Irrigation in Uttarakhand
Irrigation in Uttarakhand
Irrigation in Uttarakhand
r
TRADITIONAL HYDRAULIC TECHNOLOGY
la
5.1. TRADITIONAL WATER MANAGEMENT OF UTTARAKHAND
te
5.2. CONCLUSION
155
regions. The detailed account of the traditional water management in
the .region is as follows:
The Himalayas are called the water towers of India. Through the
hoary and sacred rivers of the Ganga and its tributaries Uttarakhand is
r
closely related with the Ganga valley: physically through the mighty
la
streams which made life and civilization possible in the Ganga Valley
and through myth, legends and culture in which the Ganga binds
together Uttarakhand and the plains of north India. Even the legendary
Pandavas ascended to the Himalayas towards their last years. The
te
pilgrim centres are dotted all over the banks of the Ganga and its
tributaries from Badrinath to Hardwar which create not only a water
stream but also a cultural stream that links the Central Himalayas with
plains of the north. These pilgrimage centres – spread from Amarnath
Es
156
communication and exchange of cultures, languages, rituals,
knowledge and technology between the Central Himalayan region and
the rest of the country. Thus Uttarakhand transmitted its reverence for
water and for the Ganga and its sisters as well as the technology of
keeping the water pure and harvesting it for the people at large.
r
Though Uttarakhand had two monsoons and plenty of water came
down through rain and snow, its steep terrain and millions of tons of
la
pine needles accelerated the run off. Yet, the hill people devised
ingenious ways to harvest rain water and created inviolable
conventions to maintain its purity.
te
In this chapter we will describe the story of water in Uttarakhand and
how it was collected, used, preserved as a sacred substance. The
Es
Ganga is the most vital link which relates the Himalayan land with the
northern plains – physically through the waters of the Ganga and her
sisters and culturally through innumerable myths and legends that tie
Uttarakhand with the rest of the northern plains which gave rise to the
mighty civilizations of the Ganga valley in the first millennium BCE.
Perhaps more important is the awe and reverence with which the
Ganga is treated by the hill people.
r
Ganga, the Yamuna etc. and also considered them as their mother.
la
According to the rituals water is worshiped in Uttarakhand since long.
There are still many Naulas - a traditional source of water in certain
parts of Uttarakhand - which have idols of various deities like the Sun,
the Moon, the Earth, the Vayu (Wind), Vishnu, Ganesh etc., which are
te
also being worshiped since olden times. The main motive of keeping
idols of gods and goddesses in the naulas, is to preserve water from
pollution created through anthropogenic activities. For example, a
Es
Water has thus been stated to be a deity. Such descriptions are found
in several religious treatises. Lord Krishna says, in Srimad
Bhagvadgita, “Water is my home”. This is stated by Lord Krishna as
he himself is a manifestation of Lord Vishnu.
r
la
At first, people used to obtain water from natural resources but when
demand for water increased with the increase in population, the
existing natural water sources fell short to fulfill their day to day
te
demand. People, therefore, started digging little holes on the land
called (chuptauls) for obtaining fresh water. As their experience and
knowledge increased, people started digging open naulas, then naulas
with shelters and later naulas with stairs. Lord Vishnu was
Es
r
glaciers, lakes, rain water and streams of all dimensions are the main
la
sources of surface water in the state. These water resources have
played a significant and dominant role in the development of the
cultural, socio-economical and environment related activities of this
region. Common water wealth of Uttarakhand is as follows:
te
Table 5.1
Common Water wealth in Uttarakhand and its use
Es
160
4 Rainfall Dyo Rainwater harvesting and
assortment
r
Tal
la
Traditional water collecting systems in Uttarakhand comprise a
variety of community control methods. Their assortments started from
te
the differences in the local circumstances. Many of these plans were
initially made by local leaders, dynasties and kings or by the
prosperous people of the society. They displayed a diversity of
technologies and minimal state intervention in water rights or
Es
r
the monsoon season.
la
5.1.1.1. Naula
te
Naulas are the most important hydraulic structures, which are unique
and commonly found in some particular parts of the Kumaon region.
Since ancient times, water from these Naulas is used primarily for
drinking purpose. Naulas are mostly found in the middle Himalayan
Es
162
geographical appearance and shallow depth of ground water level are
responsible for the existence of springs in the mountainous region.
These springs are regenerated by the percolation of surface water
through the soil.
r
Some naulas are large and have undecorated structures with rooms
having a provision for bathing and washing of clothes in its vicinity.
la
These naulas are considered to have been built by the local rulers,
carpenters, masons, and Muslim workers. Chand rulers also invited
workers from Manihar, Rajasthan, Orissa and other parts of the
te
country for the construction of naulas.
“Once a site has been identified, a pit is excavated gently so that the
water source is not disturbed. A dry stone masonry wall is built across
the direction of flow of water. A backfill of pieces of stone, gravel or
other coarse material is placed behind this wall. Stone masonry walls
in mud mortar constitute the other three walls of the tank. To ensure
that water does not seep through the three outer sides of the tank,
these are built as double walls, i.e. two walls with an intervening
space. This space is filled with a clay puddle. A raised platform is
163
made on one side underneath which a narrow drain is provided to lead
excess flow away from the naula. This structure is built entirely
underground and is shaped as an inverted pyramid. Since water from a
naula is used generally for domestic consumption, it is invariably
provided with a roof” (from Ravi Chopara 2003).
r
In this region some naulas are decorated with different types of
natural scenes and/or idols while others are undecorated, simple or
la
less decorated. Perhaps the water of these decorated naulas was used
by the royal families or the people of high position. And undecorated
naulas were used by villagers, general public and communities.
te
Perhaps, such naulas were used only for collecting water. These
naulas are found abundantly in the Kumaun region.
Es
r
Yogeshwar in Pithoragarh, naula of Majpipal and naula of Dungra
la
Kaki in Champawat are some of the naulas with shilapadd (stone
steps ladder). Kumaun was ruled for many centuries by various local
dynasties such as Katyuris, Chands and Pals. Many naulas were
constructed by them for the convenience of the general public like the
te
Syunara kot ka naula, the Ekhatiya naula of Champawat (according to
local legend a one handed sculptor made the naula from a single
rock), naulas of Paran, Ghot, Baleshwer, Janhawi naula of
Es
In Nasiar naula of Almora district water flows out of two streams. Out
of these two streams, one represents the male and other one the female
165
deity. A naula in Dwarahat (Almora) is made in the shape of a
circular well, locally known as Kuan naula, which is fulfilling the
demand of pure drinking water of its consumers. Mallihat naula is
also found below a road passing through a village, near Dwarahat. In
Champawat district, Karankarait ka naula is found constructed
underneath a terraced agricultural field and its roof is propped up by
two sculpted stone pillars. A six domed naula in Suraikhet is located
r
on the border of the Kumaun and the Garhwal regions.
la
It is believed that about 365 naulas were found in Almora district
only which were constructed by the Chand kings. Some of them have
dried up, whereas others are in a dilapidated condition. Recently, two
te
naulas have been discovered in Almora district, one near Badreshwar
temple, below the Dharamshala, while the other in Tilakpur, behind
the Gurudwara. I also found naula buried in Baijnath ( 5.3). These
naulas are not only excellent examples of water management but also
Es
166
constructed in the 14th-15th century. Mantande naula (built by Raja
Gyan Chand and Sonpal in 1402 CE), Patan naula and Bagauli naula
(built by Raja Vikram Chand in 1452 CE), Hat naula of Tharkot,
naula of Raja Narchand, Pungeshwar naula of Berinag are some other
important ancient naulas of this region. It is said that Pandeshwar
naula was renovated by King Udyot Chandra in 1569 CE.
r
Many inscriptions about these naulas have been found in surveys.
la
According to Dr. Chandra Singh Chauhan, the naula of Baleshwar is
the oldest of all and the Janhawi naula of Gangolihat is the next in
age. Pungeshwar naula of Pithoragarh district is the largest naula of
te
the Kumaun region of Uttarakhand. There is An individual naula at
Baijnath the owner of this naula is mr. Padam Singh Negi ( Fig: 5.4)
Many naulas were also built by different rulers along the major
pilgrimage routes for travellers.
Es
5.1.1.2. Dhara
167
one of the most beautiful structures and is ubiquitous in the
Uttarakhand region. There are also some wellknown dharas in
Devalthal, Berinag, Chopata, Thal, Naini, Jainti, Tharkot, Tehri
Garhwal, Pauri Garhwal, Dwarahat, Garampani , etc. there is a dhara
of Katuryies time still in use at Baijnath which is known as Katyuri
Dhara (Fig: 5.5). A major part of the drinking water requirement is
still met through cthese age old devices. Sipahi dhara and Parda
r
dahara of Nainital serve quite a large population. In the Ganga and the
la
Yamuna dharas of Gupt Kashi water is routed through the mouths of
beautifully moulded brass heads of cows and elephants. It is believed
that these Dharas were constructed in the 16th century. Prahlad,
Kurma, Bhrigu, Urvashi & Indira dharas are the five famous dharas of
te
Badrinath and are locally known as the Panch Dharas. The most
outstanding of these is the Indira dhara, which is 1.5 km to the north
of the town Badaripuri. In ancient times Bhrigudhara flowed through
Es
Ravi Chopra (Chopra 2003: Pp. 1-15.) has described three types of
Dharas in his book, Himalayan Jal Sanskriti, as follows:
r
la
“There are three types of dharas, depending on their height above the
ground. If one can drink from a dhara while standing straight, it is
called a sirpatia dhara. These dharas are sometimes decorated with
te
facemasks of animals and cows, lions, elephants, snakes or crocodiles.
If one has to bend over to drink from one‟s hand or to fill a container
to drink from the dhara, then it is called a mudpatia dhara. These
Es
Some dharas are still in use but most of them have dried up.
Deforestation, environmental disorders and ecological activities are
responsible for the destruction of these natural water resources. Many
dharas have dried up in the Garhwal region as a consequence of
169
earthquakes and landslides. Amni-ka-dhara in Tehri Garhwal district
dried up after the Uttarkashi earthquake of 1991. An ancient dhara
found along the main road of Pauri Garrhwal, has now vanished. This
dhara too was used as a source of drinking water and also for
irrigation as it provided water for ghuls and canals. An ancient dhara
of Patal Bhuwaneshwar has also dried up (fig: 5.6). These dharas are
also used for various other proposes, e.g. the Bhotia peoples use the
r
water of these dharas to for cleaning the wool.
la
5.1.1.3. Ghuls
te
In ancient times the problem of irrigation was solved by diverting the
water of streams and rivers through channels to agricultural fields.
These channels served as viable options for water management in this
region; the small barriers, known as baan in local parlance and
Es
170
Irrigation canals are of different dimensions. The channel, which is
smaller than that of kul, is known as baul. A stone is put at the
opening for controlling the running water. An opening is made at the
lower side of the land, which helps in the flow of the extra water
towards the lower terraces from where it finally returns into the
channels. Some times the running water of ghuls is blocked by a stone
or solid rock. In such a case the peeled bark of a banana tree is used as
r
a water conveyer or the water is canalized all the way through a pipe
la
(wooden pipe). Ghuls can simply be dug by hand and plastered with
cement. Some ghuls cater to more than one village, if they are long
enough.
te
5.1.1.4. Gharats
The word Gharat has been taken from „Ghat‟ of the Kumauni dialect
and „Ghatt‟ of Sanskrit Language. Gharats are the traditional mills,
Es
run by water which have been used in this region since a very long
time and are made on the banks of rivers and near other water sources.
gharats are mainly used for grinding wheat and many other grains
such as maize, ragi etc .Chakki, doka and firki are some main pars of
Gharat (Fig: 5.7). Most of the civilizations had settled near the banks
of rivers. Stone tools were made by people at that time not only for
hunting but also for other purposes. The people had started making
small huts with stone and wood. The Ganga Valley Civilisation
started between 700 and 800 BCE. Wheat and barley were cultivated
at that time with gram and peas. This shows that cultivation was quite
developed at that time. Probably the silbatta was used as the first
171
grinding device. The hand mill and wind mills might have followed
suit. In Uttarakhand, silbattas have been found. Subsequently big
gharats might have been constructed. These gharats have been found
in Chamoli, Champawat etc. In Kafara village of Almora district, a
gharat which was in use nearly 40 years ago exists to date. In the
Garhwal region, gharats or water mills are fulfilling the grinding
requirement of the remote isolated rural communities. In ancient times
r
kings used to donate gharats, temples and lands to priests and other
la
local people. Old copper inscriptions provide information about the
daan (charity) of kings. Descriptions of daan are also found in the
copper inscriptions of Pandukeshwar.
te
According to Chandra Singh Chauhan description of ghat daan has
been found in nearly 48 copper inscriptions. There were near about
60,000 gharats found in this region. About 5000 gharats still survive
Es
Table 5.2
District wise distribution of gharats
2. Udhamsingh Nagar 99 7
172
3. Uttarkashi 1235 694
r
8. Pithoragarh 1134 494
9.
10.
Pauri Garhwl
Bageshwar
la 888
1433
10
759
te
11. Rudraprayag 503 98
All the records were taken from the Zila Panchayat Office in 1998 by
Drs. Chandra Singh Chauhan and Harish Singh Nayal.
r
Glaciers cover about 33,000 sq km area of this region, thus
appropriately called the “Water Tower of Asia”. The Geological
la
Survey of India reports that there are around 6,500 glaciers in this
region. It provides about 86,000,000 cubic m. of water per year. For
example, the four sub-basins of the Ganga, Yamuna, Bhagirathi and
te
Alaknanda jointly constitute nearly 900 glaciers in the state of
Uttarakhand. Some famous glaciers of this region are listed below:
Es
Table 5.3
Some Famous Glaciers of Uttarakhand Region (From Internet)
Sl. Name of District
No. Glacier
174
2. Kafni Glacier Bageshwar
5. Sunderdhunga Bageshwar
r
7. Nabhik Glacier Pithoragarh
8.
9.
la Ralam Glacier
Doriyani Glacier
Pithoragarh
Uttarkashi
te
10. Choura Bari Rudraprayag
Glacier
175
rivers flowing in this state, the water of which has been utilized for
irrigation and many other purposes by the people of this region.
Various rivers and their streams flow through this state. These are
termed Gaadh in the local dialect. Some main rivers of Uttarakhand
are as follows:
Table 5.4
Some main rivers of Uttarakhand (From Internet)
r
Name Drainage area
of the
river
Bhagira
thi river
la From Gaumukh to Devprayag
te
Tons From Her Ki Dun to Daak
Pathar
Saryu From Bhadra Tunga to
Panchewasher
Kosi From Kausani to Sultanpur
Es
r
ani
Lohawa
ti
Alakhna
nda
la From Abbar mount to Kali
Satopanth to Devprayag
te
Gori From Milam Himrali to Joulgivi
Kuti From Lapayan Dhura to Kali
Ladhiya From Thali to Chuka
Es
r
60,000 sons of King Sagar, found the horse at Kapil Muni‟s Ashram
la
they got angry and attacked the hermitage. At that time the Muni was
in meditation and by getting disturbed he opened his eyes in rage and
as a consequence of which all the sons of king Sagar were reduced to
ash, except prince Asamanjas. Anshuman, the grand son of King
te
Sagar, carried the horse back and asked for his forgiveness. Kapil
Muni demanded that if the Ganga could be brought down from the
heavens to the earth, the sons of the king could be brought back to
life”. Anshuman and his son Dilip were not successful in this job but
Es
r
It is the principal tributary of the Ramganga, a prominent river of
la
Kumaun. It flows along in the Lesser Himalaya and Shivaliks and
ultimately disappears in Bhabhar near Ramnagar in Nainital district.
The Suyal is the main tributary of the river Kosi which joins it at
te
Kwarab flowing through the eastern part of Almora district. The main
tributaries joining it upto Kwarab are: the Bhutagaon Gad, Dhoni Gad
or Sumari Gad, Sim Gad, Nana Kosi, Patia and Ron Gad, Shail-
Jamthara Gad.
Es
Not only many rivers but also many lakes are found in this region. As
most of the lakes (tals) of this hilly region are in Kumaun, it is known
as the region of Tals. Some famous lakes of this region are as follows:
Naini Tal- the length of this lake is 1465 m, breadth 455 m and the
average depth 25 m. According to a legend this lake was formed
where one of the green eyes of Goddess Parvati fell, after Vishnu slit
up her dead body and spread it all over the land to stop Shiva‟s cosmic
dance of destruction.
179
Bhim Tal -is one of the largest lakes of Kumaun. This lake has a
legendary association with Bhima of Mahabharata. The length of the
lake is 1674m, breadth 427m and the average depth 30 m.
r
Khurpa Tal- The shape of this tal is like a khur (hoof) of an animal,
hence the name.
la
Sukha Tal – The name literally means dry; the lake usually remains
dry but gets filled after the rains )
te
Naukuchia Tal - This is the deepest lake of Uttarakhand. The length of
the lake is 1004 m, breadth 750 m and depth 45 m.
Bani Tal- This lake is situated on the hill of Aadi Badri (In Chamoli).
r
Dodi Tal- This lake is located between Pachan Village of Dhanari
la
and an old Village (in Tehri)
r
hydropower projects are being run by private companies due to which
la
many people will lose their lands, gharats, homes and animals. In
Uttarkashi district alone, private companies have been allotted ten
small scale hydroelectric projects, which are expected to provide
nearly 23 MW of electricity. Dams are also being built on the Yamuna
te
River which will adversely affect it. Water level of four main rivers
(the Ganga, Bhagirathi, Tons & Yamuna) of this region has fallen
down considerably. The main rivers of Kumaun (viz. the Gomati,
Es
Gaula, Ramganga, Panar, Gagas and Kosi etc.), which are surrounded
by dense forests, have also come under threat. According to a recent
investigation, it has been found that the water level of the river Kosi
has considerably fallen down and the pollution has also severely
affected it. This is true for many other rivers of Uttarakhand as well.
According to Dr. J.S. Rawat the water discharge of the river Kosi is
reducing per year by 50 liters because of poor rains.
Natural springs are also drying up due to this very reason. He also
says that if no effective plan is made soon enough, the river Kosi
could completely dry up within the next 12 years because its four
182
contributing rivers have already dried up and almost 13 perennial
watercourses of the river system have been converted into seasonal
streams. The water flow of river Kosi has been given by Dr. J. S.
Rawat as follows:
Table 5.5
r
Water Flow of river Kosi
Flow of the river Year
790 liter
440 liter
995 liter la 1992
1993
1994
te
780 liter 1995
530 liter 1996
430 liter 1997
Es
Not only water streams but also some lakes like naini lake (Nainital)
are drying up. The water label of naini Lake is being reducing
183
continuously for the last few years, on account of increasing
population, adverse weather conditions and lack of rain water. The per
year water reducing level of Naini lake is as follows:
Table 5.6
r
Per year water reducing level of Naini lake
(Hindustan, 3 April 2011)
Year
la Water level
ft.(1st April)
in
te
2003 8.70
2004 4.90
2005 7.30
Es
2006 5.80
2007 6.51
2008 6.40
2009 5.44
2010 4.75
2011 3.15
184
Water scarcity has increased due to the distressing condition of rivers.
It seems that in future these rivers will completely cease to exist.
Water resources of the Garhwal region have started drying due to the
erroneous planning of the Government. These water resources are
vanishing day by day, thereby increasing the scarcity of water.
Reckless felling of broad leaved trees and priority of plantation of
pine trees are two main reasons. Broad leaved plants should be
r
planted to increase the water level. The Government should also take
la
some effective steps for the conservation of water resources.
The Kumaun and Garhwal Water Act 1975 and the U.P. Water Supply
te
and Sewerage Act 1975 are the only two acts in operation in
Uttarakhand, regarding the retention, collection and distribution of
water. Streams, natural channels, natural lakes, ponds and rain water
are the sources of water here. Kumaun and Garhwal Water Act define
Es
185
U.P. Kshetra Panchayat and Zila Panchayats Act, 1961
r
U.P. Minor Minerals Concession Rules, 1963
la
Indian Easements Act, 1882 U.P.
of water in future and rain water will be the only cost effective
alternative. We should conduct public awareness programmes in
every village of this region. Rain water harvesting is very necessary
for increasing ground water table and municipalities should make it
mandatory that construction of a new house would be sanctioned only
if appropriate provision for rain water harvesting is made. We can
store rain water by constructing kachha small ponds and planting
broad leaved species of trees etc. In my opinion pine trees should be
replaced with oak trees. By this I don‟t mean deforestation because
pine trees are found in abundance in this region. The needles of pine
trees spread toxicity in the soil due to which vegetation growth in its
186
vicinity is hindered. These trees contain inflammable resin and tons of
pine needles play the main role in the spread of devastating forest
fires. On the other hand, Oak trees are hydrophilic and help in
retaining the humidity in the soil. They thus help in maintaining
ground water table by absorbing water in their expanded root systems
and leaf litter. So we should plant oak trees around natural water
resources, which would be helpful in recharging the aquifers.
r
According to a local legend, once upon a time, Nanda, the most
popular goddess, was coming to her mother‟s home. To make it to her
la
mother‟s home she had to cross difficult paths, mountains and rivers.
One day when Nanda got tired she stopped under the pine tree to take
rest. She asked the pine if he could tell her the distance of her
te
mother‟s home from there but the pine tree answered her rudely that
he didn‟t care the least about her mother‟s home. On getting this rude
response, Nanda cursed the pine tree that no plants would sprout
Es
under its canopy, no animal would eat leaves and no bird would nest
in it and no bee would like to make a hive on it. Nanda then stopped
under the Oak (Banj) tree and Oak welcomed Nanda and asked her to
consider its canopy itself as her mother‟s home. On hearing this
affectionate answer Nanda got delighted and blessed the Oak tree that
many plants would sprout under its canopy and birds and bees would
love to live in it and that there will be plenty of water in its vicinity.
r
water resources. Digging tube wells and installing hand pumps for
la
fulfilling water requirements in large numbers will prove dangerous in
future for our coming generations because after some decades natural
water resources will dry up and disappear from this region,
te
consequently hand pumps and tube wells would also dry up due to
lack of water. According to J.S.Rawat, (a well known hydrologist)
these hand pumps are a curse for the hill areas, as in the absence of
sufficient water, they extract water from deep below the earth‟s
Es
188
which can be lifted to over head tanks with solar water pumps. This
water can be used even for drinking purposes after filtration through
sand filters.
r
on the saddles between two peaks, which are used for collecting rain
water. The unexploited land was converted into khal like formations
la
by ancient communities; they dug them up and made stone masonry
walls around them. “That such khaals were widely known may be
surmised from the abundance of place names suffixed with the word
te
khaal as Agrakhaal, Paurikhaal, Dwarikhaal, Jharikhaal,
Pandwakhaal, Ghingarikhaal and so on. Such khaals are common in
the Garhwal region due to high frequency of pilgrimages; they have
now developed into sprawling townships. H.G. Walton (Gazetteer on
Es
Small ponds are also utilized for collecting rainwater. Smaller ponds
are commonly known as tallias in the local language. Khals can
collect much quantity of water which is used for irrigation and other
proposes. In Pauri Garhwal district alone 70 khals have been recorded.
These ponds are generally utilized for animals and rarely for human
189
use. Wild animals and birds also depend on these structures.
Chuptaulas and simars are other natural rainwater harvesting
configurations of this hilly region. These hole-like formations are also
used by animals and occasionally by human beings. These save water
from springs or water coming out of the earth. “Simars, on the other
hand, are natural features - a sort of quicksand that is found in
agricultural fields in this region. High quality crops like basmati rice
r
are sometimes grown in simars. Some medicinal plants and herbs are
also grown in them” (Chopra 2007: 35).
5.2. CONCLUSION
la
The vital importance of these traditional water resources will remain
te
forever in our social and cultural life. We are now realizing the
potential of the technological capability of our ancestors. So the time
has come when we must look back into the traditions of our past and
learn to restore our relationships with nature and all forms of life. We
Es
190