Irrigation in Uttarakhand

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CHAPTER-5

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TRADITIONAL HYDRAULIC TECHNOLOGY

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5.1. TRADITIONAL WATER MANAGEMENT OF UTTARAKHAND
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5.2. CONCLUSION

Over the centuries Uttarakhand has developed its own hydraulic


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technology, which is quite unique in its usefulness. The ancient people


of this region evolved the hydraulic technology taking into
consideration all the necessary factors which suit the environment of
the region. The people were well aware of the importance of water;
they treated water sources as sacred and many rituals were and are
still performed at the very sources of water. They believed in
sustainable use of water and thereby efficiently managed it. Some
places in Kumaun region are known for its traditional water sources;
although they are diminishing fast but they have their great relevance
even today. Besides, other technologies evolved in Uttarakhand, its
hydraulic technology is also the outcome of its interaction with other

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regions. The detailed account of the traditional water management in
the .region is as follows:

5.1.TRADITIONAL WATER MANAGEMENT OF


UTTARAKHAND

The Himalayas are called the water towers of India. Through the
hoary and sacred rivers of the Ganga and its tributaries Uttarakhand is

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closely related with the Ganga valley: physically through the mighty

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streams which made life and civilization possible in the Ganga Valley
and through myth, legends and culture in which the Ganga binds
together Uttarakhand and the plains of north India. Even the legendary
Pandavas ascended to the Himalayas towards their last years. The
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pilgrim centres are dotted all over the banks of the Ganga and its
tributaries from Badrinath to Hardwar which create not only a water
stream but also a cultural stream that links the Central Himalayas with
plains of the north. These pilgrimage centres – spread from Amarnath
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in Kashmir, Badrinath in Garhwal, Puri in the east, Dwarka in the


west, to the southernmost tip of the continent - weave India into a
common cultural mosaic. Even the priest of Badrinath hails from
Kerala. Uttarakhand worshipped the Ganga and all her sisters and
maintained their purity. In course of time, the sacred river gradually
became a dumping ground of all the muck and was polluted badly in
the northern plains. Despite the myth of the obstacles of Himalayan
mountains, the people from all over the country came in continuous
streams to the pilgrim centres like Badrinath, Kedarnath, Jageshwar,
Gopeshwar, Baijnath, Bageshwar etc. thus providing a constant line of

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communication and exchange of cultures, languages, rituals,
knowledge and technology between the Central Himalayan region and
the rest of the country. Thus Uttarakhand transmitted its reverence for
water and for the Ganga and its sisters as well as the technology of
keeping the water pure and harvesting it for the people at large.

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Though Uttarakhand had two monsoons and plenty of water came
down through rain and snow, its steep terrain and millions of tons of

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pine needles accelerated the run off. Yet, the hill people devised
ingenious ways to harvest rain water and created inviolable
conventions to maintain its purity.
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In this chapter we will describe the story of water in Uttarakhand and
how it was collected, used, preserved as a sacred substance. The
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Ganga is the most vital link which relates the Himalayan land with the
northern plains – physically through the waters of the Ganga and her
sisters and culturally through innumerable myths and legends that tie
Uttarakhand with the rest of the northern plains which gave rise to the
mighty civilizations of the Ganga valley in the first millennium BCE.
Perhaps more important is the awe and reverence with which the
Ganga is treated by the hill people.

Food, shelter and clothes are considered to be the primary


requirements for survival of human being but life is not possible
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without water. Water is an integral part and also the most important
and fundamental natural resource, on the earth, playing a very central
role in our lives. Early people used to settle down near natural water
resources. Almost all the ancient cultures or civilizations (Indus,
Egyptian etc.) of the world developed near water resources or by the
shores of great rivers. Early people were totally dependent upon
nature. They used to worship rivers and other water resources like the

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Ganga, the Yamuna etc. and also considered them as their mother.

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According to the rituals water is worshiped in Uttarakhand since long.
There are still many Naulas - a traditional source of water in certain
parts of Uttarakhand - which have idols of various deities like the Sun,
the Moon, the Earth, the Vayu (Wind), Vishnu, Ganesh etc., which are
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also being worshiped since olden times. The main motive of keeping
idols of gods and goddesses in the naulas, is to preserve water from
pollution created through anthropogenic activities. For example, a
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stone sculpture of Lord Ganesha adorns the entrance of the Joshiyara


naula of Almora district. In Uttarakhand region water is considered
sacred. When the bride first enters the home of her in-laws/husband
(sasural), it is mandatory for her to go and perform at a nearby water
resource like, a spring, a naula, a stream etc. This traditional
procedure might have been adopted by the locals because they
probably thought that worshipping a living water resource would
bring the same continuity in their lives just like water which even
after crossing so many obstacles, keeps on flowing constantly. Water
is not only the basic need for human-life but also for any living being.
Water is used for various purposes. When a person pours water on
his/her body while taking a bath she/he chants the following Mantra:
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“Ganga Cha Yamuna Cha Godawari , Suraswati,

Narmade, Sindhu, Kaveri Jalwamin Sanndhim Kuru”

Water has thus been stated to be a deity. Such descriptions are found
in several religious treatises. Lord Krishna says, in Srimad
Bhagvadgita, “Water is my home”. This is stated by Lord Krishna as
he himself is a manifestation of Lord Vishnu.

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At first, people used to obtain water from natural resources but when
demand for water increased with the increase in population, the
existing natural water sources fell short to fulfill their day to day
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demand. People, therefore, started digging little holes on the land
called (chuptauls) for obtaining fresh water. As their experience and
knowledge increased, people started digging open naulas, then naulas
with shelters and later naulas with stairs. Lord Vishnu was
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worshipped, whenever, naulas were built and when the construction of


a naula was completed the idol of a deity was established there. These
naulas were in the shape of a small chamber and were constructed
below ground level. The place, from where water oozed out of the
earth and got collected in a small pond, is locally called a Kund. The
kund remains covered with a rectangular roof. The entrance door and
a verandah were constructed in front of the naula. Some naulas were
built with nine steps and are still extant, particularly in the Chaukhutia
area of this state. They meet the day to day drinking water needs of
the locals. This type of naula is also found at Maneshwer Mahadev
in the Champawat area of this state.
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5.1.1. Traditional water resources of Uttarakhand

Uttarakhand has a glorious tradition of water harvesting and a number


of natural water resources are also found here. The traditional
structures of water management are similar in the mountainous areas
of the Kumaun and Garhwal of Uttarakhand. Mostly channels, rivers,

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glaciers, lakes, rain water and streams of all dimensions are the main

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sources of surface water in the state. These water resources have
played a significant and dominant role in the development of the
cultural, socio-economical and environment related activities of this
region. Common water wealth of Uttarakhand is as follows:
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Table 5.1
Common Water wealth in Uttarakhand and its use
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Sl. Source Local Use


No. Name

1 Stream Gadhera Drinking, Domestic, Animals,


Irrigation

2 Natural Srot Drinking , irrigation


water (Naulas),
resources Dharas
etc.)

3 Waterfall Ghuls For Irrigation

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4 Rainfall Dyo Rainwater harvesting and
assortment

5 River Gad Drinking, Domestic, Animals,


Irrigation, Waterpower

6 Ponds Pokhar or For Animals


and lakes Khal and

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Tal

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Traditional water collecting systems in Uttarakhand comprise a
variety of community control methods. Their assortments started from
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the differences in the local circumstances. Many of these plans were
initially made by local leaders, dynasties and kings or by the
prosperous people of the society. They displayed a diversity of
technologies and minimal state intervention in water rights or
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management. Sometimes, these systems failed to ensure social justice


in water use. About 49 water springs exist in Almora district, out of
which, around 18 have almost dried up due to the low ground water
table. All natural water systems affect the locals as well as the
environment, as the region is mainly rural and most of the local
population is dependent on traditional water sources for domestic and
other uses. Some decades ago, Naulas, Dharas, Ghuls and other
structures were usually treated as a common property. These resources
were mostly owned, used and maintained by the local communities.
Such water harvesting was practised in the state from ancient times.
The variety of water harvesting structures arose from the ecological
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and geological diversities of the region. Naulas are usually found in
the Kumaun region of Uttarakhand. Large portions of the Patal Devi
area and the Shail village, near Almora (Bageshwar motor road,
between Dhar Ki Tuni and Ghaneli Dhar) have no permanent water
source. However, two springs are found at Shail (Sunarakhola) and
near Kalimat jungle Chauki, and, therefore, there is scarcity of
drinking water in village Shail and Patal Devi area, except during

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the monsoon season.

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5.1.1.1. Naula
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Naulas are the most important hydraulic structures, which are unique
and commonly found in some particular parts of the Kumaon region.
Since ancient times, water from these Naulas is used primarily for
drinking purpose. Naulas are mostly found in the middle Himalayan
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region of Kumaun. Naulas were generally constructed in every village


of this region according to population, availability of water resources
and its environmental conditions.

Naula is the most imperative source of natural seepage of drinking


water; it is normally in a four-sided (rectangle or square) shape with
stairs on all the sides (Fig: 5.3). This is commonly covered by stone
slates and a wall is raised along its three sides (Fig: 5.2). The Naulas
are designed to collect water from the underground seepage and are
used by the local population for fulfilling their everyday needs. The

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geographical appearance and shallow depth of ground water level are
responsible for the existence of springs in the mountainous region.
These springs are regenerated by the percolation of surface water
through the soil.

This structure is equivalent to the bawari of Himanchal Pradesh.

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Some naulas are large and have undecorated structures with rooms
having a provision for bathing and washing of clothes in its vicinity.

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These naulas are considered to have been built by the local rulers,
carpenters, masons, and Muslim workers. Chand rulers also invited
workers from Manihar, Rajasthan, Orissa and other parts of the
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country for the construction of naulas.

The construction of a naula is described by U.C. Pande (a retired


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Engineer from State Irrigation Department) as follows:

“Once a site has been identified, a pit is excavated gently so that the
water source is not disturbed. A dry stone masonry wall is built across
the direction of flow of water. A backfill of pieces of stone, gravel or
other coarse material is placed behind this wall. Stone masonry walls
in mud mortar constitute the other three walls of the tank. To ensure
that water does not seep through the three outer sides of the tank,
these are built as double walls, i.e. two walls with an intervening
space. This space is filled with a clay puddle. A raised platform is
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made on one side underneath which a narrow drain is provided to lead
excess flow away from the naula. This structure is built entirely
underground and is shaped as an inverted pyramid. Since water from a
naula is used generally for domestic consumption, it is invariably
provided with a roof” (from Ravi Chopara 2003).

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In this region some naulas are decorated with different types of
natural scenes and/or idols while others are undecorated, simple or

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less decorated. Perhaps the water of these decorated naulas was used
by the royal families or the people of high position. And undecorated
naulas were used by villagers, general public and communities.
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Perhaps, such naulas were used only for collecting water. These
naulas are found abundantly in the Kumaun region.
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Naulas are a traditional source of water mostly in the rural areas.


They are used to fulfill the demand of clean drinking water. These
water springs are the wonders of the traditional hydraulic technology.
According to Upadhayay and Bisht (Upadhayay and Bisht 2001),
naulas definitely used to be public property. There were no detailed
policies of administration. Villagers traditionally respected their
naulas and the rituals observed in constructing them resembled those
practised in constructing temples. The Naula water was often used
with therapeutically important plants such as amla, and neem
(Agrawal and Narain in Ravi Chopara 1997: 36). Naulas of pre-
medieval period to 18th century have been found in this region. We get
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information about these naulas from ancient inscriptions but because
of lack of proper evidence, they have not been properly identified. In
ancient times, kings also got naulas constructed. Many ruined naulas
were renovated by them also. These naulas are found in Almora,
Pithoragarh, Gangolihat, Baleshwar, Dwarahat etc. in Uttarakhand
region. Jhakarsem Naula of Almora, Paran naula of Champawat,
Therp Naula, Naula of Haththarp, naula of Kharakwal, naula of

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Yogeshwar in Pithoragarh, naula of Majpipal and naula of Dungra

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Kaki in Champawat are some of the naulas with shilapadd (stone
steps ladder). Kumaun was ruled for many centuries by various local
dynasties such as Katyuris, Chands and Pals. Many naulas were
constructed by them for the convenience of the general public like the
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Syunara kot ka naula, the Ekhatiya naula of Champawat (according to
local legend a one handed sculptor made the naula from a single
rock), naulas of Paran, Ghot, Baleshwer, Janhawi naula of
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Pithoragarh, are some of them. Some of the naulas like Baleshwar


naula and Ek-Hatiya naula are famous for their architectural
magnificence and the Baleshwar naula is the only one with an image
of Lord Buddha. Janhawi and Baleshwar naulas belong to the 13 th
century and Badrinath–Ji-Ka naula (Bageshwar District, Uttarakhand)
dates back to the 7th century. The technology used in naulas is very
old and numerous naulas are still in use. These are symbols of the
sustainable technology.

In Nasiar naula of Almora district water flows out of two streams. Out
of these two streams, one represents the male and other one the female
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deity. A naula in Dwarahat (Almora) is made in the shape of a
circular well, locally known as Kuan naula, which is fulfilling the
demand of pure drinking water of its consumers. Mallihat naula is
also found below a road passing through a village, near Dwarahat. In
Champawat district, Karankarait ka naula is found constructed
underneath a terraced agricultural field and its roof is propped up by
two sculpted stone pillars. A six domed naula in Suraikhet is located

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on the border of the Kumaun and the Garhwal regions.

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It is believed that about 365 naulas were found in Almora district
only which were constructed by the Chand kings. Some of them have
dried up, whereas others are in a dilapidated condition. Recently, two
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naulas have been discovered in Almora district, one near Badreshwar
temple, below the Dharamshala, while the other in Tilakpur, behind
the Gurudwara. I also found naula buried in Baijnath ( 5.3). These
naulas are not only excellent examples of water management but also
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of the traditional architecture. The naulas bear inscriptions; one such


inscription is on the rear wall of the garbh-graha (sanctum-
sanctorum) of the Baleshwar naula. This inscription is difficult to
read. However, one word, identified as Kumm Chand, suggests its
existence since the period of Kumb or Kumm Chand (from 1121 to
1140 A,D.). There are some other naulas, with inscriptions on rocks.
Janhawi naula (1263 CE) of Gangolihat in Pithoragarh district is
datable to the 13th century; its construction started in the year 1269
and completed in 12 years. It was commissioned by Raja Chandra
Dev near the Kali temple for the worshipers. After this the Suryakot
Naula in Almora and Partan Ka Naula in Gangolihaat were

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constructed in the 14th-15th century. Mantande naula (built by Raja
Gyan Chand and Sonpal in 1402 CE), Patan naula and Bagauli naula
(built by Raja Vikram Chand in 1452 CE), Hat naula of Tharkot,
naula of Raja Narchand, Pungeshwar naula of Berinag are some other
important ancient naulas of this region. It is said that Pandeshwar
naula was renovated by King Udyot Chandra in 1569 CE.

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Many inscriptions about these naulas have been found in surveys.

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According to Dr. Chandra Singh Chauhan, the naula of Baleshwar is
the oldest of all and the Janhawi naula of Gangolihat is the next in
age. Pungeshwar naula of Pithoragarh district is the largest naula of
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the Kumaun region of Uttarakhand. There is An individual naula at
Baijnath the owner of this naula is mr. Padam Singh Negi ( Fig: 5.4)
Many naulas were also built by different rulers along the major
pilgrimage routes for travellers.
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5.1.1.2. Dhara

Dharas, another common source of drinking water, are of three types:


Sirpatia Dhara, Mudpatia Dhara and Patviyan Dhara. (Ravi
Chopara, in Agrawal, Jamal and Shah (Eds) 2007: Pp. 38.). These
water resources of the region are being utilised since long back for
domestic and drinking purposes. Most of the villagers of this region
still depend on dharas for a secure supply of water. Dharas provide a
source of running water and thus play a key role in irrigation. Dhara is

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one of the most beautiful structures and is ubiquitous in the
Uttarakhand region. There are also some wellknown dharas in
Devalthal, Berinag, Chopata, Thal, Naini, Jainti, Tharkot, Tehri
Garhwal, Pauri Garhwal, Dwarahat, Garampani , etc. there is a dhara
of Katuryies time still in use at Baijnath which is known as Katyuri
Dhara (Fig: 5.5). A major part of the drinking water requirement is
still met through cthese age old devices. Sipahi dhara and Parda

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dahara of Nainital serve quite a large population. In the Ganga and the

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Yamuna dharas of Gupt Kashi water is routed through the mouths of
beautifully moulded brass heads of cows and elephants. It is believed
that these Dharas were constructed in the 16th century. Prahlad,
Kurma, Bhrigu, Urvashi & Indira dharas are the five famous dharas of
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Badrinath and are locally known as the Panch Dharas. The most
outstanding of these is the Indira dhara, which is 1.5 km to the north
of the town Badaripuri. In ancient times Bhrigudhara flowed through
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a number of caves. Th e one on the right of the river Rishi Ganga,


originates from the Neelkanth range is called Urvashi dhara. The
water of Kurma dhara is very cold while that of the Prahlad dhara is
lukewarm, the overflow of which moves smoothly down the rocks of
Narain Parvat. In Uttarkashi distrct, the Shiv dhara, located in
Pharikoti village, has recently been renovated. The Kalinag dhara, in
Sarnaul village of Uttarkashi has a wall ornamented with stone
carvings with water flowing through the mouth of a carved cow mask

Dharas used to be adorned with carvings of deities and animals. Water


used to emerge from a hole, known as Mungra in local language.
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Initially people used broad leaves to regulate the force and direction
of the flowing water; later on stones in various beautiful shapes were
being used to build the mouth of the dhara. In Almora an old dhara is
known as Ranidhara and is used extensively by the local people for
drinking purposes, and is preferred to the piped water.

Ravi Chopra (Chopra 2003: Pp. 1-15.) has described three types of
Dharas in his book, Himalayan Jal Sanskriti, as follows:

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“There are three types of dharas, depending on their height above the
ground. If one can drink from a dhara while standing straight, it is
called a sirpatia dhara. These dharas are sometimes decorated with
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facemasks of animals and cows, lions, elephants, snakes or crocodiles.
If one has to bend over to drink from one‟s hand or to fill a container
to drink from the dhara, then it is called a mudpatia dhara. These
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dharas also have animal facemasks or simple pipe structures. The


third type of dhara is a seasonal one. During the monsoon season,
wooden spouts or broad leaves are stuck in the path of a flowing
spring or seepage to create them. They are called Patvinyan dharas.
Often one has to sit on the ground to drink water from them.”

Some dharas are still in use but most of them have dried up.
Deforestation, environmental disorders and ecological activities are
responsible for the destruction of these natural water resources. Many
dharas have dried up in the Garhwal region as a consequence of

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earthquakes and landslides. Amni-ka-dhara in Tehri Garhwal district
dried up after the Uttarkashi earthquake of 1991. An ancient dhara
found along the main road of Pauri Garrhwal, has now vanished. This
dhara too was used as a source of drinking water and also for
irrigation as it provided water for ghuls and canals. An ancient dhara
of Patal Bhuwaneshwar has also dried up (fig: 5.6). These dharas are
also used for various other proposes, e.g. the Bhotia peoples use the

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water of these dharas to for cleaning the wool.

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5.1.1.3. Ghuls
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In ancient times the problem of irrigation was solved by diverting the
water of streams and rivers through channels to agricultural fields.
These channels served as viable options for water management in this
region; the small barriers, known as baan in local parlance and
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Kuliyana in Kumauni language, were built by the locals to meet many


ends, which indicate that the land was irrigated with Ghuls and Khuls.
These water channels were owned by individuals, the public or the
state. The stream water was brought down through long channels
using the contours of the hill slopes. Ghuls are primarily meant for
irrigation and play a vital role in the agriculture of the region. Ghuls
are managed totally by the people themselves without any assistance
from the government. The water from Ghuls is not only used for
irrigation but also for drinking and running water mills (gharats).
Along the length of the ghuls, there are openings which lead to small
secondary channels, known as hawarrs, and supply water to the fields.

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Irrigation canals are of different dimensions. The channel, which is
smaller than that of kul, is known as baul. A stone is put at the
opening for controlling the running water. An opening is made at the
lower side of the land, which helps in the flow of the extra water
towards the lower terraces from where it finally returns into the
channels. Some times the running water of ghuls is blocked by a stone
or solid rock. In such a case the peeled bark of a banana tree is used as

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a water conveyer or the water is canalized all the way through a pipe

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(wooden pipe). Ghuls can simply be dug by hand and plastered with
cement. Some ghuls cater to more than one village, if they are long
enough.
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5.1.1.4. Gharats

The word Gharat has been taken from „Ghat‟ of the Kumauni dialect
and „Ghatt‟ of Sanskrit Language. Gharats are the traditional mills,
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run by water which have been used in this region since a very long
time and are made on the banks of rivers and near other water sources.
gharats are mainly used for grinding wheat and many other grains
such as maize, ragi etc .Chakki, doka and firki are some main pars of
Gharat (Fig: 5.7). Most of the civilizations had settled near the banks
of rivers. Stone tools were made by people at that time not only for
hunting but also for other purposes. The people had started making
small huts with stone and wood. The Ganga Valley Civilisation
started between 700 and 800 BCE. Wheat and barley were cultivated
at that time with gram and peas. This shows that cultivation was quite
developed at that time. Probably the silbatta was used as the first
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grinding device. The hand mill and wind mills might have followed
suit. In Uttarakhand, silbattas have been found. Subsequently big
gharats might have been constructed. These gharats have been found
in Chamoli, Champawat etc. In Kafara village of Almora district, a
gharat which was in use nearly 40 years ago exists to date. In the
Garhwal region, gharats or water mills are fulfilling the grinding
requirement of the remote isolated rural communities. In ancient times

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kings used to donate gharats, temples and lands to priests and other

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local people. Old copper inscriptions provide information about the
daan (charity) of kings. Descriptions of daan are also found in the
copper inscriptions of Pandukeshwar.
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According to Chandra Singh Chauhan description of ghat daan has
been found in nearly 48 copper inscriptions. There were near about
60,000 gharats found in this region. About 5000 gharats still survive
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in Almora district and approximately 2956 in the Garhwal region.


(Chauhan 2010 (Eds.) Pandey and Joshi: Pp. 104-123)

Table 5.2
District wise distribution of gharats

Sl. Name of District Total Registered At present


in use
No.

1. Almora 5726 1607

2. Udhamsingh Nagar 99 7

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3. Uttarkashi 1235 694

4. Champawat 809 305

5. Chamoli 2701 1647

6. Tehri Garhwal 1121 523

7. Nainital 1938 211

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8. Pithoragarh 1134 494

9.

10.
Pauri Garhwl

Bageshwar
la 888

1433
10

759
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11. Rudraprayag 503 98

12. Dehradun 781 425

13. Hardwar 108 -


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All the records were taken from the Zila Panchayat Office in 1998 by
Drs. Chandra Singh Chauhan and Harish Singh Nayal.

A little improvement in the machinery of gharats can make them


much more efficient and these can also be used very feasibly for
production of power. Each Gharat could produce 3-5 KW power,
which is sufficient to meet the electricity demand of 25-50
households. Stowell (1992) informs us as to how beneficial these
mills proved to the owners and how Sir Henry Ramsay laid down a
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policy against these mills without articulating a clear plan to support
irrigation. Sapru (1924 and 1925) gave due significance to these
watermills as they served as a helping hand for the people of Almora
and that of Tehri Garhwal districts (Shah and Shah 2007: 138).

The Himalayan region is the abode of many rivers and glaciers.

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Glaciers cover about 33,000 sq km area of this region, thus
appropriately called the “Water Tower of Asia”. The Geological

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Survey of India reports that there are around 6,500 glaciers in this
region. It provides about 86,000,000 cubic m. of water per year. For
example, the four sub-basins of the Ganga, Yamuna, Bhagirathi and
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Alaknanda jointly constitute nearly 900 glaciers in the state of
Uttarakhand. Some famous glaciers of this region are listed below:
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Table 5.3
Some Famous Glaciers of Uttarakhand Region (From Internet)
Sl. Name of District
No. Glacier

1. Pindari Glacier Bageshwar

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2. Kafni Glacier Bageshwar

3. Milam Glacier Pithoragarh

4. Gangotri Glacier Uttarkashi

5. Sunderdhunga Bageshwar

6. Poting Glacier Pithoragarh

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7. Nabhik Glacier Pithoragarh

8.

9.
la Ralam Glacier

Doriyani Glacier
Pithoragarh

Uttarkashi
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10. Choura Bari Rudraprayag
Glacier

11. Dunagiri Glacier Chamoli


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12. Namic Glacier Pithoragarh

13. Maiktoli Glacier Bageshwar

14. Tipraambak Chamoli


Glacier

15. Panchachuli Pithoragarh


Glacier

This state is home to various natural resources, forests and many


ecosystems, separated by several Himalayan rivers. There are many

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rivers flowing in this state, the water of which has been utilized for
irrigation and many other purposes by the people of this region.
Various rivers and their streams flow through this state. These are
termed Gaadh in the local dialect. Some main rivers of Uttarakhand
are as follows:
Table 5.4
Some main rivers of Uttarakhand (From Internet)

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Name Drainage area
of the
river
Bhagira
thi river
la From Gaumukh to Devprayag
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Tons From Her Ki Dun to Daak
Pathar
Saryu From Bhadra Tunga to
Panchewasher
Kosi From Kausani to Sultanpur
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Yamuna From Yamunotari to Dhalipur


Dhouli From Devwan Himani to
(in Vishnu Prayag
Garhwa
l)
Mandak Kedarnath to Rudraprayag
ani
Gaula From Paharpani to Udham
Singh Nagar
Ram From Doodha Toli to Kalagarh
Ganga
Pinder From Pindari glaciers to Karn
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Prayag
Nayar From Gadri to Satpuli
east
Nayar From Khirsu to Satpuli
west
Kali Lipulekh to Tanakpur
river
Nandak Nanda Ghughati to Nandprayag

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ani
Lohawa
ti
Alakhna
nda
la From Abbar mount to Kali

Satopanth to Devprayag
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Gori From Milam Himrali to Joulgivi
Kuti From Lapayan Dhura to Kali
Ladhiya From Thali to Chuka
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Dholi From Gowan Khanna Himani to


(in Twadhar
Kumau
n)

The Ganga, Yamuna, Kali, Mandakini, Sharda, Saryu, Tons, Kosi,


Bhagirathi and Ram Ganga are the prominent rivers of this state.
Gangotri (the ice formation here resembles a cow‟s mouth) represents
the origin of the river Ganga, near Kedarnath. At this point the river
is known as Bhagirathi after the king Bhagirath. According to the
Indian mythology this river has descended from the heavens. It is said
that King Sagar had 60,000 sons who conquered all the demons on the
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earth and in order to assert his power he performed an Ashwamegh
Yagya. According to the tradition during the Ashwamegh Yagya a
horse was kept open and if horse was stolen by anybody then it was
considered that, that person is ready to fight a war with the king who
is doing Ashwamegh Yagya. So the horse was stolen by Lord Indra
because he feared the power of king Sagar and wanted to stop him,
therefore he tied the horse in the ashram of Kapil Muni. When the

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60,000 sons of King Sagar, found the horse at Kapil Muni‟s Ashram

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they got angry and attacked the hermitage. At that time the Muni was
in meditation and by getting disturbed he opened his eyes in rage and
as a consequence of which all the sons of king Sagar were reduced to
ash, except prince Asamanjas. Anshuman, the grand son of King
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Sagar, carried the horse back and asked for his forgiveness. Kapil
Muni demanded that if the Ganga could be brought down from the
heavens to the earth, the sons of the king could be brought back to
life”. Anshuman and his son Dilip were not successful in this job but
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Dilip‟s son Bhagirath was determined to do this job. He started deep


meditation and after many years the Ganga got satisfied with his
penance and descended upon the earth. The Ganga was held by Lord
Shiva on his matted hair to stop it from flooding the earth. The
Bhagirathi, Bhilangana, Mandakini, Janhvi, Rishiganga, Saraswati
and Alaknanda are the seven tributaries of the river Ganga. The
confluence of river Mandakini and Bhagirathi is at Dev Prayag and
gets the name of the river Ganga. River Yamuna originates from
Yamunotri glacier, located to the south west of Banderpoonch. The
river Ram Ganga from the southern division appears near Almora.
After crossing the mountainous area it arrives at Kalagarh. A dam has
178
been built at Kalagarh on this river. The tributaries of the Alaknanda,
well-known as Mandakani, Pindar and Dhawal Ganga join the river
Ganga after that. The river thereafter reaches the plains at Hardwar
after crossing the mountainous region.

The Kosi is a major river of this region, draining a geographical area


of 1475 km2 along the central and the south-central parts of Kumaun.

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It is the principal tributary of the Ramganga, a prominent river of

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Kumaun. It flows along in the Lesser Himalaya and Shivaliks and
ultimately disappears in Bhabhar near Ramnagar in Nainital district.
The Suyal is the main tributary of the river Kosi which joins it at
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Kwarab flowing through the eastern part of Almora district. The main
tributaries joining it upto Kwarab are: the Bhutagaon Gad, Dhoni Gad
or Sumari Gad, Sim Gad, Nana Kosi, Patia and Ron Gad, Shail-
Jamthara Gad.
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Not only many rivers but also many lakes are found in this region. As
most of the lakes (tals) of this hilly region are in Kumaun, it is known
as the region of Tals. Some famous lakes of this region are as follows:

 Naini Tal- the length of this lake is 1465 m, breadth 455 m and the
average depth 25 m. According to a legend this lake was formed
where one of the green eyes of Goddess Parvati fell, after Vishnu slit
up her dead body and spread it all over the land to stop Shiva‟s cosmic
dance of destruction.

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 Bhim Tal -is one of the largest lakes of Kumaun. This lake has a
legendary association with Bhima of Mahabharata. The length of the
lake is 1674m, breadth 427m and the average depth 30 m.

 Saat Tal- is a cluster of seven interrelated lakes. Depth of this lake is


19 m.

 Nal Damyanti Tal- its length is 20m, breadth 15 m and depth 8 m.

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 Khurpa Tal- The shape of this tal is like a khur (hoof) of an animal,
hence the name.

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 Sukha Tal – The name literally means dry; the lake usually remains
dry but gets filled after the rains )
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 Naukuchia Tal - This is the deepest lake of Uttarakhand. The length of
the lake is 1004 m, breadth 750 m and depth 45 m.

 Sarita Tal Where is ( Nainital)


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 Vishnu Tal- This Tal is in Badrinath near Satyapatha.

 Roopkund – Roopkund is located near Vedini Bugyal.

 Tarag Tal – In Almora district.

 Dewariya Tal – This is located in Ukhimath (Rudraprayag).

 Chora Bari Tal – This is in Kedarnath.

 Aanchari Tal- This lake is in the valley of flowers Uttarakhand


(Chamoli).

 Upsara Tal- This lake is in Tehri Garhwal.


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 Vasukee Tal- This lake is in Kedarnath.

 Ling Tal- This lake in located Near Gangotri (Uttarkashi).

 Dron Sagar- This lake is in Kahsipur, in district Udham Singh Nagar.

 Bani Tal- This lake is situated on the hill of Aadi Badri (In Chamoli).

 Dugadh Tal- This lake is located east of the River Birahee.

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 Dodi Tal- This lake is located between Pachan Village of Dhanari

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and an old Village (in Tehri)

 Diviya Sarowar – Situated in Vilab Mountain

 Nachiketa Tal- This lake is located to the north of Dodi Tal


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Despite a large number of rivers and tals in this region, the water
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supply is gradually dwindling due to increasing population and other


factors. Due to mismanagement the critical water resources of this
region are getting depleted and degraded rapidly. Today thousands of
naulas are vanishing. If these water resources are not used sustainably
they will soon disappear. It, therefore, becomes our moral
responsibility to save these natural water resources, otherwise they
may become extinct.

Although nominally water is worshiped in Uttarakhand but most of


the water resources, especially those located in villages, are drying up
and rivers are getting polluted.The existence of rivers in Uttarakhand
181
has become endangered because of the proposed 220 small and big
dams on these rivers. Problems of landslides and earthquakes are
always there. The rivers of this state serve as the lifeline for over 7
crore people and are now on the verge of drying up. In spite of its
various projects, the government has paid no attention towards the
rejuvenation of these rivers and has blindly handed over these rivers
to private companies for hydropower projects. At present about 60

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hydropower projects are being run by private companies due to which

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many people will lose their lands, gharats, homes and animals. In
Uttarkashi district alone, private companies have been allotted ten
small scale hydroelectric projects, which are expected to provide
nearly 23 MW of electricity. Dams are also being built on the Yamuna
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River which will adversely affect it. Water level of four main rivers
(the Ganga, Bhagirathi, Tons & Yamuna) of this region has fallen
down considerably. The main rivers of Kumaun (viz. the Gomati,
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Gaula, Ramganga, Panar, Gagas and Kosi etc.), which are surrounded
by dense forests, have also come under threat. According to a recent
investigation, it has been found that the water level of the river Kosi
has considerably fallen down and the pollution has also severely
affected it. This is true for many other rivers of Uttarakhand as well.
According to Dr. J.S. Rawat the water discharge of the river Kosi is
reducing per year by 50 liters because of poor rains.

Natural springs are also drying up due to this very reason. He also
says that if no effective plan is made soon enough, the river Kosi
could completely dry up within the next 12 years because its four
182
contributing rivers have already dried up and almost 13 perennial
watercourses of the river system have been converted into seasonal
streams. The water flow of river Kosi has been given by Dr. J. S.
Rawat as follows:

Table 5.5

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Water Flow of river Kosi
Flow of the river Year
790 liter
440 liter
995 liter la 1992
1993
1994
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780 liter 1995
530 liter 1996
430 liter 1997
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315 liter 1998


423 liter 1999
290 liter 2000
285 liter 2001
250 liter 2002
85 liter 2003

Not only water streams but also some lakes like naini lake (Nainital)
are drying up. The water label of naini Lake is being reducing
183
continuously for the last few years, on account of increasing
population, adverse weather conditions and lack of rain water. The per
year water reducing level of Naini lake is as follows:

Table 5.6

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Per year water reducing level of Naini lake
(Hindustan, 3 April 2011)
Year

la Water level
ft.(1st April)
in
te
2003 8.70

2004 4.90

2005 7.30
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2006 5.80

2007 6.51

2008 6.40

2009 5.44

2010 4.75

2011 3.15

184
Water scarcity has increased due to the distressing condition of rivers.
It seems that in future these rivers will completely cease to exist.
Water resources of the Garhwal region have started drying due to the
erroneous planning of the Government. These water resources are
vanishing day by day, thereby increasing the scarcity of water.
Reckless felling of broad leaved trees and priority of plantation of
pine trees are two main reasons. Broad leaved plants should be

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planted to increase the water level. The Government should also take

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some effective steps for the conservation of water resources.

The Kumaun and Garhwal Water Act 1975 and the U.P. Water Supply
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and Sewerage Act 1975 are the only two acts in operation in
Uttarakhand, regarding the retention, collection and distribution of
water. Streams, natural channels, natural lakes, ponds and rain water
are the sources of water here. Kumaun and Garhwal Water Act define
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water as “Water means water of rivers, streams, flowing in natural


channels, natural lakes and ponds or reservoirs and includes rain
water”. Some substantive water laws implemented in Uttarakhand are
as follows:

 Indian Penal Code, 1860

 U.P. Land Revenue Act, 1901

 Panchayat Rules 1931, U.P. Panchayat Forests

 U.P. Village Panchayat Act, 1947

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 U.P. Kshetra Panchayat and Zila Panchayats Act, 1961

 Forest Conservation, Act, 1980

 Indian Evidence Act, 1872

 Civil Procedure Code, 1908

 Criminal Procedure Code

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 U.P. Minor Minerals Concession Rules, 1963

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 Indian Easements Act, 1882 U.P.

 Kumaun and Uttarakhand Zamindari Abolition Act, 1960


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The management of rain water is very crucial as the water in springs
and rivers will not be sufficient to cope up with the increasing demand
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of water in future and rain water will be the only cost effective
alternative. We should conduct public awareness programmes in
every village of this region. Rain water harvesting is very necessary
for increasing ground water table and municipalities should make it
mandatory that construction of a new house would be sanctioned only
if appropriate provision for rain water harvesting is made. We can
store rain water by constructing kachha small ponds and planting
broad leaved species of trees etc. In my opinion pine trees should be
replaced with oak trees. By this I don‟t mean deforestation because
pine trees are found in abundance in this region. The needles of pine
trees spread toxicity in the soil due to which vegetation growth in its

186
vicinity is hindered. These trees contain inflammable resin and tons of
pine needles play the main role in the spread of devastating forest
fires. On the other hand, Oak trees are hydrophilic and help in
retaining the humidity in the soil. They thus help in maintaining
ground water table by absorbing water in their expanded root systems
and leaf litter. So we should plant oak trees around natural water
resources, which would be helpful in recharging the aquifers.

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According to a local legend, once upon a time, Nanda, the most
popular goddess, was coming to her mother‟s home. To make it to her

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mother‟s home she had to cross difficult paths, mountains and rivers.
One day when Nanda got tired she stopped under the pine tree to take
rest. She asked the pine if he could tell her the distance of her
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mother‟s home from there but the pine tree answered her rudely that
he didn‟t care the least about her mother‟s home. On getting this rude
response, Nanda cursed the pine tree that no plants would sprout
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under its canopy, no animal would eat leaves and no bird would nest
in it and no bee would like to make a hive on it. Nanda then stopped
under the Oak (Banj) tree and Oak welcomed Nanda and asked her to
consider its canopy itself as her mother‟s home. On hearing this
affectionate answer Nanda got delighted and blessed the Oak tree that
many plants would sprout under its canopy and birds and bees would
love to live in it and that there will be plenty of water in its vicinity.

Though Nanda‟s story of this folk lore may be apocryphal, it gives us


a fairly good idea of the ecological properties of the pine (Chir) and
the Oak (Banj) trees.
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Not only the plantation of oak but also of some other broad leaved
trees like Siling, Bargad, Peepal, Kharik, Dudhaila, Timil, Padam,
Utis, Shahtut, Amla etc. are beneficial for augmenting the water
wealth. Among them peepal tree is considered very sacred and it can
be seen everywhere in Uttarakhand. It is called the tree of Brahama
Vishnu and Mahesh. (Joshi & Bisht 2010: 66) small ponds, and other

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water resources. Digging tube wells and installing hand pumps for

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fulfilling water requirements in large numbers will prove dangerous in
future for our coming generations because after some decades natural
water resources will dry up and disappear from this region,
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consequently hand pumps and tube wells would also dry up due to
lack of water. According to J.S.Rawat, (a well known hydrologist)
these hand pumps are a curse for the hill areas, as in the absence of
sufficient water, they extract water from deep below the earth‟s
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surface, which is needed to keep the earth wet. However the


government is installing hand pumps all over the area of this state
including villages. Though these hand pumps are being set up by the
government to solve the water crisis, the installation of such hand
pumps will only aggravate the water crisis in the Himalayan regions
(Rawat 1988: 201-212).

We can solve the problem of water scarcity by rain water harvesting


as it is an appropriate technology for our hill state, Uttarakhnd. Rain
water harvesting systems can collect a lot of rain water from roofs,

188
which can be lifted to over head tanks with solar water pumps. This
water can be used even for drinking purposes after filtration through
sand filters.

Depressions in the mountainous areas of Uttarakhand are used for


rainwater harvesting. Chaals or khals are most common and are made

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on the saddles between two peaks, which are used for collecting rain
water. The unexploited land was converted into khal like formations

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by ancient communities; they dug them up and made stone masonry
walls around them. “That such khaals were widely known may be
surmised from the abundance of place names suffixed with the word
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khaal as Agrakhaal, Paurikhaal, Dwarikhaal, Jharikhaal,
Pandwakhaal, Ghingarikhaal and so on. Such khaals are common in
the Garhwal region due to high frequency of pilgrimages; they have
now developed into sprawling townships. H.G. Walton (Gazetteer on
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British Garhwal 1921) has mentioned Bironkhal, which is now on the


borders of district Almora in Kumaun and district Pauri in Garhwal,
that it was the name of a pass near Domila village, which was a much
frequented camping ground (Manikant Shah, in press).

Small ponds are also utilized for collecting rainwater. Smaller ponds
are commonly known as tallias in the local language. Khals can
collect much quantity of water which is used for irrigation and other
proposes. In Pauri Garhwal district alone 70 khals have been recorded.
These ponds are generally utilized for animals and rarely for human
189
use. Wild animals and birds also depend on these structures.
Chuptaulas and simars are other natural rainwater harvesting
configurations of this hilly region. These hole-like formations are also
used by animals and occasionally by human beings. These save water
from springs or water coming out of the earth. “Simars, on the other
hand, are natural features - a sort of quicksand that is found in
agricultural fields in this region. High quality crops like basmati rice

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are sometimes grown in simars. Some medicinal plants and herbs are
also grown in them” (Chopra 2007: 35).

5.2. CONCLUSION

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The vital importance of these traditional water resources will remain
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forever in our social and cultural life. We are now realizing the
potential of the technological capability of our ancestors. So the time
has come when we must look back into the traditions of our past and
learn to restore our relationships with nature and all forms of life. We
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should also respect the knowledge of our forefathers. We have


considered the ecological and social advantages of these traditional
water resources. It will help us understand our cultural legacy and
glorious past. The next chapter is based upon folk medicine which
was developed by the primitive people over centuries through trial and
error and interaction with other regions by breaking the geographical
barriers.

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