the
dielectric strength.

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11. MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

Introduction : The basic aim in the study of the subject of magnetic materials is to understand the
effect of an external magnetic field on a bulk material ,and also to account for its specific
behavior. A dipole is an object that a magnetic pole is on one end and a equal and opposite second
magnetic dipole is on the other end.

A bar magnet can be considered as a dipole with a north pole at one end and
South Pole at the other. If a magnet is cut into two, two magnets or dipoles are created out of one.
This sectioning and creation of dipoles can continue to the atomic level. Therefore, the source of
magnetism lies in the basic building block of all the matter i.e. the atom.

Consider electric current flowing through a conductor. When the electrons are
flowing through the conductor, a magnetic field is forms around the conductor. A magnetic field is
produced whenever an electric charge is in motion. The strength of the field is called the magnetic
moment.

Magnetic materials are those which can be easily magnetized as they have
permanent magnetic moment in the presence of applied magnetic field. Magnetism arises from the
magnetic dipole moments. It is responsible for producing magnetic influence of attraction or
repulsion.

Magnetic dipole : it is a system consisting of two equal and opposite magnetic poles separated by a
small distance of ‗2l‘metre.

Magnetic Moment ( μm ) :It is defined as the product of the pole strength (m) and the distance
between the two poles (2l) of the magnet.

i . e . . μm = (2l ) m

Units: Ampere – metre2

Magnetic Flux Density or Magnetic Induction (B): It is defined as the number of magnetic lines
of force passing perpendicularly through unit area.

i . e . . B = magnetic flux / area = Φ / A

Units: Weber / metre2 or Tesla.

Permeability:
Magnetic Field Intensity (H): The magnetic field intensity at any point in the magnetic field is the
force experienced by a unit north pole placed at that point.

Units: Ampere / meter

The magnetic induction B due to magnetic field intensity H applied in vacuum is related by

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-7
B = μ0 H where μ0 is permeability of free space = 4 Π x 10 H / m

If the field is applied in a medium, the magnetic induction in the solid is given by

B=μH where μ is permeability of the material in the medium

μ = B/H

Hence magnetic Permeability μ of any material is the ratio of the magnetic induction to the applied
magnetic field intensity. The ratio of μ / μ0 is called the relative permeability (μr ).

μr = μ / μ0

Therefore B = μ0 μr H

Magnetization: It is the process of converting a non – magnetic material into a magnetic material.
The intensity of magnetization (M) of a material is the magnetic moment per unit volume. The
intensity of magnetization is directly related to the applied field H through the susceptibility of the
medium (χ) by

χ = M / H ------------(1)

The magnetic susceptibility of a material is the ratio of the intensity of magnetization produced to
the magnetic field intensity which produces the magnetization. It has no units.

We know

B=μH

= μ0 μr H

i.e B = μ0 μr H + μ0 H - μ0 H

= μ0 H + μ0 H ( μr – 1 )

= μ0 H + μ0 M where M is magnetization = H ( μr – 1 )
i.e B = μ0 ( H + M ) ----------(2)

The first term on the right side of eqn (2) is due to external field. The second term is due to the
magnetization.

Hence μ0 = B / H + M

Relative Permeability ,

μr = μ / μ0 = ( B / H ) / ( B / H + M ) = H + M / H = 1 + M / H

μr = 1 + χ ---------(3)

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The magnetic properties of all substances are associated with the orbital and spin motions of the
electrons in their atoms. Due to this motion, the electrons become elementary magnets of the
substance. In few materials these elementary magnets are able to strengthen the applied magnetic
field , while in few others , they orient themselves such that the applied magnetic field is
weakened.

Origin of Magnetic Moment : In atoms , the permanent magnetic moments can arise due to the
following :

1. the orbital magnetic moment of the electrons

2. the spin magnetic moment of the electrons
3. the spin magnetic moment of the nucleus.

Orbital magnetic moment of the electrons: In an atom, electrons revolve round the nucleus in
different circular orbits.

Let m be the mass of the electron and r be the radius of the orbit in which it moves with angular
velocity ω.

The electric current due to the moving electron I = - ( number of electrons flowing per second x
charge of an electron )

Therefore I = - e ω / 2 Π --------------(1)

The current flowing through a circular coil produces a magnetic field in a direction perpendicular
to the area of coil and it is identical to the magnetic dipole. the magnitude of the magnetic moment
produced by such a dipole is

μm = I .A

= ( - e ω / 2 Π ) ( Π r2 )
= - e ω r2 / 2 = ( - e / 2 m ) ( m ω r2 ) = - ( e / 2 m ) L -----------(2)

where L = m ω r2 is the orbital angular momentum of electron. The minus sign indicates
that the magnetic moment is anti – parallel to the angular momentum L. A substance therefore
possesses permanent magnetic dipoles if the electrons of its constituent atom have a net non-
vanishing angular momentum. The ratio of the magnetic dipole moment of the electron due to its
orbital motion and the angular momentum of the orbital motion is called orbital gyro magnetic
ratio , represented by γ.

Therefore γ = magnetic moment / angular momentum = e / 2m

The angular momentum of an electron is determined by the orbital quantum number ‗l‘ given by l
= 0 , 1 , 2 , ……( n – 1 ) where n is principal quantum number n = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , ……
……corresponding to K , L , M , N……shells .
The angular momentum of the electrons associated with a particular value of l is given by l( h / 2 Π
)

The strength of the permanent magnetic dipole is given by

μ el = - ( e / 2 m ) ( l h / 2 Π )

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i.e μ el = - ( e h l / 4 Π m ) = - μB l ---------------(3)

Theampere
quantity μB2 = e h / 4 Π m is an atomic unit called Bohr Magneton and has a value 9.27 x 10
metre
-24

In an atom having many electrons, the total orbital magnetic moment is determined by taking the
algebraic sum of the magnetic moments of individual electrons. The moment of a completely filled
shell is zero. An atom with partially filled shells will have non zero orbital magnetic moment.

Magnetic Moment Due to Electron Spin : The magnetic moment associated with spinning of the
electron is called spin magnetic moment μ es .Magnetic moment due to the rotation of the
electronic charge about one of the diameters of the electron is similar to the earth‘s spinning
motion around it‘s north – south axis.

An electronic charge being spread over a spherical volume ,the electron spin would cause different
charge elements of this sphere to form closed currents, resulting in a net spin magnetic moment.
This net magnetic moment would depend upon the structure of the electron and its charge
distribution.

μ es = γ ( e / 2 m ) S -------------------(1)where S= h / 4 Π is spin angular momentum

-24 2
therefore μ es ≈ 9.4 x 10 ampere metre

Thus, the magnetic moments due to the spin and the orbital motions of an electron are of the same
order of magnitude. The spin and electron spin magnetic moment are intrinsic properties of an
electron and exist even for a stationary electron. Since the magnitude of spin magnetic moment is
always same, the external field can only influence its direction. If the electron spin moments are
free to orient themselves in the direction of the applied field B. In a varying field ,it experiences a
force in the direction of the increasing magnetic field due to spin magnetic moments of its various
electrons.

Magnetic Moment due to Nuclear Spin : Another contribution may arise from the nuclear magnetic
moment. By analogy with Bohr Magneton, the nuclear magneton arises due to spin of the nucleus.
It is given by

μ ps = e h / 4 Π Mp
-27 2
μ ps = 5.05 x 10 ampere metre where Mp is mass of proton.

The nuclear magnetic moments are smaller than those associated with electrons.

Classification Of Magnetic Materials :All matter respond in one way or the other when subjected
to the influence of a magnetic field. The response could be strong or weak, but there is none with
zero response ie, there is no matter which is non magnetic in the absolute sense. Depending upon
the magnitude and sign of response to the applied field , and also on the basis of effect of
temperature on the magnetic properties, all materials are classified broadly under 3 categories.

1. Diamagnetic materials 2. Paramagnetic materials, 3. Ferromagnetic materials

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two more classes of materials have structure very close to ferromagnetic materials
but possess quite different magnetic effects. They are i. Anti ferromagnetic materials and ii .
Ferri magnetic materials

1. Diamagnetic materials: Diamagnetic materials are those which experience a repelling force
when brought near the pole of a strong magnet. In a non uniform magnetic field they are
repelled away from stronger parts of the field.

In the absence of an external magnetic field , the net magnetic dipole

moment over each atom or molecule of a diamagnetic material is zero.

Ex: Cu, Bi , Pb .Zn and rare gases.

Paramagnetic materials: Paramagnetic materials are those which experience a feeble

attractive force when brought near the pole of a magnet. They are attracted towards the
stronger parts of magnetic field. Due to the spin and orbital motion of the electrons, the atoms
of paramagnetic material posses a net intrinsic permanent moment.

Susceptibility χ is positive and small for these materials. The susceptibility is inversely
proportional to the temperature T.

χ α 1/T

χ = C/T where C is Curie‘s temperature.

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Below superconducting transition temperatures, these materials exhibit the Para magnetism.

Examples: Al, Mn, Pt, CuCl2.

Ferromagnetic Materials: Ferromagnetic materials are those which experience a very

strong attractive force when brought near the pole of a magnet. These materials, apart from
getting magnetized parallel to the direction of the applied field, will continue to retain the
magnetic property even after the magnetizing field removed. The atoms of ferromagnetic
materials also have a net intrinsic magnetic dipole moment which is due to the spin of the
electrons.

Susceptibility is always positive and large and it depends upon temperature.

χ = C / (T- θ) ( only in paramagnetic region i.e., T > θ)

θ is Curie‘s temperature.
When the temperature of the material is greater than its Curie temperature then it converts
into paramagnetic material.

Examples: Fe, Ni, Co, MnO.

Antiferromagnetic matériels : These are the ferromagnetic materials in which equal no of

opposite spins with same magnitude such that the orientation of neighbouring spins is in
antiparallel manner are present.
Susceptibility is small and positive and it is inversely proportional to the temperature.

χ=C /(T+θ)
the temperature at which anti ferromagnetic material converts into paramagnetic material is
known as Neel‘s temperature.

Examples: FeO, Cr2O3.

Ferrimagnetic materials: These are the ferromagnetic materials in which equal no of

opposite spins with different magnitudes such that the orientation of neighbouring spins is in
antiparallel manner are present.
Susceptibility positive and large, it is inversely proportional to temperature

χ=C /(T ± θ) T> TN ( Neel‘s temperature)

Examples : ZnFe2O4, CuFe2O4

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Domain theory of ferromagnetism: According to Weiss, a virgin specimen of

ferromagnetic material consists of a no of regions or domains (≈ 10-6 m or larger) which are
spontaneously magnetized. In each domain spontaneous magnetization is due to parallel
alignment of all magnetic dipoles. The direction of spontaneous magnetization varies from
domain to domain. The resultant magnetization may hence be zero or nearly zero. When an
external field is applied there are two possible ways of alignment fo a random domain.

i). By motion of domain walls: The volume of the domains that are favourably oriented with
respect to the magnetizing field increases at the cost of those that are unfavourably oriented

ii) By rotation of domains: When the applied magnetic field is strong, rotation of the
direction of magnetization occurs in the direction of the field.

Hysteresis curve (study of B-H curve): The hysteresis of ferromagnetic materials

refers to the lag of magnetization behind the magnetization field. when the temperature of the
ferromagnetic substance is less than the ferromagnetic Curie temperature ,the substance
exhibits hysteresis. The domain concept is well suited to explain the phenomenon of
hysteresis. The increase in the value of the resultant magnetic moment of the specimen by the
application of the applied field , it attributes to the 1. motion of the domain walls and 2.
rotation of domains.

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When a weak magnetic field is applied, the domains that are aligned
parallel to the field and in the easy direction of magnetization , grow in size at the expense of
less favorably oriented ones. This results in Bloch wall movement and when the weak field is
removed, the domains reverse back to their original state. This reverse wall displacement is
indicated by OA of the magnetization curve. When the field becomes stronger ,the Bloch wall
movement continues and it is mostly irreversible movement. This is indicated by the path AB
of the graph. The phenomenon of hysteresis is due to this irreversibility.

At the point B all domains have got magnetized along their easy directions. Application of
still higher fields rotates the domains into the field direction which may be away from the
easy direction. Once the domain rotation is complete the specimen is saturated denoted by C.
on removal of the field the specimen tends to attain the original configuration by the
movement of Bloch walls. But this movement is hampered by the impurities, lattice
imperfections etc, and so more energy must be supplied to overcome the opposing forces.
This means that a coercive field is required to reduce the magnetization of the specimen to
zero. The amount of energy spent in this regard is a loss. Hysteresis loss is the loss of energy
in taking a ferromagnetic body through a complete cycle of magnetization and this loss is
represented by the area enclosed by the hysteresis loop.

A hysteresis curve shows the relationship between the magnetic

flux density B and applied magnetic field H. It is also referred to as the B-H curve(loop).

Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials:

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Hysteresis loop of the ferromagnetic materials vary in size and shape. This variation in
hysteresis loops leads to a broad classification of all the magnetic materials into hard type and
soft type.

Hard Magnetic Materials:

Hard magnetic materials are those which are characterized by large

hysteresis loop because of which they retain a considerable amount of their magnetic energy
after the external magnetic field is switched off. These materials are subjected to a magnetic
field of increasing intensity, the domain walls movements are impeded due to certain factors.
The cause for such a nature is attributed to the presence of impurities or non-magnetic
materials, or the lattice imperfections. Such defects attract the domain walls thereby reducing
the wall energy. It results in a stable state for the domain walls and gives mechanical
hardness to the material which increases the electrical resistivity. The increase in electrical
resisitivity brings down the eddy current loss if used in a.c conditions. The hard magnetic
materials can neither be easily magnetized nor easily demagnetized.

Properties:

1. High remanent magnetization

2. High coercivity
3. High saturation flux density
4. Low initial permeability
5. High hysteresis energy loss
6. High permeability
7. The eddy current loss is low for ceramic type and large for metallic type.

Examples of hard magnetic materials are, i) Iron- nickel- aluminum alloys with certain
amount of cobalt called Alnico alloy. ii) Copper nickel iron alloys. iii) Platinum cobalt alloy.

Applications of hard magnetic materials: For production of permanent magnets, used in

magnetic detectors, microphones, flux meters, voltage regulators, damping devices and
magnetic separators.

Soft Magnetic Materials:

Soft magnetic materials are those for which the hysteresis loops enclose very small area.
They are the magnetic materials which cannot be permanently magnetized. In these materials
,the domain walls motion occurs easily. Consequently, the coercive force assumes a small
value and makes the hysteresis loop a narrow one because of which, the hysteresis loss

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becomes very small. For the sane reasons, the materials can be easily magnetized and
demagnetized.

Properties:

1. Low remanent magnetization

2. Low coercivity
3. Low hysteresis energy loss
4. Low eddy current loss
5. High permeability
6. High susceptibility

Examples of soft magnetic materials are

i) Permalloys ( alloys of Fe and Ni)
ii) Si – Fe alloy
iii) Amorphous ferrous alloys ( alloys of Fe, Si, and B)
iv) Pure Iron (BCC structure)

Applications of soft magnetic materials: Mainly used in electro- magnetic machinery and
transformer cores. They are also used in switching circuits, microwave isolators and matrix
storage of computers.

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SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

Introduction : Certain metals and alloys exhibit almost zero resistivity( i.e. infinite
conductivity ) when they are cooled to sufficiently low temperatures. This phenomenon is
called superconductivity. This phenomenon was first observed by H.K. Onnes in 1911. He
found that when pure mercury was cooled down to below 4K, the resistivity suddenly
dropped to zero. Since then hundreds of superconductors have been discovered and studied.
Superconductivity is strictly a low temperature phenomenon. Few new oxides exhibited
superconductivity just below 125K itself. This interesting phenomena has many important
applications in many emerging fields.

General Properties: The temperature at which the transition from normal state to
superconducting state takes place on cooling in the absence of magnetic field is called the
critical temperature (Tc ) or the transition temperature.

The following are the general properties of the superconductors:

1. The transition temperature is different to different substances.

2. For a chemically pure and structurally perfect specimen, the superconducting

transition is very sharp.

3. Superconductivity is found to occur in metallic elements in which the number of

valence electrons lies between 2 and 8.

4. Transition metals having odd number of valence electrons are favourable to exhibit
superconductivity while metals having even number of valence electrons are
unfavourable.

5. Materials having high normal resistivities exhibit superconductivity.

6. Materials for which Zρ > 106 (where Z is the no. of valence electrons and ρ is the
resistivity) show superconductivity.

7. Ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials are not superconductors.

8. The current in a superconducting ring persists for a very long time .

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Effect of Magnetic Field: Superconducting state of metal depends on temperature and

strength of the magnetic field in which the metal is placed. Superconducting disappears if the
temperature of the specimen is raised above Tc or a strong enough magnetic field applied. At
temperatures below Tc, in the absence of any magnetic field, the material is in
superconducting state. When the strength of the magnetic field applied reaches a critical
value Hc the superconductivity disappears.

At T= Tc, Hc = 0. At temperatures below Tc, Hc increases. The dependence of the critical

field upon the temperature is given by
2
HC(T) = HC(0) [1 – (T/Tc) ]------------------------------(1)

Where Hc(0) is the critical field at 0K. Hc(0) and Tc are constants of the characteristics of the
material.

Meissner effect: When a weak magnetic field applied to super conducting

specimen at a temperature below transition temperature Tc , the magnetic flux lines are
expelled. This specimen acts as on ideal diamagnet. This effect is called meissner effect. This
effect is reversible, i.e. when the temperature is raised from below Tc , at T = Tc the flux
lines suddenly start penetrating and the specimen returns back to the normal state. Under this
condition, the magnetic induction inside the specimen is given by

B = 0(H + M) -------------------------------------(2)

Where H is the external applied magnetic field and M is the magnetization produced inside
the specimen.

When the specimen is super conducting, according to meissner effect inside the bulk
semiconductor B= 0.

Hence 0(H + M) = 0

Or M = - H ---------------------------------------------(3)

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Thus the material is perfectly diamagnetic.

Magnetic susceptibility can be expressed as

χ=M/H = -1-----------------------------------------------------(4)

Consider a superconducting material under normal state. Let J be the current passing through
the material of resistivity ρ. From ohm‘s law we know that the electric field

E = Jρ

On cooling the material to its transition temperature, ρ tends to zero. If J is held finite.
E must be zero. Form Maxwell‘s eqn, we know

▼X E = - dB/ dt ----------------------------(5)
Under superconducting condition since E = 0, dB/dt = 0, or B= constant.

This means that the magnetic flux passing through the specimen should not change on
cooling to the transition temperature. The Meissner effect contradicts this result.

According to Meissner effect perfect diamagnetism is an essential property of defining the

superconducting state. Thus

From zero resistivity E = 0,

From Meissner effect B= 0.

Type- I , Type- II superconductors: Based on diamagnetic response Superconductors

are divided into two types, i.e type-I and type-II.

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Superconductors exhibiting a complete Meissner effect are called type-1, also called Soft
Superconductors. When the magnetic field strength is gradually increased from its initial
value H< HC, at HC the diamagnetism abruptly disappear and the transition from
superconducting state to normal state is sharp. Example Zn, Hg, pure specimens of Al and
Sn.

In type-2 Superconductors, transition to the normal state takes place gradually. For fields
below HC1, the material is diamagnetic i.e., the field is completely excluded HC1 is called the
lower critical field. At HC1 the field begins to penetrate the specimen. Penetration increases
until HC2 is reached. At HC2, the magnetizations vanishes i.e., the material becomes normal
state. HC2 is the upper critical field. Between HC1 and HC2 the state of the material is called
the mixed or vortex state. They are also known as hard superconductors. They have high
current densities. Example Zr , Nb etc.

Penetration Depth : The penetration depth λ can be defined as the depth from the surface at
which the magnetic flux density falls to 1/e of its initial value at the surface. Since it
decreases exponentially the flux inside the bulk of superconductor is zero and hence is in
agreement with the Meissner effect. The penetration depth is found to depend on temperature.
its dependence is given by the relation
4 4 -1/2
λ ( T ) = λ ( 0 ) ( 1 – T / Tc ) ----------------(1)

where λ ( 0 ) is the penetration depth at T = 0K.

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According to eqn.(1) , λ increases with the increase of T and at T= Tc , it becomes infinite .

At T= Tc , the substance changes from super conducting state to normal state and hence the
field can penetrate to the whole specimen , ie , the specimen has an infinite depth of
penetration.

BCS Theory : BCS theory of superconductivity was put forward by Bardeen, Cooper and
Schrieffer in 1957. This theory could explain many observed effects such as zero resistivity ,
Meissner effect, isotope effect etc. The BCS theory is based on advanced quantum concept.

1. Electron – electron interaction via lattice deformation: Consider an electron is

passing through the lattice of positive ions. The electron is attracted by the
neighbouring positive ion, forming a positive ion core and gets screened by them. The
screening greatly reduces the effective charge of this electron. Due to the attraction
between the electron and the positive ion core, the lattice gets deformed on local
scale. Now if another electron passes by its side of the assembly of the electron and
the ion core, it gets attracted towards it. The second electron interacts with the first
electron via lattice deformation. The interaction is said to be due to the exchange of a
virtual phonon ,q, between the two electrons. The interaction process can be written in
terms of wave vector k ,as
1
K1 – q = K11 and K2 + q = K2 -----------------(1)
1 1
This gives K1 – K2 = K1 + K2 , ie , the net wave vector of the pair is conserved.
The momentum is transferred between the electrons. These two electrons together form a
cooper pair and is known as cooper electron.

2. Cooper Pair: To understand the mechanism of cooper pair formation , consider the
distribution of electrons in metals as given by Fermi – Dirac distribution function .

F ( E ) = 1 / [ exp ( E – EF / KT ) + 1 ]

At T = 0K, all the energy states below Fermi level EF are completely filled and all the
states above are completely empty.

Let us see what happens when two electrons are added to a metal at absolute zero. Since
all the quantum states with energies E ≤ EF are filled , they are forced to occupy states
having energies E > EF . Cooper showed that if there is an attraction between the two
electrons ,they are able to form a bound state so that their total energy is less than 2 EF .

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These electrons are paired to form a single system. These two electrons together form a
cooper pair and is known as cooper electron. cooper pair and is known as cooper
electron. Their motions are correlated. The binding is strongest when the electrons
forming the pair have opposite momenta and opposite spins. All electron pairs with
attraction among them and lying in the neighbourhood of the Fermi surface form cooper
pairs. These are super electrons responsible for the superconductivity.

In normal metals, the excited states lie just above the Fermi
surface. To excite an electron from the Fermi surface even an arbitrarily small excitation
energy is sufficient. In super conducting material , when a pair of electrons lying just
below the Fermi surface is taken just above it ,they form a cooper pair and their total
energy is reduced. This continues until the system can gain no additional energy by pair
formation. Thus the total energy of the system is further reduced.

At absolute zero in normal metals there is an abrupt discontinuity

in the distribution of electrons across the Fermi surface whereas such discontinuity is not
observed in superconductors. As super electrons are always occupied in pairs and their
spins are always in opposite directions.

Isotope Effect : in super conducting materials, the transition temperature varies with the
average isotopic mass , M , of their constituents. The variation is found to follow the
general form
-α
Tc α M --------------------(1)
α
Or M Tc = constant

Where α is called the isotope effect coefficient .

Flux Quantization:
Consider a superconductor in the form of a ring. Let it be at temperature above its
TC because of which it will be in the normal state. When it is subjected to the influence of a
magnetic field, the flux lines pass through the body and also exist out side and inside ring
also.

If the body is cooled to a temperature below its TC, then as per Meissner effect, the flux lines
are expelled from the body i.e. the flux exists both outside the ring and in the hole region but
not in the body of the ring. But when the external field is switched off, the magnetic flux lines
continue to exist within the hole region, through the rest that surrounded the ring from the
exterior would vanish. This is known as flux trapping. It is due to the large currents that are
induced as per Faraday‘s law during the flux decay when the field switched off. Because of
the zero resistance property that the superconductor enjoys, these induced currents continue
to circulate in the ring practically externally. Thus the flux stand trapped in the loop forever.

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It was F.London who gave the idea that the trapped magnetic flux is quantized, as
super conductivity is governed by the quantum phenomenon. At first he suggested the
quantization of Φ as

Φ = nh / e n = 1,2,3,………….

But experiments carried out carefully on very small superconducting hollow cylinders by
Deaver and Fairbank , that gave half the values of flux quanta given by London. Thus the
governing equation for flux quantization was changed to,

Φ = nh / 2e

It happened so because, London‘s theory was based on supercurrents constituted by electrons

as individual entities. This demonstrates conclusively that superconducting current carriers
are pairs of electrons and not single ones.

Then the above equation is written as

Φ = n Φ0

Where Φ0 = (h/2e) is the quantum of flux and is called fluxoid.

Josephson Effect : Consider a thin insulating layer sandwiched between two metals. This
insulating layer acts as a potential barrier for flow of electrons from one metal to another.
Since the barrier is so thin , mechanically electrons can tunnel through from a metal of
higher chemical potential to the other having a lower chemical potential. This continues
until the chemical potential of electrons in both the metals become equal.

Consider application of a potential difference across the

potential barrier. Now more electrons tunnel through the insulating layer from higher
potential side to lower potential side. The current – voltage relation across the tunneling
junction obeys the ohm‘s law at low voltages.

Now consider another case that one of the metals is a

superconductor. On applying the potential, it can be observed that no current flows across
the junction until the potential reaches a threshold value. It has been found that the
threshold potential is nothing but half the energy gap in the superconducting state. Hence
the measurement of threshold potential under this condition helps one to calculate the
energy gap of superconductor. As the temperature is increased towards Tc ,more
thermally excited electrons are generated. Since they require less energy to tunnel , the
threshold voltage decreases. This results in decrease of energy gap itself.

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Consider a thin insulating layer sandwiched between two superconductors. In addition to

normal tunneling of single electrons, the super electrons also tunnel through the insulating
layer from one superconductor to another without dissociation, even at zero potential
difference across the junction. Their wave functions on both sides are highly correlated.
This is known as Josephson effect.

The tunneling current across the junction is very less since the two superconductors
are only weakly coupled because of the presence of a thin insulating layer in between.

D.C. Josephson Effect : According to Josephson, when tunneling occurs through the
insulator it introduces a phase difference ΔΦ between the two parts of the wave function
on the opposite sides of the junction.

The tunneling current is given by

I = I0 sin ( Φ0 ) --------------------(1)

Where I0 is the maximum current that flows through the junction without any potential
difference across the junction. I0 depends on the thickness of the junction and the
temperature.

When there is no applied voltage, a d.c. current flows across the

junction. The magnitude of the current varies between I0 and -I0 according to the value of
phase difference Φ0 = (Φ2 – Φ1 ). This is called d.c Josephson effect.

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A.C. Josephson Effect : let a static potential V0 is applied across the junction. This
results in additional phase difference introduced by cooper pair during tunneling across
the junction. This additional phase difference ΔΦ at any time t can be calculated using
quantum mechanics

ΔΦ = E t / ħ ----------------------(1)

Where E is the total energy of the system.

In the present case E = (2 e ) V0 . since a cooper pair contains 2 electrons , the factor 2
appears in the above eqn.

Hence ΔΦ = 2 e V0 t / ħ .

The tunneling current can be written as

I = I0 sin ( Φ0 + ΔΦ ) = I0 sin ( Φ0 + 2 e V0 t / ħ )---------------(1)

This is of the form

I = I0 sin ( Φ0 + ω t ) --------------------(2)

Where ω= 2 e V0 / ħ .

This represents an alternating current with angular frequency ω. This is the a.c. Josephson
effect. when an electron pair crosses the junction a photon of energy ħω = 2eV0 is
emitted or absorbed.

Current – voltage characteristics of a Josephson junction are :

1. When V0 = 0 , there is a constant flow of d.c current ic through the junction. This
current is called superconducting current and the effect is the d.c. Josephson effect.

2. So long V0 < Vc , a constant d.c.current ic flows.

3. When V0 > Vc , the junction has a finite resistance and the current oscillates with a
frequency ω = 2 e V0 / ħ . This effect is the a.c Josephson effect.

Applications Of Josephson Effect:

1. It is used to generate microwaves with frequency ω = 2 e V0 / ħ .

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2. A.C Josephson effect is used to define standard volt.

3. A.C Josephson effect is also used to measure very low temperatures based on the
variation of frequency of emitted radiation with temperature.

4. A Josephson junction is used for switching of signals from one circuit to another. The
switching time is of the order of 1ps and hence very useful in high speed computers.

Applications Of Superconductors :

1. Electric generators : superconducting generators are very smaller in size and weight
when compared with conventional generators. The low loss superconducting coil is
rotated in an extremely strong magnetic field. Motors with very high powers could be
constructed at very low voltage as low as 450V. this is the basis of new generation of
energy saving power systems.

2. Low loss transmission lines and transformers : Since the resistance is almost zero at
superconducting phase, the power loss during transmission is negligible. Hence
electric cables are designed with superconducting wires. If superconductors are used
for winding of a transformer, the power losses will be very small.

3. Magnetic Levitation : Diamagnetic property of a superconductor ie , rejection of

magnetic flux lines is the basis of magnetic levitation. A superconducting material can
be suspended in air against the repulsive force from a permanent magnet. This
magnetic levitation effect can be used for high speed transportation.

4. Generation of high Magnetic fields : superconducting materials are used for

producing very high magnetic fields of the order of 50Tesla. To generate such a high
field, power consumed is only 10kW whereas in conventional method for such a high
field power generator consumption is about 3MW. Moreover in conventional method
,cooling of copper solenoid by water circulation is required to avoid burning of coil
due to Joule heating.

5. Fast electrical switching :A superconductor possesses two states , the superconducting

and normal. The application of a magnetic field greater than Hc can initiate a change
from superconducting to normal and removal of field reverses the process. This
principle is applied in development of switching element cryotron. Using such
superconducting elements, one can develop extremely fast large scale computers.

6. Logic and storage function in computers : they are used to perform logic and storage
functions in computers. The current – voltage characteristics associated with
Josephson junction are suitable for memory elements.

7. SQUIDS ( superconducting Quantum Interference Devices ) : It is a double junction

quantum interferometer. Two Josephson junctions mounted on a superconducting ring
forms this interferometer. The SQUIDS are based on the flux quantization in a
superconducting ring. Very minute magnetic signals are detected by these SQUID
sensors. These are used to study tiny magnetic signals from the brain and heart.
SQUID magnetometers are used to detect the paramagnetic response in the liver. This
gives the information of iron held in the liver of the body accurately.

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Questions:
1. Describe how polarization occurs in a dielectric material.
2. Define dielectric constant of a material.
3. Explain the origin of different kinds of polarization.
4. Describe in brief various types of polarization.
5. Obtain an expression for the internal field.
6. Derive Clausius - Mossotti equation.
7. Describe the frequency dependence of dielectric constant.
8. Write note on Dielectric loss.
9. Explain the properties of ferroelectric materials.
10. What is piezoelectricity?
11. Distinguish between dia, para, ferro, antiferro,and ferromagnetic materials.
12. what is meant by Neel temperature
13. Define magnetization and show that B = µ0 (H + M).
14. Explain the origin of magnetic moment.
15. Decribe the domain theory of ferromagnetism.
16. What is Bhor Magneton.
17. Draw and explain the hysteresis curve.
18. Discuss the characteristic features of soft and hard magnetic materials.
19. What are the applications of soft and hard magnetic materials?

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UNIT – VII

12. LASERS

Introduction:

It is a device to produce a powerful monochromatic narrow beam of light in which the waves
are convergent. Laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation.
Maser is an acronym of microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
The light emitted from the conventional light source (eg: sodium lamp, candle) is said to be
incoherent. Because the radiation emitted from different atom do not have any definite phase
relationship with each other. Lasers are much important because the light sources having high
monochromaticity, high intensity, high directionality and high coherence.
In the laser the principal of maser is employed in the frequency range of 1014to 1015Hz
and it is termed as optical maser. Laser principle now a day is extended up to γ-rays hence
Gamma ray lasers are called Grazers. The first two successful lasers developed during 1960
were Ruby laser and He- Ne lasers. Some lasers emit light is pulses while others emit as a
continuous wave.

Characteristics of laser radiation:

The four characteristics of a laser radiation over conventional light sources are
(1) Laser is highly monochromatic
(2) Laser is highly directional
(3) Laser is highly coherent
(4) The intensity of laser is very high

HIGHLY MONOCHROMATIC:

The band width of ordinary light is about 1000A0 . The band width of laser light is about
10A0 . The narrow band width of a laser light is called on high monochromacity.

BAND WIDTH:- The spread of the wavelength (frequency ) about the wavelength of
maximum intensity is band width.

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Laser light is more monochromatic than that of a conventional light source. Because of this
monochromaticity large energy can be concentrated in to an extremely. Small band width.

For good laser dv=50Hz v=5×1014 Hz. The degree of non-monochromaticity

for a conventional sodium light.

HIGH DIREATIONALITY:

The conventional light sources like lamp, torch light, sodium lamp emits light in all
directions. This is called divergence. Laser in the other hand emits light only in one direction.
This is called directionality of laser light.
Light from ordinary light spreads in about few kilometers.

Light from laser spreads to a diameter less than 1 cm for many kilometers.

The directionality of laser beam is given by (or) expressed in divergence.

The divergence ∆θ = (r2 –r1) /d2-d1

Where r2, r1 are the radius of laser beam spots

d2 ,d1 are distances respectively from the laser source. Hence for getting a high directionality
then should be low divergence.

HIGHLY COHERENT:

When two light rays are having same phase difference then they are said to be coherent.
It is expressed in terms of ordering of light field

Laser has high degree of ordering than other common sources. Due to its coherence only it is
possible to create high power(1012 watts) in space with laser beam of 1µm diameter.
There are two independent concepts of coherence.

1) Spatial coherence (2) Temporal coherence

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SPATIAL COHERENCE: The two light fields at different point in space maintain a
constant phase difference over any time (t) they are said to be spatial coherence.

In He- Ne gas laser the coherence length( lc ) is about 600km.It means over the distance
the phase difference is maintained over any time .For sodium light it is about 3cm.
The coherence & monochoremacity is related by

ξ = (∆υ / υ) α 1/ lc

For the higher coherence length ξ is small hence it has high monochromacity

TEMPORAL COHERENCE: The correlation of phase between the light fields at a

point over a period of time. For He- Ne laser it is a about 10-3 second , for sodium it is about
10-10 second only.

ξ = (∆υ / υ) α 1/ tc

Higher is the tc higher is the monochromacity.

HIGH INTENSITY:

Intensity of a wave is the energy per unit time flowing through a unit area.
The light from an ordinary source spreads out uniformly in all directions and from spherical
wave fronts around it.
Ex:- If you look a 100W bulb from a distance of 30cm the power entering the eye is
1 / 1000 of watt.

But in case of a laser light, energy is in small region of space and in a small wavelength and
hence is said to be of great intensity.
The power range of laser about 10-3W for gas laser and 109W for solid state laser
The number of photons coming out from a laser per second per unit area is given by
2 22 34 2
N1 = p / hυЛr ≈ 10 to 10 photons/ m – sec.

SPONTANEOUS AND STIMULATED (INDUCED) EMISSION:

Light is emitted or absorbed by particles during their transitions from one energy state to
another .the process of transferring a particle from ground state to higher energy state is
called excitation. Then the particle is said to be excited.

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The particle in the excited state can remain for a short interval of time known as life time.
The life time is of the order of 10-8 sec, in the excited states in which the life time is much
greater than 10-8 sec are called meta stable states. The life time of the particle in the Meta
stable state is of the order 10-3 sec

The probability of transition to the ground state with emission of radiation is made up of
two factors one is constant and the other variable.

The constant factor of probability is known as spontaneous emission and the variable factor is
known as stimulated emission.

SPONTANEOUS EMISSION: The emission of particles from higher energy state to lower
energy state spontaneously by emitting a photon of energy hυ is known as ―spontaneous
emission‖

STIMULATED EMISSION: The emission of a particle from higher state to lower state by
stimulating it with another photon having energy equal to the energy difference between
transition energy levels called stimulated emission.

SPONTANEOUS EMISSION STIMULATED EMISSION

1) Incoherent radiation 1) coherent radiation
2) Less Intensity 2) high intensity
3) Poly chromatic 3) mono chromatic
4) One photon released 4) two photons released
5) Less directionality 5) high directionality
6) More angular spread during propagation 6) less angular spread during
Propagation

Ex:-Light from sodium ex: - light from a laser source

Mercury vapour lamp ruby laser, He-He gas laser gas
Laser

EINSTEINS EQUATIONS (OR) EINSTAINS CO- EFFICIENTS:

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Based on Einstein‘s theory of radiation one can get the expression for probability for
stimulated emission of radiation to the probability for spontaneous emission of radiation
under thermal equilibrium.

E1, E2 be the energy states

N1, N2 be the no of atoms per unit volume

ABSORPTION: If ρ(υ)dυ is the radiation energy per unit volume between the frequency
range of υ and υ+dυ

The number of atoms under going absorption per unit volume per second from level

E1 to E2 = N1 ρ(υ )B12------ 1

B12 represents probability of absorption per unit time

STIMILATED EMISSION: When an atom makes transition E2 toE1 in the presence of

external photon whose energy equal to (E2-E1) stimulated emission takes place thus the
number of stimulated emission per unit volume per second from levels.

E2 to E1 = N2 ρ(υ) B21------ 2

B21 is represents probability of stimulated emission per unit time.

SPONSTANEOUS EMISSION: An atom in the level E2 can also make a spontaneous

emission by jumping in to lower energy level E1.

E2 to E1=N2A21--- 3

A21 represents probability of spontaneous emission per unit time.

Under steady state

(dN / dt) = 0

No of atoms under going absorption per second = no of atoms under going emission per
second

1 =2+3

N1 ρ(υ )B12 = N2 ρ(υ )B21 + N2 A21

N2 A21 = N1 ρ(υ )B12 - N2 ρ(υ )B21

= ρ(υ )(N1B12 - N2B21)

ρ (υ) = N2 A21 / (N1B12 - N2B21)

= A21 / [(N1 / N2 )B12 - B21)] -------- 4

From distribution law we know that

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N1 / N2 =e 2
(E - E ) / k T
1 B

= ehυ / kBT -------------- 5

Substituting N1 / N2 in eqn (4) we get

ρ (υ) = A21 / B21 (e

hυ / k T
B - 1)--------- 6

From Planck‘s radiation

3 3
ρ (υ) = 8Πhn / λ x [ 1 / (e
hυ / k T
B - 1)] ------- 7

n – refractive index of the medium

λ - wave length of the light in air.
λm= λ / n wavelength of light in medium -------- 8
3
ρ (υ) = 8Πh / λm x [ 1 / (e
hυ / k T
B - 1)] ------ 9

Comparing eqn 6 and 9

3
A21 / B21 = 8Π h / λm
Where A21 , B21 are Einstein‘s co-efficient of spontaneous emission probability per unit time
and stimulated emission probability per unit time respectively.

For stimulated emission to be predominant, we have

A21 / B21 << 1

POPULATION INVERSION:

The no of atoms in higher energy level is less than the no of atoms in lowest energy
level. The process of making of higher population in higher energy level than the population
in lower energy level is known as population inversion.

Population inversion is achieved by pumping the atoms from the ground level to the
higher energy level through optical (or) electrical pumping. It is easily achieved at the
matastable state, where the life time of the atoms is higher than that in other higher energy
levels.

The states of system, in which the population of higher energy state is more in comparision
with the population of lower energy state, are called ―Negative temperature state‖.

A system in which population inversion is achieved is called as an active system. The

method of raising the particles from lower energy state to higher energy state is called
‖Pumping‖.

DIFFERENMT TYPES OF LASES:

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1. Solid state laser - Ruby laser, Nd-YAG laser

2. Gas laser - He-Ne laser, CO2 laser
3. Semi conductor laser - GaAs laser

RUBY LASER:

Ruby laser is a three level solid state laser having very high power of hundreds of mega
watt in a single pulse it is a pulsed laser.

The system consists of mainly two parts

1) ACTIVE MATERIAL: Ruby crystal in the form of rod.

2) RESONANT CAVITY: A fully reflecting plate at the left end of the ruby crystal and
partially reflecting end at the right side of the ruby crystal both the surfaces are
optically flat and exactly parallel to each other.

3) EXCITING SYSTEM: A helical xenon flash tube with power supply source.

CONSTRUCTION: In ruby laser, ruby rod is a mixture of Al2O3+Cr2O3. It is a mixture

+3 +3
of Aluminum oxide in which some of ions Al ions concentration doping of Cr is about
0.05% , then the colour of rod becomes pink. The active medium in ruby rod is Cr+3 ions.
The length of the ruby rod is 4cm and diameter 5mm and both the ends of the ruby rod are
silvered such that one end is fully reflecting and the other end is partially reflecting. The ruby
rod is surrounded by helical xenon flash lamp tube which provides the optical pumping to
raise Cr+3 ions to upper energy level.

The chromium atom has been excited to an upper energy level by absorbing photons of wave
length 5600A0 from the flash lamp. Initially the chromium ions (Cr+3) are excited to the
energy levels E1 to E3 , the population in E3 increases. Since the life time of E3 level is very
_8 +3 -3
less (10 Sec). The Cr ions drop to the level E2 which is matastable of life time 10 Sec.
The transition from E3 to E2 is non-radiative.

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Since the life time of metastable state is much longer, the no of ions in this state goes on
increasing hence population inversion achieved between the excited metastable state E2 and
the ground state E1.

When an excited ion passes spontaneously from the metastable state E2 to the ground state
0
E1. It emit a photon of wave length 6993A this photon travel through the ruby rod and if it is
moving parallel to the axis of the crystal and it is reflected back and forth by the silver ends
until it stimulates an excited ion in E2. The emitted photon and stimulated photon are in
phase the process is repeated again and again finally the photon beam becomes intense; it
emerges out through partially silvered ends.
Since the emitted photon and stimulating photon in phase, and have same frequency and are
traveling in the same direction, the laser beam has directionality along with spatial and
temporal coherence.

IMPORTANCE OF RESONATOR CAVITY: To make the beams parallel to each other

curved mirrors are used in the resonator cavity. Resonator mirrors are coated with multi layer
dielectric materials to reduce the absorption loss in the mirrors. Resonators act as frequency
selectors and also give rise to directionality to the out put beam. The resonator mirror
provides partial feedback to the protons.

He- Ne Laser
CONSTRUTION:
He - Ne gas laser consists of a gas discharge tube of length 80cm and
diameter of 1cm. The tube is made up of quartz and is filled with a mixture of Neon under a
pressure of 0.1mm of Hg. The Helium under the pressure of 1mm of Hg the ratio of He-Ne
mixture of about 10:1, hence the no of helium atoms are greater than neon atoms. The
mixtures is enclosed between a set of parallel mirrors forming a resonating

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cavity, one of the mirrors is completely reflecting and the other partially reflecting in order to
amplify the output laser beam.

WORKING:
When a discharge is passed through the gaseous mixture electrons are accelerated
down the tube these accelerated electrons collide with the helium atoms and excite them to
higher energy levels since the levels are meta stable energy levels he atoms spend
sufficiently long time and collide with neon atoms in the ground level E1 . Then neon atoms
are excited to the higher energy levels E4 & E6 and helium atoms are de excited to the ground
state E1

Since E6 & E4 are meta stable states, population inversion takes place at there levels. The
0
stimulated emission takes place between E6 to E3 gives a laser light of wave length 6328A
and the stimulated emission between E6 and E5 gives a laser light wave length of 3.39µm.
Another stimulated emission between E4 to E3 gives a laser light wave length of 1.15µm. The
neon atoms undergo spontaneous emission from E3 toE2 and E5 to E2. Finally the neon atoms
are returned to the ground state E1 from E2 by non-radeative diffusion and collision process.

After arriving the ground state, once again the neon atoms are raised to E6 & E4 by excited
helium atoms thus we can get continuous out put from He-Ne laser.

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But some optical elements placed insides the laser system are used to absorb the infrared
laser wave lengths 3.39µm and1.15µm. hence the output of He-Ne laser contains only a
single wave length of 6328A0 and the output power is about few milliwatts .

CO2 LASER

Construction and working:

We know that a molecule is made up of two or more atoms bound together. In molecule in
addition to electronic motion, the constituent atoms in a molecule can vibrate in relation to
each other and the molecule as a whole can rotate. Thus the molecule is not only
characterized by electronic levels but also by vibration and rotational levels. The fundamental
modes of vibrations of CO2 molecule shown I fig.

CO2 Laser is a gas discharge, which is air cooled. The filling gas within the discharge tube
consists primarily of, CO2 gas with 10 – 20%, Nitrogen around 10 – 20 %
H2 or Xenon ( Xe ) a few percent usually only in a sealed tube.

The specific proportions may vary according to the particular application. The population
inversion in the laser is achieved by following sequence:

1. Electron impact excites vibration motion of the N2. Because N2 is a homo nuclear
molecule, it cannot lose this energy by photon emission and it is excited vibration
levels are therefore metestable and live for long time.
2. Collision energy transfer between the N2 and the CO2 molecule causes vibration
excitation of the CO2, with sufficient efficiency to lead to the desired population
inversion necessary for laser operation.

Because CO2 lasers operate in the infrared, special materials are necessary for their
construction. Typically the mirrors are made of coated silicon, molybdenum or gold, while
windows and lenses are made of either germanium or zinc sulenide. For high power
application gold mirrors and zinc selenide windows and lenses are preferred. Usually lenses
and windows are made out of salt NaCl or KCl ). While the material is inexpensive, the
lenses windows degraded slowly with exposure to atmosphere moisture.

The most basic form of a CO2 laser consist of a gas discharge ( with a mix close to that
specified above) with a total reflector at one end and an output coupler ( usually a semi
reflective coated zinc selendine mirror ) at the output end. The reflectivity of the out put

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coupler is typically around 5 – 15 %. The laser output may be edge coupled in higher power
systems to reduce optical heating problems.

CO2 lasers output power is very high compared to Ruby laser or He – Ne lasers. All CO2
lasers are rated in Watts or kilowatts where the output power of Ruby laser or He – Ne laser
is rated in mill watts. The CO2 laser can be constructed to have CW powers between mill
watts and hundreds of kilowatts.

SEMICONDIRCTOR LASER (Gallium Arsenide Diode Laser or Homojunction

Laser):

Semiconductor laser is also known as diode laser

PRINCIPLE:
In the case direct band gap semiconductors there is a large possibility for direct
recombination of hole and electron emitting a photon. GaAs is a direct band gap
semiconductor and hence it is used to make lasers and light emitting diodes. The wave
lengths of the emitted light depend on the band hap of the material.

CONSTRUCTIONS: The P-region and N-region in the diode are obtained by heavily
doping germanium and tellurium respectively in GaAs. The thickness of the P-N junction
layer is very narrow at the junction, the sides are well polished and parallel to each other.
Since the refractive index of GaAs is high the reflectance at the material air interface is
sufficiently large so that the external mirror are not necessary to produce multiple

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reflections. The P-N junction is forward biased by connection positive terminal to P-type and
negative terminal to N type.

4 2
WORKING: When the junction is forward biased a large current of order10 amp/cm
is passed through the narrow junction to provide excitation. Thus the electrons and holes
injected from N side and P side respectively. The continuous injection of charge carries the
population inversion of minority carriers in N and P sides respectively.

The excess minority electrons in the conduction band of P – layers recombine with the
majority holes in the valence band of P-layer emitting light photons similarly the excess
minority holes in the valence band of N- layers recombine with the majority electrons in the
conduction band of N- layer emitting light photons.

The emitted photons increase the rate of recombination of injected electrons from the N-
region and holes in P- region. Thus more no of photons are produced hence the stimulated
emission take place, light is amplified.

The wave length of emitted radiation depends upon the concentration of donor and acceptor
atoms in GaAs the efficiency of laser emission increases, when we cool the GaAs diode.

DRAWBACKS:-
1. Only pulsed laser output is obtained
2. Laser output has large divergence
3. Poor coherence

APPLICATION OF LASERS:

Lasers in scientific research

1) Lasers are used to clean delicate pieces of art, develop hidden finger prints
2) Laser are used in the fields of 3D photography called holography
3) Using lasers the internal structure of micro organisms and cells are studied very
accurately
4) Lasers are used to produce certain chemical reactions.

Laser in Medicine:

1) The heating action of a laser bean used to remove diseased body tissue
2) Lasers are used for elimination of moles and tumours, which are developing in the skin
tissue.

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3) Argon and CO2 lasers are used in the treatment liver and lungs
4) Laser beam is used to correct the retinal detachment by eye specialist

Lasers in Communication:

1) More amount of data can be sent due to the large band with of semiconductor lasers
2) More channels can be simultaneously transmitted
3) Signals cannot tapped
4) Atmospheric pollutants concentration, ozone concentration and water vapour
concentration can be measured

Lasers in Industry: Lasers are used

1) To blast holes in diamonds and hard steel
2) To cut, drill, welding and remove metal from surfaces
3) To measure distance to making maps by surveyors
4) For cutting and drilling of metals and non metals such a ceramics plastics glass

Questions:

1. Explain the terms i) Absorption, ii) spontaneous emission, iii) Stimulated emission,
iv) pumping mechanism , v) Population inversion, vi) Optical cavity
2. What is population inversion? How it is achieved?.
3. Explain the characteristics of a laser beam.
4. Distinguish between spontaneous and stimulated emission.
5. Derive the Einstein‘s coefficients.
6. With neat diagrams, describe the construction and action of ruby laser.
7. Explain the working of He – Ne laser
8. Describe the CO2 laser
9. Explain the semiconductor laser.
10. Mentions some applications of laser in different fields.

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13. FIBER OPTICS

Introduction: In 1870 John Tyndall demonstrated that light follows the curve of a
stream of water pouring from a container; it was this simple principle that led to the
study and development of application of the fiber optics. The transmission of
information over fibers has much lower losses than compared to that of cables. The
optical fibers are most commonly used in telecommunication, medicine, military,
automotive and in the area of industry. In fibers, the information is transmitted in the
form of light from one end of the fiber to the other end with min.losses.

Advantages of optical fibers:

 Higher information carrying capacity.

 Light in weight and small in size.
 No possibility of internal noise and cross talk generation.
 No hazards of short circuits as in case of metals.
 Can be used safely in explosive environment.
 Low cost of cable per unit length compared to copper or G.I cables.
 No need of additional equipment to protect against grounding and voltage
problems.
 Nominal installation cost.
 Using a pair of copper wires only 48 independent speech signals can be sent
simultaneously whereas using an optical fiber 15000 independent speeches can be
sent simultaneously.

Basic principle of Optical fiber:

The mechanism of light propagation along fibers can be understood using the principle of
geometrical optics. The transmission of light in optical fiber is based on the phenomenon
of total internal reflection.

Let n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of core and cladding

respectively such that n1>n2.Let a light ray traveling from the medium of refractive index
n1 to the refractive index n2 be incident with an angle of incidence ―i‖ and the angle of
refraction ―r‖. By Snell‘s law

n1sin i = n2sin r…………………(1)

The refractive ray bends towards the normal as the ray travels from rarer medium to
denser medium .On the other hand ,the refracted ray bends away from normal as it travel
from denser medium to rarer medium. In the later case , there is a possibility to occur
total internal reflection provided, the angle of incidence is greater than critical angle(θ c ).
This can be understood as follows.

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1. When i < θ c ,then the ray refracted is into the second medium as shown in below
fig1.
2. When i= θc, then the ray travels along the interface of two media as shown in fig2.
3. When i> θc then the ray totally reflects back into the same medium as shown in fig3.

o
Suppose if i= θc then r =90 ,hence
o
n1sin θc = n2sin 90
o
sin θc = n2/ n1 (since sin 90 =1)
-1
θc=sin (n2/ n1)………………………….(2)

thus any ray whose angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle ,total internal
reflection occurs ,when a ray is traveling from a medium of high refractive index to low
refractive index.

Construction of optical fiber:

The optical fiber mainly consists of the following parts.

i .Core ii .Cladding iii .Silicon coating iv .Buffer jacket
v .Strength material vi . Outer jacket

 A typical glass fiber consists of a central core of thickness 50μm surrounded by

cladding.
 Cladding is made up of glass of slightly lower refractive index than core‘s refractive
index, whose over all diameter is 125μm to 200μm.
Of course both core and cladding are made of same glass and to put refractive index of
cladding lower than the refractive index of core, some impurities like Boron, Phosphorous
or Germanium are doped.
 Silicon coating is provided between buffer jacket and cladding in order to improve
the quality of transmission of light.
 Buffer jacket over the optical fiber is made of plastic and it protects the fiber from
moisture and abrasion.
 In order to provide necessary toughness and tensile strength, a layer of strength
material is arranged surrounding the buffer jacket.

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 Finally the fiber cable is covered by black polyurethane outer jacket. Because of this
arrangement fiber cable will not be damaged during hard pulling ,bending ,stretching
or rolling, though the fiber is of brittle glass.

Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture of optical fiber:

When the light beam is launched into a fiber, the entire light may not pass
through the core and propagate. Only the rays which make the angle of incidence greater than
critical angle at the core –cladding interface undergoes total internal reflection. The other rays
are refracted to the cladding and is lost. Hence the angle we have to launch the beam at its
end is essential to enable the entire light to pass through the core .This maximum angle of
launch is called acceptance angle.

Consider an optical fiber of cross sectional view as shown in figure no, n1and n2 are
refractive indices of air ,core and cladding respectively such that n1>n2>no.let light ray is
incidenting on interface of air and core medium with an angle of incidence α .This particular
ray enters the core at the axis point A and proceeds after refraction at an angle αr from the
axis .It then undergoes total internal reflection at B on core at an internal incidence angle θ.

To find α at A:-
In triangle ABC, α r =90- θ ……………………. (1)

From snell‘ s law ,

n0 sin α = n1sinαr…………….(2)

sin α= n1/n0 sin αr …………………….(3)

From equations 1, 3
sin α= n1/n0 sin(90- θ ) => sin α= n1/n0 cos θ………(4)

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If θ < θc, the ray will be the lost by refraction. Therefore limiting value for the beam to be
inside the core, by total internal reflection is θc. Let α (max) be the maximum possible angle
of incident at the fiber end face at A for which θ= θc. If for a ray α exceeds α (max), then θ<
θc and hence at B the ray will be refracted.

Hence equation 4 can be written as

sin α(max)= n1/n0 cos θc…………………..(5)

We know that
cos θc=√(1-sin2 θc) = √ (1- n22/n12)
2 2
=√ ( n1 - n2 )/ n1……………………(6)
Therefore
sin α(max) =√ ( n12- n22)/no

-1 2 2
α(max)=sin √ ( n1 - n2 )/no

This maximum angle is called acceptance angle or acceptance cone angle. Rotating the
acceptance angle about the fiber axis gives the acceptance cone of the fiber. Light launched at
the fiber end within this acceptance cone alone will be accepted and propagated to the other
end of the fiber by total internal reflection. Larger acceptance angles make launching easier.

Numerical aperture:-

Light collecting capacity of the fiber is expressed in terms of acceptance

angle using numerical aperture. Sine of the maximum acceptance angle is called the
numerical aperture of the fiber.
2 2
Numerical aperture =NA = Sin α (max) =√ ( n1 - n2 )/no…………….(7)
2 2 2
Let ∆ = (n1 - n2 )/2n1 …………… (8)

For most fiber n1 n2

2 2
Hence ∆ = (n1+ n2) (n1-n2)/2n1 = 2n1 (n1-n2)/ 2n1

∆ = (n1-n2)/ n1 (fractional difference in refractive indices)……………(9)

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2 2 2
From equation (8) n1 - n2 = ∆ 2n1

Taking under root on both sides

2 2
Hence =√ (n1 - n2 ) = √2 ∆ n1

Substituting this in equation (7) we get

NA ≈ √2 ∆ n1/no ………(10)
For air no= 1, then the above equation can changed as

NA ≈ √2 ∆ n1

Numerical aperture of the fiber is dependent only on refractive indices of the

core and cladding materials and is not a function of fiber dimensions.

Types or classification of optical fibers:

Optical fibers are classified as follows:

Depending upon the refractive index profile of the core, optical fibers are classified into two
categories

_______________

Step index Graded index

Depending upon the number of modes of propagation, optical fibers are classified into two
categories, they are
__________________

Single mode Multi mode

Based on the nature of the material used, optical fibers are classified into four categories.

 Glass fiber

 Plastic fiber

 Glass Core with plastic cladding

 PCS Fibers(Polymer-Clad Silica fiber)

Step index fibers:-

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In step index fibers the refractive index of the core is uniform through out the medium and
undergoes an abrupt change at the interface of core and cladding.The diameter of the core is
about 50-200μm and in case of multi mode fiber.And 10 μm in the case of single mode
fiber.The transmitted optical signals travel through core medium in the form of meridonal
rays, which will cross the fiber axis during every reflection at the core-cladding interface. The
shape of the propagation appears in a zig-zac manner.

Graded index fiber:-

In these fibers the refractive index of the core varies radially.As the radius increases in the
core medium the refractive index decreases. The diameter of the core is about 50μm.The
transmitted optical signals travel through core medium in the form of helical rays, which will
not cross the fiber axis at any time.

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Attenuations in optical fiber (or losses):

While transmitting the signals through optical fiber some energy is lost due to few reasons.
The major losses in fibers are 1.Distotrion losses 2.Transmission losses 3.Bending losses.

1. Distortion losses:-

When a pulse is launched at one end of the fiber and collected at the other end of the fiber,
the shape and size of the pulse should not be changed. Distortion of signals in optical fiber is
an undesired feature. If the out put pulse is not same as the input pulse, then it is said that the
pulse is distorted .If the refractive index of the core is not uniform most of the rays will travel
through the medium of lower refractive index region. Due to this the rays which are travel in
fiber will become broadened. Because of this the out put pulses will no longer matches with
the input pulses.

The distortion takes place due to the presence of imperfections, impurities and
doping concentrations in fiber crystals.Disperion is large in multi mode than in
single mode fiber.

2. Transmission losses (attenuation):-

The attenuation or transmission losses may be classified into two

categories i ) Absorption losses ii) scattering losses

i) Absorption losses:-
Absorption is a characteristic possessed by all materials every material in universe absorb
suitable wavelengths as they incident or passed through the material. In the same way
core material of the fiber absorbs wavelengths as the optical pulses or wavelengths pass
through it.

ii) Scattering losses:-

The core medium of the fiber is made of glass or silica .In the
passage of optical signals in the core medium if crystal defects are encountered, they
deviate from the path and total internal reflection is discontinued, hence such signals will
be destroyed by entering into the cladding however attenuation is minimum in optical
fibers compared to other cables.

ii) Bending losses:-

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The distortion of the fiber from the ideal strait line

configuration may also result in fiber .Let us consider a way front that travels
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. In order to maintain this, the part of the
mode which is on the out side of the bend has to travel faster than that on the inside. As
per the theory each mode extends an infinite distance into the cladding though the
intensity falls exponentially. Since the refractive index of cladding is less than that of the
core (n1>n2), the part of the mode traveling in the cladding will attempt to travel faster.
As per Einistein‘s theory of relativity since the part of the mode cannot travel faster the
energy associated with this particular part of the mode is lost by radiation.

Attenuation loss is generally measured in terms of decibels (dB),

which is a logarithmic unit.

Loss of optical power = -10 log (Pout/ Pin ) dB

Where Pout is the power emerging out of the fiber

Pin is the power launched into the fiber.

Optical fiber in communication systems as a wave guide:

An efficient optical fiber communication system requires high information carrying

capacity fast operating speed over long distances with minimum number of repeaters .An
optical fiber communication system mainly contains
1. Encoder
2. Transmitter
3. Wave guide
4. Receiver
5. Decoder.

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Encoder:-

It is an electronic system that convert the analog information like voice, figure,
objects etc into binary data. This binary data contain a series of electrical pulses.

Transmitter:-

It consist of two parts namely drive circuit and light source .Drive circuit
supplies electric signals to the light source from the encoder in the required form. In the
place of light source either an LED or A diode Laser can be used ,which converts electric
signals into optical signals. With the help of specially made connecter optical signal will
be injected into wave guide from the transmitter.

Wave guide:-
It is an optical fiber which carries information in the form of optical signals
over long distances with the help of repeaters. with the help of specially made connector
optical signal will be received by the receiver from the wave guide.

Receiver:-

It consists of three parts namely photo detector, amplifier and signal restorer.
The photo detector converts the optical signals into equivalent electric signals and
supply them to amplifier. The amplifier amplifies the electric signals as they become
weak during the journey trough the wave guide over a long distances. The signal restorer
keeps all the electric signals in sequential form and supplies to decoder in suitable way.

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Decoder:-

It convert the received electric signals into the analog information.

Advantages of optical fiber communication:

 Enormous Band width:-

In the coaxial cable transmission the band width is up to around
5000MHz only where as in fiber optical communication it is as large as 105 GHz. Thus
the information carrying capacity of optical fiber system is far superior to the copper
cable system.

 Electrical isolation:-
Since fiber optic material are insulators unlike there metallic
counterpart, they do not exhibit earth loop and interface problems. Hence communication
through fiber even in electrically hazarders environment do not cause any fear of spark
hazards.

 Immunity to interference and cross talk:-

Since optical fibers are dielectric waveguides, they are free
from any electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RIF).
Hence fiber cable do not require special shielding from EMI. Since optical interference
among different fiber is not possible ,unlike communication using electrical conductors
cross talk is negligible even when many fibers are cabled together.

 Signal security:-
Unlike the situation with copper cables a transmitted optical signal
can not be drawn fiber with out tampering it. Such an attempt will affect the original
signal and hence can easily detected.

 Small size and weight:-

Since fibers are very small in diameter the space occupied the fiber
cable is negligibly small compare to metallic cables. Optical cables are light in weight ,
these merits make them more useful in air crafts and satellites.

 Low transmission loss:-

Since the loss in fibers is as low as 0.2dB/Km , transmission loss is
very less compare to copper conductors. Hence for long distance communication, fibers
are preferred. Number of repeaters required is reduced.

 Low cost:-
Since fibers are made up of silica which is available in nature ,optical
fibers are less expensive.

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Applications of optical fibers:

 Optical fibers are used as sensors
 These are used in Endoscopy
 These are used in communication system
 For decorative peaces in home needs.
 These are used in defence areas for the sake of high security.
 These are used in electrical engineering.

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UNIT- VIII

14. ACOUSTICS OF BUILDINGS & ACOUSTIC QUIETING

REVERBERATION AND REVERBERATION TIME

A room with hard walls no furniture and no drapes , echoes. To hear well in a room or
auditorium it may seem that the walls should not absorb and sound .This would lead to
echoing .A room especially a large room with an excess of sound absorbing materials such as
large soft drapes and soft stuffed furniture may have a quality referred to as dead. Too much
absorption results in too low an intensity. Both these types of rooms are called poor
acoustics. A balance must be there fore obtained.

When the sound is switched on intensity slowly builds up when it is switched off the intensity
drops slowly . The prolongation of sound inside a room or hall even after the source
producing the sound is turned off is called reverberation this is due to multiple reflections
from the walls ceiling floor and other reflecting materials present in the hall.

The reverberation time for a room is the time required for the intensity to drop to one
millionth (10-6) of its initial value.

Reverberation time can be expressed interms of sound levels (in dB ) rather than intensity .
-6
If the initial intensity is Ii and the final intensity If is 10 Ii then

dBi=10 log Ii / I (standard)

dBf=10 log If / I (standard)
dBi-dBf=10 log( Ii/If)
6
since Ii /If = 10
6
dBi –dBf =10 log 10
=6*10=60

The reverberation time is the time required for the intensity to drop by 60 decibels . I t
depends on the volume V of the room.It also depends on the absorption of all parts of the
room of the room walls furniture people and so forth . Some parts may be highly absorbent
and some absorb only little.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF ACOUSTICALLY GOOD HALL

The reverberation of sound in an auditorium is mainly due to multiple reflections at various

surfaces inside. The volume and the shape of the auditorium and the sound absorption inside
influence the behaviour of sound. By varying the absorption of sound inside the hall the
reverberation time can be brought to optimum value. The following are the basic
requirements of acoustically good hall.

1) The volume of the auditorium is decided by the type of programme to be conducted there
and also the number of seats to be accommodated. A musical hall requires a large volume
whereas a lecture hall requires a smaller volume. In deciding the volume of the hall its
height plays an important role than its length and breadth. The ratio between the ceiling

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height and breadth should in deciding the volume of the hall the following guidelines may be
followed.

i) In cinema theatres – 3.74 to4.2 m3 per seat

ii) In lecture halls – 2.8 to 3.7 m3 per seat
iii) In musical halls – 4.2 to 5.6 m3 per seat

2) The shape of the wall and ceiling should be so as to provide uniform distribution of sound
throughout the hall. The design of a hall requires smooth decay and growth of sound . To
ensure these factors the hall should have scattering objects walls should have irregular
surface and walls must be fixed with absorptive materials . In fig 5.1 a design which enables
uniform distribution of sound is presented.

3) The reverberation should be optimum i.. e. neither too large nor too small . The
reverberation time should be 1 to 2 seconds for music and 0.5 to 1 second for speech to
control the reverberation the sound absorbing materials are to be chosen carefully.

4) The sound heard must be sufficiently loud in every part of the hall and no echoes should
be present.

5) The total quality of the speech and music must be unchanged i.e. the relative intensities of
the several components of a complex sound must be maintained .

6) For the sake of clarity the successive syllables spoken must be clear and distinct i.e. there
must be no confusion due to overlapping of syllables.

7) There should be no concentration of sound in any part of the hall.

8) The boundaries should be sufficiently sound proof to exclude extraneous noise.

9) The should be no Echelon effect.

10) There should be no resonance within the building .

11) The hall must be full of audience.

ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT

Since different materials absorb sound energy differently absorption of all the materials are
expressed in terms of absorption coefficient.

The coefficient of absorption of a material is defined as the ratio of sound energy absorbed by
the surface to that of the total sound energy incident on the surface.

Sound energy absorbed by the surface

i.e. Abdortion coefficient a = --------------------------------------------------
Total sound energy incident on the surface

As all sound waves falling on an open window a pass through an open window is taken to be
a ;perfect absorber of sound and absorption coefficient of all substance are measured in terms
of open window unit(O. W. U) Absorption coefficient of a surface is also defined as the
reciprocal of its area which absorbs the same sound energy as absorbed by unit area of an

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open window. The absorption coefficient of a given material depends on the frequency of the
sound also . It is generally higher at higher frequencies.

Sound absorption coefficient of some materials (at 500 Hz frequency range)

Meterial Absorption coefficient

O.W.U

Marble 0.01
Concrete 0.17
Cork 0.23
Asbestos 0.26
Carpet 0.30
Fibre board 0.50
Heavy curtains 0.50
Fibre glass 0.75
Perforated cellulose fibre tiles 0.80
Human body 0.50
Open window 1.0

SABINE‘S FORMULA FOR REVERBERATION TIME

Now we are going to derive an expression for reverberation time inside a room of volume
V. Sound is produced by a source inside the room. There sound waves spread and fall on the
walls they are partly absorbed and pertly reflected . The sound energy inside the room at any
instant is given by

Rate of growth of energy in the space = rate of supply of energy by the source –
Inside the room rate of absorption by all the surface

After getting an expression for the above if we switch off the source supplying energy then
due to absorption of energy by all the surfaces energy inside the room will decay and from
the decay rate reverberation time can be calculated. This derivation is based on the
assumption that there is a uniform distribution of sound energy inside the room.

1) Rate of supply of energy by the source

Rate of supply of energy by the source is nothing but the power of the source P.

2) Rate of absorption of sound inside the room

In order to calculate the absorption by the wall we consider a small element ds on a plane
wall AB as shown in fig 5.2 this element receives sound energy from the volume infront of it
Energy received by this element per second can be calculated by constructing a hemisphere
around this element with radius ‗υ‘ where υ is the velocity of sound . Energy from every
volume element with in this hemisphere will reach the element ds per elements ds . From the
same centre with radii γ and γ+dγ two circles are drawn in the plane containing the normal.
At angles θ and θ +dθ with respect to the normal two radii are and the area (shaded in the
figure) enclosed by these two radii between the circle is considered.

The are length of this area =rdθ

Radial length =dr

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Hence surface area of this element =rdθdr

This surface element is rotated about the normal through an angle dФ and the circumferential
distance moved by this elements is r sinθdФ.

Volume traced out by this area element = area of the element * distance moved
dV=rdθdr(r sin θ dФ)
=r2 sin θdθdrdФ

If E is the sound energy density i.e. energy per unit volume then energy present in the is
volume =EdV. Since the sound energy from this volume element propagates in all directions
(i.e. through solid angle 4π)

EdV
The energy traveling per unit solid angle =--------
4π
The energy traveling towards surface element ds alone falls on ds.
The energy traveling towards ds =energy traveling per unit solid anle *solid angle
Subtended by ds at the volume element dV

ds cosθ
The solid angle subtended by area ds at = -------------------
this elements of volume dV r2

EdV ds cosθ
Hence energy traveled towards ds from the = ------------- . ----------------------
Volume element dV 4π r2

E.r2 sin θdθdrdФ . ds cosθ

= ------------------------- ----------
4π r2

Eds
= ---------- sinθ cosθ dθdФdr
4π

Total energy received by ds in one second from the whole

Eds
Volume in its front = -------------∫ sin θ cosθdθdФdr
4π

This equation has three variable sincewe consider the energy received per second r varies
between 0 and v where is the velocity of sound θ varies between 0 and π / 2 , Ф varies
between 0 and 2π.

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Hence energy received by ds per second

Eds
π/2 π/2 v
= --------- 0∫ sinθcosθdθ0∫ dФ0∫ dr
4π

Eds
π/2
= ------- v*2π*0∫ sinθcosθdθ
4π

Evds
π/2
= -------- 0∫ 2 sinθcosθdθ
4

Evds
π/2
= --------(since0∫ 2sinθcosθdθ=1)
4

If a is the absorption of coefficient of the material of the wall ABthen energy

absorbed by the surface element ds per second Evds
= -------a
4
Hence total rate of absorption by all the surfaces of the wall

Ev
= --------------Σads
4

EvA
= -------------
4

Where Σads = A the total absorption a on all the surface on which sound falls.

3) The growth and decay of sound energy in the room

Let p be the power output i.e. rate of emission of energy from the surface and V the total
volume of the room . Then the total energy in the room at the instant when energy density is
E will be EV
d dE
Rate of growth of energy = ---------(EV) = V ---------
Dt dt

But at any instant rate of growth of energy in space= rate of supply of energy from the furface
– rate of absorption by all the surfaces.

dE EvA
V ------ = p - --------

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dt 4

When steady state is attained dE/dt =0 and if the steady state energy density is denoted by
Em then its value is given by

EmvA
0 = p - -----------
4
4p
Em = ---------
vA
from equation

dE p vA
-------- = ------ - ------- .E
Dt v 4v
vA 1 4α
( Let ------- = α and hence ---- = -------)
4v v vA

dE 4pα
-------- = ---------- -αE
dt vA

or

dE 4p
---------- + αE = ---------.α
dt vA

multiplying both sides by eαt we have

dE 4p
( ------- + αE) eαt = ---------- αeαt )
Dt vA

Or

d 4p
------(Eeαt) = -------- αeαt
dt vA

integrating the above equation we get

4p
αt
Ee = ------- eαt +k
vA

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where k is a constant of integration . Using the boundary conditions we can find the value of
K

i) Growth of the energy density:- If t is measured from the instant the source start
emitting sound . then initial condition is that at t=0 E=0, Applying this condition to
equation we get

-4p
K = ------
vA

substituting this value in equation we get

4p 4p 4p 4p
E eαt = --------e αt - -------- or E = ------ - ---------e-αt
vA vA vA vA

4p
-αt
E = -------(1-e )
vA

or

-αt
E = Em(1-e )

The equation shows the growth of energy with time t. The growth is along the exponential
curve shown in fig 5.3 which shows that E increases along the curve with time At t= 0,E = 0
and at

ii) Decay of energy density:- Let the source be cut off when E has reached the maximum
value Em . Now at t=0, p=0, E= Em from equation K =Em

substituting this value of K in equation

αt
E e Em (since p=0)

Equation show s the decay of the energy density with time after the source is cut off. This
decay is shown by the exponential curve .

4) Deduction of standard reverberation time (T) i.e. sabine‘s formula : We know that the
persistence of audible sound in the room even after the source has stopped producing the
sound is called reverberation and the standard time of rev3ereration T is defined as the time
taken for the sound energy density inside a room to fall to one millionth of its initial
6
maximum value hence to calculate T we put Em /E =10 and t= T in equation

E
------- =e αT 10-6 (or) eαT =106
Em

Taking log hw have

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αT = 6 loge 10 = 2.3026*6

substituting forα

4*2.3026*6 V
T = ------------------------ -------- ( v=330m/s)
330 A

Or

0.165V 0.165V
T =----------------- = ----------------
A ΣaS

This equation is in good agreement with the experimental values obtained by sabine .this is
sabine‘s formula for reverberation time .
i) Directly proportional to the volume of the auditorium
ii) Inversely proportional to the areas of sound absorbing surfaces such as ceiling
wall floor and other materials present inside the hall and
iii) Inversely proportional to the total absorption

It has been experimentally found that the reverberation time of 1.03 second is most suitable
for all room having approximately a volume less that 350 meters.

METHOD 1

The first method is based on the determination of standard time of reverberation in the room
without and with the sample of the material inside the room , If T1 is the reverberation time
without the sample inside the room then applying sabine‘s formula

1 A ΣaS
------ = ------------------ = ----------------
T1 0.165V 0.165V
Now with the sample inside the room reveration time T2 is measured.

1 ΣaS+a1s1
------- = ---------------------
T2 0.165V

Where a1 is the absorption coefficient of the area S1. From the above equation we have

a1 S1 1 1
---------------- = ( ----- - ------)
0.165V T2 T1

OR

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0.165 V 1 1
a2 = -----------------( ---- - ------)
S1 T2 T1

Hence knowing the terms on the right hand side of this equation the absorption coefficient a1
of the given material can be calculated .

FACTORS AFFECCTING THE ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS AND THEIR

REMEDIES

By an acoustically good hall we mean that every syllable or musical note reches an audible
level of loudness at every point of the hall and then quickly dies away to make
Room for for the next syllable or group of note. The deviation from this makes the hall
defective acoustically . Following factors affect the architectural acoustics.
1) In a hall when reverberation is large there is overlapping of successive sound which
results in loss of clarity in hearing.On the other hand if the reverberation is very small the
loudness is inadequate .Thus the time of reverberation for a hall should neither be too large
nor too small . It must have a definite value which may be satisfactory both to the speaker as
well as to the audience . The preferred value of the time or reverberation is called the
optimum reverberation time . A formula for standard time of reverberation was given by W.
C sabine which is

0.165V 0.165V
T = ------------ = --------------
A ΣaS

Where A is the total absorption of the hall V its volume in cubic metre and S is the surface
area in square metre.

Experimentally its is observed that the time of reverberation depends upon the size of the
hall loudness of sound and on the kind of the music fro which the hall is used . For a
frequency of 512 Hz the best time of reverberation lies between 1 and 1.5 sec for small halls
and up to 2-3 seconds for larger ones.

REMEDY:- The reverberation can be controlled by the following factors

1) By providing windows and ventilators which can be opened and closed to
make the value of the4 time of reverberation optimum
2) Decorating the walls by pictures and maps
3) Using heavy curtains with folds
4) By lining the walls with absorbent materials such as felt celotex fibre board
glass wool etc
5) Having full capacity of audience (please remember that empty hall
reverberarate each person is equivalent to about 0.50 sq metre area of an open
window)
6) By covering the floor with carpets
7) By providing acoustic tiles.

LOUDNESS:- With large absorption the time of reverberation will be smaller. This will
minimise the chances of confusion between the different syllables by the intensity of sound
may go ;below the level of intelligibility of hearing . Sufficient loudness at every point in the
hall is an important factor for satisfactory hearing .

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REMEDY:- The loudness may be increased by

1) Using large sounding boards behind the speaker and facing the audience large
polished wooden reflecting surfaces immedialtely above the speaker are also helpful
2) Low ceiling are also of great help in reflecting the sound energy towards the audience.
3) By providing additional sound energy with the help of equipments like loud speakers.
To achieve uniform distribution of intensity through out the hall loudspeakers are to
be positioned carefully .

FOCUSSING:-If there are focusing surface such as concave spherical cylindrical or

parabolic ones on the walls or ceiling of the hall they produce concentration of sound in
particular regions while in come other parts no sound reaches at all. In this way there will be
regions of silence or poor audibility . If there are extensive reflecting surfaces in the hall the
reflected and direct sound waves may form stationary wave system thus making the sound
intensity distribution bad and uneven.

REMEDY:- For uniform distribution of sound energy in the hall

1) There should be no curved surfaces . If such surfaces are present they should be covered
with absorbent material
2) Ceiling should be low .
3) A paraboloidal reflected surface arranged with the speaker at the focus is also helpful in
sending a uniform reflected beam of sound in the hall.

ECHOES:- An echo is heard when direct sound waves coming from the source and its
reflected wave reach the listener with a time interval of about 1/7 second/ The reflected
sound arriving earlier than this helps in raising the loudness whole those arriving later
produce echoes and cause confusion

REMEDY :- Echoes may be avoided by covering the long distant walls and high ceiling with
absorbent material

ECHELON EFFECT:- A set of railing s or any regular spacing of reflecting surfaces may
produce a musical note due to the regular succession of echoes of the original sound to the
listerner. This makes the original sound confusing or unintelligible .

REMEDY:- So this type of surface should be avoided or covered with proper sound
absorbing materials.

RESONANCE:- Sometimes the window panes sections of the wooden portions and walls
lacking in rigidity ate thrown into forced vibrations and create sound. For some note of audio
frequency the frequencies of forced vibrations any be the same thus resulting in the
resonance . Moreover if the frequency of the of the created sound is not equal to the original
sound at least certain tone s of the original music will be reinforced. Due to the interference
between original sound and created sound the original sound is distorted . Thus the intensity
of the note is entirely different from the original one enclosed air in the hall also causes
resonance.

REMEDY:- Such resonant vibrations should be suitably damped.

NOISE:- Generally there are three types of noises which are very troublesome they are
1) Air- borne noise
2) Structure borne noise and
3) Inside noise

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The prevention of the transmission of noise inside or outside the hall is known as sound
insulation . This is also known as sound proofing . The method of sound insulation depends
on the type of noise to be treated . Here we shall discuss the different types of noises and their
sound insulation.

AIR BORNE NOISE:- The noise which commonly reaches the hall from outside through
open window doors and ventilators is known as air born noise since this noise is transmitted
through the air it is called so.

REMEDY :- Sound insulation for the reduction of air borne noise can be achieved by the
following methods

1) By allotting proper places for doors and windows

2) By making arrangements for perfectly shutting doors and windows
3) Using heavy glass in doors windows and ventilators
4) Using double doors and window with separate frames and having insulating material
between them
5) By providing double wall construction floating floor construction suspended ceiling
construction box type construction etc.
6) By avoiding opening s for pipes and ventilators

STRUCTURE BORNE NOISE:- The noise which are conveyed through the structures of
the building are known as structural noise. The noises may be caused due to structure . The
most common sources of this type of sound are foot steps street traffic operating machinery
moving of furniture etc

REMEDY:- Sound insulation for the reduction of structures borne noise is done in the
following ways

1) Breaking the continuity by interposing layers of some acoustical insulators

2) Using double walls with air space between them
3) Using anti vibration mounts
4) Soft floor finish (carpet rubber etc)
5) Mechanical equipments such as refrigerators lifts fans etc. Produce vibrations in the
structure. These vibrations can be checked by insulating the equipment properly

INSIDE NOISE:- The noise which are produced inside the hall or rooms in big offices are
called as inside noises . They are produced due to machinery like air conditioners type writers
in the hall.

CONCLUSION:- Acoustics of buildings is a very important fields. If proper care is not taken
to achieve required acoustical properties in a building the building becomes unusable . Hence
at the planning stage itself it is essential to take necessary to achieve optimum reverberation
time.

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15. NANOTECHNOLOGY

Introduction
In 1959, Richard Feynman made a statement ‗there is plenty of room at the bottom‘. Based
on his study he manipulated smaller units of matter. He prophesied that ―we can arrange the
atoms the way we want, the very atoms, all the way down‖. The term ‗nanotechnology‘ was
coined by Norio Taniguchi at the University of Tokyo. Nano means 10-9. A nano metre is one
thousand millionth of a metre (i.e. 10-9 m).
Nanomaterials could be defined as those materials which have structured components with
size less than 100nm at least in one dimension. Any bulk material we take, its size can
express in 3-dimensions. Any planer material, its area can be expressed in 2-dimension. Any
linear material, its length can be expressed in 1-dimension.

Materials that are nano scale in 1-dimension or layers, such as thin films or surface coatings.
Materials that are nano scale in 2-dimensions include nanowires and nanotubes.
Materials that are nano scale in 3- dimensions are particles like precipitates, colloids and
quantum dots.

Nanoscience: it can be defined as the study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at

atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales, where properties differ significantly from
those at a larger scale.

Nanotechnology: It can be defined as the design, characterization, production and

application of structures, devices and systems by controlling shape and size at the nano metre
scale. It is also defined as ―A branch of engineering that deals with the design and
manufacture of extremely small electronic circuits and mechanical devices built at molecular
level of matter. Now nanotechnology crosses and unites academic fields such as Physics,
Chemistry and Computer science.

Properties of nano particles:

The properties of nano scale materials are very much different from those
at a larger scale. Two principal factors that cause that the properties to differ significantly are
increased relative surface area and quantum effects. These can enhance or change properties
such as reactivity, strength and electrical characteristics.

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1. Increase in surface area to volume ratio

Nano materials have relatively larger surface area when compared to the volume of the
bulk material.

Consider a sphere of radius r

Its surface area =4Πr2
Its volume = 4Πr3 /3

Surface area = 4Πr2 = 3

Volume 4Πr3 /3 r

Thus when the radius of sphere decreases, its surface area to volume ratio increases.

EX: For a cubic volume,

Surface area = 6x1m2 =6m2

When it is divided it 8 pieces

It surface area = 6x (1/2m) 2x8=12m2
When the sane volume id divided into 27 pieces,

It surface area = 6x (1/3m) 2x27=18m2

Therefore, when the given volume is divided into smaller pieces, the surface area increases.
Hence as particle size decreases, greater proportions of atoms are found at the surface
compared to those inside. Thus nano particles have much greater surface to volume ratio. It
makes material more chemically reactive.

As growth and catalytic chemical reaction occur at surfaces, then given mass of material in
nano particulate form will be much more reactive than the same mass of bulk material. This
affects there strength or electrical properties.

2. Quantum confinement effects

When atoms are isolated, energy levels are discrete or discontinuous. When very
large number of atoms is closely packed to form a solid, the energy levels split and form
bands. Nan materials represent intermediate stage.

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When dimensions of potential well and potential box are of the order of deBroglie wave
length of electrons or mean free path of electrons, then energy levels of electrons changes.
This effect is called Quantum confinement effect.

When the material is in sufficiently small size, organization of energy levels into which
electrons can climb of or fall changes. Specifically, the phenomenon results from
electrons and holes being squeezed into a dimension that approaches a critical quantum
measurement called the exciton Bohr radius. These can affect the optical, electrical and
magnetic behaviour of materials.

Variations of properties of nano materials

The physical, electronic, magnetic and chemical properties of materials depend on size.
Small particles behave differently from those of individual atoms or bulk.

Physical properties: The effect of reducing the bulk into particle size is to create more
surface sites i.e. to increase the surface to volume ratio. This changes the surface pressure and
results in a change in the inter particle spacing. Thus the inter atomic spacing decreases with
size.

The change in the inter particle spacing and the large surface to volume ratio in particle
have a combined effect on material properties. Variation in the surface free energy changes
the chemical potential. This affects the thermodynamic properties like melting point. The
melting point decreases with size and at very small sizes the decrease is faster.

Chemical properties: the large surface to volume ratio, the variations in geometry and
electronic structure has a strong effect on catalytic properties. The reactivity of small clusters
increases rapidly even when the magnitude of the cluster size is changed only by a few
atoms.

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Another important application is hydrogen storage in metals. Most metals do not absorb,
hydrogen is typically absorbed dissociatively on surfaces with hydrogen- to- metal atom ratio
of one. This limit is significantly enhanced in small sizes. The small positively charged
clusters of Ni, Pd and Pt and containing between 2 and 60 atoms decreases with increasing
cluster size. This shows that small particles may be very useful in hydrogen storage devices
in metals.

Electrical properties: The ionization potential at small sizes is higher than that for the
bulk and show marked fluctuations as function of size. Due to quantum confinement the
electronic bands in metals become narrower. The delocalized electronic states are
transformed to more localized molecular bands and these bands can be altered by the passage
of current through these materials or by the application of an electric field.

In nano ceramics and magnetic nano composites the electrical conductivity increases
with reduction in particle size where as in metals, electrical conductivity decreases.

Optical properties: Depending on the particle size, different colours are same. Gold
nano spheres of 100nm appear orange in colour while 50nm nano spheres appear green in
colour. If semiconductor particles are made small enough, quantum effects come into play,
which limits the energies at which electrons and holes can exist in the particles. As energy is
related to wavelength or colour, the optical properties of the particles can be finely tuned
depending on its size. Thus particles can be made to emit or absorb specific wavelength of
light, merely by controlling their size.

An electro chromic device consist of materials in which an optical absorption band can
be introduced or existing band can be altered by the passage of current through the materials,
or by the application of an electric field. They are similar to liquid crystal displays (LCD)
commonly used in calculator and watches. The resolution, brightness and contrast of these
devices depend on tungstic acid gel‘s grain size.

Magnetic properties: The strength of a magnet is measured in terms of coercivity and

saturation magnetization values. These values increase with a decrease in the grain size and
an increase in the specific surface area (surface area per unit volume) of the grains.

In small particle a large number or fraction of the atoms reside at the surface. These atoms
have lower coordination number than the interior atoms. As the coordination number
decreases, the moment increases towards the atomic value there is small particles are more
magnetic than the bulk material.

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Nano particle of even non magnetic solids are found to be magnetic. It has been found
theoretically and experimentally that the magnetism special to small sizes and disappears in
clusters. At small sizes, the clusters become spontaneously magnetic.

Mechanical properties: If the grains are nano scale in size, the interface area with in the
material greatly increases, which enhances its strength. Because of the nano size many
mechanical properties like hardness, elastic modulus, fracture toughness, scratch resistance,
fatigue strength are modified.

The presence of extrinsic defects such as pores and cracks may be responsible for low values
of E (young‘s modulus) in nano crystalline materials. The intrinsic elastic modulli of nano
structured materials are essentially the same as those for conventional grain size material
until the grain size becomes very small. At lower grain size, the no. of atoms associated with
the grain boundaries and triple junctions become very large. The hardness, strength and
deformation behaviour of nano crystalline materials is unique and not yet well understood.

Super plasticity is the capability of some polycrystalline materials to exhibit very large
texture deformations without fracture. Super plasticity has been observed occurs at somewhat
low temperatures and at higher strain rates in nano crystalline material.

PRODUCTION OF NANOMATETIALS:

Material can be produced that are nanoscale in one dimension like thin
surface coatings in two dimensions like nanowires and nanotubes or in 3 dimensions like
nanoparticles

Nano materials can be synthesized by‘ top down‘ techniques producing very small structures
from larger pieces of material. One way is to mechanical crushing of solid into fine nano
powder by ball milling.

Nanomaterials may also be synthesized by ‗bottom up‘ techniques, atom by atom or molecule
by molecule. One way of doing this is to allow the atoms or molecules arranges themselves
into a structure due to their natural properties

Ex: - Crystals growth

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PERPARATION:

There are many methods to produce nanomaterials. They are

1). PLASMA ARCING:

Plasma is an ionized gas. To produce plasma, potential difference is

applied across two electrodes. The gas yields up its electrons and gets ionized .Ionized gas
(plasma) conducts electricity. A plasma arcing device consists of two electrodes. An arc
passes from one electrode to the other. From the anode electrode due to the potential
difference electrons are emitted. Positively charged ions pass to the other electrode (cathode),
pick up the electron and are deposited to form nanoparticles. As a surface deposit the depth of
the coating must be only a few atoms. Each particle must be nanosized and independent. The
interaction among them must be by hydrogen bonding or Vander Waals forces. Plasma arcing
is used to produced carbon nanotubes.

2). CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION:

In this method, nanoparticles are deposited from the gas phase.

Material is heated to from a gas and then allowed to deposit on solid surface, usually under
vacuum condition. The deposition may be either physical or chemical. In deposition by
chemical reaction new product is formed. Nanopowder or oxides and carbides of metals can
be formed, if vapours of carbon or oxygen are present with the metal.

Production of pure metal powders is also possible using this method. The
metal is meted exciting with microwave frequency and vapourised to produce plasma at
15000c . This plasma then enters the reaction column cooled by water where nanosized
particles are formed.

CVD can also be used to grow surfaces. If the object to be coated is

introduced inside the chemical vapour, the atoms/molecules coated may react with the
substrate atoms/molecules. The way the atoms /molecules grow on the surface of the
substrate depends on the alignment of the atoms /molecules of the substrate. Surfaces with
unique characteristics can be grown with these techniques.

3. Sol – Gels:
Sol: - A material which when reacts with liquid converts in to a gelly or viscous fluid.

Colloid:- A substance which converts liquid to semisolid or viscous or cloudy.

Gel : Amore thicky substance.

Soot :- When a compound is brunt, it given black fumes called soot.

In solutions molecules of nanometer size are dispersed and move around

randomly and hence the solutions are clear. In colloids, the molecules of size ranging from
20µm to100µm are suspended in a solvent. When mixed with a liquid colloids look cloudy or
even milky. A colloid that is suspended in a liquid is called as sol. A suspension that keeps its

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shape is called a gel. Thus sol-gels are suspensions of colloids in liquids that keep their shape.
Sol -gels formation occurs in different stages.

1) Hydrolysis
2) Condensation and polymerization of monomers to form particles
3) Agglomeration of particles. This is followed by formation of networks which extends
throughout the liquid medium and forms a gel.

The rate of hydrolysis and condensation reactions are governed by various factors such as
PH, temperature, H2O/Si molar ratio, nature and concentration of catalyst and process of
drying. Under proper conditions spherical nanoparticles are produced.

3. ELECTRODEPOSITION:

This method is used to electroplate a material. In many liquids called

electrolytes (aqueous solutions of salts , acids etc) when current is passed through two
electrodes immersed inside the electrolyte, certain mass of the substance liberated at one
electrode gets deposited on the surface of the other. By controlling the current and other
parameters, it is possible to deposit even a single layer of atoms. The films thus obtained
are mechanically robust, highly flat and uniform. These films have very wide range of
application like in batteries, fuel cells, solar cells, magnetic read heads etc.

5. BALL MILLING (MECHANICAL CRUSHING):

In this method, small balls are allowed to rotate around the inside of a
drum and then fall on a solid with gravity force and crush the solid into nanocrystallites.
Ball milling can be used to prepare a wide range of elemental and oxide powders. Ball
milling is the preferred method for preparing metal oxides.

CARBON NANOTUBES (CNT‘S):

We know three forms of carbon namely diamond graphite and amorphous

carbon. There is a whole family of other forms of carbon known as carbon nanotubes,
which are related to graphite. In conventional graphite, the sheets of carbon are stacked
on top of one another .They can easily slide over each other. That‘s why graphite is not
hard and can be used as a lubricant. When graphite sheets are rolled into a cylinder and
their edges joined, they form carbon nanotubes i.e. carbon nanotubes are extended tubes
of rolled graphite sheets.

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TYPES OF CNT’S: A nanotube may consist of one tube of graphite, a one atom thick
single wall nanotube or number of concentric tubes called multiwalled nanotubes.

There are different types of CNT‘S because the graphite sheets can be rolled in different
ways .The 3 types of CNT‘S are ZigZag, Armchair and chiral. It is possible to recognize
type by analyzing their cross sectional structures.

Multiwalled nanotubes come in even more complex array of forms. Each

concentric single – walled nanotube can have different structures, and hence there are a
variety of sequential arrangements. There can have either regular layering or random
layering .The structure of the nanotubes influences its properties .Both type and diameter
are important .The wider the diameter of the nanotube, the more it behaves like graphite.
The narrower the diameters of nanotube, the more its intrinsic properties depends upon
its specific type. Nanotubes are mechanically very strong, flexible and can conduct
electricity extremely well.

The helicity of the graphite sheet determines whether the CNT is a

semiconductor of metallic.

PRODUCTION OF CNT’S: There are a number of methods of making CNT‘S few

method adopted for the production of CNT‘S.

ARC MRTHOD: This method creates CNT‘S through arc- vapourisation of two carbon
rods placed end to end, separated by 1mm , in an enclosure filled with inert gas at low
pressure .It is also possible to create CNT‘S with arc method in liquid nitrogen. A direct
current of 50-100A, driven by a potential difference of 20V apprx, creates a high
temperature discharge between the two electrodes .The discharges vapourizes the surface
of one of the carbon electrodes, and forms a small rod shaped deposit on the other
electrode. Producing CNT‘S in high yield depends on the uniformity of the plasma arc,
and the temperatures of deposits forming on the carbon electrode.

LASER METHOD: CNT‘S were first synthesized using a dual-pulsed laser. Samples
were prepared by laser vapourizations of graphite rods with a 50:50 catalyst mixture of
Cobalt & Nickel at 12000c in flowing argon. The initial layer vapourization pulse was
followed by a second pulse, to vapourize the target more uniformly. The use of two
successive laser pulses minimizes the amount of carbon deposited as soot. The second
laser pulse breaks up the larger particles ablated by the first one and feeds then into
growing nanotube structure. The CNT‘S produced by this method are 10-20nm in
diameter and upto 100m or more in length. By varying the growth temperatures, the

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catalyst composition and other process parameters the average nanotube diameter and
size distribution can be varied.

CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION (CVD): Large amount of CNT‖S can be

formed by catalytic CVD of acetylene over Cobalt and Iron catalysts supported on silica
or zeolite. The carbon deposition activity seems to relate to the cobalt content of the
catalyst; where as the CNT‘S selectivity seems to be a function of the PH in catalyst
preparation. CNT‘S can be formed from ethylene. Supported catalysts such as iron cobalt
and Nickel containing either a single metal or a mixture of metals, seem to induce the
growth of isolated single walled nanotubes or single walled nanotubes, bundles in the
ethylene atmosphere. The production of single walled nanotubes as well as double walled
CNT‘S, molybdenum and molylodenum-iron catalysts has also been demonstrated.

PROPERTIES OF CNT;S : Few unique properties of CNT‖S are

1) ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY: CNT‘S can be highly conducting , and hence

can be said to be metallic. Their conductivity will be a function of chirality, the degree of
twist and diameter. CNT‘S can be either metallic or semi conducting in their electrical
behaviour. Conductivity in multi walled CNT‘S is more complex .The resistivity of
single walled nanotubes ropes is of the order of 10-4 ohm –cm at 270c .This means that
single walled nanotube ropes are most conductive carbon fibers. Individual single walled
nanotubes may contain defects. These defects allow the single walled nanotubes to act as
transistors. Similarly by joining CNT‖S together forms transistor - like devices. A
nanotube with natural junctions behaves as a rectifying diode.

2) Strength and elasticity: Because of the strong carbon bonds, the basal plane elastic
modules of graphite, it is one of the largest of any known material. For this reason,
CNT‖S are the ultimate high strength fibers. Single walled nanotubes are stiffer than
Steel, and are very resistant to damage from physical forces.

3)THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND EXPANSION: The strong in- plane

graphite carbon- carbon bonds make them exceptionally strong and stiff against axial
strains. The almost zero- in -plane thermal expansion but large inter - plane expansion of
single walled nanotubes implies strong in plane coupling and high flexibility against non-
axial strains. CNT‘S show very high thermal conductivity. The nanotube reinforcements
in polymeric materials may also significantly improve the thermal and thermo mechanical
properties of composites.

4) HIGHLY ABSORBENT: The large surface area and high absorbency of CNT‖S
make them ideal for use in air, gas and water filteration. A lot of research is being done in
replacing activated charcoal with CNT‘S in certain ultra high purity application.

APPLICATION OF NANOMATERIALS:

1. Engineering: i).Wear protection for tools and machines (anti blocking coatings,
scratch resistant coatings on plastic parts). ii) Lubricant – free bearings.
2. Electronic industry: Data memory(MRAM,GMR-HD), Displays(OLED,FED),
Laser diodes, Glass fibres
3. Automotive industry: Light weight construction, Painting (fillers, base coat, clear
coat), Sensors, Coating for wind screen and car bodies.
4. Construction: Construction materials, Thermal insulation, Flame retardants.

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5. Chemical industry: Fillers for painting systems, Coating systems based on nano
composites. Impregnation of papers, Magnetic Fluids.
6. Medicine: Drug delivery systems, Agents in cancer therapy, Anti microbial agents
and coatings, Medical rapid tests Active agents.
7. Energy: Fuel cells, Solar cells, batteries, Capacitors.
8. Cosmetics: Sun protection, Skin creams, Tooth paste, Lipsticks.

Questions:
1. What are Nanomaterials? Why do they exhibit different properties?
2. How are optical, physical and chemical properties of nano particles vary with their
size.
3. How are electrical, magnetic and mechanical properties of nano particles vary with
their size?
4. How are nano materials produced?
5. What are carbon nano tubes? How are they produced?
6. What are the different types of carbon nano tubes? What are their properties?
7. What are the important applications of nano materials?

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Question Bank

Unit-I Bonding in solids

Crystal Structure and Crystallography

1. Explain with suitable examples the ionic, covalent, metallic and molecular type of
bonding in solids.

2. Explain the forces between the two interacting atoms when they are brought nearer to
form a molecule.

3. What is cohesive energy. Assuming a suitable model for interatomic forces derive an
expression for the cohesive energy.

4. Derive an expression for the cohesive energy of an ionic crystal.

5. Illustrate graphically the variation of (i) interatomic forces (ii) potential energy with
the spacing between two atoms.

6. Explain the terms (i) basis (ii) space lattice (iii) unit cell

7. Describe the seven crystal systems with diagrams.

8. Show that FCC is the most closely packed of the three cubic structures by working
out the packing factors.

9. Illustrate Bravais Lattices.

10. What are Miller indices. How are they obtained.

11. Deduce the expression for the inter-planar distance in terms of Miller indices for a
cubic structure.

12. Sketch the following planes of a cubic unit cell: (001),(120) and (211).

13. Find the packing factors for diamond and HCP.

14. Describe the structures of NaCl,CsCl and ZnS.

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Unit-II X-Ray Diffraction

Defects in crystals

1. (a). Why X-ray are used for crystal diffraction studies.

(b). State and Prove Bragg‘s law.

2. Describe Laue‘s method of determination of crystal structure.

3. Describe with suitable diagram, the powder method of determination of crystal

structure.

4. What are the applications of X-ray diffraction studies.

5. What are the three experimental methods of X-ray diffraction.

6. Briefy explain the Defects in crystals.

7. (a). Write notes on edge dislocation and screw dislocation.

(b). Explain the significance of Burgers vector.

8. Write notes on surface imperfections.

9. Explain different types of volume defects.

10. What are grain boundaries. What are different types of grain boundaries.

11. Discuss Schottky Defects. Calculate the concentration for schotty defects.

12. Write a note on point defects.

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Unit-III Elements of Statistical Mechanics

Principal of Quantum Mechanics

1. Briefly give an comparative study of three types of statistics.

2. Derive an expression for Maxwell-boltzmann energy distribution function.

3. Derive an expression for Bose-Einstein distribution function.

4. Derive an expression for Fermi-Dirac distribution function.

5. Explain Rayleigh-Jean‘s law of radiation. Derive the expression for radian energy of a
blackbody on the basis of Rayleigh-Jeans.

6. What is Photon gas. What are its characteristics.

7. Write short nots on Fermi energy of metal and Wien‘s displacement law.

8. What is an electron gas.

9. Discuss the executed feature of Plank‘s theory of black body radiation.

10. What are matter waves. Explain their properties.

11. Derive time independent Schrodinger‘s wave equation for a free particle.

12. Explain de-Broglie hypothesis. Explain G.P. Thomson‘s experiment in support of this
hypothesis.

13. Describe Davisson and Germer‘s experiment and explain how it enabled the
verification of wave nature of matter.

14. Assuming the time independent Schrodinger‘s wave equation. Discuss the solution for
a particle in a one-dimensional potential well of infinite height.

15. Explain the physical significance of wavefunction.

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Unit-IV Band Theory of Solids

1. Explain the origin of energy bands in solids.

2. Discuss the Kronig penny model for the motion of an electron in a periodic potential.

3. Explain the concept of effective mass of an electron.

4. Explain the classification of metals, semiconductors and insulators based on band

theory.

5. Explain the following:

(a). Drift velocity, Mobility and Relaxation time.
(b). Effective mass (c). Bloch theorem.

6. Explain the effective mass of Hole.

7. Explain about Brillouin Zone.

8. Explain about Bloch theorem.

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Unit-V Semiconductor Physics

Physics of Semiconductor Devices

1. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic impurity semiconductors with suitable

examples.

2. Derive an expression for the carrier concentration of an intrinsic semiconductor.

3. Distinguish between metals, Semiconductors and Insulators.

4. Describe the drift and diffusion currents in a semiconductor and Deduce Einstein
relation.

5. Explain Hall effect and its importance.

6. Sketch the energy band diagrams of (a). an intrinsic (b). N-type (c). P-type
semiconductors. Indicate Fermi, Donar and acceptor levels wherever present.

7. What is equation of continuity for semiconductors. What physical law leads to the
equation of continuity.

8. Explain how a PN junction is formed. Draw I-V characteristic curve of a PN junction

diode and explain.

9. With theory explain the working of a PN junction diode and derive diode equation.

10. Explain the rectifying action of a PN diode. Explain the construction and working of a
wave rectifier.

11. Explain the construction and working of LED. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of LEDs in electronic display.

12. Explian the characteristics of liquid crystal materials. How are they used in the
construction of liquid crystal display devices.

13. Explain the construction of a Junction photodiode. Discuss the factors which limits
the speed of response of photodiode.

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Unit-VI Dielectric Properties

Magnetic Properties

1. Explain the following:

(a). Dielectric constant (b). Electirc susceptibility
(c). Electric polarization (d). Polarizability

2. Explain Electric polarization, polarization vector and Electirc displacement.

3. Explain Clausius-Mosotti relation in dielectrics subjected to static fields.

4. Explain the electronic polarizability in atoms and obtain an expression for electronic
polarizability in terms of the radius of the atom.

5. Explain ionic polarizability of a molecule and its frequency dependence. And define
piezoelectric effect.

6. What is orientation polarization. Derive an expression for the mean dipole moment
when a polar material is subjected to an external field.

7. Write notes on Piezoelectricity.

8. Explain clearly the phenomenon of ferro electricity.

9. What is pyroelectircity. Give some examples.

10. Define the terms Permeability, Susceptibility, Magnetic induction, Magnetic field and
magnetization with reference to magnetism.

11. Define magnetic moment. Explain the origin of magnetic moment at the atomic level.
What is a Bohr magneton.

12. Explain the classification of magnetic materials.

13. Explain the hysterisis loop observed in Ferromagnetic material. What are hysterisis
losses.

14. Explain clearly difference between hard and soft magnetic material.
15. Show the nature of magnetic dipole moments in ferro-ferri and Antiferro magnetic
material.

16. What is superconductivity. Explain effect of temperature and strength of magnetic

field on a superconducting material.

17. Write a notes on Meissner effect relating to superconductivity.

18. Write applications of superconductivity.

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UNIT -7 LASERS –FIBRE OPTICS

1. a) Explain the characteristics of a laser beam.

b) Mention any two applications of laser each in the field of scientific
research. engineering and medicine.
c) Describe the construction and working of a Ruby laser.
2. a) What do you understand by population inversion? How it is
achieved?
b) Derive the relation between the probabilities of spontaneous
emission and stimulated emission in terms of Einstein‘s coefficient.
3. a) Explain the purpose of an active medium in a gas laser.
b) With the help of suitable diagrams, explain the principle,
construction and working of a helium-neon laser.
4. Distinguish between spontaneous and stimulated emission process of
light.
5. Explain the terms
a) Absorption
b) Spontaneous emission
c) Stimulated emission
d) pumping mechanism
e) Population inversion
f) Optical cavity
6. Describe a semiconductor laser. Give the applications of lasers.
7. Give the energy level diagram of co2 Laser and explain the working of
co2 laser.
8. a) Explain the principle of an optical fiber.
b) Explain how the optical fibers are classified.
9. Define numerical aperture and acceptance angle. Derive a relation
between the two.
10. Describe different types of fibers by giving the refractive index and
propagation details.
11. Draw the block diagram of fiber optic communication system and
explain the function of each block.
12. What are the losses in optical fibers? Write brief note on each.

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Unit-VIII Nanotecchnology
Acoustics of Buildings and Acoustic Quieting

1. Define Reverberation, reverberation time and Absorption coefficient of a material.

2. Derive Sabine‘s formula for reverberation time.

3. What are the basic requirements of acoustically good hall.

4. Explain the various factors affecting architectural acoustics and their remedies.

5. Write a short notes on Optimum reverberation and Acoustic noise.

6. What do you mean by ‗acousting quieting‘.

7. What is sound proofing.

8. What are nanomaterials. Why do they exhibit different properties.

9. What are Carbon Nanotubes. How are they produced.

10. What are the different types of carbon nanotubes. What are their properties.

11. What is the principle and advantages of TEM. And explain the transmission electron
microscopy.

12. What is Nanotechnology. How is it useful to society and discuss the properties of
Nanomaterials.

13. List a few methods of synthesis of Nanomaterials and mention the applications of
Nanomaterials.

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Objective Type Question

UNIT -1 Bonding in Solids

Crystallography and Crystal Structures

Choose the correct Answer

1. At equilibrium condition the atoms possess [ ]
a) Maximum kinetic energy b) minimum potential energy
c) Maximum potential energy d) maximum total energy

2. Primary bondings have bond energies in the range of [ ]

a) 0.01 - 0.5 eV b) 10 -100 eV
c) 0 - 0.01 eV d) 0.1 - 10 eV

3. Secondary bondings have bond energies in the range of [ ]

a) 0.01 – 0.5 eV b) 10 – 100 Ev
c) 0 – 0.01 eV d) 0.1 – 10 Ev

4. Among the following the strongest bond is [ ]

a) hydrogen bond b) metallic bond
c) covalent bond d) ionic bond

5. Primary bonds are formed by [ ]

a) inter molecular forces b) inter atomic forces
c) van der waal‘s forces d) none of the above

6. Bonding in diamond is [ ]
a) covalent b) ionic
c) dipole d) metallic

7. There are ________ basic crystal systems [ ]

a) four b) five c) six d) seven

8. The only element exhibiting simple cubic structure is [ ]

a) silver B) polonium c) zinc d) diamond

9. The relation between atomic radius r and lattice constant a in the case of
simple cubic structure is [ ]
a) a=2r b) a=r/2 c) a=4r/3 d) a=2 2r

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10. Effective number of atoms belonging to the unit cell of BCC structure is

a) 8 b) 1 c) 2 d) 9 [ ]

Fill in the blanks

11. The primary bonds are

1) __________ 2) __________ 3) ___________ 4) ____________

12. A melt of a solid consists of ___________ order that is not stable.

13. The repulsive forces between atoms become significant only if atoms are
___________ from each other.

14. Born‘ s exponent is evaluated from the ____________ studies in ionic

crystals.

15. The compressibility of crystal is ____________ proportional to the

repulsive exponent.

16. The units of the lattice energy is ___________

17. The alkali halides show absorption bonds in ___________ region of the
Electromagnetic spectrum.

18. Amorphous substances are formed by ___________ cooling of the melts

Of organic compounds.

19. A glass is ____________ liquid.

20. A substance in amorphous state possesses ____________ viscosity.

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UNIT -2 X-Ray Diffraction

Defects in Crystals

Choose the correct Answer

1. X-ray are used for crystal diffraction studies because [ ]
a) they have higher penetrating power
b) crystals are transparent to x- rays
c) the inter atomic spacing is of the order of x – ray wavelength
d) they have high resolving power

2. According to Bragg ‗s law [ ]

a) 2λ sinθ =nd b) 2 sin θ =nd λ
c) 2d sinθ =n λ d) sin θ = nN λ
3. Burgers vector is to indicate the magnitude of [ ]
a) point defects b) line defects
c) surface defects d) volume defect

4. If a foreign atom replaces a parent atom in the crystal, it is called

a) Frenkel defect B) Schottky defect [ ]
c) Substitutional impurity d) Electronic defect

5. In ionic crystals, an ion displaced from a regular site to an interstitial site

is
Called [ ]
a) Frenkel defect b) schottky defect
c) substitutional defect d) electronic defect

6. A pair of cation and anion missing from an ionic crystal leaving vacant
ion
Sites is called [ ]
a) Frenkel defect b) schottky defect
c) substitutional defect d) electronic defect

7. Twin boundary is a [ ]
a) point defects b) line defects
c) surface defects d) volume defect

8. When the composition of an ionic crystal does not corresponds to the

exact
stoichiometric formula, the __________ arise. [ ]
a) Frenkel defect b) schottky defect
c) substitutional defect d) electronic defect

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9. Stacking fault is a [ ]
a) Frenkel defect b) schottky defect
c) substitutional defect d) electronic defect

10.Edge dislocation is a [ ]
a) Frenkel defect b) schottky defect
c) substitutional defect d) electronic defect

True/False
11.The defects like point defects or line defects are charged defects in ionic
crystals [True/ False]

12.In a Laue method, mono chromatic X-ray are used for X-ray diffraction.
[True/ False]

13.Laue method deals with a single crystal diffraction. [True/ False]

14.A nickel crystal gives X-ray diffraction pattern that is charactertic of bcc.
[True/ False]

Fill in the blanks

15.A Schotlky defects is also called _____________.

16.Impurities added deliberately to a metal crystal alter the __________ of

the crystal.

17. The Frenkel defects do not change the _____ of a metal crystal.

18.Vacancies in ionic crystal are formed in ______________.

19.In ionic crystals, the defects are ________________ defects.

20.The Burgers vector of an edge dislocation is ______ to it.

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Unit –III Elements of Statistical Mechanics

Principles of Quantum Mechanics

Choose the correct Answer

1. If a system has n distinguishable particles, total number of macrostates

possible is [ ]
(a). n (b) (n+1)
(c) (n-1) (d) 2n

2. If a system has n distinguishable particles, total number of microstates

possible is [ ]
(a). n (b) (n+1)
(c) (n-1) (d) None

3. The statistics which deals with identical particle which are

distinguishable
Is [ ]
(a) Fermi – Dirac (b) Bose – Einstein
(c) Maxwell – Boltzmann (d) Fermi – Boltzmann

4. Statistics dealing with particle with half integral spin is [ ]

(a) Fermi – Dirac (b) Bose – Einstein
(c) Maxwell – Boltzmann (d) None

5. Example for Bose – Eintein statistics is [ ]

(a) gas molecule (b) electrons
(c) protons (d) photons

6. Velocity of matter wave is always [ ]

(a) lesser than velocity of light (b) equal to velocity of light
(c) greater than velocity of light (d) none of these

7. Existence of matter wave was experimental first demonstratd by

(a) Newton (b) Planck [ ]
(c) Davisson and Gerner (d) de Broglie

8. When an electron is accelerated, if de Broglie wavelength is 1 A, then the

wavelength associated with electron is [ ]

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(a) 15 volts (b) 12 volts

(c) 500 volts (d) 150 volts

9. In G.P. Thomson experiment for diffraction, the sample used for diff-
raction is [ ]
(a) NaCl crystal (b) any one crystal
(c) thin film of matter such as gold (d) none
10. Wave nature and particle nature called dual nature is exhibiting by
(a) particles only (b) waves only [ ]
(c) photons only (d) by particle and waves

Fill in the blanks

11.The MB distribution function is Expressed as __________.
12.Particles with intergral spin are called ________.
13.particles with odd half-integral spins are called _______.
14.Phonons are the particles that follow _____ statistics.
15.Wien‘s displacements law is given as ___________.
16.Electrical conduction in metals is explained by _______ theory.
17.Conduction electrons in a simple metal are known as ____ electrons.
18.The wavelength of the waves associated with particles is given by the
relation _______________.
19.The diffraction of electrons was demonstrated for the first time by _____.
20.The eigen values of the particle are also called ______ states.

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Unit-IV Band theory of Solids

Choose the correct Answer

1. Drude and Lorentz developed [ ]

(a) classical free electron theory (b) quantum free electron theory
(c) zone theory (d) corpuscular theory
2. Sommerfeld developed [ ]
(a) classical free electron theory (b) quantum free electron theory
(c) zone theory (d) corpuscular theory

3. Zone theory of metals was developed by [ ]

(a) Drude and Lorentz (b) Sommerfeld
(c) Bloch (d) Newton

4. The steady drift velocity per unit electric field is called [ ]

(a) mobility of the electron (b) random velocity
(c) mean free path (d) none of these

5. The classical free electron theory was developed by [ ]

(a) Sommerfeld (b) Bloch
(c) Drude and Lorentz (d) Planck

6. The quantum free electron theory was developed by [ ]

(a) Sommerfeld (b) Bloch
(c) Drude and Lorentz (d) Planck

7. The zone theory of electron was developed by [ ]

(a) Sommerfeld (b) Bloch
(c) Drude and Lorentz (d) Planck

8. The periodicity of the lattice is given by [ ]

(a) Bloch theorem (b) planck theorem
(c) Drude and Lorentz (d) None of these

9. When the band gap is in the order of 1eV in a solid, it behaves as a

(a) conductor (b) semiconductor [ ]
(c) insulator (d) metal

10. When the scattering power of the potential barrier is zero, the electron is
(a) Completely bound (b) partly bound and partly free [ ]
(c) Completely free (d) lost due to recombination

Fill in the blanks

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11. The nature and quantity of conductivity differences between insulators

and
Conductors can be explained by __________ theory.

12. In metals, there is an over lapping of _____ and _____ bands.

13. The band theory of solids deals with electron motion in a _______
field of a crystal.

14. Near the bottom of band, the effective mass of the electron is _______
in sign.

15. Semi metals posses_____________ bands.

16. The number of energy states in a band is equal to the ______ of states.

17. The upper most band is filled with ________ electrons.

18. If an element has odd number of electrons, the upper most band will be
_____________________ filled.

19. The width of the allowed band _____________ with increasing binding
energy of the electrons.

20. A hole near the top of an allowed band has _______ effective mass.

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Unit-VI Dielectric Properties

Magnetic Properties
Choose the correct Answer
1. Electronic polarization [ ]
(a) decreases with increase of temperature
(b) increase of temperature
(c) may decreases or increase of temperature
(d) is independent of temperature

2. Ionic polarization [ ]
(a) decreases with increase of temperature
(b) increase of temperature
(c) may decreases or increase of temperature
(d) is independent of temperature

3. Orientational polarization [ ]
(a) decreases with increase of temperature
(b) increase of temperature
(c) may decreases or increase of temperature
(d) is independent of temperature

4. At normal temperatures, the polarizations which are independent of

temperature are [ ]
(a) electronic and ionic (b) ionic and orientational
(c) orientational and space charge (d) space charge and electronic

5. Dielectrics are [ ]
(a) solids (b) metals
(c) semiconductors (d) insulators

6. Diamagnetic materials possess [ ]

(a) permanent magnetic dipoles (b) no permanent magnetic dipoles
(c) induced dipoles along field direction
(d) no induced diploes even when external field is applied

7. Materials do not having permanent magnetic dipoles are [ ]

(a) paramagnetic (b) ferromagnetic
(c) ferrimagnetic (d) diamagnetic

8. Diamagnetic susceptibility is [ ]
(a) large , negative (b) small , positive
(b) small , negative (d) large , positive

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9. The magnetization of a superconductor is [ ]

(a) 0 (b) H (c) 1 (d) –H

10.Theory which explains superconductivity is [ ]

(a) lattice theory (b) Lorentz theory
(c) BCS theory (d) sommerfeld theory

Fill in the blanks

11.The polarization density P in a dielectric medium is proportional directly

to
The _______________.

12.The polarizability of a dielectric is the ratio of ____ and the ______.

13.The units of D, the electric displacement, are _____________.
14.Gauss law in electrostatics is ____________.
15.The ionic polarization in an ionic solid is unaffected by the variations in
___.
16.In case of diamagnectic substances, the susceptibility is __________.
17.The SI unit of magnetic moment is ____________.
18.The ratio of magnetic moment to the angular momentum of an electron is
Called _____________.
19.The exchange integral is positive for ____________ substance.
20.The exchange integral is negative for _____________.

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Unit-VII Laser
Fiber Optics

Choose the correct Answer

1. The population of the various energy levels of a system in thermal

equilibrium is given by [ ]
(a) Boltzmann distribution law (b) Einstein relations
(c) Planck‘s law (d) Beer‘s law

2. T.Maiman invented [ ]
(a) He-Ne laser (b) CO2 laser
(c) Ruby laser (d) Nd: YAG laser

3. The colour of the laser output from a Ruby laser is [ ]

(a) green (b) blue (c) red (d) violet

4. In He-Ne lasers, the ratio of He-Ne is in the order [ ]

(a) 1:10 (b) 1:1 (c) 100:1 (d) 10:1

5. Laser radiation is [ ]
(a) monochromatic (b) highly directional
(c) coherent and stimulated
(d) highly directional, monochromatic , coherent and stimulated

6. Propagation of light through fiber core is due to [ ]

(a) diffraction (b) interference (c) refraction
(d) total internal reflection

7. Step index fiber can be a [ ]

(a) monomode fiber only (b) multimode fiber only
(c) monomode as well as multimode fiber
(d) either monomode or multimode

8. The process of mixing the signal with the carrier is called [ ]

(a) dispersion (b) attenuation (c) modulation
(d) demodulation

9. To overcome the problem of inter model dispersion one has to use

(a) multimode fiber (b) step index fiber [ ]
(c) graded index fiber (d) plastic fiber

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10. The attenuation in an optical fiber is a function of [ ]

(a) fiber material only (b) wavelength of light pnly
(c) length of the fiber only (d) all the above

Fill in the blanks

11. A laser source is a quantum _______________.

12. Generally, the laser that are used in holography are _____ laser.

13. The pumping process that is used in He-Ne lasers source is _____.

14. In He-Ne laser system, ______ ions give metastable levels.

15. Semi conductor diode gives out radiation as a results of ____ emission.

16. In a single mode fiber, there is ___________.

17. In multi mode fibers, the core diameter is ___________.

18. _______ fiber is a multimode fiber.

19. A glass fiber consists of a ________ glass surrounded by a _____ made

Of slightly of lower refractive index.

20.Single mode fibers transmit single ray ______ the axis of the fiber.

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Unit-VIII Acoustics of Buildings and Acoustic Quieting

Nanotechnology

Choose the correct Answer

1. Optomum reverberation time for music is [ ]
(a) 0.5 to 1 second (b) 0 to 1 second
(c) 1 to 2 second (d) above 5 second

2. Two square meter of a fiber board absorbs sound energy as that of

unit area of an open window. The absorption coefficient of fiber
board is [ ]
(a) 0.50 (b) 0.2 (c) 2 (d) 0.0825

3. The wall of a halls built for music concerns should [ ]

(a) amplify sound (b) reflect sound
(c) transmit sound (d) absorb sound

4. Which one of the following has maximum absorbtion coefficient.

(a) marble (b) carpet (c) human body (d) glass [ ]

5. Which one of the following has minimum absorbtion coefficient.[ ]

(a) glass (b) felt (c) open window (d) wooden floor

6. Diameter of one carbon atom is [ ]

(a) 0.5nm (b) 0.05 nm (c) 0.15 nm (d) 5 nm

7. In nanomaterials with decrease of size the interatomic spacing

(a) Increase (b) Decreases [ ]
(c) remains constant (d) first increase and then decrease

8. In nanomaterials with decrease of size, the melting point

(a) Increase (b) remains constant [ ]
(b) Decreases (d) first decrease and then increase

9. Gold nanospheres of 100nm appear [ ]

(a) red in colour (b) blue in colour
(c) orange in colour (d) violet in colour

10. Young‘s modulus value of single walled nonatubes is about

(a) 1 Kilopascal (b) 1 Millpascal [ ]
(c) 1 Terapascal (d) 1 Gigapascal
Fill in the blanks
11. The unit of absorption coefficient is ______________-.

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12. The audible sounds have a frequency range ____ Hz to ____ Hz.

13. Erying formula for reverberation tine T is ___________.

14. The unit of sound noise is ________________.

15. The total absorption in a room is expressed in ______________.

16. Fabric panels in a hall reflecting walls, cause ________ in a hall.

17. Nano materials are catalysts, because their enhanced _____ activity.

18. Aerogel is ____________ nano crystalline.

19. Quantum dots are _________________ materials.

20. The lifetime of a satellites increase by using _________ materials.

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Unit-V: Semiconductor Physics, Physics of Semiconductor Devices

I. Fill in the blanks.

1. In semiconductors, the valance band is--------------------------------------------------------- and the
Conduction band is ------------------------------------------------------ at low temperatures.
2. The conductivity of p- type silicon is 4 ohm-1, the mobility of holes is 0.05m2/V-S.
Then the density of impurities is (atoms / m3) ----------------------------------------------------------

3 Fermi energy is the ------------------------------------------ energy that can be possessed by an

electron at 0 K
4. When forward biased, the forward current increases -----------------------------------------------
with forward bias.
5. The concentration of charge carriers in an intrinsic semiconductor is proportional
to ----------------------------------------------------------------- .
6. p-n junction diode, when forward biased behaves likes a --------------------------------------------
7. The mobility of electron is ------------------------------------------------------------ than that of a hole.
8. In an intrinsic semiconductor at a temperature T, the product electron and hole
densities is given by the relation -------------------------------------------, where Eg, is the forbidden
gap, and A, is a constant.
9. The position of the Fermi- level in an impurity doped semiconductor depend on ----

---------------------- and the concentration of -------------------------------------------.

10. The diffusion hole current (Jp) in a semiconductor is proportional to the ----------------.

II. Choose correct one

11. At 0K pure silicon is
(a) an intrinsic semiconductor (b) extrinsic semiconductor
(C) insulator (d) superconductor.
12. the majority carriers in p- type Ge are
(a) free electrons (b) holes
( c) ions (d) conductions electrons

13. The electric current in a pure semiconductor when voltage is applied is due to
(a) electrons (b) holes
(c) ions (d) holes and electrons

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14. In an intrinsic semiconductor at 0 K, the Fermi level lies

(a) at the centre of top of the valence band and bottom of the conduction band
(b) at the centre of donor level and intrinsic Fermi level
(c ) at the centre of donor level and bottom of the conduction band
(d) at the centre of acceptor level and top of the valence band
15. The density of charge cxarriers in a pure semiconductor is proportional to
(a) exp(- Eg / kT) (b) exp(- 2Eg / kT)
2
(c ) exp(- Eg / kT ) (d) exp(- Eg / 2kT)
16. The thickness of depletion region is in the order of
(a) 6 X 10-3 cm (b) 6 X 10-9 cm
(c ) 6 X 10-6 cm (d) 6 X 10-12 cm
17. In a LED, if Eg is the band gap, the wavelength of emission is given by
(a) λ = Eg / hυ (b) λ = hυ / Eg
(c ) λ = Eg / hc (d) λ = hc / Eg
18. Response time of LEDs in the order of
(a) 10-3 s (b) 10-6 s
(c ) 10-9 s (d) 10-12 s
19. Life time of LEDs is about
(a) 102 hours (b) 103 hours
(c ) 104 hours (d) 105 hours

20. LCD stands for

(a) light cavity display (b) light control display
(c ) liquid crystal diode (d) liquid crystal display

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JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD

I B.Tech. I Mid Examinations, November – 2009
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Objective Exam
Name: ______________________________ Hall Ticket No. A
Answer All Questions. All Questions Carry Equal Marks. Time: 20 Min. Marks:
10.
I. Choose the correct alternative:
1. The atomic packing factor of a simple cubic structure, is [ ]
(a) 68% (b) 74% (c) 52% (d) 24%

2. The crystal planes (1 1 2) and (2 2 4) are [ ]

(a) perpendicular to each other (b) intersecting at an angle other than 90°
(c) parallel to each other (d) intersecting at an angle 45°

3. The Laue spots close to the centre of the Laue photograph correspond to [ ]
(a) high Bragg angles (b) low Bragg angles
(c) lesser interplanar separation of the crystal (d) larger wavelength of X-rays

4. NaCl crystal possess [ ]

(a) FCC structure (b) HPC structure (c) SC structure (d) BCC structure

5. The diffraction of X-rays by crystal planes [ ]

(a) reveals the nature of X-rays
(b) helps to know the characteristics of X-rays
(c) reveals the internal arrangement of atoms in the crystal
(d) helps to know the properties of the crystals

6. Burger‘s vector gives [ ]

(a) length of Burger‘s circuit (b) magnitude and direction of dislocation
(c) magnitude and direction of point defect (d) magnitude and direction of surface defect

7. The amount of energy required to separate the atoms completely [ ]

from the structure, is called
(a) cohesive energy (b) potential energy (c) attractive energy (d) repulsive energy

8. The number of atoms belonging to a unit cell is one, for [ ]

(a) body centered cubic structure (b) face centered cubic structure
(c) base centered cubic structure (d) simple cubic structure

9. CsCl crystal possess [ ]

(a) FCC structure (b) HPC structure (c) SC structure (d) BCC structure

10. Twin boundary in a crystal, is called [ ]

(a) zero dimensional defect (b) one dimensional defect
(c) two dimensional defect (d) three dimensional defect
Cont…..2

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Set No. 1

II. Fill in the Blanks:

11. KBr is an example for ____________ bond.

12. The number of basic crystal systems, is _____________

13. The number of atoms belonging to the unit cell of BCC structure, is ____________.

14. The number of Frenkel defects increase exponentially with _________ of temperature.

15. In an __________________ crystal system a . b . c and α = β = 90° . γ

16. The angle at which reflection is maximum in X-ray diffraction by crystal planes, is called
___________ angle.

17. In the powder method of X-ray diffraction, the camera used is _______________ camera.

18. In ionic crystals, an ion displaced from a regular site to an interstitial site, is called
______
imperfection.

19. Silver is an example for _______________ bond.

20. The Miller Indices of the plane parallel to Y and Z axes are _________

-oOo-

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Set No. 2
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
I B.Tech. I Mid Examinations, November – 2009
ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Objective Exam
Name: ______________________________ Hall Ticket No.

Answer All Questions. All Questions Carry Equal Marks. Time: 20 Min. Marks: 10.
I. Choose the correct alternative:
1. NaCl crystal possess [ ]
(a) FCC structure (b) HPC structure (c) SC structure (d) BCC structure

2. The diffraction of X-rays by crystal planes [ ]

(a) reveals the nature of X-rays
(b) helps to know the characteristics of X-rays
(c) reveals the internal arrangement of atoms in the crystal
(d) helps to know the properties of the crystals

3. Burger‘s vector gives [ ]

(a) length of Burger‘s circuit (b) magnitude and direction of dislocation
(c) magnitude and direction of point defect (d) magnitude and direction of surface defect

4. The amount of energy required to separate the atoms completely [ ]

from the structure, is called
(a) cohesive energy (b) potential energy (c) attractive energy (d) repulsive energy

5. The number of atoms belonging to a unit cell is one, for [ ]

(a) body centered cubic structure (b) face centered cubic structure
(c) base centered cubic structure (d) simple cubic structure

6. CsCl crystal possess [ ]

(a) FCC structure (b) HPC structure (c) SC structure (d) BCC structure

7. Twin boundary in a crystal, is called [ ]

(a) zero dimensional defect (b) one dimensional defect
(c) two dimensional defect (d) three dimensional defect

8. The atomic packing factor of a simple cubic structure, is [ ]

(a) 68% (b) 74% (c) 52% (d) 24%

9. The crystal planes (1 1 2) and (2 2 4) are [ ]

(a) perpendicular to each other (b) intersecting at an angle other than 90°
(c) parallel to each other (d) intersecting at an angle 45°

10. The Laue spots close to the centre of the Laue photograph correspond to [ ]
(a) high Bragg angles (b) low Bragg angles
(c) lesser interplanar separation of the crystal (d) larger wavelength of X-rays

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Cont…..2
Set No. 2
II. Fill in the Blanks:
11. The number of Frenkel defects increase exponentially with _________ of temperature.

12. In an __________________ crystal system a . b . c and α = β = 90° . γ

13. The angle at which reflection is maximum in X-ray diffraction by crystal planes, is called
___________ angle.

14. In the powder method of X-ray diffraction, the camera used is _______________ camera.

15. In ionic crystals, an ion displaced from a regular site to an interstitial site, is called
______
imperfection.

16. Silver is an example for _______________ bond.

17. The Miller Indices of the plane parallel to Y and Z axes are _________

18. KBr is an example for ____________ bond.

19. The number of basic crystal systems, is _____________

20. The number of atoms belonging to the unit cell of BCC structure, is ____________.

-oOo-

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Set No. 3

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD

I B.Tech. I Mid Examinations, November – 2009
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Objective Exam
Name: ______________________________ Hall Ticket No.

Answer All Questions. All Questions Carry Equal Marks. Time: 20 Min. Marks: 10.
I. Choose the correct alternative:
1. Burger‘s vector gives [ ]
(a) length of Burger‘s circuit (b) magnitude and direction of dislocation
(c) magnitude and direction of point defect (d) magnitude and direction of surface defect

2. The amount of energy required to separate the atoms completely [ ]

from the structure, is called
(a) cohesive energy (b) potential energy (c) attractive energy (d) repulsive energy

3. The number of atoms belonging to a unit cell is one, for [ ]

(a) body centered cubic structure (b) face centered cubic structure
(c) base centered cubic structure (d) simple cubic structure

4. CsCl crystal possess [ ]

(a) FCC structure (b) HPC structure (c) SC structure (d) BCC structure

5. Twin boundary in a crystal, is called [ ]

(a) zero dimensional defect (b) one dimensional defect
(c) two dimensional defect (d) three dimensional defect

6. The atomic packing factor of a simple cubic structure, is [ ]

(a) 68% (b) 74% (c) 52% (d) 24%

7. The crystal planes (1 1 2) and (2 2 4) are [ ]

(a) perpendicular to each other (b) intersecting at an angle other than 90°
(c) parallel to each other (d) intersecting at an angle 45°

8. The Laue spots close to the centre of the Laue photograph correspond to [ ]
(a) high Bragg angles (b) low Bragg angles
(c) lesser interplanar separation of the crystal (d) larger wavelength of X-rays

9. NaCl crystal possess [ ]

(a) FCC structure (b) HPC structure (c) SC structure (d) BCC structure

10. The diffraction of X-rays by crystal planes [ ]

(a) reveals the nature of X-rays
(b) helps to know the characteristics of X-rays
(c) reveals the internal arrangement of atoms in the crystal

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(d) helps to know the properties of the crystals

Set No. 3
II. Fill in the Blanks:
11. The angle at which reflection is maximum in X-ray diffraction by crystal planes, is called
___________ angle.

12. In the powder method of X-ray diffraction, the camera used is _______________ camera.

13. In ionic crystals, an ion displaced from a regular site to an interstitial site, is called
______
imperfection.

14. Silver is an example for _______________ bond.

15. The Miller Indices of the plane parallel to Y and Z axes are _________

16. KBr is an example for ____________ bond.

17. The number of basic crystal systems, is _____________

18. The number of atoms belonging to the unit cell of BCC structure, is ____________.

19. The number of Frenkel defects increase exponentially with _________ of temperature.

20. In an __________________ crystal system a . b . c and α = β = 90° . γ.

-oOo-

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Set No. 4
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
I B.Tech. I Mid Examinations, November – 2009
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Objective Exam
Name: ______________________________ Hall Ticket No. A

Answer All Questions. All Questions Carry Equal Marks. Time: 20 Min. Marks: 10.

I. Choose the correct alternative:

1. The number of atoms belonging to a unit cell is one, for [ ]
(a) body centered cubic structure (b) face centered cubic structure
(c) base centered cubic structure (d) simple cubic structure

2. CsCl crystal possess [ ]

(a) FCC structure (b) HPC structure (c) SC structure (d) BCC structure

3. Twin boundary in a crystal, is called [ ]

(a) zero dimensional defect (b) one dimensional defect
(c) two dimensional defect (d) three dimensional defect

4. The atomic packing factor of a simple cubic structure, is [ ]

(a) 68% (b) 74% (c) 52% (d) 24%

5. The crystal planes (1 1 2) and (2 2 4) are [ ]

(a) perpendicular to each other (b) intersecting at an angle other than 90°
(c) parallel to each other (d) intersecting at an angle 45°

6. The Laue spots close to the centre of the Laue photograph correspond to [ ]
(a) high Bragg angles (b) low Bragg angles
(c) lesser interplanar separation of the crystal (d) larger wavelength of X-rays

7. NaCl crystal possess [ ]

(a) FCC structure (b) HPC structure (c) SC structure (d) BCC structure

8. The diffraction of X-rays by crystal planes [ ]

(a) reveals the nature of X-rays
(b) helps to know the characteristics of X-rays
(c) reveals the internal arrangement of atoms in the crystal
(d) helps to know the properties of the crystals

9. Burger‘s vector gives [ ]

(a) length of Burger‘s circuit (b) magnitude and direction of dislocation
(c) magnitude and direction of point defect (d) magnitude and direction of surface defect

10. The amount of energy required to separate the atoms completely [ ]

from the structure, is called
(a) cohesive energy (b) potential energy (c) attractive energy (d) repulsive energy

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Set No. 4
II. Fill in the Blanks:
11. In ionic crystals, an ion displaced from a regular site to an interstitial site, is called
______
imperfection.

12. Silver is an example for _______________ bond.

13. The Miller Indices of the plane parallel to Y and Z axes are _________

14. KBr is an example for ____________ bond.

15. The number of basic crystal systems, is _____________

16. The number of atoms belonging to the unit cell of BCC structure, is ____________.

17. The number of Frenkel defects increase exponentially with _________ of temperature.

18. In an __________________ crystal system a . b . c and α = β = 90° . γ.

19. The angle at which reflection is maximum in X-ray diffraction by crystal planes, is called
___________ angle.

20. In the powder method of X-ray diffraction, the camera used is _______________ camera.

-oOo-

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Code No: 09A1BS02 Set No. 1

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
I B.Tech. II Mid Examinations, March – 2010
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Objective Exam
Name: ______________________________ Hall Ticket No.

Answer All Questions. All Questions Carry Equal Marks. Time: 20 Min. Marks: 10.
I. Choose the correct alternative:
1. The Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics deals with particles having [ ]
(A) integral spin (B) half integral spin
(C) no spin (D) any value of spin

2. According to Planck‘s quantum theory of radiation [ ]

(A) energy is emitted in the form of waves
(B) energy is emitted in the form of mechanical waves
(C) energy is emitted in the form of a continuous stream
(D) energy is emitted in the form of packets called photons

3. If E1 is the energy value for the ground state of an electron in a one-dimensional potential
well of
length L, the energy of the first excited state is equal to [ ]
(A) E1 (B) 2 E1 (C) 4 E1 (D) 9 E1
4. The zone theory of electrons was developed by [ ]
(A) Sommerfeld (B) Planck
(C) Drude and Lorentz (D) Bloch

5. In an allowed energy band, the velocity of an electron is zero, at [ ]

(A) top of the band (B) any where in the band
(C) top and bottom of the band (D) bottom of the band

6. An example for direct band gap semiconductor is [ ]

(A) Ge (B) GaAs (C) Si (D) SiO

7. If the Hall coefficient is negative, then the semiconductor is [ ]

(A) intrinsic (B) p-type (C) n-type (D) extrinsic

8. The Fermi level of intrinsic semiconductor raises slightly with increase of temperature,
because
[]
(A) the effect mass of electron is greater than the effective mass hole
(B) the mass of hole is greater than the mass electron
(C) the effect mass of hole is greater than the effective mass electron
(D) the mass of electron is greater than the mass hole
9. Application of forward bias to a junction diode reduces [ ]
(A) the minority carrier current to zero (B) the majority carrier current to zero
(C) the potential barrier (D) the current to zero

10. Infra-red LED finds application in [ ]

(A) test instruments (B) burglar‘s alarm
(C) pocket calculators (D) display boards

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II Fill in the Blanks

11. The number of quantum states present in a metal between the energies E and E+dE per
unit volume
is called _____________
12. In the spectrum of black body radiation, the wavelength maximum ___________ with
increase in
temperature.
13. When a potential difference of 400 volts is applied in accelerating an electron, the
wavelength
attained by the electron, is ________ A.U.
14. One-dimensional time-independent Schrodinger‘s wave equation is ________
15. Pure semiconductor behaves as an insulator at _____ K
16. The electrons in a periodic potential move with ___________ mass.
17. For Ge at room temperature, the intrinsic concentration is 2.5 × 1013 cm-3. The donor
impurity
concentration is 5 × 1015 cm-3. Then the hole concentration in the semiconductor is
_________________ cm-3.
18. Under equilibrium conditions, the rate of generation of holes in a semiconductor, is equal
to the
rate of loss due to recombination. The equation relating the generation rate and loss rate is
known
as ___________
19. The recombination produces a layer, at P-N junction, is called __________
20. The rectification efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is ______________.
-oOo-

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Code No: 09A1BS02 Set No. 2

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
I B.Tech. II Mid Examinations, March – 2010
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Objective Exam
Name: ______________________________ Hall Ticket No.

Answer All Questions. All Questions Carry Equal Marks. Time: 20 Min. Marks: 10.
I. Choose the correct alternative:
1. The zone theory of electrons was developed by [ ]
(A) Sommerfeld (B) Planck (C) Drude and Lorentz (D) Bloch
2. In an allowed energy band, the velocity of an electron is zero, at [ ]
(A) top of the band (B) any where in the band
(C) top and bottom of the band (D) bottom of the band
3. An example for direct band gap semiconductor is [ ]
(A) Ge (B) GaAs (C) Si (D) SiO
4. If the Hall coefficient is negative, then the semiconductor is [ ]
(A) intrinsic (B) p-type (C) n-type (D) extrinsic
5. The Fermi level of intrinsic semiconductor raises slightly with increase of temperature,
because
[]
(A) the effect mass of electron is greater than the effective mass hole
(B) the mass of hole is greater than the mass electron
(C) the effect mass of hole is greater than the effective mass electron
(D) the mass of electron is greater than the mass hole
6. Application of forward bias to a junction diode reduces [ ]
(A) the minority carrier current to zero (B) the majority carrier current to zero
(C) the potential barrier (D) the current to zero
7. Infra-red LED finds application in [ ]
(A) test instruments (B) burglar‘s alarm (C) pocket calculators (D) display boards
8. The Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics deals with particles having [ ]
(A) integral spin (B) half integral spin (C) no spin (D) any value of spin
9. According to Planck‘s quantum theory of radiation [ ]
(A) energy is emitted in the form of waves
(B) energy is emitted in the form of mechanical waves
(C) energy is emitted in the form of a continuous stream
(D) energy is emitted in the form of packets called photons
Cont…2
Code No: 09A1BS02 :2: Set No. 2
10. If E1 is the energy value for the ground state of an electron in a one-dimensional potential
well of
length L, the energy of the first excited state is equal to [ ]
(A) E1 (B) 2 E1 (C) 4 E1 (D) 9 E1
II Fill in the Blanks
11. One-dimensional time-independent Schrodinger‘s wave equation is _________
12. Pure semiconductor behaves as an insulator at _____ K
13. The electrons in a periodic potential move with ______________ mass.
14. For Ge at room temperature, the intrinsic concentration is 2.5 × 1013 cm-3. The donor
impurity
concentration is 5 × 1015 cm-3. Then the hole concentration in the semiconductor is
_________________ cm-3.

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15. Under equilibrium conditions, the rate of generation of holes in a semiconductor, is equal
to the
rate of loss due to recombination. The equation relating the generation rate and loss rate is
known
as ___________
16. The recombination produces a layer, at P-N junction, is called __________
17. The rectification efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is ______________.
18. The number of quantum states present in a metal between the energies E and E+dE per
unit volume
is called ___________
19. In the spectrum of black body radiation, the wavelength maximum ______________ with
increase
in temperature.
20. When a potential difference of 400 volts is applied in accelerating an electron, the
wavelength
attained by the electron, is ___________ A.U.
-oOo-

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Code No: 09A1BS02 Set No. 3

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
I B.Tech. II Mid Examinations, March – 2010
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Objective Exam
Name: ______________________________ Hall Ticket No. A

Answer All Questions. All Questions Carry Equal Marks. Time: 20 Min. Marks: 10.
I. Choose the correct alternative:
1 An example for direct band gap semiconductor is [ ]
(A) Ge (B) GaAs (C) Si (D) SiO
2 If the Hall coefficient is negative, then the semiconductor is [ ]
(A) intrinsic (B) p-type (C) n-type (D) extrinsic
3 The Fermi level of intrinsic semiconductor raises slightly with increase of temperature,
because
[]
(A) the effect mass of electron is greater than the effective mass hole
(B) the mass of hole is greater than the mass electron
(C) the effect mass of hole is greater than the effective mass electron
(D) the mass of electron is greater than the mass hole
4 Application of forward bias to a junction diode reduces [ ]
(A) the minority carrier current to zero (B) the majority carrier current to zero
(C) the potential barrier (D) the current to zero
5 Infra-red LED finds application in [ ]
(A) test instruments (B) burglar‘s alarm (C) pocket calculators (D) display boards
6 The Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics deals with particles having [ ]
(A) integral spin (B) half integral spin
(C) no spin (D) any value of spin
7. cording to Planck‘s quantum theory of radiation [ ]
(A) energy is emitted in the form of waves
(B) energy is emitted in the form of mechanical waves
(C) energy is emitted in the form of a continuous stream
(D) energy is emitted in the form of packets called photons
8. f E1 is the energy value for the ground state of an electron in a one-dimensional potential
well of
length L, the energy of the first excited state is equal to [ ]
(A) E1 (B) 2 E1 (C) 4 E1 (D) 9 E1
9. The zone theory of electrons was developed by [ ]
(A) Sommerfeld (B) Planck (C) Drude and Lorentz (D) Bloch
Cont….2
Code No: 09A1BS02 :2: Set No. 3
10. In an allowed energy band, the velocity of an electron is zero, at [ ]
(A) top of the band (B) any where in the band
(C) top and bottom of the band (D) bottom of the band
II Fill in the Blanks
11. The electrons in a periodic potential move with ______________ mass.
12. For Ge at room temperature, the intrinsic concentration is 2.5 × 1013 cm-3. The donor
impurity
concentration is 5 × 1015 cm-3. Then the hole concentration in the semiconductor is
_________________ cm-3.
13. Under equilibrium conditions, the rate of generation of holes in a semiconductor, is equal
to the

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rate of loss due to recombination. The equation relating the generation rate and loss rate is
known
as ___________
14. The recombination produces a layer, at P-N junction, is called _____________
15. The rectification efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is ______________.
16. The number of quantum states present in a metal between the energies E and E+dE per
unit volume
is called ________
17. In the spectrum of black body radiation, the wavelength maximum _____________ with
increase in
temperature.
18. When a potential difference of 400 volts is applied in accelerating an electron, the
wavelength
attained by the electron, is ___________ A.U.
19. One-dimensional time-independent Schrodinger‘s wave equation is __________
20. Pure semiconductor behaves as an insulator at _____ K

-oOo-

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Code No: 09A1BS02 Set No. 4

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
I B.Tech. II Mid Examinations, March – 2010
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Objective Exam
Name: ______________________________ Hall Ticket No. A

Answer All Questions. All Questions Carry Equal Marks. Time: 20 Min. Marks: 10.
I. Choose the correct alternative:
1. The Fermi level of intrinsic semiconductor raises slightly with increase of temperature,
because
[]
(A) the effect mass of electron is greater than the effective mass hole
(B) the mass of hole is greater than the mass electron
(C) the effect mass of hole is greater than the effective mass electron
(D) the mass of electron is greater than the mass hole
2. Application of forward bias to a junction diode reduces [ ]
(A) the minority carrier current to zero (B) the majority carrier current to zero
(C) the potential barrier (D) the current to zero
3. Infra-red LED finds application in [ ]
(A) test instruments (B) burglar‘s alarm
(C) pocket calculators (D) display boards
4. The Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics deals with particles having [ ]
(A) integral spin (B) half integral spin
(C) no spin (D) any value of spin
5. According to Planck‘s quantum theory of radiation [ ]
(A) energy is emitted in the form of waves
(B) energy is emitted in the form of mechanical waves
(C) energy is emitted in the form of a continuous stream
(D) energy is emitted in the form of packets called photons
6. If E1 is the energy value for the ground state of an electron in a one-dimensional potential
well of
length L, the energy of the first excited state is equal to [ ]
(A) E1 (B) 2 E1 (C) 4 E1 (D) 9 E1
7. The zone theory of electrons was developed by [ ]
(A) Sommerfeld (B) Planck
(C) Drude and Lorentz (D) Bloch
8. In an allowed energy band, the velocity of an electron is zero, at [ ]
(A) top of the band (B) any where in the band
(C) top and bottom of the band (D) bottom of the band
Cont..2
Code No: 09A1BS02 :2: Set No. 4
9. An example for direct band gap semiconductor is [ ]
(A) Ge (B) GaAs (C) Si (D) SiO
10. If the Hall coefficient is negative, then the semiconductor is [ ]
(A) intrinsic (B) p-type (C) n-type (D) extrinsic
II Fill in the Blanks
11. Under equilibrium conditions, the rate of generation of holes in a semiconductor, is equal
to the
rate of loss due to recombination. The equation relating the generation rate and loss rate is
known
as ___________

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12. The recombination produces a layer, at P-N junction, is called _________________

13. The rectification efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is ______________.
14. The number of quantum states present in a metal between the energies E and E+dE per
unit volume
is called _____________________
15. In the spectrum of black body radiation, the wavelength maximum _________________
with
increase in temperature.
16. When a potential difference of 400 volts is applied in accelerating an electron, the
wavelength
attained by the electron, is ___________ A.U.
17. One-dimensional time-independent Schrodinger‘s wave equation is ___________
18. Pure semiconductor behaves as an insulator at _____ K
19. The electrons in a periodic potential move with ______________ mass.
20. For Ge at room temperature, the intrinsic concentration is 2.5 × 1013 cm-3. The donor
impurity
concentration is 5 × 1015 cm-3. Then the hole concentration in the semiconductor is
_________________ cm-3.

-oOo-

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Code No: A109100104 Set No. 1

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
I B.Tech. III Mid Examinations, May– 2010
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Objective Exam
Name: ______________________________ Hall Ticket No. A

Answer All Questions. All Questions Carry Equal Marks. Time: 20 Min. Marks: 10.
I. Choose the correct alternative:
1. The material in which spontaneous polarization changes with temperature, is called [ ]
(A) ferroelectric (B) pyroelectric (C) piezoelectric (D) anti-ferromagnetic
2. Nickel zinc ferrites are used as cores in [ ]
(A) radios (B) TV transformers (C) transmitters (D) electromagnets
3. In multimode graded index fiber, light rays travel in different parts of the fiber [ ]
(A) with different speeds (B) with same speed
(C) with minimum speed (D) with maximum speed
4. In fiber optic communication system, the preferable source of light is [ ]
(A) LED (B) sodium lamp (C) mercury lamp (D) laser
5. The residential soundproofing aims to eliminate the effects of [ ]
(A) internal noise (B) reverberation (C) absorption (D) external noise
6. The magnetic susceptibility (÷) of a magnetic material is given by [ ]
(A) ÷ = (ìr -1) (B) ÷ = (ìr +1) (C) ÷ = (1 - ìr) (D) ÷ = (ìo -1)
7. The condition for lasing action is [ ]
(A) excitation (B) meta-stable state (C) population inversion (D) emission
8. The reverberation time for an auditorium is the time required for the intensity of sound to
drop to
[]
(A) 10-9 times its initial value (B) 10-6 times its initial value
(C) 10-3 times its initial value (D) 10-8 times its initial value
9. Which of the following is not a stage of sol-gel formation? [ ]
(A) Agglomeration (B) Condensation (C) Hydrolysis (D) Sputtering
10. The relation between magnetic induction (B), magnetic field strength (H) and
magnetization (M) is
[]
a. B = H + M (B) B = M + ìoH (C) B = ìo (H + M) (D) M = B + ìoH
b.
II Fill in the blanks
11. The unit for measurement of displacement vector is _______________.
12. Above Curie temperature, the shape of B-H curve of a ferromagnetic material is in the
form of a
_______________________.
13. The phenomenon of expulsion of magnetic lines from a super-conductor is known as
_______________________.
14. The unit of Einstein‘s coefficient is _______________.
15. The synthesizing of nanomaterials from larger pieces of material, is called ___________
technique.
16. Ionic Polarization is __________________________ temperature.
17. The active element in ruby laser is __________________.
18. The acceptance angle of a fiber of numerical aperture 0.22, is ____________º.
19. A _________________ is a device for reducing the amount of noise emitted by a
machine.

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20. When the radius of a sphere is reduced to 2.0 nm, the surface area to volume ratio
becomes
________________ per meter.
-oOo-

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Code No: A109100104 Set No. 2

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
I B.Tech. III Mid Examinations, May – 2010
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Objective Exam
Name: ______________________________ Hall Ticket No. A

Answer All Questions. All Questions Carry Equal Marks. Time: 20 Min. Marks: 10.
I. Choose the correct alternative:
1. In fiber optic communication system, the preferable source of light is [ ]
(A) LED (B) sodium lamp (C) mercury lamp (D) laser
2. The residential soundproofing aims to eliminate the effects of [ ]
(A) internal noise (B) reverberation (C) absorption (D) external noise
3. The magnetic susceptibility (÷) of a magnetic material is given by [ ]
(A) ÷ = (ìr -1) (B) ÷ = (ìr +1) (C) ÷ = (1 - ìr) (D) ÷ = (ìo -1)
4. The condition for lasing action is [ ]
(A) excitation (B) meta-stable state (C) population inversion (D) emission
5. The reverberation time for an auditorium is the time required for the intensity of sound to
drop to
[]
(A) 10-9 times its initial value (B) 10-6 times its initial value
(C) 10-3 times its initial value (D) 10-8 times its initial value
6. Which of the following is not a stage of sol-gel formation? [ ]
(A) Agglomeration (B) Condensation (C) Hydrolysis (D) Sputtering
7. The relation between magnetic induction (B), magnetic field strength (H) and
magnetization (M) is
[]
(A) B = H + M (B) B = M + ìoH (C) B = ìo (H + M) (D) M = B + ìoH
8. The material in which spontaneous polarization changes with temperature, is called [ ]
(A) ferroelectric (B) pyroelectric (C) piezoelectric (D) anti-ferromagnetic
9. Nickel zinc ferrites are used as cores in [ ]
(A) radios (B) TV transformers (C) transmitters (D) electromagnets
10. In multimode graded index fiber, light rays travel in different parts of the fiber [ ]
(A) with different speeds (B) with same speed
(C) with minimum speed (D) with maximum speed

II Fill in the blanks

11. The unit of Einstein‘s coefficient is _______________.
12. The synthesizing of nanomaterials from larger pieces of material, is called ___________
technique.
13. Ionic Polarization is __________________________ temperature.
14. The active element in ruby laser is __________________.
15. The acceptance angle of a fiber of numerical aperture 0.22, is ____________º.
16. A _________________ is a device for reducing the amount of noise emitted by a
machine.
17. When the radius of a sphere is reduced to 2.0 nm, the surface area to volume ratio
becomes
________________ per meter.
18. The unit for measurement of displacement vector is _______________.
19. Above Curie temperature, the shape of B-H curve of a ferromagnetic material is in the
form of a
_______________________.

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20. The phenomenon of expulsion of magnetic lines from a super-conductor is known as

_______________________.
-oOo-

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Code No: A109100104 Set No. 3

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
I B.Tech. III Mid Examinations, May – 2010
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Objective Exam
Name: ______________________________ Hall Ticket No. A

Answer All Questions. All Questions Carry Equal Marks. Time: 20 Min. Marks: 10.
I. Choose the correct alternative:
1. The magnetic susceptibility (÷) of a magnetic material is given by [ ]
(A) ÷ = (ìr -1) (B) ÷ = (ìr +1) (C) ÷ = (1 - ìr) (D) ÷ = (ìo -1)
2. The condition for lasing action is [ ]
(A) excitation (B) meta-stable state (C) population inversion (D) emission
3. The reverberation time for an auditorium is the time required for the intensity of sound to
drop to
[]
(A) 10-9 times its initial value (B) 10-6 times its initial value
(C) 10-3 times its initial value (D) 10-8 times its initial value
4. Which of the following is not a stage of sol-gel formation? [ ]
(A) Agglomeration (B) Condensation (C) Hydrolysis (D) Sputtering
5. The relation between magnetic induction (B), magnetic field strength (H) and
magnetization (M) is
[]
(A) B = H + M (B) B = M + ìoH (C) B = ìo (H + M) (D) M = B + ìoH
6. The material in which spontaneous polarization changes with temperature, is called [ ]
(A) ferroelectric (B) pyroelectric (C) piezoelectric (D) anti-ferromagnetic
7. Nickel zinc ferrites are used as cores in [ ]
(A) radios (B) TV transformers (C) transmitters (D) electromagnets
8. In multimode graded index fiber, light rays travel in different parts of the fiber [ ]
(A) with different speeds (B) with same speed
(C) with minimum speed (D) with maximum speed
9. In fiber optic communication system, the preferable source of light is [ ]
(A) LED (B) sodium lamp (C) mercury lamp (D) laser
10. The residential soundproofing aims to eliminate the effects of [ ]
(A) internal noise (B) reverberation (C) absorption (D) external noise

II Fill in the blanks

11. Ionic Polarization is __________________________ temperature.

12. The active element in ruby laser is __________________.
13. The acceptance angle of a fiber of numerical aperture 0.22, is ____________º.
14. A _________________ is a device for reducing the amount of noise emitted by a
machine.
15. When the radius of a sphere is reduced to 2.0 nm, the surface area to volume ratio
becomes
________________ per meter.
16. The unit for measurement of displacement vector is _______________.
17. Above Curie temperature, the shape of B-H curve of a ferromagnetic material is in the
form of a
_______________________.
18. The phenomenon of expulsion of magnetic lines from a super-conductor is known as
_______________________.

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19. The unit of Einstein‘s coefficient is _______________.

20. The synthesizing of nanomaterials from larger pieces of material, is called ___________
technique.
-oOo-

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Code No: A109100104 Set No. 4

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
I B.Tech. III Mid Examinations, May – 2010
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Objective Exam
Name: ______________________________ Hall Ticket No. A

Answer All Questions. All Questions Carry Equal Marks. Time: 20 Min. Marks: 10.
I. Choose the correct alternative:
1. The reverberation time for an auditorium is the time required for the intensity of sound to
drop to
[]
(A) 10-9 times its initial value (B) 10-6 times its initial value
(C) 10-3 times its initial value (D) 10-8 times its initial value
2. Which of the following is not a stage of sol-gel formation? [ ]
(A) Agglomeration (B) Condensation (C) Hydrolysis (D) Sputtering
3. The relation between magnetic induction (B), magnetic field strength (H) and
magnetization (M) is
[]
(A) B = H + M (B) B = M + ìoH (C) B = ìo (H + M) (D) M = B + ìoH
4. The material in which spontaneous polarization changes with temperature, is called [ ]
(A) ferroelectric (B) pyroelectric (C) piezoelectric (D) anti-ferromagnetic
5. Nickel zinc ferrites are used as cores in [ ]
(A) radios (B) TV transformers (C) transmitters (D) electromagnets
6. In multimode graded index fiber, light rays travel in different parts of the fiber [ ]
(A) with different speeds (B) with same speed
(C) with minimum speed (D) with maximum speed
7. In fiber optic communication system, the preferable source of light is [ ]
(A) LED (B) sodium lamp (C) mercury lamp (D) laser
8. The residential soundproofing aims to eliminate the effects of [ ]
(A) internal noise (B) reverberation (C) absorption (D) external noise
9. The magnetic susceptibility (÷) of a magnetic material is given by [ ]
(A) ÷ = (ìr -1) (B) ÷ = (ìr +1) (C) ÷ = (1 - ìr) (D) ÷ = (ìo -1)
10. The condition for lasing action is [ ]
(A) excitation (B) meta-stable state (C) population inversion (D) emission

II Fill in the blanks

11. The acceptance angle of a fiber of numerical aperture 0.22, is ____________º.

12. A _________________ is a device for reducing the amount of noise emitted by a
machine.
13. When the radius of a sphere is reduced to 2.0 nm, the surface area to volume ratio
becomes
________________ per meter.
14. The unit for measurement of displacement vector is _______________.
15. Above Curie temperature, the shape of B-H curve of a ferromagnetic material is in the
form of a
_______________________.
16. The phenomenon of expulsion of magnetic lines from a super-conductor is known as

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_______________________.
17. The unit of Einstein‘s coefficient is _______________.
18. The synthesizing of nanomaterials from larger pieces of material, is called
__________________________ technique.
19. Ionic Polarization is __________________________ temperature.
20. The active element in ruby laser is __________________.

-oOo-

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Code No: 09A1BS02 R09 Set No. 2

I B.Tech Regular Examinations,June 2010
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Common to CE, ME, CHEM, BME, IT, MECT, MEP, AE, BT, AME, ICE,
E.COMP.E, MMT, ETM, EIE, CSE, ECE, EEE

Time: 3 hours Max Marks: 75

Answer any FIVE Questions
All Questions carry equal marks

1. (a) What is statistical mechanics? Write notes on Bose-Einstein statistics.

(b) Write notes on black body radiation.
(c) Calculate the energies that can be possessed by a particle of mass
8.50 _ 10_31kg which is placed in an in_nite potential box of width 10_9cm.
[6+5+4]

2.(a) What is the meaning of nanotechnology? Explain.

(b) Describe the processes of \sol-gel" and \precipitation" in the fabrication
Of nano- structures.
(c) Write the applications of nanotechnology in Electronic Industry. [4+7+4]

3. (a) Write notes on volume defects in crystals.

(b) What is Burger's vector? What is Burger's circuit? Explain.
(c) If the average energy required to create a Frenkel defect in an ionic crystal is
1.35 eV, calculate the ratio of Frenkel defects at 250C and 3500C. [5+6+4]

4. (a) Discuss the band theory of solids and explain the formation of bands and
concept of holes.
(b) What is effective mass of an electron? Derive an expression for the e_ective
mass of an electron. [9+6]

5. (a) Explain the formation and properties of an ionic crystal, with a suitable
ex-
ample.
(b) Derive an expression for the cohesive energy of an ionic crystal. [7+8]

6. (a) What is Meissner e_ect? Explain, in detail.

(b) Distinguish a super-conductor and a normal metal, both maintained at same
temperature.
(c) Write notes on magnetic levitation. [5+5+5]

7. (a) Explain the characteristics of a laser beam.

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(b) Describe the construction of He-Ne laser and discuss with relevant ELD, the
working of He-Ne laser.
(c) What are the di_erences between a laser diode and an LED? [4+7+4]
1
8. (a) Derive an expression for carrier concentration of p-type semiconductors.
(b) Explain Hall e_ect and its importance.
(c) For a semiconductor, the Hall coe_cient is -6.85 _ 10_5 m3/coulomb, and
electrical conductivity is 250 m_1_1. Calculate the density and mobility of
the charge carriers. [7+4+4]

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R09 Set No. 4

I B.Tech Regular Examinations,June 2010
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Common to CE, ME, CHEM, BME, IT, MECT, MEP, AE, BT, AME, ICE,
E.COMP.E, MMT, ETM, EIE, CSE, ECE, EEE
Time: 3 hours Max Marks: 75
Answer any FIVE Questions
All Questions carry equal marks

1. (a) Obtain an expression for Fermi energy at T > 0 K.

(b) Derive an expression for density of states of electrons.
(c) Write short notes on:
i. De Broglie wavelength and
ii. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. [4+7+4]

2. (a) Derive Bragg's law of crystal di_raction.

(b) Describe, in detail, Debye-Scherrer method for the determination of crystal
parameter.
(c) A certain crystal reects monochromatic X-rays strongly when Bragg's angle
is 210 for the second order di_raction. Calculate the glancing angle for third
order spectrum. [4+7+4]

3. (a) What is bonding in solids? Write the list of di_erent types of bonding in
solids.
(b) Describe with suitable examples, the formation of covalent and Vander-
Waal's
bonds in solids.
(c) What is bonding energy of a molecule? Explain. [4+7+4]

4. (a) Describe the top-down methods by which nanomaterials are fabricated.

(b) Explain how X-ray di_raction can be used to characterize
nanoparticles.[9+6]

5. (a) Discuss the propagation mechanism of light waves in optical _bers.

(b) Derive the expression for the numerical aperture of an optical _ber.
(c) A step index _ber has a numerical aperture of 0.16, and core refractive index
of 1.45. Calculate the acceptance angle of the _ber and the refractive index
of the cladding. [5+6+4]

6. (a) Using Kronig-Penney model show that the energy spectrum of an electron
contains a number of allowed energy bands separated by forbidden bands.
(b) De_ne e_ective mass of an electron. Explain its physical signi_cance. [9+6]

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7. (a) Show that the application of forward bias voltage across p-n junction
causes
an exponential increase in number of charge carriers in opposite regions.
(b) Write notes on \Liquid Crystal Display".
(c) The current in a p-n junction at 270C, is 0.18 _A when a large reverse bias
voltage is applied. Calculate the current when a forward bias of 0.98 V is
applied. [7+4+4]

8. (a) De_ne the terms magnetic induction (B), magnetization (M) and magnetic
_eld (H). Obtain an expression relating to these quantities.
(b) What are ferrites? Prove that ferrites are superior to ferro-magnetic materils.
Write the applications of ferrites.
(c) The magnetic susceptibility of aluminum is 2.3 _ 10_5. Find its permeability
and relative permeability. [6+5+4]

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Code No: 09A1BS02 R09 Set No. 1

I B.Tech Regular Examinations,June 2010
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Common to CE, ME, CHEM, BME, IT, MECT, MEP, AE, BT, AME, ICE,
E.COMP.E, MMT, ETM, EIE, CSE, ECE, EEE
Time: 3 hours Max Marks: 75
Answer any FIVE Questions
All Questions carry equal marks

1. (a) Explain the principle behind the functioning of an optical _bre.

(b) Derive an expression for numerical aperture of an optical _bre.
(c) Write any three applications of optical _bres. [4+7+4]

2. (a) Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semicondutors.

(b) Derive an expression for the density of holes in the valence band of an
intrinsic
semiconductor. [7+8]

3. (a) What is bonding in solids? Write the list of di_erent types of bonding in
solids.
(b) Describe with suitable examples, the formation of ionic and covalent bonds
in
solids.
(c) What is cohesive energy of a molecule? Explain. [4+7+4]

4. (a) What is Bloch theorem? Explain.

(b) Write the conclusions given by Kronig-Penney model.
(c) For an electron under motion in a periodic potential, plot the curve between
the e_ective mass of the electron and wave number, and explain. [5+5+5]

5. (a) Describe any three processes by which nanomaterials are fabricated.

(b) Describe the important applications of nanotechnology. [9+6]

6. (a) De_ne magnetic moment. What is Bohr magneton? Explain.

(b) What are the characteristics of diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic
substances? Explain their behavior with the help of examples.
(c) If a magnetic _eld of strength 300 amp/metre produces a magnetization of
4200 A/m in a ferromagnetic material, _nd the relative permeability of the
material. [3+9+3]

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7. (a) Explain the concept of dual nature of the light.

(b) Describe the experimental veri_cation of matter waves using Davisson-
Germer
experiment.
(c) Calculate the wavelength of matter wave associated with a neutron whose
kinetic energy is 1.5 times the rest mass of electron.
(Given that Mass of neutron = 1.676 _ 10_27 kg, Mass of electron = 9.1 _
10_31 kg, Planck's constant = 6.62 _ 10_34 J-sec, Velocity of light = 3 _ 108
m/s). [4+7+4]

8. (a) Write notes on Bragg's law.

(b) Describe Bragg's X-ray spectrometer method in the determination crystal
structure.
(c) Calculate the glancing angle of (1 1 1) plane of a cubic crystal having axial
length 0.19 nm corresponding to the second order di_raction maximum for
the X-rays of wavelength 0.058 nm. [4+7+4]

Code No: 09A1BS02 R09 Set No. 3

I B.Tech Regular Examinations,June 2010
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Common to CE, ME, CHEM, BME, IT, MECT, MEP, AE, BT, AME, ICE,
E.COMP.E, MMT, ETM, EIE, CSE, ECE, EEE
Time: 3 hours Max Marks: 75
Answer any FIVE Questions
All Questions carry equal marks

1. (a) Explain Fermi-Dirac distribution function. Illustrate the e_ect of

temperature
on the distribution.
(b) Derive an expression for density of states of an atom. [8+7]

2. (a) Derive the expressions for:

i. Acceptance angle and
ii. Numerical aperture of an optical _ber.
(b) Describe the di_erent types of _bers by giving the refractive index pro_les
and
propagation details. [8+7]

3. (a) What are Brillouin zones? Explain using E-K diagram.

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(b) De_ne e_ective mass of an electron. Explain its physical signi_cance.

(c) What is a hole? List out the properties of a hole. [5+5+5]

4. (a) Write notes on `point defects' in crystals..

(b) Derive the expression for the density of Frenkel defects in a metallic crystal.
(c) What is Burgers vector? Explain. [5+5+5]

5. (a) Describe the di_erent methods of acoustic quieting.

(b) Describe various method to achieve soundproo_ng. [7+8]

6. (a) Explain the terms:

i. Magnetic induction,
ii. Magnetic susceptibility,
iii. Permeability of a medium and
iv. Intensity of magnetization.
(b) What are hard and soft magnetic materials? Give their characteristic proper-
ties and applications.
(c) A paramagnetic material has a magnetic _eld intensity of 104 amp/m. If the
susceptibility of the material at room temperature is 3.7 _ 10_3. Calculate
the magnetization and ux density of the material. [6+5+4]

7. (a) What do you understand by Miller indices of a crystal plane?

(b) Show that in a cubic crystal the spacing (d) between consecutive parallel
planes of Miller indices (h k l) is given by d = a (h2 + k2 + l2)_1=2.
(c) NaCl crystals have FCC structure. The density of NaCl is 2.18 gm/cm2.
Calculate the distance between two adjacent atoms. (Molecular weight of
NaCl = 58.5). [4+7+4]

8. (a) Derive an expression for density of electrons in intrinsic semiconductors.

(b) Explain the variation of Fermi level with temperature in the case of p-type
semiconductors.
(c) If the e_ective mass of holes in a semiconductor is 5 times that of electrons,
at
what temperature would the Fermi level be shifted by 15% from the middle of
the forbidden energy gap? [Given that the energy gap for the semiconductor
is 1.20 eV]. [7+4+4]

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ALL
THE
BEST…..
Dept of physics

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