Lecture 2

Modulation
Modulation and
and Multiplexing
Multiplexing
•• 2-Values
2-Values && Multi-Values
Multi-Values Encoding,
Encoding, andand Baud
Baud Rate
Rate && Bit
Bit Rate
Rate
•• Nyquist
Nyquist Theorem
Theorem –– Relationship
Relationship between
between Speed
Speed && Bandwidth
Bandwidth
•• Shannon
Shannon Theorem
Theorem –– Relationship
Relationship between
between Speed
Speed && Noise
Noise
•• Digital
Digital Encoding
Encoding
•• Carrier,
Carrier, Modulation,
Modulation, Demodulation
Demodulation and and Modem
Modem
-- Digital
Digital Modulations:
Modulations: FSK,FSK, ASK,
ASK, PSK,
PSK, QAM
QAM
•• Multiplexing
Multiplexing and
and Demultiplexing
Demultiplexing
-- FDM
FDM (Frequency
(Frequency Division
Division Multiplexing)
Multiplexing)
-- WDM
WDM (Wave
(Wave Division
Division Multiplexing)
Multiplexing)
-- CDMA
CDMA (Code
(Code Division
Division Multiple
Multiple Access)
Access)
-- TDM
TDM (Time
(Time Division
Division Multiplexing)
Multiplexing)
 Lecture 2

Increase
Increase Signal
Signal Transmission
Transmission Speed
Speed
Pulse (2-
values)
interval=T 0 1 0 0 1 0 bit rate = 1/T

0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T t

Encoder Transmission Decoder

System/Channel

Pulse (2- 0 1 00 1 0
values) Increase bit rate Minimum
half T by reducing T
0 t T?

Pulse (4-values) 0 1 0 010 1110

interval=T Increase bit rate by
Maximum
increasing M=2k
0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T M-values encoding M?
1 pulse = log2M bits
= k bits
 Lecture 2
Nyquist
Nyquist Theorem
Theorem
Relationship
Relationship between
between Transmission
Transmission Speed
Speed and
and System
System Bandwidth
Bandwidth

0 1 0 0 1 0

Maximum Signal Rate: D

0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T t

Transmission
Encoder System/Channel Decoder
Bandwidth=B

Nyquist Theorem (1920):

1) Given a system/channel bandwidth B, the minimum T=1/2B, i.e., the maximum signal rate
D=2B pulses/sec (baud rate, Baud) = 2Blog 2M bits/sec (bit rate, bps)
2) To transmit data in bit rate D, the minimum bandwidth of a system/channel must be
B>=D/2log2M (Hz)
Explanations: Questions:
A hardware cannot 1) Assume a telephone channel bandwidth
change voltages B=3000Hz and M=1024, what’s its maximum
so fast because of rate?
its physical limitation
2) Can we use the above channel to send a TV
T F signal in real time? Why?
 Lecture 2
Shannon
Shannon Theorem
Theorem
Relationship
Relationship between
between Transmission
Transmission Speed
Speed and
and Noise
Noise
0 1 0 0 1 0

t t

Transmission s(t)
Encoder System/Channel + Decoder
Bandwidth=B
Maximum Signal Rate Noise n(t)
Channel Capacity
S/N=s²(t)/n²(t)
=10log10S/N (dB, decibel)
called signal-to-noise ratio
Shannon Theorem (1948):
1) Given a system/channel bandwidth B and signal-to-noise ratio S/N, the maximum value of

M = (1+S/N) when baud rate equals B, and its channel capacity is,
C = Blog2(1+S/N) bits/sec (bps, bite rate)
2) To transmit data in bit rate D, the channel capacity of a system/channel must be
C>=D
Two theorems give upper bounds of bit rates implement-able without giving implemental method.
 Lecture 2

Channel
Channel Capacity
Capacity
Shannon theorem C = Blog2(1+S/N) shows that the maximum rate or channel capacity
of a system/channel depends on bandwidth, signal energy and noise intensity. Thus,
to increase the capacity, three possible ways are

1) increase bandwidth; 2) raise signal energy; 3) reduce noise

Examples
1. For an extremely noise channel S/N  0, C  0, cannot send any data regardless of bandwidth

2. If S/N=1 (signal and noise in a same level), C=B

3. The theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone line where B=3000Hz and S/N=35dB.
10log10(S/N)=35  log2(S/N)= 3.5x log210
C= Blog2(1+S/N) =~ Blog2(S/N) =3000x3.5x log210=34.86 Kbps
If B is fixed, we have to increase signal-to-noise ration for increasing transmission rate.

Shannon theorem tell us that we cannot send data faster than the channel capacity,
but we can send data through a channel at the rate near its capacity.
However, it has not told us any method to attain such transmission rate of the capacity.
 Lecture 2

Digital
Digital Encoding
Encoding

…010010110

Digital
Digital
System
Encoder
Channel

Encoding Schemes:
- RZ (Return to Zero)
- NRZ (Non-Return to Zero)
# NRZ-I, NRZ-L (RS-232, RS-422)
# AMI (ISDN)
- Biphase
# Manchester and Differential Manchester (LAN)
# B8ZS, HDB3
 Lecture 2

Carrier
Carrier and
and Modulation
Modulation
Important facts:
- The RS-232 connects two devices in a short distance (<15m).
- It cannot be propagated far because its signal energy rapidly becomes weak
with the increase of transmission distance.
- A sine wave can propagate farther. The sine wave is an analogy signal.
- A signal can be carried by the sine wave, called carrier, for long distance.

Carrier: Acos(2πfct+φ) where fc is called carrier frequency

Modulation: change or modify values of A, fc, φ according to input signal s(t)
- modify A  A[s(t)]: Amplitude Modulation (AM)
- modify fc  fc[s(t)]: Frequency Modulation (FM)
- modify φ  φ[s(t)]: Phase Modulation (PM)

s(t) Modulator
modulated signal: m(t)

Acos(2πfct+φ)
 Lecture 2
Digital
Digital Modulation
Modulation
Digital Modulation
input: digital signal Digital signal
output: analogy signal
FSK – Frequency Shift Keying

ASK modulated signal

2ASK
ASK – Amplitude Shift Keying
2-ASK
0: A1cos2πfct
1: A2cos2πfct
PSK modulated signal
PSK – Phase Shift Keying 4PSK
4-PSK
00: Acos(2πfct+ 0 )
01: Acos(2πfct+ π/ ２ )
10: Acos(2πfct+ π )
11: Acos(2πfct+ 3π/2) 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
 Lecture 2

QAM
QAM –– Quadrature
Quadrature Amplitude
Amplitude Modulation
Modulation

QAM: a combinational modulation of amplitude and phase

m(t) = A[s(t)] cos{2πfct+φ[s(t)]} = p(t) cos(2πfct) + q(t) sin(2πfct)
π/4 (90°) phase difference between cos() and sin(), called quadrature
QAM is currently more common in digital communications
4-QAM, 8-QAM, 16-QAM, 32-QAM, 64-QAM, 128-QAM, 256-QAM, …

. . . .
sin sin
16-QAM
8-QAM
.. 011 0101

.
0100

.
0001

.
1110

.
.....
010 1011
1001
1101

. . . .
0000
101 100 000 001
cos cos

. 110

111
1100

.
0111
.
0011

0010 1111
.
1010

.
1000

0110

bit_rate = 3 x baud _rate bit_rate = 4 x baud _rate

 Lecture 2

Modulator,
Modulator, Demodulator
Demodulator and
and Modem
Modem
Modulator: accept bit sequence and modulate a carrier
Demodulator: accepted a modulated signal, and recreated bit sequence
Modem: a single device = modulator + demodulator
 Lecture 2

Multiplexing,
Multiplexing, Multiplexer
Multiplexer and
and Demultiplexer
Demultiplexer
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows simultaneous transmissions
of multiple signals across a single data link.

3 links: cost & inflexible

Rate Da
CompA1 CompA2
Rate Db
CompB1 CompB2
CompC1 Rate Dc CompC2

Da D
CompA1 M CompA2
Db 1 shared link: rate D E
CompB1 U M CompB2
X D>=Da+Db+Dc U
CompC1 Dc X CompC2

Multiplexer Demultiplexer
 Lecture 2

FDM
FDM –– Frequency
Frequency Division
Division Multiplexing
Multiplexing

FDM: - A set of signals are put in different frequency positions of a link/medium

- Bandwidth of the link must be larger than a sum of signal bandwidths
- Each signal is modulated using its own carrier frequency
- Examples: radio, TV, telephone backbone, satellite, …

3
1 1
A1 1
Mod 1 Dem A2
f1
2
1

2 2 2 2
B1 Mod
f2 + Dem B2

3 3
C1 3
Mod 3 Dem C2
f3
 Lecture 2

Wave
Wave Division
Division Multiplexing
Multiplexing (WDM)
(WDM) and
and Spread
Spread Spectrum
Spectrum

WDM: - conceptually the same as FDM

- using visible light signals (color division multiplexing)
- sending multiple light waves across a single optical fiber

Spread Spectrum:
- spread the signal over a wider bandwidth for reliability and security
- its carrier frequency is not fixed and dynamically changed
- such changes is controlled by a pseudorandom 0/1 sequence (code)
- the signal is represented in code-domain
s(t)
Code Mod Digital Mod

..0011001001010… Acos2πfct
Pseudorandom code
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access): different codes for different signals
 Lecture 2

TDM
TDM –– Time
Time Division
Division Multiplexing
Multiplexing

TDM:
- Multiple data streams are sent in different time in single data link/medium
- Data rate of the link must be larger than a sum of the multiple streams
- Data streams take turn to transmit in a short interval
- widely used in digital communication networks

CompA1
D CompA2
M E
CompB1 U … C1 B1 A1 C1 B1 A1 … M CompB2
X U
CompC1 X CompC2
 WIDEBAND
WIDEBAND CDMA
CDMA (3G)
(3G)
• The W-CDMA concept:
– 4.096 Mcps Direct Sequence CDMA
– Variable spreading and multicode operation
– Coherent in both up-and downlink

= Codes with different spreading,

giving 8-500 kbps
....
P
f

4.4-5 MHz
t
High rate
multicode user
Variable rate users 10 ms frame

8C32810.138ppt-Cimini-7/98
 Exercise
Exercise 22

. Use Nyquist's Theorem to determine the maximum rate in bits per second at which data
can be send across a transmission system that has a bandwidth of 4000 Hz and use four
values of voltage to encode information. What's the maximum rate when encoding the
information with 16 values of voltage?

. Is it possible to increase a number of the encoded values without limit in order to increase
transmission speed of system? Why? Assume a bandwidth of a system is 4000 Hz and
a signal-to-noise ratio S/N=1023, What's the maximum rate of the system?

. (True/false) A digital modulator using ASK, PSK or QAM is a digital-to-digital system.

. (1) If the bit rate of 4-PSK signal is 2400bps, what’s its baud rate?
(2) If the baud rate of 256-QAM is 2400 baud, what’s its bit rate?

. The bite rate of one digital telephone channel is 64Kbps. If a single mode optical fiber
can transmit at 2 Gbps, how many telephone channel can be multiplexed to the fiber.
Assume TDM is used.