Higher Cognitive Learning:

Critical Thinking &

Problem Solving
Dr Roisin Donnelly

The important thing is not to stop questioning - Albert Einstein

All life is problem solving - Popper
Why is it important to encourage
higher-cognitive learning?
Emphasis needs to be
placed on
incorporating the
use of higher-order
thinking and
complex thinking
skills, as well as
other 21st Century
Skills such as
collaboration and
communication.
 21st Century Skills

• Core Subjects and 21st Century Themes

– Maths, Language Arts, Science, Social Studies
– Global Awareness and Civic Literacy
– Economic and Business Literacy
– Health Literacy

• Learning and Innovation Skills

– Creativity
– Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
– Communication and Collaboration
 21st Century Skills

21stCenturySkills.org
'Soft' skills play a central role in preparation for employment in Ireland; The Irish
Independent also singled out the National Competitiveness Council's call for
skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, communication and self-directed
learning in March this year (2010)
 The Millennial Generation

“Today’s students are no

longer the people our
educational system was
designed to teach”
– Mark Prensky
 Characteristics of Digital Natives

• Active
• Multi-tasking
• Non-linear thinking
• Ubiquity
• Technical Fluency
• Expectations of Feedback
• Individualization
• Risk-taking
• Information sifting
 Teaching Students to Think
Theoretically & Empirically
-do you agree?
• Learning to think theoretically and empirically within a
discipline is essential not only to learning its most
important content but also to internalizing it as a
dimension of lifelong thinking and learning. Students
should enter each course, therefore, prepared to
internalize theory as well as to analyze and evaluate
information.

• Unfortunately, we know all-too-well that students are

not so prepared, but look to us to spoon-feed them
"important" bits and pieces of stuff to memorize for the
exam. Few students know how to isolate, or learn,
important theories or important data.
Critical Thinking as an Outcome for
Higher Education
• Critical thinking is a vital goal for higher
education (e.g. Browne & Freeman, 2000; Costa, 1991;
Pithers & Soden, 2000)

• Critical thinking is not a guaranteed

outcome of college (e.g., Halpern, 1996; Pascarella &
Terenzini , 2005)
 Critical Thinking

1. What is critical thinking?

2. What do you do when you think
critically in your discipline?
3. What standards do you use to
evaluate someone’s critical
thinking?
4. What questions about teaching
critical thinking do you hope to
have answered today?
 Overview

• The session begins with a general introduction

to critical thinking and problem solving and to
their significance, not only to the academic but
also to the vocational and personal success of
students.

• It is followed by small group activities which are

used to illustrate the application of various
dimensions of problem solving and critical
thinking strategies to instruction.
 Critical Thinking

We will explore it under 3 areas:

• Understanding Critical Thinking

• Developing Critical Thinking
• Assessing Critical Thinking
 Overview

• Critical thinking is an important element in all

professional fields and academic disciplines.

• We often say to our students, "Think!" But what

do we mean by thinking and how do we
encourage it?

• You will be introduced to the various types of

critical thinking and demonstrate how to plan for
it.
 A Challenge

Write a One Sentence Definition of

CRITICAL THINKING
 Critical Thinking

• Dearth of research that focuses on critical

thinking as a distinct skill

a willingness (a predisposition) and an ability

to scrutinize and evaluate thinking – one’s
own, as well as others’ – in order to determine
truth, accuracy, or worth, and to construct
logical arguments to justify claims or
assertions - Beyer (1990)
 “This boy shows
great originality
which must be
curbed at all
Sir Peter costs”
Ustinov
 Do you know that…
Albert Einstein was 4 years old before he could
speak and 7 before he could read?
Beethoven’s music teacher once told him, “As a
composer, you are hopeless?”
Winston Churchill failed his first year in
secondary school?
Isaac Newton did poorly in primary school?

Thomas Edison’s teacher told him that he was

too stupid to learn anything?
 How? Barriers (students)

• Poor reading skills

• Poor listening skills
• Bias
• Binary reasoning
• Prejudice
• Fear of change
• Selective perception/attention
• Sociocentrism
• Relativism
 How? Barriers (teachers)

• Unclear goals
• Misalignment
• Assessment criteria
• Time/Class size
• Content coverage

Teaching without learning is just talking

- Pat Cross
HOW? A developmental approach

Source: King, P.M. (2009). Developmental aspects of learning.

Teagle-CRLT Science of Learning Colloquium. Ann Arbor, MI.
 Activity: Critical Thinking in the
Disciplines
• In pairs, come up with some strategies for
that you have used to foster critical
thinking in your classroom.

Examples
• Developing the use of sketchbooks as a tool to aid participation,
ownership and critical thinking in art & design [the powerful potential of
sketchbooks as tools to enable all ages to make life experiences
relevant to learning].
Sketchbooks, notebooks or journals as a creative learning tool are a
hot topic at the moment and what's exciting is the potential for their use
amongst many subject areas and in many contexts; sketchbooks
belong to the user, not to the subject.
 Activity
Empowering students with thinking skills such as:

• the ability to reason

• to make informed judgements
• to critically evaluate information
• to think creatively
 Critical Thinking Theories
• The skills of critical reasoning (such as the ability to assess
reasons properly);
• A disposition, in the sense of:
– A critical attitude (skepticism, the tendency to ask probing
questions) and the commitment to give expression to this
attitude, or
– A moral orientation which motivates critical thinking;
• Substantial knowledge of particular content, whether of:
– Concepts in critical thinking (such as necessary and
sufficient conditions), or of
– A particular discipline, in which one is then capable of
critical thought. 1

1 Mason, 2007, pp. 343-344.

 Critical Thinking Skills

• Ability to recognize and validate problems,

• Original, independent thinking,
• Ability to develop theoretical concepts,
• Knowledge of recent advances within ones field,
• Understanding of relevant research
methodologies and techniques,
• Ability to critically analyze and evaluate findings,
• Ability to summarize, document, report, and
reflect on progress. 2
2 Andrews, 2007, p. 2.
 Cognitive Thinking Skills

• Interpretation
• Analysis
• Evaluation
• Inference
• Explanation
• Self-regulation 3

3 Facione, 2009, p. 5.
 Complex Thinking Strategies

• Decision Making
• Reasoning
• Investigation
• Experimental Inquiry
• Directed Problem Solving
• Creative Problem Solving
• Reflective Thinking
• Evaluation
 Why?

Skills Outcomes

• Analyzing • Evaluating
• Defining information
• Inferring • Intellectual curiosity
• Synthesizing • Tolerance for
• Listening ambiguity
• Reasoning • Evaluating our habits
• QUESTIONING of thought
• LIFE-LONG
LEARNING
 Critical Thinking Dispositions

• Inquisitive
• Systematic
• Judicious
• Analytical
• Truthseeking
• Open-minded
• Confident in reasoning 4
4 Facione, 2009, p. 10.
 Unifying Critical Thinking Theories

• A four part model to unify and teach critical

thinking skills and critical thinking
dispositions: 5
– Modeling
– Interactions
– Opportunities
– Feedback

5 Yang and Chou, 2008, pp. 668-669.

 Understanding Critical Thinking

• Effective skills are intended to produce

specific and generally pre-determined
outcomes within a specific domain
• Significant debate still occurs in academia
over what is “Critical Thinking”
• Critical thinking has two components
– Cognitive thinking skills
– Critical thinking dispositions
 To help students learn how to think
critically, teachers must…
• model expert thinking
• talk about thinking: cultivate students’ disposition to think
critically
• align goals for student learning with assessment and teaching
practices
• use tasks that make critical thinking and dialectical thinking
necessary and desirable
• create a classroom in which critical thinking is fostered and
rewarded
• focus on the individual with specific formative feedback
• provide frequent opportunities for practice: give on-going
opportunities for developing, practicing and refining the skills of
thinking
 Principles for fostering CT
• Use active methods to achieve learning goals
• Focus on the structure & content of problems to promote
transferability
• Focus on the quality of participation
• Setting concrete expectations
• Engage students in challenging activities for a longer period of
time
• Vary communication tools according to the demands of the task
• Allow students to engage in metacognition
– How did you approach the problem?
– How could you have approached it differently?
– What would the costs/benefits of an alternative course of
action have been?
 Fostering critical thinking through
teaching strategies
• Empower students with the language, tools and strategies
to engage in a wide range of analytical, critical and creative
thinking tasks

• Provide instruction and practice in ways of managing,

organising and recording thinking

• Engage students (particularly the more gifted learners) in

the high order thinking skills

• Assist in the transfer of skills to everyday life and everyday

situations as tools for lifelong learning.
 Fostering critical thinking through
teaching strategies
Achieving such outcomes will require more than the efforts
of a few teachers occasionally using one or two thinking
strategies as part of their normal classroom practice.

An essential element in developing a thinking culture

will be the explicit teaching of thinking skills to all
students.

A whole-school approach that provides a scope and

sequence for the introduction of thinking skills at specific
year levels will have a much greater chance of success.
 Creating the Appropriate Conditions for
Critical Thinking:
1. Motivation and Relevance
• Tasks should be problem-based
(Dewey, 1993; Duffy, 2002)

• Tasks need to be personally relevant

(Barab & Duffy, 1998)

• Tasks need to be authentic in their complexity

(Brown et al, 1989; Innes, 2004; Resnik, 1987)

• Tasks need to encourage use of different

contextual resources (Dewey, 1938; Dewey & Bentley, 1949)
 2. Scaffolding

Most learners need scaffolding

(Quintana, Reiser, Davis, Krajcik, Fretz, Duncan, Kyza, Edelson, &
Soloway,2004)

Scaffolding = instructional techniques that would help

learners attain goals and use skills that would
otherwise be out of their reach (Davis & Miyake, 2004).

Most learners need scaffolding for critical

thinking
 2. Scaffolding
• Successful scaffolding = identification of processes
that promote critical thinking

EXTERNALISATION

• Externalization = manifestation of changes in thought

and attitude in the environment

ARTICULATION
EVALUATIVE FEEDBACK
 3. Articulation
• Articulation = expression of thought in language either verbally
or in written form.

– language is critical to organize one’s thinking (Schunk,1999)

– the act of choosing words to represent our thoughts allows us

to consider our ideas more deliberately (Vygotsky, 1987)

• Even in the absence of an audience articulation should

promote critical thinking (e.g., journal, self-talk) – implications
for unreferenced messages and silence

The presence of an audience, should further promote

critical thinking
 3. Articulation
The presence of an audience, should further promote
critical thinking

writing for an audience helps learners engage in higher

levels thinking by pushing them to ‘compact’ internal
speech into a form that is understandable to others
(Vygotsky, cited in Pugalee, 2004)

“writers do not simply express thought but transform it in

certain complex but describable ways for the needs of a
reader “(Flower, 1997; p.20)

Do students who articulate their views more

often manifest a higher level of critical thinking?
 4. Feedback
• Expansive activity
an increase in the number of ideas available to the individual
(exchange of information)
– enriches opportunities for discovering areas of cognitive
conflict
– does not necessarily have to lead to cognitive conflict
• Learner has collector’s attitude
• Learner does not discern conflicting ideas
• Learner decides to bail out
• Dialectical activity
individuals asking for clarification challenging ideas, presenting
counter-ideas
– ensures opportunities for discovering areas of cognitive
conflict
• Feedback should be dialectical rather than expansive
 Developing Critical Thinking
• Transferring critical thinking across multiple
domains
– Include a dispositional or attitudinal component,
– Provide instruction in and practice with critical
thinking skills,
– Develop structure-training activities designed to
facilitate transfer across contexts, and
– Implement a metacognitive component used to
direct and assess critical thinking. 6

6 Halpern, 1998, p. 451.

 Developing Critical Thinking
• Use online components
• Combine critical thinking skills and dispositions
– Structured Assignments
• Case Studies
• Experiments
• Group Projects
• Develop oral and written argumentation skills
– Seminars
– Negotiation exercises
– Research papers
 Assessing Critical Thinking
• Assessment is ongoing
– Formative (improvement)
– Summative (judgment)
• CATs - Which technique(s) could be used to assess CT in your
classroom?
• Multi-level assessments are required
– Students
• Grading rubrics
– Instructors and Courses
• Student course evaluations
• Instructor evaluations
– Programmes and Schools
• Adhere to mandatory standards where applicable
• Develop guidelines across programmes
• Develop entry assessments / Develop exit assessments
 CT: Web Sites

• Fostering Intellectual Engagement

• Teaching Through Socratic Questioning
and Teaching Students to Ask Essential
Questions
• How Can We Best Test and Assess
Critical Thinking?
 Novice vs. Expert Thinking

ACTIVITY: in small groups

• How do you model expert thinking or

make it visible to students during your
lecture to help novices develop critical
thinking skills?

• What opportunities do students have to

practice expert thinking (in & out of your
class)?
Critical Thinking
Strategies

Let’s try them out!

http://www.criticalthinking.org
 Online tool for developing thinking

• http://blog.ngfl-cymru.org.uk/?p=154
The example is from a Science lesson, but
you can download the template with
instructions on how to create the activity
for any subject.
 Six Thinking Hats
Edward De Bono

Yellow Hat - Strengths

Black Hat - Weaknesses

Red Hat - Feelings

White Hat - Information

Green Hat – New Ideas

Blue Hat – Thinking about Thinking

 A yearly overview
Term Strategy Student learning outcome

1 Six Thinking Hats Students can:

(one at a time) Explain the thinking for each hat
Practice orally the appropriate thinking for each hat
Give example of the hats i.e. yellow hat ideas etc

2 Hat sequence Students can:

(evaluation) Explain the evaluation sequence
Employ yellow hat and black hat thinking

3 Hat Sequence Students can:

(caution) Explain the caution sequence
Effectively employ black hat and white hat thinking

4 Hat Sequence Students can:

(Design) Explain the design sequence
Effectively employ blue, green hat and red hat thinking.
 Brainstorming
Introducing students to the acronym LACE
- ensures the widest possible participation during the
brainstorming session.

L=Lots of ideas (piggybacking on ideas ok)

A=All responses recorded (ideas judged later)
C=Criticism in not allowed (Of people or ideas)
E=Encourage ‘way out’ ideas (it might produce a better
solution in the end)
 Thinkers Keys
http://www.schools.nt.edu.au/larapsch/thinkerskeys.htm

T. Ryan first introduced his Thinkers Keys in the 1980s but his
keys are still an easy and effective way to introduce different
ways of creative thinking to our students.

Are a set of twenty different activities designed to engage

and motivate learners in a range of thinking tasks

Thinker's Keys can be easily included in activities, homework

tasks, journal writing activities, extension tasks and as part of
a Bloom's and Multiple Intelligence approach to teaching and
learning.

We learn more by looking for the answer to a question and not

finding it than we do from learning the answer itself.
- L. Alexander
 Thinkers Keys
• The Reverse - places words such as cannot, never and would not in
sentences e.g. List thing you would never see in Australia.
• The What if - ask any what if question and record thinking in graphic
organiser
• The Alphabet - compile a list of words from A - Z which have relevance to a
given topic or category
• The BAR - acronym for B=bigger A=add R=remove or replace, can be used
for design related activities
• The Construction - a problem solving task that requires the creative use of
limited quantities
• The Disadvantages - make a list of disadvantages for a specific object or
activity
• Different Uses - use the imagination to make a list of different uses for
everyday objects
• The Combination - list the attributes of two unmatched objects then combine
their attributes to create a newer or better product
• The Ridiculous - make a ridiculous statement that would be virtually
impossible to implement and then attempt to substantiate it.
 SCAMPER
Use the letters of the word SCAMPER to
encourage creative thinking, alternative solutions,
and problem solving - can be used within any
subject area

Students may be taught to use it when they are not

sure what to do next, whether in a creative writing
exercise, a drama activity, or in attempting to solve
a problem.

It identifies situations that are generated by asking

specific questions about the problem.
 SCAMPER
problem – you are over-scheduled in your business
S – substitute or switch
[what can be substituted for one of the tasks you have on your plate?]
C – combine with something else
[Can something be combined or brought together to lessen your
responsibilities and find you more time?]
A – adapt or alter part of it
[What adjustment can be made to your schedule to provide more time?]
M – modify a part by magnifying or minifying
[What could happen if you change the situation to match these conditions?]
P – put to some other use
[In what other ways might parts be used? Could your paper in one meeting be
expanded to meet the requirements of another]
E – eliminate a part of it
[What could be removed or enhanced? Could you eliminate an extra activity
especially one that causes undo stress or takes time?)
R – rearrange a part of it
[What effects would come from changing the sequence]
 Blooms Taxonomy
• Remembering Get your facts right ? Recognise, list, describe,
identify, retrieve, name Can you recall the information?

• Understanding What does it all mean? Interpret, exemplify,

summarise, infer, paraphrase Can you explain ideas or
concepts?

• Applying Use it or lose it Implement, carry out, use

Can you use the new knowledge in another situation

• Analysing Breakdown Compare, attribute, organise,

deconstruct
Can you differentiate between parts?

• Evaluating Judge and Jury Check, critique, judge, hypothesise

Can you justify a decision or course of action?
 Questioning Techniques
see handouts on questioning

Closed Open

One Australian animal Ten animals that are

Narrow that lays eggs is… not mammals
include…

List 5 ways that a What would happen if

Wide dingo and poodle are all koalas in Australia
similar. disappeared? Give
many possibilities.

Activity: Draw this same matrix and come up with

some examples of questions in your own discipline
 Socratic Questioning

What is it?

Socratic Questioning is disciplined questioning

that can be used to pursue thought in many
directions and for many purposes, including:
to explore complex ideas, to get to the truth of
things, to open up issues and problems, to
uncover assumptions, to analyze concepts,
etc
 Socratic Questioning
Conceptual clarification questions

• Get them to think more about what exactly they are asking or
thinking about. Prove the concepts behind their argument.
Basic 'tell me more' questions that get them to go deeper.

– Why are you saying that?

– What exactly does this mean?
– How does this relate to what we have been talking about?
– What is the nature of ...?
– What do we already know about this?
– Can you give me an example?
– Are you saying ... or ... ?
– Can you rephrase that, please?
 Socratic Questioning
Probing assumptions

• Probing of assumptions makes them think about the

presuppositions and unquestioned beliefs on which they
are founding their argument. This is shaking the bedrock
and should get them really going!

– What else could we assume?

– You seem to be assuming ... ?
– How did you choose those assumptions?
– Please explain why/how ... ?
– How can you verify or disprove that assumption?
– What would happen if ... ?
– Do you agree or disagree with ... ?
 Socratic Questioning
Probing rationale, reasons and evidence

• When they give a rationale for their arguments, dig into that
reasoning rather than assuming it is a given. People often
use un-thought-through or weakly understood supports for
their arguments.
– Why is that happening? Why is ... happening?
– How do you know this? Show me ... ?
– Can you give me an example of that?
– What do you think causes ... ?
– What is the nature of this?
– Are these reasons good enough?
– Would it stand up in court? How might it be refuted?
– How can I be sure of what you are saying?
– Why? (keep asking it -- you'll never get past a few times)
– What evidence is there to support what you are saying?
– On what authority are you basing your argument?
 Socratic Questioning
Questioning viewpoints and perspectives

• Most arguments are given from a particular position. So

attack the position. Show that there are other, equally valid,
viewpoints.
– Another way of looking at this is ..., does this seem
reasonable?
– What alternative ways of looking at this are there?
– Why it is ... necessary?
– Who benefits from this?
– What is the difference between... and...?
– Why is it better than ...?
– What are the strengths and weaknesses of...?
– How are ... and ... similar?
– What would ... say about it?
– What if you compared ... and ... ?
– How could you look another way at this?
 Socratic Questioning
Probe implications and consequences

• The argument that they give may have logical implications

that can be forecast. Do these make sense? Are they
desirable?
– Then what would happen?
– What are the consequences of that assumption?
– How could ... be used to ... ?
– What are the implications of ... ?
– How does ... affect ... ?
– How does ... fit with what we learned before?
– Why is ... important?
– What is the best ... ? Why?
 Socratic Questioning

Questions about the question

• And you can also get reflexive about the whole

thing, turning the question in on itself. Use their
attack against themselves. Bounce the ball back
into their court, etc.
– What was the point of asking that question?
– Why do you think I asked this question?
– What does that mean?
“He who asks a question may
be a fool for five minutes, but
he who never asks a question
remains a fool forever.”
 Others…

• 3 Story Intellect (see handout)

• PCD – possibilities, consequences,

decision

• Critical Thinking and Writing - teaching students

to read and understand a text properly is
essential to their intellectual survival in a
complex world.
Level of critical thinking (Greenlaw & DeLoach, 2003)

Level 6: consideration of ethical issues in decisions

Level 5: use of empirical evidence to strengthen theoretical argument

Level 4: use of theory to make a cohesive argument

Level 3: analysis of an argument or competing arguments and evaluation with

evidence

Level 2: unsupported assertions, simplistic one-sided arguments

Level 1: paraphrase, repetition

Level 0: organizational and off-task

It's not that I'm so smart, it's just
that I stay with problems longer.
- Albert Einstein
 A Challenge

Write a One Sentence Definition of

PROBLEM SOLVING

http://www.lumosity.com/brain-games/problem-solving-games
Problem solving games
 ...plan and
...solve ...work with
organise
problems others

...think The
critically & ...use
creatively ability initiative

to

...to learn ...lead

...take risks
 Macrostrategies for Problem-Solving
Instruction
Socratic Dialogue

Others Expert Systems

Cognitive
Apprenticeships Elaboration Model

Macro
strategies

Problem-Based Learning Simulations

Case Studies and Microworlds

Case Problems
Anchored Instruction
Why is learning problem solving?

– Authenticity [in everyday life & work, people

constantly solve problems]
– Intentionality [problems provide a purpose for
learning (intrinsic motivation)]
– Conceptual anchoring [knowledge
constructed while solving problems is more
integrated, better retained and more
transferable]
– Ontology [knowledge that results from solving
problems is more meaningful]
 Problem solving
Centre for Study of problem solving:
http://csps.missouri.edu/

Podcast:
http://ttucoepodcast.blogspot.com/2006/02/podcast13-
designing-
learning.html?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&
utm_campaign=Feed%3A+ttucoepodcasts+%28TTU+Colle
ge+of+Education+Podcasts%29
 Problem solving

• Jonassen (2007) identified ill structured problems for

which no single methods or answers exist, including
story problems, rule-using and rule-induction problems,
decision-making problems, trouble-shooting problems,
policy problems, design problems and dilemmas.

His problem dimensions include:

• internal factors that address problem solver’s individual
characteristics (prior experience, domain knowledge,
reasoning skills, and epistemological beliefs
• external factors that reflect how problems are formed
and represented (complexity, structuredness,
dynamicity) and situated (cultural expectations).
 Brain Research

The brain developed to solve

problems related to surviving in
an unstable outdoor
environment that occur in near
constant motion.
– John Medina, Brain Rules
 Brain Research

If you wanted to create an

educational environment
that is directly opposed to
the way the brain is good at
doing, you would probably
design something like the
modern classroom.
– John Medina, Brain Rules
Incorrect assumptions we have as
teachers
• You cannot teach students about
problem solving and expect them to solve
problems; WHY?
• You must engage and help them to solve
a variety of problems

There are no big problems, there are just a

lot of little problems.
-Henry Ford
 Is it possible to teach
problem solving skills?

Too often we give children answers to remember rather than problems to solve.
- Roger Lewin
Life is trying things to see if they work.

http://www.brainstorming.co.uk/quotes/creativequotations.html
 ACTIVITY:
How Do You Solve Problems?

What processes do you use?

Can you explain them to another person?
Do these processes vary depending upon
the problem?
What Skills Do You Use In
Problem Solving?

• Making judgements
• Analytical skills

• Decision making

• Collecting information

• Planning
 Problem Solving People?
☺ Experts
☺ People who know the area of knowledge
thoroughly; Solving problems becomes more
natural
☺ People who can think of alternatives even
when no clear solutions seems apparent
 What types of problems can
students learn to solve?
• Design
• Diagnosis-solution
• Dilemmas
• Strategic performance
• Rule induction

The problems that exist in the world today cannot

be solved by the level of thinking that created them.
- Albert Einstein
 Problem Solving Model

The problem-solving process has been

divided into 4 stages (Ferry & Ross-Gordon, 1998)

Identify Analyse
Interpret Review
problem data
data solution
exists
 Problem solving
• Cognitive Requirements of Problem-Solving Learning
• Instruction Events for a Problem-Solving Lesson
• Macrostrategies for Problem-Solving Instruction

A specialized Requires the

skill selection
Problem
Within a domain
of knowledge
solving and
combination

Yielding new of multiple

learning principles

e.g. read music;

write computer program;
make a medical diagnosis;
practice law.
 Problem solving

Two Categories of
Problems

Well-defined Ill-defined
Problems: Problems:
• Goals are clear • Goals are
• A single or a unknown, vague
definable range of or extremely
solutions situation-
dependent
• Multiple correct
solutions
 Problem solving

Problem
Proble
Problem Problem
Problem Solution Solving
m Type
Type Solution Solving Example
Type Strategies
Well-
Well- One correct Strategies
Multiple ways
defined
defined solution to get there Reading in
the data
Well- One correct Multiple ways to
More than (e.g.
defined
Ill-
Ill- solution get there ways
Multiple
one correct concrete
defined
defined to get there value)
solutions
Reading
More than one
Multiple ways to beyond data
Ill-defined correct
get there (e.g. new
solutions
hypotheses)
Everyday work problems are often ill-defined!
 Problem solving: Research
• Problem solving strategies can be identified with
little effort.
• Problem solving strategies are highly situated.
• For ill-defined problems different information
sources are used, both types of problems allow for
multiple strategies.
• Problem solving strategies are related to the
solution quality.
• Analyzing problem solving strategies provides
suggestions how to improve a tool.
• Problem solving strategies are related to insights,
time and errors.
 Problem solving

• To solve a problem, three kinds

of knowledge must be possessed and
applied:

principles

declarative knowledge

cognitive strategies
 Problem solving

• Know the first step to solving a problem is

to ask the right question;

Students, as they are increasingly posed with problems 
relating to themselves in the world and with the world, 
will feel increasingly challenged and obliged to respond to 
that challenge… Their response to the challenge evokes 
new challenges, followed by new understandings; and 
gradually the students come to regard themselves as 
committed.
‐ Freire
Instruction Events for a Problem-
Solving Lesson

Introduction Body Conclusion Assessment

Deploy
Review Relevant Summary and Simulations
Attention Prior Knowledge Review and case
Establish Process Transfer problems could
Instructional Information
Remotivation be used
Purpose Focus attention
Employ Learning and Conclusion Partial
Promote
Strategies problems might
Interest and
Practice be used
Motivation
Process
Preview
Feedback
Lesson
 Problem solving

• What kinds of problems can students

learn to solve?
• How do we help them to solve them?
[they learn to mimic the problem solving
process (Eric Mazur, Harvard)]
• But do they really learn to problem
solve?
 How do problems vary?

Well structured static simple

Algorithms
Story problems
Decision making
Trouble shooting
Diagnostic-solution
Strategic performance
Policy analysis
Design problems
Dilemmas
Ill structured
complex dynamic
How do we help students to learn to
solve problems?
Examples on D. Jonassen’s web site

• Decision making problems

• Trouble shooting
• Diagnostic-solution
• Design problems
• Story problems
• Strategic performance
• Policy analysis
• Dilemmas
 Problem solving attributes

• ‘Have a go’ attitude

• Making links
• Teamwork
• Accept setbacks as learning
experiences
• Take calculated risks
• Independent learner
• Perseveres
• Self-motivated
• Flexible
• Creative and resourceful
 Approaches to L&T

• Allow for choice

• Encourage independence
• Give students ownership
• Encourage students to explain their thinking
• Provide meaningful, relevant contexts, including the
world of work
• Help students to make connections
 Creative Problem Solving

• What is creative problem solving?

• Why don’t we think creatively more
often?
looking at the same
• How can we be more creative? thing as everyone
• What is the creative problem solving else and thinking
process? something different
• What are some other specific creative
problem solving tools and techniques?
• Application of learning
 Students retain…

5% of what they’ve learned from a lecture

10% of what they’ve learned from reading

20% of what they’ve learned from

audio-visual presentation

30% of what they learn from a

demonstration
50% of what they learn when
engaged in a discussion

75% of what they learn by doing

90% of what they learn when

they teach someone else
Source: NTL Institute for Applied Behavioral Science
Bloom’s Cognitive Taxonomy (1956)
 Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy (2001)

“Synthesis”

“Comprehension”

“Knowledge”
(Anderson & Krathwohl et al, eds., 2001)
 Mind-set Verbs
Analyze: Extract, Evaluate: Judge, Create: Develop,
deduce, interpret, justify, invent, extend,
investigate, fill in, assess, weigh, hypothesize,
combine, appraise, criticize compose
disassemble,

Apply: Do, use, organize, collect, operate, summarize,

practice, solve, try

Understand: Restate, reword, describe, illustrate,

review, discuss, explain (in your own words)

Remember: State, show, list, tally, define, identify,

repeat, recall, label, quote
 Organizing Bloom’s Taxonomy

• Level 3: High
– Creating something unique (to the learner)
– Making judgments, choices, decisions
– Breaking down concepts into component parts
• Level 2: Intermediate
– Using information, skills, and concepts in new
situations
• Level 1: Low
– Understanding and interpreting information
– Acquiring and remembering new information
Supporting Higher-Order Thinking

• It is estimated that 90% of all exam

questions asked in the US are of “Low
level” - knowledge and comprehension
(Wilen, 1992)
• “Low level” doesn’t mean easy:
Write an essay explaining the decline and fall of
the Roman Empire incorporating at least five of
the seven causes discussed in class from the
writings of Gibbon and Toynbee
• “High level” doesn’t mean hard:
Which movie did you like more, WALL-E or
Cars? Why?
Technology and Complex Thinking

• Intel Thinking Tools

http://www.intel.com/education/tools

– Visual Ranking: Assign ranking to a list;

and then debate differences, reach
consensus, and organize ideas
– Seeing Reason: Investigate relationships
in complex systems
– Showing Evidence: Construct well-
reasoned arguments that are supported by
evidence, using a visual framework
 Why Projects?

To learn collaboration, work in teams.

To learn critical thinking, take on problems.
To learn oral communication, present.
To learn written communication, write.
To learn technology, use technology.
To develop citizenship, take on civic issues.
To learn about careers, do internships.

To learn content, do all of the above.

 Essential Questions
– Are broad, open-ended questions
– Address big ideas and enduring concepts
– Often cross disciplines and help students see how
subjects are related

Examples:
• Why is maths important to my life?
• How does conflict produce change?
• What lessons can be learned by running a city?
 Unit Questions
– Are open-ended questions that tie directly to a
project or unit
– Help students demonstrate the scope of their
understanding of a subject

Examples:
• How important is measurement in building a home?
• How are changes in economics a factor in war?
• In the story, Charlotte’s Web, how do the animals’
different abilities help Wilbur survive and succeed?
• How does stress on the environment impact biology?
 Content Questions
– Are fact-based, concrete questions
– Have a narrow set of correct answers
– Often relate to definitions, identifications, and
general recall of information (example: questions
found on a test)

Examples:
• How do you find the values of unknowns in
equations?
• What is a fable?
• Who is the main character in To Kill a Mockingbird?
• How are volcanoes made?
• Why is it cold in the winter when the sun is shining?
 References

• Andrews, R. (2007). Argumentation, critical thinking and the

postgraduate dissertation. Educational Review, 59(1), 1-18.
• Facione, P. A. (2009). Critical thinking: What it is and why it
counts [Electronic document]. Retrieved on March 12, 2009
from
http://www.insightassessment.com/pdf_files/what&why2009.
pdf
• Halpern, D. F. (1998). Teaching critical thinking for transfer
across domains. American Psychologist, 53(4), 449-455.
• Mason, M. (2007). Critical thinking and learning. Educational
Philosophy & Theory, 39(4), 339-349.
• Yang, Y. C., & Chou, H. (2008). Beyond critical thinking
skills: Investigating the relationship between critical thinking
skills and dispositions through different online instructional
strategies. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(4),
666-684.
 References
Critical thinking
• http://skepdic.com/ct/handout.pdf
• http://www.criticalthinking.org/
• http://www.criticalthinking.org/print-page.cfm?pageID=827
• http://www.criticalthinking.org/professionaldev/seminar-strand-think-tank.cfm
• http://www.psychology.heacademy.ac.uk/webdocs_not_nof/workshop18090
2/Suzanne_presentation.htm
• http://www.authorstream.com/presentation/aSGuest8767-130583-critical-
thinking-workshop-feb-07-product-training-manuals-ppt-powerpoint/

Problem solving
• Jonassen, D. (2010). Handbook for learning to solve problems. Routledge.
• http://ctl.unc.edu/FYC20.pdf
• http://www.bioscience.heacademy.ac.uk/resources/problemsolving/index.as
px
• http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awc-thkg.htm
• http://www.cloudnet.com/~edrbsass/edcreative.htm
• http://www.bath.ac.uk/research/pgskills/courses/modules/RP00079.htm
Questions