The compressors are one of the most important parts of the fuel, the reciprocating compressor consumes electricity to

refrigeration cycle. The compressor compresses the refrigerant, compress the refrigerant. Inside the cylinder the piston
which flows to the condenser, where it gets cooled. It then performs reciprocating motion which enables the compression
moves to the expansion valve, and the evaporator and it is of refrigerant inside it.
finally sucked by the compressor again. 

Types of Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Compressors Apart from the piston and the cylinder arrangement, the
1) Reciprocating Compressors: reciprocating compressor also comprises of the crankshaft,
The reciprocating compressors are one of the most widely used connecting rod and other small connecting elements. The
types of the refrigerating compressors. There are three types crankshaft is connected to the electric motor directly by
of reciprocating compressors: hermetically sealed, semi- coupling or by belt and driven by the pulley arrangement. The
hermetically sealed and open type. The open of reciprocating rotary motion of the crankshaft is converted into the
compressors can be of single cylinder type or multi-cylinder reciprocating motion of the piston inside the cylinder via the
type connecting rod. 

What is a reciprocating compressor?

2) Screw Compressors: Reciprocating compressors are positive-displacement devices
The screw compressors comprise of the pair of meshing screws that work on a reciprocating principle in order to deliver gas at
between which the refrigerant gets compressed. They can high-pressures.
produce high pressure for small quantity of gas. They consume This motion is enabled within the device using pistons.
less power than the reciprocating compressors and are being Generally, reciprocating compressors can be divided into two
used widely. It can be used with refrigerants like R12, R22, and types: Integral (low speed) and Separable (high speed).
other In the natural gas industry, large reciprocating engines are used
to supply high-pressure gas for well drilling, generate low-
3) Rotary Compressors: pressure plants, and move natural gas through the pipeline.
The rotary compressors have two rotating elements, like gears,
between which the refrigerant is compressed. These CYLINDER
compressors can pump the refrigerant to lower or moderate In small compressors the cylinder is made by directly boring
condensing pressures. Since they can handle small volume of into the main body of the compressor. In case of the large
the gas and produce lesser pressure, they are used in fewer multi-cylinder compressors, the cylinder is made separately and
applications. it is fitted into the main body of the compressor. This type of
cylinder is also called as the liner or sleeve. In such compressors
if any of the cylinders gets worn out or damaged, it can be
replaced easily by the new liner, without having to replace the
4) Centrifugal Compressor: whole compressor.
The centrifugal compressors comprise of the impeller or the
blower that can handle large quantities of gas but at relatively PISTON
lower condensing pressure. It is suitable for working with The piston performs upwards and downwards motion inside
refrigerants like R-11, R-113 etc. the cylinder, which is also called as the reciprocating motion.
During its motion the piston enables suction and compression
5) Scroll Compressors: of the refrigerant. During its motion inside the cylinder the
The scroll compressor comprises of two interleaved scrolls of refrigerant should not leak through the gap between the
which one is fixed and the other orbits eccentrically without cylinder walls and the piston to the crankcase, hence piston is
rotating. During its motion small gaps are created between the covered with the piston rings. The piston rings are not required
scrolls where the refrigerant gets compressed. The scrolls can in the smaller compressors. The gap between the piston and
have different shapes like involute, Archimedean spiral or the cylinder is also filled with the lubricating oil, which also
hybrid curve. In another arrangement both the scrolls may be prevents the leakage of the compressed refrigerant to the
rotating eccentrically to produce the compression. crankcase.

Principle of Working of Refrigeration Reciprocating Compressor PISTON RINGS

Bagot, Kim Aubrey The piston rings are circled around the piston. When the piston
Rivera, Gracelle performs reciprocating motion inside the cylinder, it is the
Reciprocating Compressor piston rings that come in contact with the walls of the cylinder.
Reciprocating Compressors are one of the most widely used There is lots of friction between the cylinder walls and the
types of compressors for refrigeration and air conditioning piston rings, thus they have to be replaced from time-to-time
applications. The reciprocating compressors comprise of the for proper functioning of the compressor. This helps increasing
piston and the cylinder arrangement similar to the automotive the life of the piston and prevents replacement of the complete
engine. While the engine generates power after consuming piston.
CRANKSHAFT Ratio of free air delivered to the displacement of the
The piston can perform reciprocating motion inside the cylinder compressor
because of the rotary motion of the crankshaft. The crankshaft Ratio of Effective Swept Volume to Swept Volume
is the main shaft of the compressor. On one side it is connected Presence of Clearance Volume
to the electric motor directly by the coupling or by the belt and
pulley arrangement. The rotation of the motor shaft brings
about the rotation of the crankshaft. On the other side the Refrigerant compressors
crankshaft is also connected to the connecting rod, which is Orense Jr, Eric
then connected to the piston at it other end. The rotary motion Refrigerant compressors
of the crankshaft is converted into the reciprocating motion of Work required for reversible
the piston by connecting rod. adiabatic compression
Isothermal expansion
CONNECTING ROD Polytropic expansion
The connecting rod is the connecting link between the piston Volumetric efficiency of reciprocating compressors
and the crankshaft. On one side the connecting rod is Clearance volumetric efficiency
connected to the piston by piston pin and on the other side it is Expansion valves
connected to the crankshaft by connecting rod cap. Both these Umali, Tricia
connections of the connecting rod enable converting the rotary two purposes of expansion valves
motion of the crankshaft into the reciprocating motion of the Controlling the amount of refrigerant entering the evaporator:
piston inside the cylinder. As much of the evaporator surface as possible should be
covered with liquid refrigerant without liquid being carried over
SUCTION VALVE AND DISCHARGE VALVE to the compressor. If the capacity of the evaporator increases,
Through the suction valve the low pressure refrigerant is the expansion valve should allow a larger flow of refrigerant,
sucked inside the cylinder and through the discharge valve the and vice versa. A smaller refrigerant mass flow results in a
compressed high pressure refrigerant is discharged to the higher level of superheating, because less surface area is
discharge line, from where the refrigerant goes to the required for evaporation.
condenser. The operation of the suction valve is such that it Maintaining the pressure difference between the condenser
opens when the piston moves downwards and closes when the (high pressure) and the evaporator (low pressure): The
refrigerant is being discharged. The discharge valve opens only pressure difference created by the work of the compressor is
when piston reaches to certain level inside the cylinder and maintained by the expansion device.
refrigerant has reached to the desired level of pressure. When
the refrigerant is delivered from the cylinder, the discharge
valve closes. Expansion valves do not directly control the evaporation
temperature. Instead, they regulate the superheating by
SUCTION AND DISCHARGE PIPELINES adjusting the mass flow of refrigerant into the evaporator, and
Through the suction piping the low pressure refrigerant is taken maintain the pressure difference between the highpressure
inside the cylinder via suction valve. The high pressure and low-pressure sides. The evaporation temperature depends
compressed refrigerant is delivered though the discharge line. on the capacity of the compressor and the characteristics and
efficiency of the evaporator. The function of an expansion valve
is shown in Figure 4.1.
COMPRESSOR CAPACITY
Compressor capacity is the Tons (or kW) that the compressor ExpansionValves
will produce based on the operating conditions at the Jaen, Limuel
compressor flanges (suction and discharge) for a specific Expansion Valves
refrigerant. Expansion valves are devices used to control the refrigerant
flow in a refrigeration system. They help to facilitate the
In general the capacity of the compressor is given by the change of higher pressure of liquid refrigerant in the
formula: condensing unit to lower pressure gas refrigerant in the
evaporator.
Capacity = Π * D2 * L * N * n/4 The term "low side" is used to indicate the part of the system
that operates under low pressure, in this case the evaporator.
Volumetric Efficiency The "high side" is used to indicate the part of the system that
Falqueza, Glyndel Kate operates under high pressure, in this case the condenser.
Volumetric Efficiency
(noun) Types of expansion valves
ratio of the volume of gas actually delivered to the piston Types of expansion valves
displacement, corrected to suction temperature and pressure There are basically four types of valves that are in used. These
valves are also refer to as metering devices.
Automatic Exp. Valves
Thermostatic Exp. Valves
Capillary Tubes Group 2
Float Valves Astejada, Nodecel
Automatic Exp. Valves Balmes, Aljohn
Automatic Expansion Valve regulates the flow of refrigerant Casas, Charish
from the liquid line to the evaporator by using a pressure- Guce, Kaye
actuated diaphragm. It maintains a constant pressure in the Guda, Roldan Jr.
evaporator. Hernandez, Charlene
The setback is that it is not efficient if the load fluctuates hence Hernandez, Reymond
this type is not suitable for use in air conditioning as the load Matira, Glessie
fluctuates a lot during its operation. Orense, Mikaela Grace
Paidaen, Juthamas
Thermostatic Expansion Valve Tubigan, Hackfinsept
Thermostatic Expansion Valve uses a valve mechanism to
control the flow of liquid refrigerant into the evaporator coil.
The flow is controlled by the pressure in the evaporator.
This type of metering device is able to operate well when the General Aspects of Evaporators and Condensers
load fluctuates and hence is suitable for use in air conditioning used in
system. When the evaporator warms, the valve provides a Refrigeration Systems
higher flow rate and when it cools, it reduces the flow rate.
It is also commonly refer to as TXV, TEV or TX valve. There is a
sensing bulb which detects the temperature of the coil and is Condensers and evaporators are basically heat exchangers in
usually located at a higher temperature within the evaporator which the refrigerant undergoes a phase change.
Next to compressors, proper design and selection of
Capillary Tube  condensers and evaporators is very important for satisfactory
Capillary Tube is a tube with small internal diameter and could performance of any refrigeration system.
be coiled for part of its length. It is installed to the suction line.
A filter-drier is sometimes fitted before the tube to remove dirt Since both condensers and evaporators are essentially heat
or moisture from the refrigerant. exchangers, they have many things in common as far as the
This device is simple, does not have any moving part and lasts design of these components is concerned.
longer. In order to use this device, the amount of refrigerant in However, differences exists as far as the heat transfer
the system must be properly calibrated at factory level. phenomena is concerned.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONDENSERS AND EVAPORATORS
Due to its lower cost compared to TXV, this metering device is CONDENSERS
used in units that are produced in large quantity such as room The refrigerant vapour condenses by rejecting heat to an
or window air conditioners. external fluid.
Depending on the capacity design of the system, the capillary Normally, the external fluid does not undergo any phase
tube internal diameter that is commonly used range from change, except in some special cases such as in cascade
0.031" to 0.065" and the outer diameter from 0.083" to 0.130". condensers, where the external fluid (another refrigerant)
evaporates.
Float Valve EVAPORATORS
Float Valve is actuated by a float that is immersed in the liquid The liquid refrigerant evaporates by extracting heat from an
refrigerant. Both low-side float and high side-float are used to external fluid (low temperature heat source).
control the flow of liquid refrigerant. The external fluid may not undergo phase change, for example
The low-side float helps to maintain a constant level of liquid if the system is used for sensibly cooling water, air or some
refrigerant in the evaporator. It opens when there is no liquid other fluid.
in the evap. and closes when there is liquid in the evap.
There are many refrigeration and air conditioning
The high-side float is located at the high pressure side of the applications, where the external fluid also undergoes phase
system and maintain a constant level of refrigerant in the change.
condenser. When the compressor operates, the condensed
refrigerant flows to the float chamber and opens the valve.
This causes the refrigerant to flow into the evaporator where it For example, in a typical summer air conditioning system, the
is stored. As the liquid level falls in the float chamber, the valve moist air is dehumidified by condensing water vapour and then,
opening will close hence preventing the liquid from flowing to removing the condensed liquid water. In many low
the evap. temperature refrigeration applications freezing or frosting of
evaporators takes place. These aspects have to be considered
while designing condensers and evaporators.
EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS pressure and high temperature state of the vapor refrigerant is
(Introduction) then converted to liquid at the cond. It is designed to condense
Guce, Kaye A. effectively the compressed refrigerant vapor.
Hernandez, Reymond B. THREE TYPES OF CONDENSING UNIT
ME - 4104 Air-Cooled types are usually used in the residential and small
What is Evaporation? offices applications. They are used in small capacity systems
Evaporation is the process of a substance in a liquid state below 20 tons. The advantages of using this design include not
changing to a gaseous state due to an increase in temperature having to do water piping, not necessary to have water disposal
and/or pressure. system, saving in water costs and not much scaling problems
Evaporation is a type of vaporization that occurs on the surface caused by the mineral content of the water. It is also easier to
of a liquid as it changes into the gas phase when it reaches its install and has lower initial cost. There isn't much maintenance
boiling point. problems.The disadvantages are that it requires higher power
Evaporation is a fundamental part of the water cycle and is per ton of refrigeration, has shorter compressor life and on
constantly occurring throughout nature. days when most cooling is required, the least is available.
EVAPORATOR
An evaporator is a device in a process used to turn the liquid Water-Cooled There are 3 types commonly being used. They
form of a chemical substance such as water into its gaseous- are shell and tube, shell and coil, and double tube. The most
form/vapor. The liquid is evaporated, or vaporized, into a gas commonly used is the shell and tube type and are usually
form of the targeted substance in that process. available from two tons up to couple of hundred tons. This
Evaporator is an important component together with other design has lower power requirements per ton of refrigeration
major components in a refrigeration system such as and the compressors can last longer compared to the air-
compressor, condenser and expansion device. The reason cooled type. A water cooling tower is frequently used for higher
for refrigeration is to remove heat from air, water or other capacity application.
substance. It is here that the liquid refrigerant is expanded and Evaporative type which is a combination of water and air-
evaporated. cooled.

It is here that the liquid refrigerant is expanded and

evaporated. It acts as a heat exchanger that transfers heat from EVAPORATOR AND CONDENSER IN VAPOR COMPRESSION
the substance being cooled to a boiling temperature. CYCLE

Evaporator Design Factors Refrigerant flows through the compressor, which

Pressure Drop The evap. must have sufficient space for the raises the pressure of the refrigerant. Next the refrigerant flows
circulation of the refrigerant without too much pressure drop through the condenser, where it condenses from vapor form to
between the outlet and the inlet. liquid form, giving off heat in the process. The heat given off is
Temperature The evap. must have enough surface to absorb what makes the condenser "hot to the touch." After the
the required heat load in order to ensure the temperature condenser, the refrigerant goes through the expansion valve,
difference between the substance being cooled and the where it experiences a pressure drop. Finally, the refrigerant
refrigerant is not excessive. goes to the evaporator. The refrigerant draws heat from the
Liquid and Refrigerant Vapor The evap. must have enough evaporator which causes the refrigerant to vaporize. The
space for the liquid refrigerant and the vapor to separate from evaporator draws heat from the region that is to be cooled. The
the liquid. vaporized refrigerant goes back to the compressor to restart
the cycle.
What is Condensation? THERMAL DESIGN OF EVAPORATORS
Condensation is the change of the physical state of Casas, Charish B.
matter from gas phase into liquid phase, and is the reverse ME-4104
of vaporization. The word most often refers to the water cycle. ME 415 – Refrigeration Systems
Condensation is the process by which water vapor in the air is
changed into liquid water. In other words, the water in the air,
a gas known as water vapor, from your hot shower cooled
when it met the surface of the cold mirror. This caused the Compared to the design of refrigerant condensers, the design
water vapor to condense, or turn into its liquid form. of refrigerant evaporators is more complex. The complexity
CONDENSER arises due to the following factors:
A condenser is a device or unit used to condense a substance On the refrigerant side, the heat transfer coefficient varies
from its gaseous to its liquid state, by cooling it. In so doing, the widely when evaporation takes place in tubes due to changing
latent heat is given up by the substance and transferred to the flow regimes. Accurate estimation of heat transfer coefficient is
surrounding environment. thus difficult
In a cooling cycle of a refrigeration system, heat is absorbed by On the external fluid side, if the external fluid is air (as in air
the vapor refrigerant in the evaporator followed by the conditioning and cold storage applications), in addition to
compression of the refrigerant by the compressor. The high sensible heat transfer, latent heat transfer also takes place as
moisture in air may condense or even freeze on the evaporator Classification of Condensers
surface. The evaporator surface may be partly dry and partly Based on the external fluid, condensers can be classified as:
wet, depending upon the operating conditions. Hence, mass
transfer has to be considered in the design. If frost formation a) Air cooled condensers
due to freezing of moisture takes place, then heat transfer b) Water cooled condensers, and
resistance varies continuously with time. c) Evaporative condensers
Air cooled condenser
The lubricating oil gets separated in the evaporator tubes due Air is used as fluid for cooling purpose i.e. refrigerant rejects
to low miscibility of oil at evaporator temperature and heat to air flowing over a condenser.
pressure. The separation of oil affects both heat transfer and Further Classifications:
pressure drop characteristics. A minimum refrigerant velocity 1. Natural Convection Type:
must be provided for oil carry over in direct expansion type The finned type condensers are mounted either below the
evaporators. refrigerator at an angle or on the backside of the refrigerator.
Compared to condenser, refrigerant pressure drop in In case, it is mounted below, then the warm air rises up and to
evaporator is more critical as it has significant influence on the assist it an air envelope is formed by providing a jacket on
performance of the refrigeration system. Hence, multiple backside of the refrigerator. The fin spacing is kept large to
circuits may have to be used in large systems to reduce minimize the effect of fouling by dust and to allow air to flow
pressure drops. Refrigerant velocity has to be optimized taking freely with little resistance.
pressure drop and oil return characteristics into account. A thin wires are welded to the serpentine tube coil. The wires
act like fins for increased heat transfer area. Figure 1. shows
Under part-load applications, there is a possibility of the schematic of a wire-and-tube type condenser commonly
evaporator flooding and compressor slugging. This aspect has used in domestic refrigerators. Hence these condensers are
to be considered at the time of evaporator design. used for small capacity refrigeration systems like household
COMPARISON OF AIR COOLED AND WATER COOLED refrigerators and freezers.
CONDENSERS Natural Convection Type:
Matira, Glessie Marie P. Air cooled condenser
ME-4104 2. Forced Convection Type:
Air cooled vs water cooled condensers In forced convection type condensers, the circulation of air
over the condenser surface is maintained by using a fan or a
Advantages and disadvantages blower.
Air-cooled condensers are simple in construction since no These condensers are normally uses fins on air- side for good
pipes are required for air. Further, the disposal of warm air is heat transfer. The fins can be either plate type or annular type.
not a problem and it is available in plenty. The fouling of Forced convection type condensers are commonly used in
condenser is small and maintenance cost is low. However, since window, air conditioners, water coolers and packaged air
the specific heat of air is one fourth of that of water and conditioning plants.
density is one thousandth of that of water, volume flow rates Forced Convection Type
required are very large. The thermal conductivity is small; Water Cooled Condenser
hence heat transfer coefficient is also very small. Also, air is Depending upon the construction it is further Classified as:
available at dry-bulb temperature while water is available at a
lower temperature, which is 2 to 3 o C above the wet-bulb 1.Double pipe or tube-in-tube type
temperature. The temperature rise of air is much larger than 2.Shell-and-coil type
that of water, therefore the condenser temperature becomes 3.Shell-and-tube type
large and COP reduces. Its use is normally restricted to 10 TR Water Cooled Condenser
although blower power goes up beyond 5 TR. In systems up to 1. Double Type Tube-In-Tube type:
3 TR with open compressors it is mounted on the same chassis Double pipe condensers are normally used up to 10 TR
as the compressor and the compressor motor drives the capacity.
condenser fan also. In middle-east countries where is shortage The cold water flows through the inner tube.
of fresh water these are used up to 100 TR or more. Refrigerant flows through the annulus in counter flow.
Headers are used at both the ends to make the length of the
Advantages and disadvantages condenser small and reduce pressure drop.
The air-cooled condensers cost two to three times more The refrigerant in the annulus rejects a part of its heat to the
than water-cooled condensers. The water-cooled condenser surroundings by free convection and radiation.
requires cooling tower since water is scarce in municipality The heat transfer coefficient is usually low because of poor
areas and has to be recycled. Water from lakes and rivers liquid refrigerant drainage if the tubes are long.
cannot be thrown back in warm state since it affects the marine Double Type Tube-In-Tube type:
life adversely. Increased first cost and maintenance cost of Water Cooled Condenser
cooling tower offsets the cost advantage of water-cooled 2. Shell-and-coil type:
condenser. Fouling of heat exchange surface is a big problem in These condensers are used in systems up to 50 TR capacity.
use of water. The water flows through multiple coils, which may have fins to
increase the heat transfer coefficient. The refrigerant flows refrigerant whereas steel pipe is employed with large
through the shell. evaporators using ammonia as refrigerant.
In smaller capacity condensers, refrigerant flows through coils Used in household refrigerators.
while water flows through the shell. Principle same as dry expansion type evaporator.
Figure 4 shows a shell-and-coil type condenser. When water Plate surface Evaporator
flows through the coils, cleaning is done by circulating suitable Made in different designs
chemicals through the coils. Tubing is attached to the plates whereas in other cases two
Shell-and-coil type: sheets may be pressed together to provide a path for
Water Cooled Condenser refrigerant flow between them.
3. Shell-and-tube type: Used in domestic refrigerators or frozen food industry.
Used in systems from 2 TR upto thousands of TR capacity. Finned Tube evaporator
The refrigerant flows through the shell while water flows Finned coils are bare tube coils upon which metal plates or fins
through the tubes in single to four passes. have been installed.
The condensed refrigerant collects at the bottom of the shell. Fins increase the surface area and heat transfer rate
The liquid refrigerant is drained from the bottom to the Best suited for window type AC and other air-cooling
receiver. application where temperature is maintained above 1˚C.
A vent connecting the receiver to the condenser for smooth Adding a fan to the finned evaporator increases the
drainage of liquid refrigerant. performance.
The most common type is horizontal shell type. Finned Tube evaporator
Vertical shell-and-tube type condensers are usually used with EFFECTS OF AIR AND NON-CONDENSABLES
ammonia in large capacity systems so that cleaning of the tubes -Balmes, A.
is possible from top while the plant is running What is a non-condensable gas?
Shell-and-tube type: A gas from chemical or petroleum processing units (such as
Evaporative Condenser distillation columns or steam ejectors) that is not easily
Both air and water are used to extract heat from the condensed by cooling; consists mostly of nitrogen, light
condensing refrigerant. hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, or other gaseous materials.
Evaporative condensers combine the features of a cooling Effect in refrigeration condensers
tower and water-cooled condenser in a single unit. Reduces the heat transfer area
In these condensers the water is sprayed from top part on a Non-condensables occupy condenser coil space that is normally
bank of tubes carrying the refrigerant and air is induced used to condense refrigerants. Because of this wasted
upwards. There is a thin water film around the condenser tubes condenser space, the proper amount of heat cannot be
from which evaporative cooling takes place. rejected.
The heat transfer coefficient for evaporative cooling is very
large and can be operated at low condensing temperatures Inefficiency of the system
(about 11 to 13 K above the wet bulb temperature of air). If you do get non-condensables in the system, you will have
The role of air is primarily to increase the rate of evaporation high head pressure with high sub-cooling (cool liquid line)
of water. before you get the system fully charged. Suction pressure may
The required air flow rates are in the range of 350 to 500 m /h be low and system performance will be poor.
per TR of refrigeration capacity
Evaporative Condenser A basic law of Chemistry is that in a mixture of gases, each gas
Classification of evaporator exerts its own pressure independently of the others, and the
Flooded Type Evaporator total pressure of the system is the sum of the individual
The amount of liquid refrigerant circulated through the pressures.
evaporator is considerably in excess of that which can be
vaporised. Whenever a system is running with abnormally high
Float valve is used for maintaining the constant liquid level. compressor head pressure, air (non-condensables) in the
Accumulator is used to prevent liquid carry over to compressor. system is a prime suspect. 
Give high rate of heat transfer • Used in large installations, EFFECTS OF AIR AND NON-CONDESABLE GASES IN
chemical and food processing industries. REFRIGERATION CONDENSERS
Flooded Type Evaporator What is Non-Condensable Gas?
Dry or direct expansion type evaporator Non-condensable gases, as the name implies, are not able to
Amount of liquid refrigerant fed into the evaporator is limited condense inside a refrigeration or air conditioning condenser
to that which can be completely vaporised by the time it unlike refrigerant gases.
reaches the end of evaporator. This can have a serious impact on system operating conditions,
Mostly used in producing refrigeration and having capacity energy efficiency, and lifetime of a system.
below 150 tonnes of refrigeration. HOW DOES NCGs GET INTO A SYSTEM?
Bare tube evaporator
Usually constructed of either steel pipe or copper tubing. This is usually a problem with high boiling point
Copper tubing is used in small evaporators using freon as refrigerants such as R 11, R113 and R718 (water), which
operate under vacuum leading to air leakage into the system. Refrigerants In The Future?
In addition, some air may be left behind before the system is Ozone Depletion & Montreal Protocol
evacuated and charged with refrigerant. If some non- • Alternative Refrigerants
condensable gases or air enters the system, it will collect in the
condenser where they affect performance in two ways:
History of Refrigerants
1. Condensation takes place at saturation pressure 1830s - Jacob Perkins - Vapor Compression (ether)
corresponding to condenser pressure, which will be the partial • 1851 - John Gorrie - Patent for Air Cycle
pressure of refrigerant in mixture of refrigerant and air in this 1859 - R-717 / R-718 (Ammonia / Water)
case. The total pressure will be the sum of these two partial 1866 - CO2 - Marine Applications
pressures which will be high and the compressor has to work 1873 - R-717 (Ammonia) Commercial Refrigeration Carl Linde
against this pressure ratio hence the work requirement will 1875 - R-764 (Sulfur dioxide)
increase. 1920s -R-600a (Isobutane) & R-290 (Propane)
1922 - Willis Carrier - R-1130 (Dielene)
2. Non-condensable gases do not diffuse throughout the 1926 - R-30 (Methylene Chlorid
condenser as the refrigerant condenses. They cling to the tubes Toxicity - Best Minds Tried to Solve
and reduce the precious heat transfer area. The reduction in Solving Problem of Toxicity was a Large Problem to
heat transfer area causes temperature difference between cold Development of Refrigeration
water and refrigerant to increase. This raises the condenser
temperature and the corresponding pressure thereby reducing 1927 Leo Szilard &
the COP. Albert Einstein Improved on von Platen / Munters
Absorption Design Electromagnetic Pumping
Patent
GROUP 3
Caringal, Joshua Challenged to Find Refrigerant:
De Jesus, Kristian Non-flammable
Garcia, Steven John
Lajara, Errold Joshua Good Stability
Lamboloto, Bryan Christian
Luya, James Keith Low Toxicity
Nicor, Johnlen
Pesa, Julius Ceasar Atmospheric Boiling Point between -40℃& 0℃
Sandoval, John Adrian Common Refrigerants in 1920s
Sale, Patrick Ammonia (R-717)
Virrey, Ronnie
Carbon Dioxide

Refrigerants and their Application Sulfur Dioxide

Prepared by:
Group 3 Hydrocarbons
What is Refrigerant?
In a refrigerating system, the medium of heat transfer which Methyl Choride
picks up heat by evaporating at a low temperature and
pressure, and gives up heat on condensing at a higher Water
temperature & pressure. Refrigerant Chemistry
Fluorocarbons
• (Refrigerating fluid) fluid used for heat transfer in a
refrigerating system which absorbs heat at a low temperature • CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs & HFOs
and low pressure of the fluid and transfers heat at a higher
temperature and higher pressure of the fluid, usually involving • Limited Combinations
changes of state of the fluid.
– Adding Chlorine Or Bromine Increases ODP
Topics
Introduction – Adding Fluorine Increases GWP
History of Refrigerants
Basic Refrigerant Chemistry – Adding Hydrogen Increases Flammability And Lowers
Refrigerant Properties Atmospheric Lifetime
Refrigerant Applications
Natural Refrigerants depends mainly on the presence of chlorine or bromine in the
• Ammonia R-717 – Efficient molecules, refrigerants having either chlorine (i.e., CFCs and
HCFCs) or bromine cannot be used under the new regulations
– B2L Classification
b) Global Warming Potential (GWP): Refrigerants should have
– Industrial Applications as low a GWP value as possible to minimize the problem of
global warming. Refrigerants with zero ODP but a high value of
• Water R-718 GWP (e.g. R134a) are likely to be regulated in future.

– Absorption Chillers c) Total Equivalent Warming Index (TEWI): The factor TEWI
considers both direct (due to release into atmosphere) and
– Centrifugal Compressors indirect (through energy consumption) contributions of
refrigerants to global warming. Naturally, refrigerants with as a
– Axial Flow Compressors low a value of TEWI are preferable from global warming point
of view.
• Carbon Dioxide R-744 – Low Critical Point

Refrigerant selection criteria: d) Toxicity: Ideally, refrigerants used in a refrigeration system

Selection of refrigerant for a particular application is should be nontoxic. However, all fluids other than air can be
based on the following requirements: called as toxic as they will cause suffocation when their
i. Thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties concentration is large enough. Thus toxicity is a relative term,
which becomes meaningful only when the degree of
ii. Environmental and safety properties, and concentration and time of exposure required to produce
harmful effects are specified. Some fluids are toxic even in
iii. Economics small concentrations. Some fluids are mildly toxic, i.e., they are
Thermodynamic and Thermo-physical Properties: dangerous only when the concentration is large and duration of
a) Suction pressure: At a given evaporator temperature, the exposure is long. Some refrigerants such as CFCs and HCFCs are
saturation pressure should be above atmospheric for non-toxic when mixed with air in normal condition. However,
prevention of air or moisture ingress into the system and ease when they come in contact with an open flame or an electrical
of leak detection. Higher suction pressure is better as it leads to heating element, they decompose forming highly toxic
smaller compressor displacement elements (e.g. phosgene-COCl2). In general the degree of
hazard depends on:
b) Discharge pressure: At a given condenser temperature, the - Amount of refrigerant used vs total space
discharge pressure should be as small as possible to allow light- - Type of occupancy - Presence of open flames
weight construction of compressor, condenser etc. - Odor of refrigerant, and
- Maintenance condition
c) Pressure ratio: Should be as small as possible for high Thus from toxicity point-of-view, the usefulness of a
volumetric efficiency and low power consumption particular refrigerant depends on the specific application.

d) Latent heat of vaporization: Should be as large as possible so

that the required mass flow rate per unit cooling capacity will
be small e) Flammability: The refrigerants should preferably be non-
flammable and nonexplosive. For flammable refrigerants
special precautions should be taken to avoid accidents.

Environmental and Safety Properties: Based on the above criteria, ASHRAE has divided
Next to thermodynamic and thermophysical properties, refrigerants into six safety groups (A1 to A3 and B1 to B3).
the environmental and safety properties are very important. In Refrigerants belonging to Group A1 (e.g. R11, R12, R22, R134a,
fact, at present the environment friendliness of the refrigerant R744, R718) are least hazardous, while refrigerants belonging
is a major factor in deciding the usefulness of a particular to Group B3 (e.g. R1140) are most hazardous.
refrigerant. The important environmental and safety properties
are: Other important properties are:

a) Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP): According to the Montreal f) Chemical stability: The refrigerants should be chemically
protocol, the ODP of refrigerants should be zero, i.e., they stable as long as they are inside the refrigeration system.
should be non-ozone depleting substances. Refrigerants having
non-zero ODP have either already been phased-out (e.g. R11, g) Compatibility with common materials of construction (both
R12) or will be phased-out in near-future(e.g. R22). Since ODP metals and nonmetals)
 designated by 400 series.

h) Miscibility with lubricating oils: Oil separators have to be Azeotropic mixtures:

used if the refrigerant is not miscible with lubricating oil (e.g.
ammonia). Refrigerants that are completely miscible with oils R 500: Mixture of R 12 (73.8 %) and R 152a (26.2%)
are easier to handle (e.g. R12). However, for refrigerants with
limited solubility (e.g. R22) special precautions should be taken R 502: Mixture of R 22 (48.8 %) and R 115 (51.2%)
while designing the system to ensure oil return to the
compressor i) Dilelectric strength: This is an important property R503: Mixture of R 23 (40.1 %) and R 13 (59.9%)
for systems using hermetic compressors. For these systems the
refrigerants should have as high a dielectric strength as possible R507A: Mixture of R 125 (50%) and R 143a (50%)

j) Ease of leak detection: In the event of leakage of refrigerant Zeotropic mixtures:

from the system, it should be easy to detect the leaks.
R404A : Mixture of R 125 (44%), R 143a (52%) and R 134a (4%)

Economic Properties R407A : Mixture of R 32 (20%), R 125 (40%) and R 134a (40%)
The refrigerant used should preferably be inexpensive and
easily available. R407B : Mixture of R 32 (10%), R 125 (70%) and R 134a (20%)
Designation of refrigerants: Figure 26.1 shows the
classification of fluids used as refrigerants in vapour R410A : Mixture of R 32 (50%) and R 125 (50%)
compression refrigeration systems. Since a large number of
refrigerants have been developed over the years for a wide
variety of applications, a numbering system has been adopted
to designate various refrigerants. From the number one can get
some useful information about the type of refrigerant, its
chemical composition, molecular weight etc. All the iv) Hydrocarbons:
refrigerants are designated by R followed by a unique number.
Propane (C3H8) : R 290
i) Fully saturated, halogenated compounds: These refrigerants n-butane (C4H10) : R 600
are derivatives of alkanes (CnH2n+2) such as methane (CH4), iso-butane (C4H10) : R 600a
ethane (C2H6). These refrigerants are designated by R XYZ,
where: Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:
R1150 (C2H4)
X+1 indicates the number of Carbon (C) atoms
Y-1 indicates number of Hydrogen (H) atoms, and
Z indicates number of Fluorine (F) atoms
Generation of Refrigerants
The balance indicates the number of Chlorine atoms. Only Either or all of the 4 listed requirements are
2 digits indicates that the value of X is zero. demanding the invention of new generation refrigerants one
after another (Calm 2008).

ii) Inorganic refrigerants: These are designated by number 7 • Zero ozone depletion potential (ODP)
followed by the molecular weight of the refrigerant (rounded- • low global warming potential (GWP)
off). • short atmospheric lifetime (tatm)
• high efficiency.

Ex.: 1st Generation Refrigerants

Ammonia: Molecular weight is 17, ∴ the designation is R 717 First generation refrigerants, used for almost one hundred
years (1830 ~ 1930 ), were a variety of volatile compounds
Carbon dioxide: Molecular weight is 44, ∴ the designation is R ( ethers,CO2,NH3, SO2,HCs,H2O etc. ), that worked.
744
Ammonia (NH3), methyl chloride (CH3Cl), and sulfur dioxide
Water: Molecular weight is 18, ∴ the designation is R 718 (SO2) are toxic gases. Several fatal accidents occurred in the
1920s because of methyl chloride leakage from refrigerators,
iii) Mixtures: which pushed the entire world to look for next generation
Azeotropic mixtures are designated by 500 series, where refrigerants
as zeotropic refrigerants (e.g. non-azeotropic mixtures) are
2nd Generation Refrigerants

CFCs (1930s) and later HCFCs (1940s) were invented by Thomas

Midgley Jr. (aided by Charles Franklin Kettering). GROUP 4
Arabe, Carl Yves
As per the patent no. 2104882 (1931) of Thomas Midgley Jr., Baes, Melanie
these halogen derivatives of aliphatic mono-fluorides may be Bagon, Emmanuel
represented by the formula Chavez, Marco Ruzzel
Delos Reyes, Kurt Reiden
CnHmFpXr in which De Vera, Darren Clarisse
Gupo, James Adrian
C represents carbon and n is the number of carbon atoms Roan, Christian Joshua
in the molecule which is always equal to one or more. H Ronquillo, Kris Adam Paul
represents hydrogen and m is the number of atoms thereof, Rosal, Franklin Jr.
which may equal zero and still fulfill the requirements of Sevilla, Ronald Wilmer
invention. F represents fluorine and p is the number of atoms
thereof which is always equal to one or more. X represents Parameters for Heatload Calculation
chlorine, bromine or iodine or combinations thereof and r is Group 4
the total number of such atoms. r may be zero when p is ME-4104
greater than one Establish the Design Temperature

3rd Generation Refrigerants Inside Temperatures

The third generation of refrigerants includes chemical groups,

such as hydro-fluoro-carbons (HFCs), that do not damage the Outside Temperatures
ozone layer as that was the perceived environmental danger at Extensive studies have been made of weather bureau records
the time. However, as the effects of refrigerant leakages on for many years to arrive at suitable outdoor design
global warming and climate change has become evident, next temperatures. For air conditioning or refrigeration applications,
generation refrigerants are required. the maximum load occurs during the hottest weather.

4th Generation Refrigerants ALLOWANCE FOR RADIATION FROM THE SUN

The primary radiation factor involved in the refrigeration
It is interesting that chemicals used in the first generation load is heat gain from the sun’s rays. If the walls of the
are being reconsidered as possible fourth generation refrigerated space are exposed to the sun, additional
refrigerants. The `synthetic refrigerants' such as HFCs are being heat will be added to the heat load.
replaced with HFOs (R1234ze, R12234yf) or `natural
refrigerants'.
RECOMMENDED INSULATION THICKNESS
As the desired storage temperature decreases, the
refrigeration load increases, and as the evaporating
The concerns for safety, endurance and efficiency that temperature decreases, the compressor efficiency
encouraged evolution away from these `natural refrigerants' in decreases.
the past are still relevant now. For modern refrigerants there
are even more essential characteristics to be considered. These Therefore, from a practical and economic
include: standpoint, the insulation thickness must be increased
as the storage temperature decreases.
Propane (R-290) and CO2 (R-744) are being proposed as
new generation refrigerants, CO2 is nonflammable, non-ozone Determining the Size
depleting, non-toxic and has a GWP of 1. Heating and cooling loads are the measure of energy needed to
be added or removed from a space by the HVAC system to
provide the desired level of comfort within a space. Right-sizing
What is ODP? the HVAC system begins with an accurate understanding of the
heating and cooling loads on a space. Right-sizing is selecting
Common Refrigerant Types and Applications HVAC equipment and designing the air distribution system to
meet the accurate predicted heating and cooling loads of the
house. The values determined by the heating and cooling load
calculation process will dictate the equipment selection and
duct design to deliver conditioned air to the rooms of the conduction. The amount of heat depends on the wall material
house, right-sizing the HVAC system. The heating and cooling and its alignment with respect to sun. 
load calculation results will have a direct impact on first The heat gained by the walls in day-time gets stored in them,
construction costs along with the operating energy efficiency, and it is released into the rooms at the night time thus causing
occupant comfort, indoor air quality, and building durability. excessive heating of the room. If the walls of the room are
insulated the amount of heat gained by them reduces
drastically.

Multi-tier racks Heat gained by the roof and partitions

It is supported by either pallet racking or shelving to eliminate  If the roof is exposed directly to the sun, it absorbs maximum
the need for a structural floor. It increases floor space and heat. If there is other room above the air-conditioned room,
optimizes storage capacity by using the height of the building. then the amount of heat gained by the roof reduces. The heat
This shelving system is perfect where floor space is limited or gained by the partitions of the room depends upon the type of
there is good building height available. This is because it utilizes partition. 
this space that under normal circumstances can’t used. Multi-
tier shelving systems can increase the amount of storage
capacity. Tiered storage structures must comply with Building  Heat gained by the windows
Regulations. Windows of the room are exposed directly to the surrounding
and the heat from the sun enters the room by radiation. As in
the case of the walls, the heat gained by the rooms through
windows depends on their alignment. If there are sufficient
curtains on the windows and the external awning the amount
Other considerations of heat gained by radiation reduces.
A more accurate heat load calculation for any type of room or Transmission Load Calculations
building The insulation requirements of refrigerated spaces are
The heat gain of a room or building depends on: much greater than the requirements of air conditioned spaces.
The size of the area being cooled This is primarily due to the greater temperature difference
The size and position of windows, and whether they have across the wall, roof and floor. It is also driven by the higher
shading energy cost of a low temperature refrigeration cycle.
The number of occupants Additionally, this greater temperature difference also creates
Heat generated by equipment and machinery more vapor pressure drive. This mean that the water vapor
Heat generated by lighting pressure in the ambient air outside of the refrigerated space is
By calculating the heat gain from each individual item and much greater than the water vspor pressure inside the
adding them together, an accurate heat load figure can be refrigerated space. This creates a large moisture driving force
determined. that requires a substantial vapor barier that is much greater
than the “tar paper”, poly wraps or foil insulation facing used in
residential or commercial construction.
Determining the Ambient Solar Exposure
Solar Heat Gain
There are three different ways in which heat from the sun can Insulated Panel Wall Section
reach interior spaces - conduction, convection and radiation The walls of most insulated spaces todat are constructed of
Conduction occurs across walls and roofs, since they are interlocking insulated panels. These panels are consructed as a
exposed to a temperature difference between building interiors sandwitch of metal - foam isulation - metal. The seams are
and the warmer outdoor environment. interlocking and caulked to retard vapor flow. Smaller buildings
may use interlocking panels for the roof as well.

Convection refers to heat transfer due to the bulk movement of

hot outdoor air, or indoor air movement between surfaces at
different temperatures.  Roof Section
radiation is a direct form of heat transfer that occurs when
sunlight enters buildings through windows or other transparent The walls of most insulated spaces today are constructed of
surfaces. Both radiation and convection can interact with interlocking insulated panels. These panels are constructed as a
conduction at the surfaces of walls and roofs. For many sandwich of metal – foam insulation – meatal. The seams are
buildings, the sun is the single largest source of heat. interlocking and caulked to retard vapor flow. Smaller buildings
may use interlocking panels for the roof as well.

Heat gained by the walls

The walls of the room gain heat from the sun by way of
ROOF AND WALL HEAT GAIN (CLTD METHOD)
In CLTD/SCL/CLF method the heat gain through wall and roof is
Q = U*A*(CLTD) Fiberglass
Q = Sensible Heat Gain through Wall or Roof Fiberglass is the most common insulation used in modern
A = Surface Area of Wall or Roof times. Because of how it is made, by effectively weaving fine
U = Overall U-Value for composite Wall or Roof strands of glass into an insulation material, fiberglass is able to
CLTD=Cooling load temperature difference from ASHRAE minimize heat transfer.
table for a given
Latitude
Wall or roof type Mineral Wool
Wall or roof exposure orientation Mineral wool actually refers to several different types of
Hour of day insulation. First, it may refer to glass wool which is fiberglass
*American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air- manufactured from recycled glass. Second, it may refer to rock
Conditioning Engineers wool which is a type of insulation made from basalt. Finally, it
*Cooling Load Temperature Difference may refer to slag wool which is produced from the slag from
steel mills.
Typical Freezer Floor Constriction
Floor Construction
Cellulose
Cellulose insulation is perhaps one of the most eco-friendly
forms of insulation. Cellulose is made from recycled cardboard,
paper, and other similar materials and comes in loose form.

Floor Slab
Has heating pipe to control temp Polyurethane Foam
Polyurethane rigid foam is the insulating material which is most
widely used throughout the world for refrigerators and
Compacted Soil freezers.

Insulation of Materials
Thermal Insulation Materials The insulation efficiency of polyurethane foams is a key
usually in the form of boards, slabs, blocks, films, or blankets, property for the low temperature preservation of food during
retard the rate of heat transfer in conductive, convective, and processing, storage and distribution to the consumer. Without
radiant transfer modes. polyurethane insulated refrigeration, approximately 50%
percent of the world’s food would rot, heavily influencing our
daily life and food related business.
They are used within building envelopes or applied over the
surfaces of equipment, piping, or ductwork to achieve the Polyurethanes are ideal for the insulation of refrigerating
following benefits: appliances and have major advantages as they are:
Savings of energy by reducing heat loss and heat gain from the
surroundings excellent insulators
Prevention of surface condensation by increasing the surface structurally strong thanks to the rigidity of the foam and
temperature above the dew point of the ambient air adhesion of external skins (plastic and metal)
Reduction of temperature difference between the inside the most cost-effective manufacturing solution, with multiple
surface and the space air for the thermal comfort of the operations combined into one
occupants, when radiant heating or cooling is not desired effective in confined spaces, allowing the maximum amount of
Protection of the occupant from injury due to contact with hot food to be stored
pipes and equipment safe
very light, thus reducing transportation costs
affordable, keeping the costs of refrigerators and freezers down

Basic materials in the manufacture of thermal insulation for The Load Estimating Spreadsheet
building envelopes or refrigeration systems include Residential Heating and Cooling Load Calculation - 2001
Fibrous materials such as glass fiber, mineral wool, wood, cane, ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook
or other vegetable fibers (Implemented by Dr. Steve Kavanaugh)
Cellular materials such as cellular glass, foam rubber,
polystyrene, and polyurethane
Metallic reflective membranes
Infiltration load
What is an Infiltration Load? heat of 0.71, heat can be calculated as follows:
Infiltration is the unintentional or accidental introduction of
outside air into a building, typically through cracks in the LATENT HEAT OF FREEZING
building envelope and through use of doors for passage. Substances such as metals which contain no water do not have
Infiltration is sometimes called air leakage. a freezing point, and no latent heat of fusion is involved in
lowering their temperature. But most products have high
percentage of water content. In order to calculate the heat
removal required to freeze the product, only the water need to
Volume = 120 m3 be considered.
Temp in = 1 °C The heat to be removed from a product for the latent heat
Temp out = 30 °C of freezing may be calculated as follows:
Cold store air changes per day = 5 Q = W x hf
Energy/cubic meter of air = 2 KJ/°C-m3 Where: Q = BTU to be removed
W = Weight of product on pounds
Hf = latent heat of fusion, BTU/lb
Q = (changes) x (Volume) x (Energy) x (ΔT)
LATENT HEAT OF FREEZING
= 5 x (120 m3) x (2 KJ/°C-m3) x (30 °C- 1 °C) The latent heat of freezing of 1000 pounds of veal at 29°F with
the latent heat of freezing of water of 144 BTU/lb from a water
percentage of 63 %, is:

SENSIBLE HEAT BELOW FREEZING

Once the water content of the product has been frozen,
Product Load sensible cooling again can occur in the same manner as that
-composed of any heat gain occuring due to the product in the above freezing, with the exception that the ice in the product
refrigerated space causes the specific heat to change.
The heat to be removed from a product to reduce its
-The load may arise from a product placed in the temperature below freezing may be calculated as follows:
refrigerator at a temperature higher than the storage Q = W x c x (Tf-T₃)
temperature, from a chilling or freezing process, or from the Where: Q = BTU to be removed
heat of respiration of perishable products. W = weight of products in pounds
c = Specific heat below freezing
Tf = Freezing temperature
HEAT OF RESPIRATION T₃ = Final Temperature
continuing chemical reactions which produce heat. Their life
processes continue for some time after being harvested, and as
a result they give off heat.
SENSIBLE HEAT BELOW FREEZING
For example, the heat to be removed in order to cool 1000
SENSIBLE HEAT ABOVE FREEZING pounds of veal from 29°F to 0°F with specific heat of 0.39, can
Most products are at a higher temperature than the storage be calculated as:
temperature when placed in a refrigerator.

The heat to be removed from a product to reduce its

temperature above freezing may be calculated as follows: TOTAL PRODUCT LOAD
It is the sum of the individual calculations for the sensible heat
Q = W x c x (T₁ - T₂ ) above freezing, the latent heat of freezing, and the sensible
Where: Q = BTU to be removed heat below freezing.
W= Weight of the product in pounds
c = Specific heat above freezing
T₁= Initial temperature, °F TOTAL PRODUCT LOAD
T₂= Initial temperature, °F , (freezing or above) For the forgoing example, if 1000 pounds of veal is to be cooled
from 42°F to 0°F , the total would be:
SENSIBLE HEAT ABOVE FREEZING
Example: MIscellaneous Load
What is Miscellaneous load?
The heat to be removed in order to cool 1000 pounds of veal Miscellaneous load are heat loads from lights, people and other
(whose freezing point is 29°F) from 42°F to 29°F, with specific equipment in the space. People give off heat. The harder they
work, the more heat is given off.

Sources of Heat

Prepared by:
Establish the Design Temperature - Delos Reyes, Kurt Reiden
Determining the size - Bagon, Emmanuel
Determining the Ambient Solar Exposure - Gupo, James Adrian
Transmission Load Calculations and Insulated Panel Wall
Section-Roan, Christian Joshua R.
Roof Section - De Vera, Darren Clarisse I.
Typical Freezer Floor Construction - Rosal, Franklin Jr. Q.
Insulation of Materials - Sevilla, Ronald Wilmer P.
The Load Estimating Spreadsheet - De Chavez, Marco Ruzzel J.
Infiltration Load - Arabe, Carl Yves V.
Product Load - Baes, Melanie D.
Miscellaneous Load - Ronquillo, Kris Adam Paul M.