ANTENNA DESIGN FOR IOT IN URBAN

INFRASTRUCTURE

ABDINASIR MOHAMED ABDI

SCHOOL OF COMPUTER AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS

2016
ANTENNA DESIGN FOR IOT IN URBAN
INFRASTRUCTURE

by

ABDINASIR MOHAMED ABDI

Report submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree
of Bachelor of Communication Engineering

JUNE 2016
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, and Most Merciful

Alhamdulillah Praise be to Almighty Allah the only owner (Subhanahu Wa Ta’ala)

who gave me the courage and patience to carry out this project required for the conferment
of the Bachelor Degree. Peace and blessing of Allah be upon his last prophet Mohammed
(Sallulahu-Alayhi Wassalam) and all his companions (Sahaba), (Razi-Allaho-Anhum) who
devoted their lives towards the prosperity and spread of Islam.

I would like to express my sincere appreciation and heartfelt gratitude goes to my

supervisor, DR Saidatul Norlyana Azemi for her kindness, constant endeavor, and
guidance, and the numerous moments of attention she devoted through out of this project.
This thesis would not have been possible finished without her encouragement and support.

My greatest thanks to my family, especially both my parents whose has given a lot
of love, courage, sacrifice and support. Thanks also to all my friends and colleagues who
give me ideas and support to me in order to complete this report.
Thank you all for you kindness and generosity may Allah bless you all rewarding paradise
Insha Allah.

i
 APPROVAL AND DECLARATION SHEET

This project report titled Antenna Design for IoT In Urban infrastructure was
prepared and submitted by Abdinasir Mohamed Abdi (Matrix Number: 121080079-1)
and has been found satisfactory in terms of scope, quality and presentation as partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the Bachelor of Engineering (Communication
Engineering) in University Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP).

Checked and Approved by

_____

(DR SAIDATUL NORLYANA AZEMI)

Project Supervisor

School of Computer and Communication Engineering

Universiti Malaysia Perlis

JUNE 2016

ii
 REKABENTUK ANTENNA UNTUK IOT DALAM INFRASTRUKTUR URBAN

ABSTRAK

Internet of Thing (IoT) adalah persekitaran yang mempunyai keupayaan untuk

memindahkan data melalui rangkaian tanpa memerlukan manusia ke komputer atau
interaksi antara manusia. Melalui Internet of Thing (IoT), semuanya akan tanpa wayar.
Walau bagaimanapun, dalam usaha untuk menjadikan platform utama maklumat mudah
alih penderiaan, yang kuat, teguh, antena kecil diperlukan.
Antena 3D adalah salah satu daripada antena generasi terbaru untuk kos rendah dan reka
bentuk yang kompak untuk frekuensi RFID dalam persekitaran IoT. Walau bagaimanapun,
kelemahan utama antena 3D adalah jalur lebar dan besar dalam saiz.
Tujuan tesis ini adalah untuk menyiasat dan membangunkan antena kecil 3D yang boleh
beroperasi pada kekerapan 2.45GHz dengan struktur yang mudah. Selain itu, meander line
3D antena beroperasi pada 2.45GHz pada persekitaran IoT. Baru-baru ini antena teknologi
3D dipercayai mengatasi beberapa kelemahan yang dikenal pasti dalam antena
konvensional di mana ia diperlukan untuk aplikasi tertentu. reka bentuk antena 3D adalah
berdasarkan kaedah meander line 2D di mana ia adalah bergema pada 2.45 GHz dengan
menggunakan satu set 4 x4 x 4 titik grid struktur. Dimensi saiz antena λ / 30 yang cukup
kecil untuk pelbagai aplikasi. Antena 3D adalah antena operasi tunggal yang boleh
menghantar isyarat pada 2,45 GHz dan dengan radiasi paten omni-directional. Nilai
gandaan antena 1.28 dB yang serasi untuk mana-mana peranti perubatan, dengan kecekapan
yang besar.

iii
 ANTENNA DESIGN FOR IoT IN URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE

ABSTRACT

Internet of things (IoT) is an environment that has capability to transfer data over a
network without needing human-to-computer or human to human interaction. With the
Internet of Things (IoT), everything will be wireless. Nevertheless, in order to become the
ultimate mobile information sensing platform, a powerful, robust, small antenna is required.
The 3D antenna is the one of the newest generation antennas for low cost and compact
design for RFID frequency in IoT environment. However, the main drawback of 3D
antenna is the bandwidth and bulky in size. The purpose of these theses is to investigate and
develop 3D miniature antenna that can operate at frequency of 2.45GHz with a simple
structure. Here, meander line 3D antenna operating at 2.45GHz for IoT environment is
described. Recent technology 3D antenna is believed to overcome some of the drawbacks
identified in conventional antennas where it is required for certain application. 3D antenna
design is based on 2D meander line methods where it is resonate at 2.45 GHz with using a
set of 4 x4 x 4 grid point of the structure. The dimension of antenna size is λ/30 which is
small enough for various applications. The 3D antenna is single operation antenna that can
transmit signal at 2.45 GHz and with an Omni-directional radiation patter. The gain of the
antenna is 2.7 dB that is compatible for any medical device, with a great efficiency.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i

APPROVAL AND DECLARATION SHEET ii

ABSTRAK iii

ABSTRACT iv

TABLE OF CONTENT v

LIST OF FIGURES vii

LIST OF TABLE x

LIST OF SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATION AND NOMENCLATURE xi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Project background 1

1.2 Problem statement 3

1.3 Objectives 3

1.4 Scope of Project 4

1.5 Thesis Organization 4

v
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.0 Introduction 5

2.1 History For RFID 5

2.1.1 Element OF RFID 7

2.1.2 Frequency allocation of RFID 8

2.2 Common types of RFID Antennas 9

2.2.1 Example of small RFID antenna 9

2.2.2 Example of RFID antenna using a Microstrip Patch Antenna 10

2.3 Rectangular patch Antenna 11

2.4 3D Antenna Literature Review 13

2.5 Antenna parameters 16

2.5.1 Radiation Pattern 16

2.5.2 Power Gain, G and Directivity, D 17

2.5.3 Return Loss 17

2.5.4 Bandwidth 18

2.5.5 Antenna Efficiency 19

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 20

3.1 Introduction 20

3.2 Flow chart 21

3.3 3D Antenna Design Process 22

3.4 Fabrication process 26

3.4.1 Design copper wire and ground plane 26

3.4. 2 Measurement antenna 28

vi
CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 29

4.1 Introduction 29

4.2 3D Antenna’s Results 29

4.2.1 3DAntenna’s Desig 30

4.2.2 Antenna S11 results 31

4.2.3 Radiation pattern 32

4.2.4 Gain 34

4.2.5 Efficiency 35

4.2.6 Directivity 35

4.2.7 Surface current 36

4.3 Parametric Studies 37

4.3.1 Ground plane size 37

4.3.2 Gap between the ground plane and antenna 39

CHAPTER 5CONCLUSION 40

5.1 Summary of the project 40

5.2 Recommendation 41

REFERENCES 42

APPENDICES 45

APPENDIX A 45
APPENDIX B 46

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figures No. Page

2. 1: Sensormatic and checkpoint 6

2. 2: Animal tagging 6

2. 3: Component of RFID [7] 7

2. 4: Meander line antenna 9

2. 5: Fractal line antenna 10

2. 6: The simple design of rectangular patch antenna 11

2. 7: Common shapes of Micro strip patch antenna 12

2. 8: Radiation of EM wave for Micro strip patch antenna 13

2. 9: Example of the 3D antenna in medical implanted communication service band 15

2. 10: Radiation Pattern 16

2. 11: Types of polarization 19

3. 1: flow chart of the project 21

3. 2: a) An example of a cubic meander line. b) The complete antenna with 23

3. 3: Copper wire with meander line technique 27

3. 4: Connection antenna to network analyzer 28

viii
4. 1: (a) 3D design in simulation (b) 3D designed in after fabrication 30

4. 2: 3D antenna result 31

4. 3: (a) Antenna radiation strength (b) E–field plane (c) H–field plane 33

4. 4: shows gain of the antenna 34

4. 5: 2D Antenna Radiation Pattern 35

4. 6: Surface Current Flow 36

4. 7: Ground plane result 38

4. 8: Gap between the ground plane and antenna Results 39

ix
 LIST OF TABLE

Tables No. Page

2. 1: Frequency allocation for RFID 8

3. 1: 3D antenna parameter requirement 22

4. 1: Data result of ground plane size variation 38

4. 2: Data result of the gab 39

x
 LIST OF SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS OR NOMENCLATURE

IoT Internet of Things

MEMS Micro-electromechanical System
Tx Transmitter
Rx Receiver
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
EAS Electronic Article Surveillance
MCMC Communications and multimedia commission
3D Three Dimension
MICS Medical implanted Communication Services
CST Computer Simulation Technology
SMA Sub Miniature Version A
MIMO Multiple-input Multiple-output
UWB Ultra Wide Band
GPR Ground Penetrating Radar
TEM Transverse Electromagnetic
MedRadio Medical device radio Communication Service Band
VSWR Voltage Standing Wave ratio
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
WIFI Wireless Fidelity
G Gain
D Directivity
η Efficiency
PIN Input Power
RL Return Loss
dB decibels

xi
RF Return Loss
ZL Load Impedance
ZO load and Characteristic
BW Bandwidth
S11 Return Loss
𝛤 Reflection Coefficient
FH Highest Frequency,
FL Lowest Frequency
FC Center Frequency
F Frequency

 Electric Susceptibility, Electron Affinity

L Length
λ Wave Length

C Speed of Light

xii
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1.1 Project background

The Internet of Things (IoT) is an environment that has capability to transfer data
over a network without needing human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction. IoT
has developed from the convergence of wireless technologies, Micro-electromechanical
systems (MEMS) and the Internet. Furthermore is a global social network infrastructure
based on normal and communication interoperable protocols, where real and virtual
“things” has unique characteristics, real quality, and particular personalities [1].

Recently, IoT are predictable to become active contributors in business, social

processes and information where they are allowed to cooperate and communicate between
themselves and surroundings by replacing information and data senses about the
environments, while responding independently to “real /physical world” events influence it
by consecutively processes that start create services and actions with or not including
directly human being interference [2].

1
 In addition the idea of Internet of Things can also be observed as an expansion of
the current communication between people and applications during the new measurement
of things interaction and integration. IoT will extend abilities of conventional and localized
exploitation of automatic identification and data capture and other interfacing technologies.
As prospective new technology IoT has great potential applications in the administration of
urban infrastructure [3].

With the Internet of Things (IoT), everything will be wireless. The physical
connection for many IoT hubs leverages legacy wired system found in homes, workplaces,
schools, industrial facilities and other areas. All the ‘things’ such as bag, cloth, shoes,
glasses, could be connected to the internet and will communicate.
Nevertheless, in order to become the ultimate mobile information sensing platform,
a powerful antenna is required. Every wireless connection needs at least two antennas
which is one for transmitter (TX) and one for receiver (RX).
Here, 3D antenna for RFID application operating at 2.45GHz for IoT environment is
described.
Radio frequency identification (RFID) is a term that is used to describe a system
that transmits the identity of a things, goods or person wirelessly or using radio waves [4].
This new technology is used in some application like electronic toll collection, access
control, asset identification, retail item management, animal tracking and vehicle security.
The label tags that used before is generally cannot operate as well on the surface of
conducting materials due to the degradation of the tag performance.

Technology of radio communication was rapid growth in last 10 years and improves
their performance in order to make it smaller, cheaper and reliable. A basic component of
RFID is RFID tags, readers or antenna and transceiver.

2
1.2 Problem statement

The 3D antenna is the one of the newest generation antennas for low cost and
compact design for RFID frequency in IoT environment.
Nevertheless, the main drawback of 3D antenna is the narrow bandwidth and the
size of the metallic surface or big size of ground plane. In single element antenna, the
radiation pattern is usually very wide and directivity is relatively low.

Identifying this, several leading antenna producers keep on to expanding their

standard antenna portfolios focusing low to medium volume applications. Standard
antennas have numerous elements or features that ease RF system design:

 Typically tuned for particular frequencies for example RFID frequency.

 Small, lightweight and easily mounted.
 Any negligible antenna impedance matching can be switched without active
components.
 High quality, competitive in cost and provide shorter lead times

1.3 Objectives

The objectives of this project are:

 To design and optimize a new type of miniature 3D antenna with similar
performance to the conventional (larger) ones for IoT application in
Urban Infrastructure
 To investigate and develop 3D miniature antenna that can operate at
frequency of 2.45GHz with a simple structure.

3
1.4 Scope of Project

This research mainly focuses scope of the project 3D antenna for radio frequency
identifier (RFID) system in IoT Application. The antenna was designed to operate 2.45GHz
with less than -10db return loss.
The scope of this project will consist of two main parts, simulation and fabrication
by using CST microwave studio software.

1.5 Thesis Organization

This thesis is composed of five chapters. That will explain in details all the work
carried out during my research project progress is given below:
Chapter one is summarized the introduction to the project background, objectives,
problem statement, scope of project and issues related RFID application system.

Chapter two introduces the history of RFID and antenna description. It also
discusses structure of a 3D antenna using meander line techniques, including the antenna
basic parameters, feeding methods, methods of analysis, advantage and disadvantage of
patch antennas.

Chapter three is mainly consists of project methodology and explanation about the
design and fabrication process for 3D small antenna for IOT environment as well as flow
chart that shows the process of the design.

Chapter four will explain in detail all the results such as simulations results,
parameter studies, fabrication method, compared the results of simulation and fabrication.

Chapter five consists of discussion and conclusion of the project.

4
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses the history of the beginning of RFID antenna, RFID key’s

components and structure of 3D antenna. Consequently, brief introduction 3D miniature

antenna and antenna parameters as well.

2.1 HISTORY FOR RFID

Radio frequency identification (RFID) is a new technology that comes after bar
coding. The purpose of both technologies is used to enhance data processes. In the 1950’s
there was a theoretical exploration of RFID techniques with a number of pioneering
research and scientific papers being published where the earliest papers exploring RFID is
by Harry Stockman entitle “Communication by means of reflected power” published in
1948. However, this technology starts to develop in era1970s [5].

Sensormatic and checkpoint (shown in Figure 2.1) are some of the examples of
commercial systems that launches with electronic article surveillance (EAS) equipment
used as an antitheft device. These systems used 1 bit tags detecting absence of a tag, were
used in retail stores attached to high value items and clothing.

5
 Figure 2.1: Sensormatic and checkpoint

Los Alamos scientific laboratory and the Swedish microwave institute foundation
are researchers, developers and academic institutions that have a good interest in RFID
during 1970[6]. Development work is becoming much well in this time and some of
application RFID such as animal tagging become commercially viable. In the 1990s the
widespread adoption of electronic toll collection was important in the United States. In
1991 an electronic tolling system opened in Oklahoma, where vehicles could pass toll
collection points at highway speeds, no toll booths. In Europe there was also considerable
interest in RFID applications including toll collections, and rail applications [6]. Shown in
Figure 2.1 is RFID on livestock.

Figure 2.2: Animal tagging

6
2.1.1 ELEMENT OF RFID

RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) is a term for technologies that is use radio
waves to automatically identify people or objects. Figure 2.3 shows RFID systems that have
three components which are RFID tags, a reader with in antenna and transceiver and a host
system or connection to an enterprise system.

Figure 2.3.Component of RFID [7]

Tags are also known as transponder transponders which is “active tags” and as
“passive tags” which is unpowered devices. The characteristic of active tags is larger and
more expensive than passive tags. While, the characteristic of passive tags has an unlimited
life, lighter, smaller and cheaper. Reader is able to detect along range.
RFID Readers sometimes referred as interrogators and it is electronic devices that
transmit and receive radio waves that uses an antenna attach at the reader. Readers not only
interrogate tags for information, but can also be used to program information to tags.

7
2.1.2. Frequency allocation of RFID

Several frequency have been assigned to RFID applications, there are 125-135 KHz,
13.56 MHz, 866-869 MHz, 902-928 MHz, 2.45(2.4-2.4835) GHz and 5.8(5.725-5.875)
GHz.
Each country has its own frequency allocation for RFID and table 2.1 shows the
frequency allocation for each country. Communications and multimedia commission
(MCMC) is the main bodies governing frequency allocation for RFID in Malaysia [8].

Table 2.1: Frequency allocation for RFID

State Frequency

Europe 865.6 - 897.6 MHz

North and south America 902 - 928 MHz

Japan 950 – 956 MHz

Malaysia 919 – 923 MHz

India 865 – 867 MHz

Korea 908.5 – 910 MHz

South Africa 865.6 -867.6 MHz

New Zealand 864 -868 MHz

Taiwan 922 – 928 MHz

China 920.5 – 924.5 MHz

Australia 920 -926 MHz

8
2.2 Common types of RFID Antennas

2.2.1 Example of small RFID antenna

One of RFID’s antennas is meander line antenna. Meander line antenna has
advantages such as small in size, low profile antenna and has a simple structure. However,
these antennas have some disadvantages, such as low radiation efficiency, when the size of
the antenna is reduced and tend to produce narrow bandwidth [9]. Shown in Figure 2.4 is an
example of meander line antenna.

Figure 2.4: Meander line antenna

In order to improve the disadvantage of meander line RFID antenna, fractal design
has been chosen in RFID. Fractal methods mean broken or irregular fragments fractals
describe a complex set of geometries ranging from self-similar. As shown in Figure 2.5,
fractal design has been found advantage from its fractal geometries. It is compact in size,
produced wideband and multiband frequency operations. Nevertheless, it has another
disadvantage, including low gain, low power handling capability, and poor power
polarization [10].

9
 Figure 2.5: Fractal line antenna

2.2.2 Example of RFID Antenna Using a Microstrip Patch Antenna

The first idea of Microstrip antenna was proposed by Deschamps in 1953 [11] and it
was patented in 1955. However, the first antenna was developed and fabricated during the
1970’s when good substrates became available [11]. The first practical antennas were
developed by Howell and Munson. Since then, extensive research and development of
Microstrip antennas and arrays, has been done. Microstrip antenna has numerous
advantages such as [12]:

i. low volume and light weight and thin profile configuration, making them
easily incorporated into any package
ii. Microsrip patch antennas are efficient radiators.
iii. It has low fabrication cost, manufactured in large quantities.
iv. Easy to integrate with microwave integrated circuit.
v. It has a support for both circular and linear polarization

10
 However, Microstrip patch antennas also have natural disadvantages of this
technology can be listed below:

i. Narrow bandwidth
ii. Relatively poor radiation efficiency
iii. They can only be used in low power applications-low power handling
capability

2.3 Rectangular patch Antenna

Microstrip antenna is also called as a patch antenna. Microstrip patch antenna

contains of a two sides. One side is a radiating patch of a dielectric substrate and the other
side is the ground plane side as shown in Figure 2.6. Generally, patch antenna consists of
materials that have good conducting properties such as Gold and Copper and it can be made
any possible shape.

Figure 2.6: The simple design of rectangular patch antenna

11
 However, in order to simplify analysis and performance predication. There are
several shapes that can be used as the radiation patch antenna. The radiating patch may be
square, rectangular, circular, elliptical, triangular, thin strip (dipole), and other common
shapes shown in Figure 2.7. And every shape has its own characteristics, but square,
rectangular, and circular are the most common configurations because of their easier
analysis and fabrication.

Figure 2.7: Common shapes of Microstrip patch antenna

For Rectangular patch antenna, the length (L) of the patch is often (0.33330λ0< L <
0.50λ0), where (λ0) is the free space wavelength. The patch is chosen to be very thin such
that (t<<λ0) (where (t) is the patch thickness). The height (h) of the dielectric substrate is
usually defined (0.0030λ0 ≤ h ≤ 0.050 λ0). The dielectric constant of the substrate (εr) is

normally in the range (2.20 ≤ εr≤ 12).

Microstrip patch antennas radiate primarily because of the fringing fields between
the patch edge and the ground plane. For better antenna performance, a thick dielectric
substrate having a low dielectric constant is desirable since this provides better efficiency,
larger bandwidth and better radiation [13] However, such a configuration leads to a larger
antenna size. Shown in Figure 2.8 is fringing field in microstrip patch antenna.

12
 Figure 2.8: Radiation of EM wave for Microstrip patch antenna

2.4 3D Antenna Literature Review

The aim of this project is to evaluate and validate a novel type of 3D miniature
antenna that is believed to overcome some of the drawbacks identified in conventional
antennas. Antenna with a small size is required for certain application.

The small antenna is easier to apply in any application of the latest technologies
which is demanded by other sector and attraction from antenna designer. There are several
technique to reduce the antenna size such as meander line and fractal design [14]. Beside,
using specific higher permittivity substrate will also decrease the antenna size as well as the
bandwidth due to the attentiveness involving the actual power field in the higher
permittivity locations. However, by reducing the size of the antenna will be increased
unwanted radiation because of the unbalance current which appears on the small ground
plane. There are mostly occurring from the plane and the input connector part.

The tunable fractal dipole technology has been proposed in order to reduce the
antenna size. The ability of fractal technique into an antenna is to decrease the size of
structure, increase operating bandwidth and directivity. However, this technique will affect
the undesirable problems because of the antenna requirement. Thus, there is another way
that tunable the convenient operation by simulation and measurement in the suitable range
and design used fractal concept which is can avoid from antenna requirement. Meanwhile,
it integrated with balun and stubs and design on how low cost material FR-4 [15].

13
 Another antenna design such as multiple input multiple output (MIMO) required the
cost restriction for their design elements in the mobile terminals, however there are not
needed restrictions on the base station. Advantages of this design are low profile,
lightweight and, low cost for printing antenna [16]

There are same by designing the ultra wide band (UWB) antenna wherever the higher
image resolutions offered that the potentially of UWB design. Moreover, this kind of
antenna also offered better target characterization. However, the UWB antenna is too long
and bulky for the compact wireless communication systems. Other than that, there are
required the balun at ground part for the feed balanced whenever it used to balance
transverse electromagnetic (TEM) horn for the ground penetrating radar (GPR)
improvement. Meanwhile, the gain increase in frequency and have low gain at lower
frequency. When designing the monopole and short horn, there will design in the same
substrate that the monopole and short horn antenna is a compact and a small size antenna
can be easily to fabricate. Some of others technique by reducing the size of the antenna is
using Meander line for a single rectangular loop antenna.

In mobile satellite communications, an isolation of diplexer is very large dimension

and not suitable for miniature antenna. Internal separation also required -90dB for
transmitting and receiving. By using ring patch antenna with a double layered self diplexing
is to overcome the problem which is compatible for reducing the size of array, but this type
still not able to radiate surrounding area.

Recently, 3D antenna has shown a capability to reduce the antenna size up to 1/30 λ.
The application is suited especially for medical implanted communications service band
(MICS, 402-405 MHz) and medical device radio communication service band ( Medradio,
401-406 MHz)[17].The application for the medical implanted communication services
(MICS) is defined that allows for range communication of λ/4 or λ/2 antennas. However,
the dimension of the antenna design is too big for the application thus will be not suitable
for implemented in the human body.

14
Medical implanted antenna only produced a sufficient gain (-28.5 dB), this value is
appropriate equivalent for body medium. Even though the radiation efficiency is poor the
due to the low gain value, nevertheless it’s still suitable for medical implemented
communication system. In this particular good sense, incorporated program should match a
pair of major needs a miniature and good radiation performance

Figure 2.9 shows an example of the 3D antenna in medical implanted

communication service band. Another application for 3D antenna is by implantation and
has a several function for medical device such as ECG monitoring, blood glucose
monitoring, retinal prosthesis and the latest is drug delivery systems. This system will be
used to help and improve the patient’s quality life. However, the devices normally use
batteries for the main source of power will affect the device wherever it still increased the
size and have a limitation of reducing antenna. This is because to make an establishing
performance characteristic such as gain and efficiency wherever most important is the ratio
and measurement of antenna.

Figure 2.9: Example of the 3D antenna in medical implanted communication service

band.

15
2.5: Antenna parameters

2.5.1 Radiation Pattern

The power radiated or received by an antenna is a function of the angular position

and radial distance from the antenna. The radiation pattern is good represented in the form
of a three dimensional graph of power versus elevation and azimuth angles but more
commonly represented by E-plane or H-plane where one angle is held fixed while the other
is varied as shown in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10: Radiation Pattern

The microstrip patch antenna has a radiation pattern that can be calculated easily.
The source of the radiation of the electric field at the gap of the edge of the microstrip
element and the ground plane is the key factor to the accurate calculation of the patch
antenna.

16
2.5.2. Power Gain, G and Directivity, D

Directivity is the ratio of power density in the direction of the pattern peak to the
average power density at the same distance in all directions from the antenna. The power
gain G can be related, as in equation (2.2). So that, the power gains, G is less than
directivity gain, D. For the better performance, the power gain is important for the antenna.
In practice, the power gain is restricted by various factors such as the size of the antenna.
The antenna also referred as a lossless isotropic source. This can be shown as equation
2.1[18].

G=ηD (2.2)

Where, η = Efficiency
4 pi U(θ,f)
Gain= (dimensions less) (2.3)
𝑝𝑖𝑛 (𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 )

Where, U(θ,f ) = Power density per unit solid angle)

Pin= Input power

2.5.3 Return Loss

Return loss is an important parameter when connecting an antenna. It is a way to

characterize the input and output of signal sources. The return loss is related to impedance
matching and the maximum transfer of power theory. When the load is mismatched, not all
the available power from the generator is delivered to the load. This return loss is also a
measure of the effectiveness of an antenna to deliver power from the source to the antenna.

The return loss, RL shows the level of the reflected signal with respect to the
incident signal in dB. It is defined by the ratio of the incident power of the antenna pin to the
power reflected back from the antenna of the source pref. The mathematical expression is:

17
 (𝑅𝐿) = −20 log|𝛤| (𝑑𝐵) (2.4)

Where |𝛤| is determined

(Z L  Z 0 )
|𝛤|  (2.5)
(Z L  Z 0 )

The ZL and ZO are the load and characteristic impedance

For good power transfer, the ratio pin / pref shall be high. If the return loss is low, the
standing wave phenomena’s or resonances might occur, and it will end up in the frequency
ripple or gain.
During the process of the design of microstrip patch antenna there is a response
taken from the magnitude of S11 versus the frequency which known as the return loss. In
most practical circuits a return loss value of -10 dB is good enough.

2.5.4. Bandwidth

The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as the range of usable frequencies within

which the Performance of the antenna, with respect to some characteristic, conforms to a
specified standard. The bandwidth can be defined as the ratio of the upper to lower
frequencies of acceptable operation. The bandwidth of narrowband antenna can be defined
as the percentage of the frequency difference over the centre frequency. The bandwidth is
given by the expression:

𝑓ℎ −𝑓𝑙
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝐵𝑊 = 𝑥100% (2.6)
𝑓𝑐

18
 Where:
fh= highest frequency,
fl = lowest frequency
fc = center frequency

2.5.5. Antenna Efficiency

The antenna efficiency depends on the antenna structure or the radiation resistance
while total efficiency is similar to radiation efficiency but it includes also losses due to
mismatch. The efficiency of antenna is a ration of radiated power to the input power. If the
radiated power is larger in respect of input applied power, the antenna is said to be efficient
but the efficiency always lie between zero and one. In general an antenna can be visualized
by looking at its efficiency.
.
Polarization of the antenna is defined the curve traced by the end point of the arrow
(vector) representing the instantaneous electric field. The field must be observed along the
direction of propagation. Polarization is classified as linear, circular, or elliptical. If the
vector that describes the electric field at a point in space as a function of time is always
directed along a line, the field is said to be linearly polarized. on the other hand with some
alterations on the feeding techniques can turns to a circular polarization. The main
advantage of using circular polarization is because of it as a receiver orientation so that is
can always receive a signal even from dissimilar axis of transmission. Shown in Figure
2.11. Are types of polarization which are linear and circular polarization.

Figure 2.11: Types of polarization

19
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction

This chapter gives explanation the methods used in order to get the best result of the
project, with in starting from the designing process until the testing process. The design and
simulation processes are done by using software CST Microwave Studio. The simulation
result is optimized to reach the best performance of the antenna. Then, the antenna was
fabricated in UniMAP laboratory (ACE) and the |S11| measurement will be measured using
the network analyzer.

Initially, this project starts with the project background research and the definition
problem statement. Literature review about previous research and theories have been the
basic reference in order to define the logic specification to accomplish for the 3D antenna.
The define specification will also be considered at the application, especially for the RFID.
Figure 3.1 shows as the flowing of steps required in designing the 3D antenna. Generally,
this chapter focuses on three major processes, which are: designing process, simulation
process and fabrication process.

20
3.2 Flow chart
Flow chart

Start

Research and Literature Review Study

of the Project

Antenna Design using

CST

Performance Analyze
&characterization

Satisfied No
Specification

Yes

Fabrication

Result and discussion

Report

END

Figure 3.1: Project Flow Chart

Flow chart
21
3.3 3D Antenna Design Process

Scope of the thesis was to develop and extend a new method of antenna designed in
order to get the best performance of antenna with parametric studies. As antenna
specifications, there are a few fundamental parameters in designing antenna. Fist is
operating frequency where the desired frequency of the antenna should be selected
accorded to the applications. Therefore the resonant frequency for this design is 2.45 GHz
as suitable for radio frequency identifier (RFID) applications. Second is dielectric constant
of the substrate. By using high dielectric constant substrate, it decreases the dimensions of
the antenna. A new method of designing 3D antenna is presented which introduced
rectangular in three dimensions.

A set of 64 (4x4x4) grid points were studies in the cube design antenna. This
structure of antenna using a meander line technique which is can reduce the size of the
structures up to 1/30λ. The fundamental parameter specification for the design of the 3D
antenna for RFID requirements can be concluded with the following table 3.1.

Table 3.1: 3D antenna parameter requirement

Operating frequency 2.45GHz
Efficiency >50%
Radiation pattern Omni directional
Directivity and gain Moderate
Physical profile Small, low profile and compact

22
 To obtain one half of the center fed, a 2 x 2 x 2 mm cube was chosen by using a set
of 64 grid point. The design produced a 26 cm longed wire with all point is connected
which is 1mm a part. The connections between two cubes are connected by a dipole with
1mm length.
The feed was connected in the middle of the connection. The total of all length antennas is
100 mm and total volume of dipole is 2 x 2 x 5 mm. The propose antenna structure is
shown in figure 3.2

(a) ( b)
Figure 3.2: a) An example of a cubic meander line. b) The complete antenna with
a feed point

In order to find all the possible, the actual 27 grid points with in the half volume
have been by using numbers along with the subsequent interconnection guidelines used.

 The meander line starts from one point to other half dipole on the symmetry
line for allowing the connection.
 The meander line travel through every grid point.
 The curved is only 90 degree.
 There are only three feed point on the symmetrical line.

23
 All possible permutations joining these 27 points that generate a full length meander
line antenna was produced by following these rules and applying the tree algorithm. Based
on the algorithm, a start point was selected (for example, grid point 1) before the algorithm
found the next possible points and expanded the starting point into an array of all possible
combinations.

By using meander line techniques. Smaller size of antenna will be reached. as a

result this technique is applied to 3D antenna design in order to obtain small antenna. The
antenna operating frequency is 2.45 GHz as for RFID application and the design antenna
will be analyzed to obtain more efficient and actual frequency. There are some calculation
to get the size of design depends on the frequency and length of structure. Following
calculation is used to design the 3D antenna for RFID:

Step 1: calculation the size of antenna:

c
  (3.1)
f

𝜆
Size antenna = (3.2)
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ[𝑚]

Where
F= Frequency

L=Length =4.3mm

𝜆=Wave length
C=Speed of light

24
 Calculation:

3x108
𝜆= = 0.1224m
2.45GHz

0.1224
Size antenna = = 28.5𝑚
0.0043

Therefore: the total size antenna in term of wavelength is λ/30

Step 2: determination of feed point location (x, y):

In this design, a coaxial cable type is to be used as the feeding for the antenna. The
center of the 3D antenna is taken as the origin at point 27 and the feed point location is
given by the co-ordinates (x, y) from point 27. The feed point must be located at that point
where the input impedance is 50 ohms for the resonant frequency. For different locations of
the feed point, the return loss is compared and that feed point is selected where the return
loss is most negative. Below equation is determination of feed point location:

c
  (3.3)
f

The wave number,

𝑊 1
G1= [ 1 − 2 ( ) (𝐾)2 ] (3.4)
120(𝜆 ) 24

1
Z in = (3.5)
G1

𝑍 1
R in=cos−1 (√𝑧 0 ) 𝑥 (3.6)
𝑖𝑛 𝜋

25
The parameters of 3D ANTENNA are summarized as follow:

i. Antenna width (W) = 4.3mm

ii. Antenna width (L) = 4.3mm
iii. Antenna width (H) = 4.3mm
iv. Size of the ground plane = 21.6mm x21.6 mm

3.4 Fabrication process

In this section, we discuss to verify the antenna simulation; we need to fabricate the
antenna. This antenna is fabricated manually [handmade] without any machinery
equipment. The actual size for manual fabrication should be exactly same with design
model in CST microwave.

3.4.1 Fabricate copper wire and ground plane

Copper wired shown in figure 3.3 was designed in 900 degree every curved by considering
The design mdel in CST microwave. These copper wire design need to measure exactly with
the model design because every less or more measurement will influence the simulation
result. Ground plane also is measuring by referred to the design model precisely

26
 Figure 3.3: Copper wire with meander line technique

3.4.2 Measurement antenna

The antenna is basically measured by network analyzer to get the result waveform
that must be the same with result simulation. The network analyzer is an instrument that
measures the S-paramter or network parameter which can display the waveform result.in
figure 3.4 shows network analyzer and the connection to the antenna.

27
 Antenna
Antenna SMA Cable
under Test

Figure 3.4: Connection antenna to network analyzer

28
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

This section is about the results obtained in the project both in simulation and
measurements. The simulation result is obtained by using CST MW studio in which the
antenna was designed. The measurement result is obtained when the antenna was fabricated
and assembled together and tested using network analyzer in a controlled environment. The
parameters that will be evaluated in the simulation and measurement are the S11 parameter,
VSWR, input impedance and radiation pattern. There will also be parametric study in this
chapter of the 3D antenna in terms of the ground plane, shorting pin and gab between the
ground plane and the antenna. All those parameters will be studied in the simulation part
only. Consequently, the result will be analyzed and discussed by comparing all those
parameters obtained in simulation and measurements.

4.2 3D Antenna’s Results

The simulation and measurement result that is discussed contains the return loss or
the s11 parameter of the antenna, the bandwidth of the frequencies, the input impedance, the
standing wave ratio and the radiation pattern of the antenna. All these characteristics is
showing the performance of the designed antenna so that it can be compared with those
obtained during the measurement of the fabricated antenna.

29
4.2.1 3D Antenna’s Design

The antenna was designed in CST MW studio in order to be simulated and the result
should be obtained so that the fabrication process can be conducted from that. The design of
3D antenna that operate single band 2.45GHz.The antenna is a combination of mender line
techniques implemented with 3D structure resulted to miniature size of antenna as shown in
this figure 4.1

b)
Figure 4.1: (a) 3D design in simulation (b) 3D designed in after fabrication

30
4.2.2 Antenna S11 results

The return loss shows the amount of power that is lost to the load, which is
expressed in dB (decibels) and in order to produce good performance in which most of the
power is transferred to the load, it should be less than -10dB. Based on the result obtained
in simulation process, single band operation was obtained with good return loss. The
operating frequency obtained is 2.45 GHz with return loss of -20dB. This shows that the
operating frequency has a return loss that is less than -10dB which shows that the antenna
was operating satisfactorily.
The simulation and measured result are shown in figure 4.2 where both result
simulation and measurement are approximately the same. Measurement result drops almost
at 2.45 GHz, while simulation actual result is 2.45GHz. The simulation result bandwidth is
narrow, so the percentage of bandwidth for simulation result is 0.5 % and measured result
bandwidth is 0.8% greater than simulation band with a value 0.3%. The differences are due
to the antenna copper wire angle of the design hardware that affect the antenna result. It is
happen because of manual fabrication and designing hardware where the angle is very
difficult to make it 900 which is like a sharp angle as in simulation design.

2D Graph 1

-5

-10
|S11|, dB

-15

-20

measurement result
simulation result
-25
2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0

Frequency, GHz

Figure 4.2: 3D antenna result

31
4.2.3 Radiation pattern

Radiation pattern could be the directional pattern relying to the strength to signal

radio wave from antenna. It is also outlined a new modifications regarding strength radiated

simply by a good antenna as perform in the route far from the actual antenna. From the

radiation pattern plot there can be view in two plot such as 2D plot and 3D plot for viewing

direction radiating signal form antenna. Radiation pattern are also measured using two

orthogonal polarizations, and it is normal to add together the power measured in each

polarization. By referring the axis in Figure 4.3 shows that the radiation pattern is radiate in

all direction. This 3D miniature characteristic is Omni directional which is radiate in all

angles 3600 with low gain. From the radiation patter, following parameter can be obtained

[19].

i. Gain

ii. Effective

iii. Directivity

32
 A) 3D antenna radiation pattern

b) E-field plane c) H-field plane

Figure4.3: (a) Antenna radiation strength (b) E–field plane (c) H–field plane

33
4.2.4 Gain

Antenna gain is main performance which is combined the antennas directivity and
electrical efficiency. The gain of the antenna is the amount of energy radiated in a particular
direction compared to the amount of energy directed in the same direction of an isotropic
antenna. For the 3D antenna gain value is 2.7 dB. Since the gain is low, therefore it is also
suitable for medical application. This low gain value will not affect the human body. It was
determined that the most heat of the human body can deal handle without risking permanent
damage. Otherwise, exposure to significant levels of RF energy is similar to the effects of
overexertion. Therefore high gain antenna is not suitable and compatible with medical
device which is involved human body.

Figure 4.4: shows gain of the antenna

34
4.2.5 Efficiency

Efficiency can be measured by bringing in the entire power flux or perhaps obtain
tested on the whole spherical surface. It is measured the radio antenna and that is convert
the radio frequency power straight into radiated power. Efficiency is the radio of power
actually radiated to thee power put into the antenna terminals. The good percentage
efficiency of antenna is must be more than 90% for the better radiation of antenna. This 3D
antenna for RFID is good efficiency with the percentage of efficiency is 90% as shown in
figure 4.5

Figure 4.5: 2D Antenna Radiation Pattern

4.2.6 Directivity

The directivity of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a

given direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions.
Directivity of the 3D antenna it has capability to focus energy in a specific direction when
transmitting, or receiving energy from a specific direction. 3D antenna for RFID application
radiates in all direction with directivity of 1.79dBi.

35
4.2.7 Surface current

The surface-current distribution was calculated for different antenna, such as

monopoles, dipoles, loops, and helices. The surface current of 3D antenna shows the
current flow through copper wire from feeding to the end of copper wire. The current
magnitude decrease along the copper wire as shown in figure 4.6, Because of the feed point
carry the highest current and the current becomes lower along the way[20]. Current
distribution is close to the shorting pin and decrease away from it. The surface wave effects
can be controlled by the use of photonic band gap structures or simply by selecting air as
the dielectric constant. This solves the limitation of poor efficiency as well along with
certain degree of bandwidth improvement.

Figure 4.6: Surface Current Flow

36
4.3 Parametric Studies

In this project, analysis simulation was done to determine the effect of the frequency
by doing parametric studies. Parametric studies are referring to the optimization of antenna.
There are several optimization parameters to get the good result such as gap ground plane
between antenna, size of ground plane and shorting pin. The optimization antenna is
simulating by altering the following parameters:

i. Size of the ground plane

ii. Different gap between the ground plane and gap of the antenna

4.3.1 Ground plane size

The ground plane size will be changed in order to observe the frequency shifting
and the bandwidth alteration of the 3D antenna while the other characteristics were kept
constant. The size of the ground plane was not obtained by calculations but was chosen
according to the most optimized size obtained from the parametric analysis. The return loss
obtained from this result shown in figure4.7. As you can see in the figure, there are five
different sizes of ground plane that was simulated and compared. When the size of the
ground plane is increased the frequency, 2.45 GHz shifts to the right and its return loss is
reduced, and the bandwidth also getting narrow. So, the most optimum size that was chosen
for the design is 21.6 x 21.6 mm since its return loss and resonant frequency produced good
result. The ground plane affect the performance because the capacitance between the base
of the antenna and the ground plane is different hence affected the bandwidth performance
of the antenna.[21]

37
Figure 4.7: Ground plane result

Table 4.1: Data result of ground plane size variation

Ground plane size Operating Frequency Band Bandwidth (GHz)
(mm) frequency (GHz) (GHz)
%

21.6 X 21.6 (1) 2.45 2.4475 – 2.4593 0.5%

21.6 X 10.8 (2) 2.508 2.502 – 2.515 0.5 %

21.6 X 5.4 (3) 2.632 2.6246 – 2.6392 0.6%

10.8 x 10.8 (4) 2.61 2.602 – 2.6173 0.6 %

21.6 x 10.8 (5) 2.4697 2.4628 – 2.4749 0.5 %

38
4.3.2 Gap between the ground plane and antenna

In this case, the gap between the ground and antenna will be changed and other
parameters will be kept constant in order to observe the effects on the antenna. The gab will
allow the antenna to operate single band frequency and also improved the impedance
matching. Therefore there were three different sizes that as compared in order to find out
the effect it can cause to the antenna performance as can be seen on figure 4.8 . As the gap
between the ground plane and antenna decreases the resonant frequency shifts to the right
while the return loss is reduced. Hence, the best optimized size that produced good return
loss and expected resonant frequency is at 0.8mm [22].

Figure 4.8: Gap between the ground plane and antenna Results

Table 4.2: Data result of the gab

Distance Gap between Operating Frequency band Bandwidth GHz
feed and antenna (mm)
Frequency GHz GHz %

0.87 2.45 2.458 – 2.4482 0.4 %

0.67 2.46 2.4654 – 2.4581 0.3 %

0.47 2.49 - -

39
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

5.1 Summary of the Project

The goal of this project is to design 3D antenna for RFID with meander line
technique that can be implementing in wireless communication especially for IoT in urban
infrastructure. The fundamental goal of this antenna is to investigate a new type of small 3D
antenna that operated in frequency 2.45 GHz. The objective of this project achieved
according to the small size antenna is λ/30.

In addition, the 3D meander line antenna was estimated and verified in order to
overcome the disadvantage of current antenna because mostly current antenna is large in
size compared to their wavelength. This antenna has proved the size in terms of wavelength
(λ) is small enough distinguished than previous antenna. Earlier 3D antennas such as
helical, monopole and dipole is basically not small regarding the application because of the
design concept. These 3D antennas are using meander line technique that can reduce the
size of 3D antenna and applicable with many applications. 3D antenna for RFID has been
developed with dimension of 4 x4 x 4 mm, and less than 90 % efficiency which is good for
radiation antenna.

40
 Furthermore, directivity and gain value is so efficient for this antenna when the
value of gain is 2.7 dB that is appropriate for IoT environment compared to the previous
project feeding point location and antenna parametric analysis played an important role to
get the result as well with good return loss.
This frequency 2.45GHz with RFID application for IoT environment can resonate
either external or internal for any device, by using a miniature scale antenna able to be
integrated with WLAN Access points, 3G Routers (either internally or externally),
mobile/smart phones, mobile devices (PDA, laptop, Tablets etc).

5.2 Recommendation

In the future, there is some recommendation to improved 3D miniature antenna.

By referring the frequency 2.45 GHz and it can be reduced the size until λ/30 using by
manual fabrication. Designing this antenna by manual fabrication is quite difficult to get a
similar result as in simulation, because of human fabrication tolerance that might occur
during the antenna development. After calculating the size, by using meander line technique
it can reduce the size until λ/60 which is too small and very hard to fabricated using manual
fabrication.

This new antenna technology will be used in some application such as for remote
access control, asset identification, retail item management, animal tracking and vehicle
security. The label tags that used before is generally cannot operate as well on the surface
of conducting materials due to the degradation of the tag performance. Suitable for
implantable device: Medical Device Radio communication Service Band (MedRadio).

41
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44
 APPENDIX A

SMA connector (Male) SMA connector (Female)

45
 APPENDIX B

Slide View of 3D Antenna Front View of 3D Antenna

Perspective View of 3D Antenna

46