CJASN

CJASN’s
Renal Immunology
for the Clinician

Review the fundamentals of renal immunology in this

comprehensive 8-part series available now in a user-friendly
compiled pdf file.
Leading investigators will provide a focused update for
practicing nephrologists and trainees on immunology and its
relationship to kidney disease.
Series Editor:
Fadi G. Lakkis, MD

Deputy Editor:
Paul M. Palevsky, MD, FASN

Editor-in-Chief:
Gary C. Curhan, MD, ScD, FASN

ASN LEADING THE FIGHT

AGAINST KIDNEY DISEASE
 CJASN
Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Renal Immunology for the Clinician

Article 1 A New CJASN Series: Renal Immunology for the Clinician

Fadi G. Lakkis and Paul M. Palevsky
Article 2 A Brief Journey through the Immune System
Karim M. Yatim and Fadi G. Lakkis
Article 3 How the Innate Immune System Senses Trouble and Causes Trouble
Takashi Hato and Pierre C. Dagher
Article 4 Molecules Great and Small: The Complement System
Douglas R. Mathern and Peter S. Heeger
Article 5 Dendritic Cells and Macrophages: Sentinels in the Kidney
Christina K. Weisheit, Daniel R. Engel, and Christian Kurts
Article 6 T Cells: Soldiers and Spies—The Surveillance and Control of Effector T Cells by Regulatory T Cells
Bruce M. Hall
Article 7 Cytokines: Names and Numbers You Should Care About
Stephen R. Holdsworth and Poh-Yi Gan
Article 8 B Cells, Antibodies, and More
William Hoffman, Fadi G. Lakkis, and Geetha Chalasani
Article 9 Immunosuppressive Medications
Alexander C. Wiseman
Editors
CJASN
Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Editor-in-Chief Gary C. Curhan, MD, ScD, FASN

Boston, MA
Deputy Editors Kirsten L. Johansen, MD
San Francisco, CA
Paul M. Palevsky, MD, FASN
Pittsburgh, PA

Associate Editors
Michael Allon, MD Ann M. O’Hare, MD
Birmingham, AL Seattle, WA
Jeffrey C. Fink, MD, MS, FASN Mark A. Perazella, MD, FASN
Baltimore, MD New Haven, CT
Linda F. Fried, MD, MPH, FASN Vlado Perkovic, MBBS, PhD, FASN, FRACP
Pittsburgh, PA Sydney, Australia
David S. Goldfarb, MD, FASN Katherine R. Tuttle, MD, FACP, FASN
New York, NY Spokane, WA
Donald E. Hricik, MD Sushrut S. Waikar, MD
Cleveland, OH Boston, MA
Mark M. Mitsnefes, MD
Cincinnati, OH

Section Editors
Attending Rounds Series Editor Mitchell H. Rosner, MD, FASN
Charlottesville, VA
Education Series Editor Suzanne Watnick, MD
Portland, OR
Ethics Series Editor Alvin H. Moss, MD, FACP
Morgantown, WV
Public Policy Series Editor Alan S. Kliger, MD
New Haven, CT
Renal Immunology Series Editor Fadi G. Lakkis, MD
Pittsburgh, PA

Statistical Editors
Ronit Katz, DPhil Robert A. Short, PhD
Seattle, WA Spokane, WA

Editor-in-Chief, Emeritus
William M. Bennett, MD, FASN
Portland, OR

Managing Editor
Shari Leventhal
Washington, DC
 CJASN
Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Editorial Board
Rajiv Agarwal Lance Dworkin T. Alp Ikizler Nader Najafian Edward Siew
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Ziyad Al-Aly Jeffrey Fadrowski Tamara Isakova Andrew Narva Theodore Steinman
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Jeffrey Berns Sydney, Australia Craig Langman Neesh Pannu St. Louis, Missouri
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Patrick Brophy Fernando Liaño Jai Radhakrishnan Jessica Weiss
John Gill
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Adam Whaley-Connell
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Kerri Cavanaugh Stuart Goldstein Kathleen Liu Dominic Raj
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Boston, Massachusetts
Anil Chandraker Orlando Gutierrez Jicheng Lv Giuseppe Remuzzi
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David Charytan Yoshio Hall Mark Marshall Mark Rosenberg
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Michael Choi Lee Hamm William McClellan Andrew Rule Indianapolis, IN
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Myles Wolf
Michel Chonchol Ita Heilberg Anita Mehrotra Jeffrey Saland Chicago, Illinois
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Bessie Young
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Ian de Boer Eric Hoste Sharon Moe Stephen Seliger Eric Young
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Bradley Dixon Chi-yuan Hsu Barbara Murphy Michael Shlipak Carmine Zoccali
Iowa City, Iowa San Francisco, California New York, New York San Francisco, California Reggio Calabria, Italy
CJASN
Executive Director
Tod Ibrahim The American Society of Nephrology (ASN) marks 50 years of leading the fight
against kidney diseases in2016.Throughouttheyear, ASN willrecognize kidney
Director of Communications health advances from the past half century and look forward to new innovations
Robert Henkel in kidney care. Celebrations will culminate at ASN Kidney Week 2016,
November 15–20, 2016, at McCormick Place in Chicago, IL.
Managing Editor

www.cjasn.org
Shari Leventhal

Submit your manuscript online through Manuscript Central at http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cjasn.

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 A New CJASN Series: Renal Immunology for
the Clinician
Fadi G. Lakkis* and Paul M. Palevsky†
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1273, 2015. doi: 10.2215/CJN.03870415

With this issue, CJASN begins a new series of review system is the influence of CKD on immunity; paradoxically *Thomas E. Starzl
articles covering immunology for the clinical nephrol- weakening defenses against infection while in- Transplantation
ogist. There has been explosive growth in our under- creasing systemic inflammation, which contributes Institute and
standing of immune mechanisms and the relationship to the excessive burden of cardiovascular disease Departments of
Surgery, Immunology,
between these integral defense systems within the in our patients. The role of immunologic processes and Medicine,
body and the function of the kidney in health and disease. in the progression of CKD is an area of growing University of
The role of the immune system as a barrier to transplan- interest. Pittsburgh School of
tation has been long recognized and has been a primary This series, which will run over eight issues, begins Medicine, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania; and
impetus for our drive to better understand immunologic this month with an overview of the immune system †
Renal Section,
detection of nonself and mechanisms of tolerance and the from an evolutionary/teleologic standpoint. In succeed- Veterans Affairs
development of medications to modulate the body’s nor- ing issues, the series will cover the mechanisms of the Pittsburgh Healthcare
mal response to reject foreign organs. Immunologic dys- innate immune system, the normal regulation of the System and Renal-
regulation leads to the development of autoimmune complement system and the role of its dysregulation Electrolyte Division,
Department of
kidney diseases both limited to the kidney or as part of in disease, the roles of dendritic cells and macrophages Medicine, University
systemic illness. These include primary glomerular dis- as both sensors and effectors in the kidney, the biology of of Pittsburgh School of
eases and interstitial nephritis as well as systemic vascu- T cells in mediating and regulating the immune response, Medicine, Pittsburgh,
litides, collagen vascular disorders, such as SLE, and a the role of B cells, and the role of the increasing number Pennsylvania
widening array of diseases understood to be mediated of known soluble cytokines that allow the components
by complement activation, including thrombotic micro- of the immune system to communicate and function Correspondence:
Dr. Paul M. Palevsky,
angiopathies and the spectrum of C3 nephropathy. In- harmoniously. Finally, the series will end with a review Veterans Affairs
creasing evidence over the past decade has also of the enlarging armamentarium of pharmacologic Pittsburgh Healthcare
shown a central role for the immune system in the path- agents at our service to control the immune response. System, Mail Stop:
ogenesis of AKI resulting from ischemia reperfusion in- It is the editors’ hope that these reviews will serve as a 111F-U, University
Drive, Pittsburgh, PA
jury or nephrotoxin exposure, and in sepsis, even when primer for understanding this important and rapidly
15240. Email:
the kidney is not the focus of infection. An additional advancing field and be helpful to both seasoned prac- [email protected]
important connection between the kidney and immune titioners and new trainees in nephrology.

www.cjasn.org Vol 10 July, 2015 Copyright © 2015 by the American Society of Nephrology 1273
 A Brief Journey through the Immune System
Karim M. Yatim and Fadi G. Lakkis

Abstract
This review serves as an introduction to an Immunology Series for the Nephrologist published in CJASN. It provides a
brief overview of the immune system, how it works, and why it matters to kidneys. This review describes in broad terms
the main divisions of the immune system (innate and adaptive), their cellular and tissue components, and the ways by
which they function and are regulated. The story is told through the prism of evolution in order to relay to the reader Thomas E. Starzl
why the immune system does what it does and why imperfections in the system can lead to renal disease. Detailed Transplantation
descriptions of cell types, molecules, and other immunologic curiosities are avoided as much as possible in an effort to Institute and the
not detract from the importance of the broader concepts that define the immune system and its relationship to the Departments of
Surgery, Immunology,
kidney. and Medicine,
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1274–1281, 2015. doi: 10.2215/CJN.10031014 University of
Pittsburgh School of
Medicine, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania
The Beginning of the Journey how would you (with the guiding hand of evolution, of
Imagine that you are a primitive animal, perhaps a course) go about devising such a system, what would Correspondence:
distant predecessor of all mammals. You have lived a long it look like, and why will it eventually matter to our Dr. Fadi G. Lakkis,
life, thus far relying solely on a basic defense system. If kidneys? Thomas E. Starzl
you are invaded by a microbe or parasite, you quickly Transplantation
Institute and the
expel or kill it by releasing chemicals, producing a barrage
Departments of
of defensive protein molecules or unleashing phagocytic Innate and Adaptive Immunity Surgery, Immunology,
cells (1). If all fails, you wall the invader off or regenerate Devising a sophisticated biologic system, as evolution and Medicine,
that part of your body reduced to rot by infection. Even teaches us, does not require the destruction of preexist- University of
if infection proves fatal, your extreme fecundity, which ing, primitive tools, but instead depends on preserving Pittsburgh School of
Medicine, W1548
started at a very early age, has already ensured the and building on the best of them (3). Heeding this ad- Thomas E. Starzl
continuity of your species. This seemingly imaginary vice, you take your time, spending hundreds of millions Biomedical Sciences
scenario is in fact how the more ancient of our ancestors of years, choosing the best and discarding the least use- Tower, 200 Lothrop
attain near immortality (2). ful of your primitive defense mechanisms. You call Street, Pittsburgh, PA
15261. Email:
Now imagine that evolution has something grander what is left innate immunity: innate because the defense
[email protected]
in store for you. You are destined to become the pro- mechanisms you have chosen are encoded in your
genitor of more sophisticated beings. Your descendants germline, having been selected over evolutionary time
will grow complex organs—robust kidneys that empower and passed down from generation to generation with
them to roam the earth and mighty brains that enable only minor refinements (4). In other words, they have
them to rule it. To do so, they will carry their embryos stood the test of time. They include household names
and nurture their young for an extended period of time. such as the complement system, Toll-like receptors
Reproduction becomes a later and infrequent event in life, (TLRs), and phagocytic cells. Modern-day genome se-
and life itself becomes a much shorter journey. The ca- quencing has established that much of these defense
pacity to regenerate tissues, limbs, and organs dwindles systems are conserved across animal phyla, a true re-
as tissue architecture and function grow increasingly dif- flection of not only their remarkable effectiveness but
ferentiated and complex. Although less abundant, life for also their versatility (3). A complement molecule, a TLR,
your descendants becomes more valuable as failure to or a phagocyte is not only essential for detecting and
survive until a reproductive age spells doom for the spe- eliminating harmful nonself but is also key to maintain-
cies. Faced with these burdens, you quickly realize that ing normal tissue homeostasis, be it sensing and repair-
you have to devise a more intelligent defense system: one ing damaged tissues or quietly eliminating senescent or
that protects against virtually all pathogens that your suc- apoptotic cells. Obviously, you have chosen prudently.
cessors may encounter during their forays into known However, that is clearly not sufficient. An innate im-
and unknown realms, one that provides long-lasting se- mune system provides immediate albeit incomplete
curity against infection, and one that is carefully regulated protection against intruders and, at best, has only short-
so that it does not attack its own tissues or endanger term memory (4,5). Instead of mounting a faster and
beneficial cohabitants. You will call this defense system more effective response upon encountering a known
immunity (Figure 1). Defense, after all, is a primitive trespasser, it starts sluggishly from scratch each time.
term that is equally associated with defeat and victory, Innate immunity has additional shortcomings. Recep-
whereas immunity exudes strength and confidence. So tors utilized by innate cells, such as the TLR, are adept

1274 Copyright © 2015 by the American Society of Nephrology www.cjasn.org Vol 10 July, 2015
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1274–1281, July, 2015 Introduction to the Immune System, Yatim and Lakkis 1275

on any given lymphocyte, this exquisite specificity ensures

that only pertinent lymphocytes are activated, thus minimiz-
ing bystander damage.
However, there is more to the plan. Upon encountering
antigens, lymphocytes proliferate extensively to maximize
their fighting power and differentiate into specialized subsets
to further hone it. B lymphocytes transform into antibody
factories known as plasma cells, whereas T lymphocytes
differentiate into helper and effector (e.g., cytotoxic) subsets,
each with its distinct set of secreted molecules (cytokines).
Helper T lymphocyte subsets orchestrate the mounting im-
mune response by dictating what defense strategy is used
against a particular intruder, whereas cytotoxic T lympho-
cytes directly effect the death of cells harboring the intruder.
Importantly, immune responses do not march on indefi-
nitely or haphazardly but are tightly regulated by special-
ized B and T lymphocytes known as regulatory cells (8,9).
Moreover, the exponential proliferation and differentiation
of lymphocytes responding to an antigen is ultimately re-
strained by the death of the majority of antigen-specific lym-
phocytes involved in the response (Figure 2). The precious
Figure 1. | Evolution of the immune system. Adaptive immunity as few that survive become long-lived memory cells. Memory
we know it in humans did not evolve until the emergence of the first lymphocytes ensure that a second encounter with the same
jawed vertebrates (fish) around 450 million years (my) ago. Evolution invader is dealt with swiftly and effectively because of the
of adaptive immunity was heralded by the appearance of lymphocytes, many advantages they have over their inexperienced (naïve)
the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), immunoglobulin (Ig) mol- predecessors (10). These include their greater number (for
ecules, T-cell receptor for antigen (TCR), and recombinase activating any given antigen), extended lifespan, more rapid response
genes (RAG) responsible for the diversity in these recognition mol- rate, superior proliferation capacity, and wider access to tissues.
ecules. Our more ancient ancestors, such as the sponges (2700 my),
With the job completed, you marvel at the adaptive features of
relied on basic defense systems without the benefit of lymphocytes,
antigen receptors with fine molecular specificity, or any noteworthy
the lymphocytes you have created (clonal expansion, differ-
immunologic memory. An approximate timeline for evolution of innate entiation, regulation, and memory) and you name this new
immune components (antimicrobial peptides, phagocytosis, comple- system adaptive immunity.
ment, and Toll-like receptors) is also shown.

at discerning self from nonself but lack the molecular spec- Linking Innate to Adaptive Immunity
ificity required for distinguishing between nonselves, causing What good, however, are two immune systems in one
them to trigger defenses against both friend and foe. To make body if they do not communicate with each other? Because
matters worse, the imprecise defenses discharged by innate the newly devised lymphocytes of the adaptive immune
cells can wreak havoc on the surrounding tissue and often system and the receptors they express are destined to
the entire organism itself. Imagine, by way of example, a recognize fine molecular specificities on antigens, you co-
renal abscess full of neutrophils (a typical innate cell) growing opt the phagocytic cells of the innate immune system to
unchecked in a hapless patient. capture antigens, cut them into small molecular fragments
Realizing these dangers, you set out to build a more (peptides), and present them to the lymphocytes waiting
sophisticated defense system (Figure 1). In a relatively short in anticipation. Immunologists refer to the subset of in-
period (short on the evolutionary time scale, of course), you nate immune cells proficient at processing antigens in this
acquire the tools to create new types of immune cells, known manner as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and the most
as B and T lymphocytes (6). Lymphocytes possess surface skilled among them as dendritic cells (DCs), because of the
receptors, Igs (or antibodies) on B lymphocytes, and the conspicuous dendrites they extend into every nook and
T-cell receptors (TCRs) for antigen on T lymphocytes that, cranny of our tissues (11). To activate the adaptive immune
unlike receptors on innate immune cells, recognize nonself system, DCs package antigenic peptides into major histo-
molecules (referred to as antigens in this case) with exquisite compatibility complex (MHC) proteins (human leukocyte
specificity. The genes that encode these receptors are not em- antigens in humans), which ensures that virtually any non-
bedded in the germline but are the product of gene recom- self peptide is presented to the T lymphocyte with the op-
bination during lymphocyte development, a nifty molecular timal TCR specificity and affinity (12). At the same time,
trick that generates a very large number of unique antigen DCs provide additional signals, known as costimulatory
receptors by splicing, rearranging, and linking a finite set of signals, which guarantee full proliferation and differentia-
adjacent genes (7). Antigen receptors on either B or T lym- tion of the T lymphocyte (13). Parsimoniously, you choose
phocytes pinpoint the slightest distinction between self and the same molecules utilized by the innate immune system
virtually any nonself or between one nonself and another and to sense nonself and trigger inflammation to be the ones
set off an immune response that only targets the antigen that that stimulate the antigen-presenting and costimulatory ca-
happens to carry that distinction. Because only one type of pabilities of DCs—that is, induce the maturation of DCs
antigen receptor, or perhaps a few types at most, is expressed into potent APCs (14). A nonself microbial motif such as
1276 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Helpers and secondary lymphoid organs are the lymph nodes, spleen,
effectors and Peyer’s patches in the small intestine. All are organized
Regulation structures divided into T- and B-cell zones through which
naïve T and B lymphocytes circulate constantly or reside
for extended periods of time. DCs and other APCs, on the
Lymphocyte #

other hand, remain free to live in either secondary lymphoid

tissues or virtually any nonlymphoid organ of the body. The
kidney, in fact, has an extensive network of such cells. Upon
sensing a nonself intruder and capturing its antigens (e.g., an
Escherichia coli infecting the urinary tract), DCs migrate along
lymphatic channels to the nearest lymph node and, by fol-
Naive lowing chemokine and adhesion molecule cues, strategically
Memory
position themselves within the lymph node to activate antigen-
Antigen Time specific T lymphocytes and subsequently, antigen-specific B
lymphocytes. This organized rendezvous between innate and
Apoptotic cell Memory precursor adaptive immune cells generates ample effector and mem-
ory lymphocytes that then exit the lymph node and migrate
through the bloodstream to the site of antigen entry (e.g., the
Figure 2. | A two-dimensional view of the adaptive (lymphocyte)
immune response. Foreign antigen triggers the exponential pro-
infected kidney). Effector and memory cell migration to the
liferation of lymphocytes, which then differentiate into helper and target tissue is once again guided by chemokines and adhe-
effector cells. Regulatory mechanisms kick in at the peak of the re- sion molecules and, importantly, by antigen-presenting DCs
sponse, the most conspicuous of which is the death of the majority of within the tissue. Some memory T lymphocytes remain in
the lymphocytes by apoptosis. The few that survive become memory the nonlymphoid tissues as resident memory cells that guard
precursors and later memory cells. Lymphocyte death is necessary to against reinfection with the same pathogen. With the circle
prevent unwanted immunopathology. completed, you are confident that the noose will tighten
around the intruder’s neck.
lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which unleashes innate immune In addition to secondary lymphoid tissues, evolution has
defenses by binding to its receptor TLR4, also primes DCs set aside primary lymphoid organs dedicated to the pro-
through the same receptor to present the myriad foreign duction and education of nascent immune cells. These
antigens that the microbe carries and to activate the appro- are the bone marrow and the thymus. The bone marrow is
priate T lymphocytes (15). The innate immune system you where both innate and adaptive immune cells are born and
have thus far molded has therefore been transformed from a is the site where B lymphocytes are educated. Newborn T
primitive, first-line defense system into an ingenious door- lymphocytes, on the other hand, receive their education in
bell that awakens the adaptive immune response (Figure 3). the thymus. So what is lymphocyte education all about and
Adaptive immune cells, in turn, cooperate with innate im- why is it essential? The primary goal of education is to
mune cells—driving, fine-tuning, and sometimes regulating weed out those lymphocytes that recognize self antigens
them—to maximize the chance that intruders are eliminated (and therefore could cause harm to the organism itself) by
at minimal cost to the host. You congratulate yourself on either killing them off or inducing in them a permanent
successfully linking the innate and adaptive immune sys- state of unresponsiveness called anergy. This education
tems and ponder what to do next. process, referred to as negative selection (17), is necessary
because the specificity of antigen receptors on B and T
lymphocytes arose in the first place through random, so-
Lymphoid Organs: A Brief Lesson in Geography matic gene arrangement and not through a predetermined,
Optimal and timely activation of the adaptive immune germline embedded route selected over evolutionary time
response, however, cannot possibly rely on chance en- (such as the case is with innate receptors). Therefore, un-
counters between T lymphocytes and the mature DCs that less they are carefully selected, emerging B and T lympho-
carry the antigenic peptides they recognize. Nor can cyte populations would harbor an unacceptable level of
random wanderings guarantee that B lymphocytes will self-reactivity, unleashing the “horror autotoxicus” de-
find their target antigens or the help they need from T scribed by Paul Ehrlich more than 100 years ago (18). Be-
lymphocytes to differentiate into antibody-producing fore negative selection, T lymphocytes also undergo a
plasma cells. After all, your descendants are destined to positive selection step in the thymus, which ensures that
have large bodies with extensive mucosal surfaces and only those that recognize self-MHC molecules survive (19).
complex three-dimensional organs, making the surveil- This step is essential because TCR do not engage free-
lance of every tissue fold by lymphocytes an impossible swimming peptides but ones bound to MHC molecules,
task. So how could one guarantee that rare immune cells implying that only those newborn T lymphocytes that ex-
find antigen and each other quickly and efficiently? The press TCR with intrinsic affinity to MHC are useful. In any
solution that evolution makes available to you turns out to given individual, T lymphocytes that recognize self-MHC
be a simple one. Your descendants will harbor anatomic with a reasonable affinity are positively selected and those
structures, known as secondary lymphoid organs or tis- that engage self-MHC with either too low or too high of an
sues, and will synthesize molecular messages, known as affinity die—the former by neglect and the latter in the
chemokines and adhesion molecules, that bring immune cells negative selection step that ensues. What emerges at the
together at the right place and time (16). Prime examples of end is a mature lymphocyte repertoire that detects millions
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1274–1281, July, 2015 Introduction to the Immune System, Yatim and Lakkis 1277

Figure 3. | The role of the innate immune system in activating adaptive immunity. The innate immune system can be envisioned as a door-
bell that awakens the adaptive immune system (lymphocytes) upon sensing microbes (bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites). The dendritic cell
(DC) acts as the link between the innate and adaptive systems by phagocytosing, processing, and presenting microbial antigens to lymphocytes
and providing them with the necessary costimulatory signals. Endogenous molecules released by stressed or dying cells participate in acute
kidney injury, transplant rejection, or autoimmunity by triggering the same innate immune receptors that sense microbes leading to stimulation
of the adaptive immune response.

of nonself antigens but has a limited ability to mount an infection, and they enlist the immune system in the tissue
immune response against self antigens. Your heirs will be repair process. We now know that both lymphoid (e.g., reg-
beneficiaries of this well orchestrated educational system ulatory T cells) and innate myeloid cells (e.g., macrophages)
but, as we shall see later, will also pay the price for its actively participate in and are essential for tissue repair in
inherent imperfections. the kidney and elsewhere (22). In other words, components
of both the innate and adaptive systems are ready to react to
self when it signals harm or becomes harmful itself.
Blurring the Lines Your immune system also quickly grasps the reality that
You have thus far conducted your work carefully, dividing not all microbial nonself is harmful. The billions of com-
the immune system into innate and adaptive and separating mensal bacteria and other microbes that will accompany
antigens along simple, clean lines into harmless self antigens your descendants throughout their life journeys will in fact
on one side and harmful nonself microbes on the other. But is be essential for their well-being. The immune system there-
all self harmless, and is all nonself harmful? Are all harmful fore promptly takes advantage of the regulatory mecha-
nonselves microbes? And do all immune cells fit neatly into nisms it has to ensure that DCs and lymphocytes at barrier
separate innate and adaptive bins? surfaces such as the gut, skin, and lungs are carefully con-
The immune system that you have assembled is in fact a trolled to avoid needless attacks on helpful commensals
model of versatility rather than rigid divisions. Not only do (23). It also recognizes that nonself that is neither microbial
innate cells detect traditional harmful intruders (bacteria, nor pathogenic can also be harmful and must be rejected at
viruses, fungi, and other pathogens), but they also respond times. Take for example a stem cell or fetus in the wrong
to a subset of self-molecules (some protein and nucleic acid, place or potentially transmissible tumor cells (24,25). This
others simple chemicals such as uric acid) that alarm the form of nonself, known as allogeneic nonself, triggers
immune system to the presence of tissue damage (20,21). powerful adaptive immune responses that are most appar-
Damage-associated molecules or alarmins are released by ent in the setting of transplant rejection. How lymphocytes
dying or stressed cells in infected, ischemic, or injured tis- recognize allogeneic nonself will be discussed later. How
sues and serve two purposes: they amplify the immune commensals interact with and shape the innate and adap-
response to nonself, if nonself is present as is the case with tive immune systems and how the innate immune system
1278 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

distinguishes between self and allogeneic nonself are not regulatory T lymphocytes, which ensure that self-reactive
entirely clear and will surely intrigue the inquisitive minds lymphocytes are prevented from reacting to self or are quickly
of your descendants (26). silenced if they do. Several events or circumstances, however,
Finally, you come to realize that building an immune can lead to the breakdown of peripheral tolerance and the
system based on inflexible distinctions between innate and emergence of autoimmune disease (32). These include genetic
adaptive immune cells is not possible (27). Evolution is mutations that disrupt regulatory T lymphocyte develop-
not a predetermined design process; rather, it is one that ment, maintenance, or function; inflammatory events such
advances in fits of trial and error as well as chance and as infection that interfere with the function of regulatory T
necessity. Your successors will carry in them not only the lymphocytes; cross-reactivity between self and nonself anti-
final product of these efforts, a one-and-only perfect im- gens whereby T lymphocytes or antibodies specific to micro-
mune system, but also the marks and remnants of many bial antigens, which are readily incited during infection, also
immune systems. This is best exemplified, we believe, in happen to bind self antigens; and finally, local tissue accidents
the recent discovery of several families of innate lymphoid that uncover hidden self antigens that had thus far been ig-
cells that defy traditional classification (28). On one hand, nored by the immune system, neither deleted in the process
they lack antigen receptors and therefore do not display of central tolerance nor regulated in the periphery. Finally,
antigen specificity. On the other, they secrete classic lym- because of its key function in blood filtration, the kidney is
phocyte cytokines and in some cases exhibit classic memory. often the resting place for antigen-antibody complexes that
Among innate lymphoid cells, natural killer cells pose the form elsewhere or sometimes locally after antigen is trapped
biggest classification challenge because they are capable of in the glomerulus (31). Immune complexes can either be
interacting with MHC molecules and generating antigen- the result of a systemic autoimmune process (e.g., SLE) or the
specific immunologic memory that mirrors that of adaptive product of an immune response to microbes (as may be the
T lymphocytes (29). The precise role that innate lymphoid case in glomerulonephritides that arise after infection). In
cells have in immunity in general and in kidney disease in both cases, complement activation by antibody molecules
particular remains to be determined. appears to play a major role in triggering renal pathology,
but the full armamentarium of the immune system, includ-
ing innate and adaptive cells as well as the cytokines they
The Immune System and the Kidney produce, participates. Through no fault of its own, the kid-
Pondering the relationship between the kidney and the ney obviously can be the target of the wrath of immunity.
immune system brings three medical inflictions imme-
diately to mind: autoimmune renal disease, kidney trans- Transplant Rejection
plant rejection, and AKI (Figure 4). The first two can be Another price that your descendants will pay for the
thought of as mishaps or unintended consequences of the highly sophisticated but imperfect immune system you have
immunologic design you have put in place, whereas the bestowed upon them is the rejection of life-saving organ
third is a result of the well intentioned but sometimes over- transplants. In the absence of any immunosuppressive
zealous response of the immune system to tissue damage. drugs, a kidney transplanted from one human to a genet-
A fourth connection between the kidney and the immune ically disparate human (i.e., someone who is not an identical
system is the influence of chronic renal insufficiency on twin with the donor) will be rejected violently. The rejection
immunity. Uremia weakens crucial defenses required for process is dependent on T lymphocytes, although all other
protection against infection and, paradoxically, also causes immune defenses participate in one way or another in the
generalized inflammation that is linked to excessive cardio- rejection process, and the T lymphocyte response to the
vascular disease (30). transplanted organ (the allograft) is characterized by sheer
immensity that far exceeds any antimicrobial response (33).
Autoimmune Renal Disease So why are T lymphocytes strongly alloreactive if natural
The kidney can be either the direct target of autoimmunity, selection has indeed been busy perfecting the repulsion of
whereby a T lymphocyte or antibody that binds a renal an- harmful pathogens, not harmless organ transplants? The
tigen elicits renal pathology, or the kidney can be a victim of answer lies first in the fact that any given individual
collateral damage caused by a systemic immune response harbors a large number of T lymphocyte clones that recog-
to self or nonself antigens. In the latter setting, the culprits nize and react to MHC antigens, which are the principal
are usually antibody-antigen complexes (immune complexes) histocompatibility antigens responsible for transplant rejec-
trapped in the glomerular filtration barrier that then instigate tion; second, many of these T lymphocyte clones have al-
local inflammation (31). Autoimmunity is the consequence ready acquired memory properties (34). The large number
of the activation of those few self-reactive lymphocytes that of T lymphocytes that react to MHC antigens is a byproduct
the immune system failed to purge in the bone marrow or of an immune system that selects its T lymphocytes based
thymus during ontogeny. Immunologists refer to the on their ability to recognize peptides bound to MHC
purge as central tolerance because it takes place in central molecules (35). The memory nature of many of the alloreactive
or primary lymphoid organs. Fortunately, the activation of T lymphocytes is because TCRs specific for a microbial
self-reactive lymphocytes is a relatively rare event because peptide (presented in the context of self-MHC) are also ca-
of additional regulatory mechanisms present outside primary pable of recognizing allogeneic, nonself MHC—that is, they
lymphoid organs. Immunologists refer to these as peripheral are cross-reactive (36). For example, memory T lymphocytes
tolerance because they exert their regulatory functions in generated after exposure to a ubiquitous virus such as the
secondary lymphoid and nonlymphoid organs—that is, in Epstein–Barr virus cross-react with allogeneic MHC mol-
the periphery. A key component of peripheral tolerance is ecules and cause vigorous transplant rejection. Therefore, in
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1274–1281, July, 2015 Introduction to the Immune System, Yatim and Lakkis 1279

Figure 4. | The relationship between the immune system and kidney disease. The principal renal afflictions in which the immune system plays
a major or important role are shown. Conversely, renal insufficiency affects the immune system by weakening immune defenses and by causing
systemic inflammation that contributes to cardiovascular disease.

its obsession to create an immune system that is able to (31,39). If nephrologists could uncover the secret to strik-
respond to practically any pathogen, evolution put in ing the right balance, immune therapy of AKI will one day
place a highly diverse (polymorphic) MHC system that become a reality (40).
can bind virtually any microbial peptide and present it
to T lymphocytes, whose TCRs to begin with are biased Epilogue
to bind to and sample all sorts of MHC molecules. Neither It is not often that one biologic system touches so many
you nor evolution, it appears, predicted that some of your aspects of human biology in both sickness and health. Al-
descendants will become talented transplant surgeons though it is seemingly esoteric and beyond comprehension
and nephrologists and that the polymorphic MHC pro- at first blush, the immune system, once viewed through
teins that are essential for antimicrobial immunity will the prism of evolution, is the epitome of versatility and
also act as a powerful histocompatibility barrier to organ simplicity of purpose. By peeling its layers one at a time,
transplantation. immunologists have succeeded not only in elucidating the
inner workings of immunity but have also enabled the
AKI translation of their discoveries into real life benefits, such
A less anticipated and, until recently, overlooked func- as vaccines that eradicate scourges, immunosuppressive
tion of the immune system is its role in tissue injury drugs that conquer allograft rejection, cytokine-based ther-
unrelated to infection—so-called sterile tissue injury. apies that subdue autoimmune disease, and antibodies
AKI, which is the end result of a variety of noninfectious that unbridle T lymphocytes to attack cancer cells. How-
insults such as ischemia, drugs, and toxins, is often accom- ever, there is still much left for us nephrologists to do and
panied by subtle infiltration of the kidney with leukocytes discover. Which immunologic pathways should we target
from the blood and not-so-subtle activation of intrarenal to interrupt or reverse GN? Of the many T lymphocyte, B
immune cells. The infiltrate is not restricted to innate, lymphocyte, cytokine, and complement-based treatments
myeloid cells (neutrophils and monocytes, for example) that are now available in the clinic, which ones should we
but also includes lymphoid cells, both adaptive and innate test in our patients? How can we improve long-term renal
(37). Similarly, activation of renal cells involves resident allograft outcomes without further compromising the
macrophages and DCs as well as renal epithelial cells. immune system and therefore the health of the transplant
The latter are increasingly recognized as accomplices of recipient? What have we missed at a fundamental scientific
the immune system because they express innate receptors level that still prevents us from achieving immunologic
such as the TLR, respond to TLR ligands, and produce a tolerance to autoantigens or organ transplants in a safe and
host of inflammatory and immune cytokines (38). The net effective manner, sparing patients the unwanted conse-
sum of immune activation after AKI, however, is still puz- quences of global immunosuppression? What immuno-
zling. On one hand, it can lead to more harm by causing logic trick can we pull to combat AKI? The list goes on and
excessive inflammation; on the other, it can be beneficial on as far as the imagination can see. The real journey has
by repairing damaged tissues and cleaning up the mess only begun.
1280 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Glossary Primary Lymphoid Organs

Adaptive Immunity Primary lymphoid organs are organs or tissues where
Adaptive immunity comprises defense mechanisms me- lymphocytes are born and/or trained to recognize and react
diated by immune cells known as lymphocytes (T, B, and to nonself antigens but not self-molecules. They include the
natural killer cells) and the specialized molecules required bone marrow and the thymus.
for their function. The term adaptive is applied because
lymphocytes rapidly adapt to the situation at hand (e.g., a Secondary Lymphoid Organs
specific type of microbial infection) generating specialized Secondary lymphoid organs are organs or tissues where
cells, cytokines, and antibodies as well as long-lasting immu- mature (trained) lymphocytes reside or circulate through.
nologic memory. They are the site where lymphocytes encounter antigens
and are activated by them to produce antibodies or effec-
Antigen tor (fighter) cells. Secondary lymphoid organs include the
Antigen is a nonself molecule, usually a protein, that in- spleen, lymph nodes, and mucosal lymphoid tissues such
cites an adaptive immune response. as the Peyer’s patches in the small intestine.

Cytokines Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs)

Cytokines are protein molecules produced by cells of the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are receptors expressed prin-
immune system that mediate diverse defensive functions. cipally on innate immune cells but also present on adaptive
These include inflammation, lymphocyte activation and dif- immune cells and nonimmune cells. They detect conserved
ferentiation, and killing of cells harboring foreign antigens. molecular patterns on microbes. The TLR4 receptor, which
Cytokines play an important role in the pathogenesis of binds lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of Gram-negative bacteria,
autoimmunity and immune-mediated renal disease. is a prototypical example. TLRs also sense tissue damage by
binding endogenous molecules released by dying or stressed
Dendritic Cells (DCs) cells. TLR engagement triggers inflammation as well as DC
Dendritic cells (DCs) are a specialized myeloid cell that is maturation, leading to enhancement of the adaptive immune
induced by infection to take up antigens, process them into response.
small peptides, package them inside major histocompatibility
complex (MHC) molecules, and present them to T lymphocytes Acknowledgments
after migrating to secondary lymphoid organs. DCs are F.G.L. is supported by grants from the National Institutes of
prototypical antigen-presenting cells (APCs). They link innate Health (AI049466, AI096553, and AI099465).
to adaptive immunity.
Disclosures
None.
Innate Immunity
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 How the Innate Immune System Senses Trouble and
Causes Trouble
Takashi Hato and Pierre C. Dagher

Abstract
The innate immune system is the first line of defense in response to nonself and danger signals from microbial
invasion or tissue injury. It is increasingly recognized that each organ uses unique sets of cells and molecules
Department of
that orchestrate regional innate immunity. The cells that execute the task of innate immunity are many and consist Medicine, Indiana
of not only “professional” immune cells but also nonimmune cells, such as renal epithelial cells. Despite a high University,
level of sophistication, deregulated innate immunity is common and contributes to a wide range of renal diseases, Indianapolis, Indiana
such as sepsis-induced kidney injury, GN, and allograft dysfunction. This review discusses how the innate immune
system recognizes and responds to nonself and danger signals. In particular, the roles of renal epithelial cells Correspondence:
Dr. Pierre C. Dagher,
that make them an integral part of the innate immune apparatus of the kidney are highlighted.
Division of
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1459–1469, 2015. doi: 10.2215/CJN.04680514 Nephrology, 950 W.
Walnut Street,
R2-202A, Indianapolis,
IN 46202. Email:
Introduction In this review, we first discuss how the innate im- [email protected]
The innate immune system is the first line of defense mune system recognizes and responds to danger sig-
against infection (nonself) or tissue injury (damaged nals in general. We then shift the focus to the kidney.
self). The cells and molecules of innate immunity are In particular, we highlight the roles of renal epithelial
rapidly activated by encounter with microbes or other cells as important trouble sensors and possibly trouble
“danger signals.” The rapidity of the response is es- makers. This epithelial cell–centric view, which is an
sential because of the fast doubling time of typical important concept in the danger model, was first pro-
bacteria. The innate immune system was once per- posed by Polly Matzinger (4–6).
ceived as a crude stopgap until the adaptive immune
system activates. It is now understood that innate The danger model says that it is a tissue that controls
immunity is a highly sophisticated sentinel system whether you turn on an immune response, by sending
vital to maintaining a healthy tissue microenvironment.
alarm signals. It is also a tissue that induces tolerance
In fact, the innate immune system first appeared 750
by allowing its antigens to be presented without alarm
million years ago and has been remarkably conserved
throughout the evolutionary tree of life. To put it into signals. Perhaps, therefore, it could also be the tissue
perspective, the rodent and human lineage separated that determines the class of immunity.
from a common ancestor only 80 million years ago (1–3).
The components of the innate immune system are
many. They include soluble recognition molecules, such How Cells Recognize and Respond to Danger
as natural antibodies, pentraxins (e.g., C-reactive pro- Signals
tein), and the complement system. Cellular components Bruce Beutler’s seminal discovery of the endotoxin
of the innate immune system consist of phagocytic receptor, Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 (TLR4), in 1998
cells (e.g., macrophages), antigen presenting cells (e.g., revolutionized our understanding of innate immunity
dendritic cells), and killing cells (e.g., natural killer (7). We now know that most mammalian species have
cells). In addition, subsets of T and B cells have lim- 10–13 types of TLRs and that each receptor recognizes
ited antigen receptor diversity and also participate in specific ligands and induces a wide array of inflamma-
innate immunity (e.g., invariant natural killer T cells, tory cascades (8) (Figure 1). TLRs are expressed most
gd T cells, B-1 B cells). Finally, epithelial cells are an heavily in myeloid-lineage cells but are also found in
integral component of innate immunity and function other cell types, including renal epithelial cells (9–13).
as physical barriers, producers of cytokines and che- We discuss the roles of TLRs in renal epithelial cells
mokines and have the ability to actually recognize later in this review.
and process danger signals. Although epithelial cells Structurally, all TLRs are membrane-bound glyco-
are generally viewed as unofficial members of the proteins and have characteristic ligand-binding motifs
professional immune system, they constitute the (leucine-rich repeats and cysteine-rich repeats) and cyto-
vast majority of cells in a given organ, and, there- plasmic signaling domains (Toll/IL-1 receptor [TIR]
fore, their relative contribution to immunity can be homology domains) (8). TIR domains are also found
substantial. in cytokines, such as IL-1 and IL-18, and therefore

www.cjasn.org Vol 10 August, 2015 Copyright © 2015 by the American Society of Nephrology 1459
1460 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Figure 1. | Location and signaling pathways of pattern recognition receptors. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are membrane-bound glycoproteins
and consist of a functional homomer (e.g., TLR4) or heteromer (e.g., Toll/IL-1 receptor [TLR] 1:TLR2). TLRs have characteristic ligand-binding
motifs (leucine-rich repeats and cysteine-rich repeats) and cytoplasmic signaling domains (TIR homology domains). Note the differential localization
of TLRs. Upon activation of TLRs, the TIR domain engages the adaptor molecule MyD88, with the exception of TLR3, which exclusively signals
through TRIF. The TIR domain of TLR4 can engage both MyD88 and TRIF pathways. The coreceptor CD14 facilitates internalization of TLR4 and
subsequently activates TRIF signaling pathway. The best-characterized cytosolic receptor is the NLRP3 inflammasome complex. The mature
inflammasome activates caspase-1, which in turn generates IL-1b and IL-18. These cytokines induce various proinflammatory pathways, in-
cluding programmed inflammatory cell death (pyroptosis). CpG DNA, unmethylated cytosine-phosphate-guanine DNA; DAMPs, damage-
associated molecular patterns; dsRNA, double-stranded RNA; IRF, IFN regulatory factor; MAL, MyD88-adapter–like; MyD88, myeloid differentiation
primary response gene 88; NLRP3, NOD-like receptor family, pyrin-domain-containing 3; ssRNA, single-stranded RNA; TRAM, Toll-like receptor
4 adapter protein; TRIF, TIR domain–containing adapter-inducing INF-b.

share similar signaling pathways leading to inflamma- In particular, the cytoplasmic signaling complexes, commonly
tion. Upon activation, TIR domains engage the adaptor called inflammasomes, are under intense investigation (15–19).
molecules myeloid differentiation primary response gene These membrane-bound and cytosolic receptors are col-
88 (MyD88) or TIR domain–containing adapter-inducing lectively called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) because
INF-b (TRIF). TLR3 signals exclusively through TRIF while they recognize specific structural patterns. The specificity is
other TLRs signal primarily through MyD88. TLR4 is remarkable, reminiscent of adaptive immunity. However, the
unique in that it can activate both MyD88 and TRIF path- specificity of innate immunity differs from that of adaptive
ways (Figure 1). In addition to the membrane-bound TLRs, immunity in several aspects (Table 1) (2,20). The innate im-
many cytosolic receptors have also been discovered over mune system recognizes structures shared by classes of mi-
the past decade (14). The two major classes of the cyto- crobes, whereas adaptive immunity recognizes individual
plasmic receptors are Nucleotide-binding oligomerization details of microbes (antigens). The microbial structures rec-
domain-like receptors (NOD-like receptors, NLR) and retinoic ognized by innate immunity, called pathogen-associated
acid-inducible gene-I-like receptors (RIG-like receptors, RLR). molecular patterns (PAMPs), are characteristic of microbes
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1459–1469, August, 2015 Innate Immunity, Hato and Dagher 1461

Table 1. Characteristics of innate and adaptive immunity

Innate Immunity Adaptive Immunity

Initial response (hours) Later response (days)

Recognizes microbial nonself, molecular patterns Antigen-specific response; recognizes individual molecular
unique and often essential to microbes (PAMPs)a details (6–30 amino acid residues) derived from microbes or self
Receptors are encoded in germline Receptors are generated by somatic recombination
Nonclonal Clonal expansion
No memory Memory
Limited diversity Large diversity
Cells: phagocytic cells (e.g., macrophages, Cells: T, B lymphocytes
neutrophils), natural killer cells, antigen
presenting cells (e.g., dendritic cells), and epithelia
(physical barrier)
Components: TLR, NLR, RLR, scavenger receptor, Components: TCR, BCR, antibodies
N-formyl methionyl receptor, C-type lectin-like
receptor (e.g., mannose receptor), soluble
recognition molecules (e.g., pentraxins,
complement, natural antibodies).

PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns; TLR, Toll-like receptor; NLR, NOD-like receptor; RLR, RIG-like receptor; TCR, T-cell
receptor; BCR, B-cell receptor.
a
Innate immunity also recognizes damaged-self and allogeneic non-self. See text.

but not common to the host. For example, TLR9 recognizes in pathogenic strains, such as LPS. How the innate immune
hypomethylated cytosine-guanine DNA sequences, which system distinguishes the good from the bad remains an
are present in microbial genomes but are uncommon or intense area of research as it relates to broad clinical prob-
masked in mammals. In contrast, antigens recognized by lems, such as allergy and chronic inflammatory diseases.
adaptive immunity may not be unique to microbes. Another Medzhitov, who cloned the human TLR4, figuratively de-
difference is that structures recognized by the innate im- scribes it: “Detecting a person in a building does not nec-
mune system are often essential for survival of the microbes essarily mean they are an intruder, since not all people are
(e.g., LPS, the essential component of the Gram-negative bac- intruders. But if someone comes into the building through
terial cell wall). Conversely, antigens recognized by adaptive a window at night, then that might indicate the person is a
immunity are not necessarily essential for survival. In fact, burglar” (24).
certain pathogenic microbes can mutate antigens to evade So, perhaps not surprisingly, PRRs expressed on senti-
host adaptive immune defense without compromising their nels such as macrophages can also recognize “damaged
own survival. Finally, because PRRs are encoded in the self” and trigger inflammation. Typically, sentinels see
germline (as opposed to somatic recombination in adaptive “damaged self” by sensing endogenous soluble molecules
immunity), the number of molecular patterns that the innate that are confined within the cell under normal state but
immune system can recognize is limited. Nevertheless, it is are released after injury. The prototypes of the endogenous
estimated that innate immunity can recognize up to 103 mo- molecules include extracellular ATP, high-mobility group
lecular patterns (the adaptive immune system is estimated to box protein 1, and heat shock protein, collectively called
recognize 107 or more antigens) (20,21). damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) (25).
One notable feature of pattern recognition receptors is DAMPs can induce strong inflammation and the net clin-
their strategic location in various cellular compartments, ical outcomes are often indistinguishable from those of
allowing them to sense distinctive PAMPs and trigger spe- PAMP-induced inflammation. Indeed, sterile-tissue injury,
cific downstream signaling cascades (22,23). For instance, such as blunt trauma, results in a “genomic storm” that highly
host nucleotides are not normally present in endosomes, resembles endotoxin-induced transcriptome changes (26).
whereas microbial nucleotides can be found in endosomes DAMPs are also highly relevant in the settings of renal
following phagocytosis. Therefore, endosomal distribution ischemia-reperfusion and allograft injury (27). Of note, some
of TLR3, 7, 8, and 9 (receptors of nucleotides) will allow the DAMPs do not directly bind to their PRRs. Instead, these
host to respond to microbial nucleotides but not to host DAMPs are believed to induce small structural changes in
nucleotides (Figure 1). other molecules that activate the receptor and its down-
The fact that pattern recognition receptors recognize struc- stream pathway (28).
tures shared by broad classes of microbes poses a dilemma. Upon activation, PRRs can induce three major types of
How does the host discern pathogenic microbes from non- responses: (1) phagocytosis, (2) inflammation, and (3) mat-
pathogenic microbes? This is not trivial; the number of uration of antigen-presenting cells (e.g., macrophages and
bacteria we host amounts to 1014, 10 times more than all the dendritic cells), which leads to activation of the adaptive
human cells in one individual. Most of these bacteria are immune system (Figure 2) (29). The cellular and molecular
harmless or even beneficial (commensals). However, they details of these responses are extensively covered in general
are also equipped with the same microbial structures found immunology reviews (8,30–32). Notably, the maturation of
1462 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

antigen-presenting cells provides an important link between To some, the failure of TLR4 inhibition was not unex-
the innate immunity and adaptive immunity. It is important pected. It has long been known that TLR4 mutant mice are
here to point out that PAMPs are not necessarily the final resistant to endotoxin yet are highly susceptible to gram-
antigen being presented by antigen-presenting cells. PAMPs negative bacterial infection because they cannot sense or
do activate their cognate PRRs and initiate phagocytosis, but react to actual bacterial invasion (7). This raises an impor-
the final modified and presented antigen is likely another tant clinical question: the balance between elimination of
constituent of the phagocytized microbe. The biology of an- microbes and minimizing inflammation. Could we find a
tigen capture and presentation has attracted and will con- compromise whereby killing of microbes, although not
tinue to captivate scientists because it encompasses the most perfect, may involve minimal collateral tissue damage?
fundamental question of immunology: self/nonself discrim- Emerging data suggest that it is possible for the host to
ination (29). do so (42,43). The interested reader is referred to Jamieson
Phagocytosis is a platform for activation of many PRRs and colleagues’ recent article, which also points to the im-
and often a prerequisite for activation of inflammatory signal- portance of tissue repair capability (44).
ing cascades. For example, CD36, a scavenger receptor expressed
on phagocytic cells, recognizes microbial diacylglycerides and
prompts phagocytosis. This in turn leads to proinflamma- How the Innate Immune System Senses Trouble and
tory responses. Ideally, the inflammatory responses should Causes Trouble in the Kidney
confine infection and improve the host outcome. Unfortunately, Renal epithelial cells are surrounded by a dense network
excessive inflammation often results in collateral tissue dam- of macrophages and dendritic cells, collectively called mo-
age. Indeed, it has been reported that the inhibition of CD36 nonuclear phagocytes. These mononuclear phagocytes are
reduces inflammation and even improves the survival rates thought to play an important role in maintaining the in-
in an animal model of sepsis despite the impaired scavenging tegrity of tissue microenvironments. In fact, mononuclear
function (33). phagocytes are abundantly present even in early embry-
Clinically, the inflammatory cytokine storm results in onic kidneys (45). Mononuclear phagocytes have markedly
vasodilation, refractory hypotension, and ultimately death. diverse functions: from traditional phagocytic function
At the cellular tissue level, various degrees of oxidative and inflammation to versatile, trophic roles. We do not go
stress, cell cycle arrest, and damaged organelles (e.g., mi- into the details of renal mononuclear phagocytes because
tochondria) can be observed in various organs, including this is covered by Kurts et al. in this CJASN Immunology
the kidney (34–38). To mitigate the cytokine storm, many Series. Instead, here we focus on the often underappreciated
clinical trials have sought to block PRRs in patients with roles of renal epithelial cells in sensing danger signals.
severe infection. The most illustrative example is the inhi- Many PRRs, including TLRs, are expressed in renal epi-
bition of TLR4. Eritoran, an inhibitor of TLR4, was thought thelial cells (46–54). The precise distribution of tubular TLRs
to be effective in reducing sepsis-induced mortality by remains somewhat uncertain. This is in part due to the in-
blocking inflammation. Contrary to expectations, multiple herent complexity of the kidney architecture. One needs to
clinical trials have failed to demonstrate positive outcomes combine technically intricate microdissection, in situ hybrid-
with TLR4 inhibition (39–41). ization, and immunostaining to adequately characterize TLR

Figure 2. | Innate immune responses encountered by microbes. Microbes are detected by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) expressed in
innate immune cells, such as macrophages.The detection of microbes by the PRRs rapidly activates signaling cascades and generates in-
flammatory responses. Microbial encounter also leads to maturation of macrophages and dendritic cells into antigen presenting cells. PAMP,
pathogen-associated molecular pattern; TCR, T-cell receptor.
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1459–1469, August, 2015 Innate Immunity, Hato and Dagher 1463

expression and distribution among various renal cell popula- deceased versus live donors (61). The same authors also
tions. In this regard, immunostaining remains challenging be- identified loss-of-function single-nucleotide polymorphisms,
cause of lack of firm antibodies in this class. Moreover, TLRs Asp299Gly and Thr399Ile, in TLR4 genotype in a large cohort
are such potent receptors that the expression levels are typi- of donors (62,63). These kidneys with a TLR4 loss-of-function
cally low at the levels of mRNA and protein. In monocytes, it allele had a higher rate of immediate graft function. Although
is estimated that TLR4 is present at 1300 molecules per cell, hematopoietic TLR4 likely contributed to inflammation to
whereas CD14, the coreceptor of TLR4, is expressed at 115,000 some extent, this study highlights the significance of renal
molecules (55). In nonmyeloid cells, TLR4 expression is likely tubular TLR4 in graft function. Detailed reviews on the role
much lower. Nevertheless, because the total number of epithe- of TLRs in renal allograft can be found elsewhere (64,65).
lial cells far exceeds that of immune cells, tubular TLRs are an From a methodologic standpoint, a limitation of these
important part of renal innate immunity. In support of this, transplant and bone-marrow chimera approaches is that
Wu et al. performed a classic experiment (56). They examined results could be confounded by other nonimmune, non-
the effect of renal ischemia-reperfusion injury in bone-marrow tubular cell types, such as endothelium. Therefore, studying
chimeric mice between TLR4 knockout and wild-type animals. animals with cell type–specific gene manipulation may fur-
Chimeric mice lacking intrinsic renal TLR4 had significantly ther illuminate the roles of TLRs in each cell type. In this
less tubular damage and azotemia than mice lacking hemato- regard, Deng et al. conducted an interesting study in the liver
poietic TLR4, indicating that TLR4 in the kidney is instrumen- in which they deleted TLR4 from hepatocytes or myeloid
tal in mediating tubular damage. Using a model of cells. They found that hepatocyte TLR4 plays an important
endotoxemia, we also demonstrated that endotoxin-induced role in clearing endotoxin and limiting sepsis-induced in-
tubular injury has an absolute requirement for tubular TLR4 flammation and organ injury (66).
(57). Conversely, TLR4-expressing hematopoietic cells were Could renal epithelial TLR4 also be playing a role in en-
not essential or sufficient to cause tubular toxicity. Zhang dotoxin clearance? Bacterial endotoxin can be filtered through
et al. and Pulskens et al. also showed the importance of nephrons and taken up by the proximal tubules. Specifically,
intrinsic renal TLR4 after cisplatin nephrotoxicity and is- we found that endotoxin undergoes TLR4-mediated endocy-
chemic injury, respectively (58,59). Similarly, Leemans tosis in S1 tubular segments (Figure 3) (55). Like professional
et al. examined bone-marrow chimeric mice between phagocytes, S1 tubules exhibited autoprotection that was in
TLR2 knockout and wild-type mice and found that intrinsic part mediated by upregulation of antioxidant and cytopro-
renal TLR2 has a central role in the unfolding of the injury tective pathways (67). As such, S1 segment acts as the “sen-
process (60). In summary, collective evidence strongly in- sor” and “sink” of endotoxin in the filtrate and can initiate
dicates that epithelial TLRs contribute to tissue injury and signaling to adjacent segments, such as S2 and S3. How-
inflammation in response to danger signals. ever, with large endotoxin exposures, this signaling mani-
In human kidney transplantation, Kruger et al. reported fested as widespread oxidative stress in these downstream
differences in TLR4 expression in kidney tubules from segments. These findings indicate that S1 segments may

Figure 3. | A model of endotoxin-induced tubular injury. Endotoxin, released from bacteria in various molecular sizes, can be filtered through
nephrons and internalized by S1 proximal tubules through a Toll-like receptor 4–dependent mechanism. The interaction between endotoxin
and S1 can result in oxidative stress and injury in downstream tubular segments. Yellow lightning bolts represent signaling molecules released
by macrophages or S1 cells after interacting with endotoxin.
1464 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

play a sentinel role similar to macrophages and could be epithelial cells. However, this epithelial cell–centric view
considered as an epithelial macrophage, or “epiphage.” should not preclude the contribution of other nonimmune
Besides generating inflammation, phagocytosis is another cells to overall renal innate immunity. For example, there
hallmark of mononuclear phagocytes. Ichimura et al. dem- is a wealth of literature suggesting that certain types of glo-
onstrated that kidney injury molecule-1, a proximal tubule merular injury are mediated by PRRs expressed on podo-
injury marker, is a phosphatidylserine receptor and as such cytes (84). It is proposed that proinflammatory cytokines
can function as a scavenger receptor (68). Therefore, during generated from glomeruli could spread inflammation along
tubular injury, proximal tubular cells are transformed into the tubules through peritubular capillaries (85). Heightened
“semiprofessional phagocytes” (68). This further illustrates PRR activation in the endothelium is another important
the principle of shared functions between epithelial cells and source of inflammation (86,87), while properly activated en-
professional innate immunity. Furthermore, MHC II and dothelium is critical for mobilizing immune cells and clear-
costimulatory proteins can be expressed on proximal tubules ing microbes (88). We also point out that because of the
after various stimuli, and some data even suggest that prox- sentinel nature of innate immunity, studies have primarily
imal tubules could present antigens to T cells (69–76). Distal focused on acute pathologic changes rather than long-term
tubules also express PRRs and participate in local immune consequences of PRR activation, such as its role in fibrosis
responses (77–80). One important difference remains between (89–91). From a clinical perspective, several kidney diseases
epithelial cells and professional innate immunity: mobility. have been linked to deregulated innate immunity and in-
Renal epithelial cells do not typically translocate. Therefore, flammation (Table 2) (92–94). For example, Mulay et al. dem-
epithelial cells alone will not be able to accomplish higher onstrated that tubular injury from calcium oxalate crystals is
levels of immune activities (such as remote information trans- triggered by NLRP3 inflammasome in renal mononuclear
fer) unless they are supported by immune cells. Ultimately, phagocytes (95). In both human IgA nephropathy and an
epithelial cells and immune cells are both essential in shap- animal model of IgA nephropathy, recent genome-wide as-
ing renal immunity. With advances in multiplexed, single-cell sociation studies identified susceptibility polymorphisms
technologies and ever-increasing genetic tools (81–83), we an- involved in innate immunity and inflammation (96,97). In
ticipate that many exciting discoveries will be made at the fact, a more recent investigation of gene expression variants
cellular and molecular levels and will elucidate the mecha- by expression quantitative trait loci analysis revealed a high
nisms of epithelial cell–immune cell communication. degree of overlap between SNPs important in regulation of
We have discussed recent advances in our understand- innate immunity and those associated with renal disease
ing of renal innate immunity with special emphasis on renal phenotypes (98).

Table 2. Kidney diseases and innate immunity

Disease or Condition Molecules Involved Comments Reference

IgA nephropathy Defensin, TNFSF13 Human, GWAS 96

TLR9, MyD88 Murine (ddYa), GWAS 97
Diabetic nephropathy TLR4 Human 93
Kidney transplant TLR4, CD14, TLR3 Human, polymorphisms 61,102–105
MyD88 Murine 106
Renal diseaseb LPS-stimulated molecules Human 98
GN TLR4, TLR2 Murine (TSLP/FcƳRIIba, 84,107,108
nephrotoxic serum)
Hepatitis C–associated TLR3 Human 109
GN
Lupus nephritis MyD88, TLR7, TLR9 Murine (MRL/lpra) 110–112
Nephrocalcinosis NLRP3 Murine (calcium oxalate 95
crystals)
Cisplatin nephrotoxicity TLR4 Murine 59
Urinary obstruction TLR4 Murine 90
Polycystic kidney CD14 Murine (cpka) 113
disease
Urinary tract infection TLR4, TRIF, SIGIRR Human 114
TLR4, TLR5, TLR11 Murine (E-coli) 77,78,115–118
Proteinuria CD80, TLR4 Murine (LPS) 119
Sepsis-induced AKI TLR4, TLR2, TLR9, MyD88 Murine (LPS, CLP) 57,120–123
Ischemia-reperfusion TLR4, TLR2, CD14, NLRP3, Murine 53,56,58,60,86,94,124–127
injury Nod1, Nod2

TNFS13, TNF ligand superfamily member 13; GWAS, genome-wide association study; MyD88, myeloid differentiation primary re-
sponse gene 88; eQTL, expression quantitative trait loci; NLRP3, NOD-like receptor family, pyrin-domain-containing 3; SIGIRR, single
immunoglobulin IL-1-related receptor; CLP, cecal ligation and puncture.
a
Animal models for the indicated diseases.
b
Enrichment of eQTL by GWAS ontology category “renal disease”.
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1459–1469, August, 2015 Innate Immunity, Hato and Dagher 1465

We address now the more complex issue about the tran- Antonarakis SE, Attwood J, Baertsch R, Bailey J, Barlow K, Beck
sition from innate to adaptive immunity. Indeed, a full innate S, Berry E, Birren B, Bloom T, Bork P, Botcherby M, Bray N, Brent
MR, Brown DG, Brown SD, Bult C, Burton J, Butler J, Campbell RD,
immune response is expected to culminate in the maturation Carninci P, Cawley S, Chiaromonte F, Chinwalla AT, Church DM,
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munity. An important question therefore relates to the equi- Couronne O, Cuff J, Curwen V, Cutts T, Daly M, David R,
valence of DAMPs and PAMPs in that regard. That is, are Davies J, Delehaunty KD, Deri J, Dermitzakis ET, Dewey C,
DAMPs capable of eliciting a full innate immune response Dickens NJ, Diekhans M, Dodge S, Dubchak I, Dunn DM, Eddy
SR, Elnitski L, Emes RD, Eswara P, Eyras E, Felsenfeld A, Fewell
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 Molecules Great and Small: The Complement System
Douglas R. Mathern and Peter S. Heeger

Abstract
The complement cascade, traditionally considered an effector arm of innate immunity required for host defense
against pathogens, is now recognized as a crucial pathogenic mediator of various kidney diseases. Complement
components produced by the liver and circulating in the plasma undergo activation through the classical and/or
mannose-binding lectin pathways to mediate anti-HLA antibody-initiated kidney transplant rejection and Translational
autoantibody-initiated GN, the latter including membranous glomerulopathy, antiglomerular basement mem- Transplant Research
brane disease, and lupus nephritis. Inherited and/or acquired abnormalities of complement regulators, which Center, Department of
requisitely limit restraint on alternative pathway complement activation, contribute to the pathogenesis of the C3 Medicine, Recanati
Miller Transplant
nephropathies and atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome. Increasing evidence links complement produced by Institute, Immunology
endothelial cells and/or tubular cells to the pathogenesis of kidney ischemia-reperfusion injury and progressive Institute, Icahn School
kidney fibrosis. Data emerging since the mid-2000s additionally show that immune cells, including T cells and of Medicine at Mount
antigen-presenting cells, produce alternative pathway complement components during cognate interactions. The Sinai, New York, New
subsequent local complement activation yields production of the anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a, which bind to their York
respective receptors (C3aR and C5aR) on both partners to augment effector T-cell proliferation and survival,
Correspondence:
while simultaneously inhibiting regulatory T-cell induction and function. This immune cell–derived complement Dr. Peter S. Heeger,
enhances pathogenic alloreactive T-cell immunity that results in transplant rejection and likely contributes to the Icahn School of
pathogenesis of other T cell–mediated kidney diseases. C5a/C5aR ligations on neutrophils have additionally Medicine at Mount
been shown to contribute to vascular inflammation in models of ANCA-mediated renal vasculitis. New trans- Sinai, One Gustave
lational immunology efforts along with the development of pharmacologic agents that block human complement Levy Place, Box 1243,
New York, NY 10029.
components and receptors now permit testing of the intriguing concept that targeting complement in patients with Email: peter.heeger@
an assortment of kidney diseases has the potential to abrogate disease progression and improve patient health. mssm.edu
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1636–1650, 2015. doi: 10.2215/CJN.06230614

Introduction as a (e.g., C3a), and the larger cleavage fragments are

The complement system, traditionally considered a com- denoted as b (e.g., C3b). After they are activated, in-
ponent of innate immunity required for protection from dividual enzymes have the ability to repeatedly cleave
invading pathogens, has been implicated in the path- their substrates, yielding a self-amplifying cascade.
ogenesis of autoimmune kidney disease since the The various components can be considered as princi-
1960s (1). Fifty years later, the detailed complexities of pally involved in (1) initiating complement activation,
complement’s role in kidney injury are still being un- (2) amplifying complement activation, (3) performing
raveled. Building on early work indicating that mac- effector functions, and/or (4) regulating the cascade
rophages and tubular cells produce complement (2,3), (Figure 1).
studies performed since the 2000s have altered for-
mer paradigms by showing that tissue-derived com- Activation
plement and immune cell–derived complement can Complement activation can be initiated through three
each mediate local inflammation and that comple- pathways (Figure 1) (reviewed in ref. 4). The classical
ment acts as a bridge between innate and adaptive pathway is activated when the hexameric C1q, as part
immunity in an array of kidney diseases. Herein, we of a C1qrs complex containing two C1r molecules and
will review the physiology of the complement system, two C1s molecules, binds to the Fc regions of IgG or
provide a framework for understanding complement’s IgM. Complement activation through the classical
varied roles in kidney disease pathogenesis, and high- pathway is optimally activated by a hexameric orga-
light potential therapeutic targets. nization of antigen-bound antibodies, a configuration
that increases the avidity between C1q and the Fc re-
gions by 20-fold (5). After an induced conformational
Biology of the Complement System change, the C1s component cleaves C4 to C4a1C4b
The complement system is comprised of .30 soluble and then cleaves C2 to C2a1C2b. C4b can bind to cell
and surface-expressed proteins, many of which are surfaces by a thio-ester bond, after which C2b is re-
zymogens (inactive precursors that require cleavage cruited to form the C4b2b classical pathway C3 conver-
to become active enzymes). In the latest nomencla- tase capable of cleaving C3 into C3a (an anaphylatoxin)
ture, the smaller cleavage fragments are designated plus C3b.

1636 Copyright © 2015 by the American Society of Nephrology www.cjasn.org Vol 10 September, 2015
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1636–1650, September, 2015 Complement and Kidney Disease, Mathern et al. 1637

Amplification
The C3 convertases repeatedly cleave C3 molecules, yield-
ing multiple C3b products, each of which can interact with fB
to form more C3 convertases. As consequences, C3 cleavage
is the central amplification step of the cascade, and regard-
less of the initial activation pathway, amplification at the C3
convertase step occurs through the alternative pathway.
Regulation of the C3 convertase amplification step is crucial
to restrain complement activation so as to prevent patho-
logic consequences (see below).

Effector Functions
C4b2b and C3bBb form multimeric complexes with addi-
tional C3b molecules, yielding the C5 convertases C4b2bC3b
and C3bBbC3b. These enzymes cleave C5 to C5a (an an-
aphylatoxin) plus C5b, the latter of which binds to C6 and
subsequently facilitates binding of C7 and C8 plus 10–16 C9
molecules to form the C5b-9 membrane attack complex
(MAC) (Figure 1). The MAC forms a pore in cell membranes,
which promotes lysis of non-nucleated cells (e.g., bacteria and
human red blood cells [RBCs]). Insertion of MACs into nu-
cleated host cells generally does not result in lysis but can
induce cellular activation (8) and/or promote tissue injury (9).
Various complement cleavage products have other effec-
tor functions (Figure 2, Table 1). C3a and C5a ligate their
Figure 1. | Overview of the complement cascade. The complement seven transmembrane-spanning G protein–coupled recep-
cascade can be initiated by three pathways: (1) the classical pathway, tors C3aR and C5aR, respectively, transmitting proinflam-
(2) the mannose-binding lectin (MBL) pathway, and (3) the alternative matory signals that induce vasodilation and cytokine and
pathway. The resultant C3 convertases can continuously cleave C3; chemokine release. They also mediate neutrophil and
however, after they are generated, the alternative pathway C3 con- macrophage chemoattraction, activate macrophages to
vertase dominates in amplifying production of C3b (green looping promote intracellular killing of engulfed organisms, and
arrow). The C3 convertases associate with an additional C3b to form contribute to T-cell and antigen-presenting cell (APC)
the C5 convertases, which cleave C5 to C5a1C5b. C5b recruits C6, activation, expansion, and survival (see below) (10–13).
C7, C8, and 10–16 C9 molecules to generate the terminal membrane
C3b and other bound cleavage products bind to various
attack complex (MAC), which inserts pores into cell membranes to
surface-expressed receptors, including complement recep-
induce cell lysis. C3a and C5a are potent signaling molecules, which
through their G protein–coupled receptors C3aR and C5aR, re- tor 1 (CR1), CR2, CR3, and CR4, functioning as opsonins.
spectively, can promote inflammation, chemoattraction of leuko-
cytes, vasodilation, cytokine and chemokine release, and activation
of adaptive immunity. fB, factor B; fD, factor D; fP, factor P; MASP,
Regulation
mannose-binding lectin-associated serine protease.
Complement activation must be physiologically restrained
to limit damage to self-cells (4). Complement regulation
occurs at multiple steps through distinct mechanisms (Fig-
ure 3). Regulation of C3 convertase activity is accomplished
In the lectin pathway, hexamers of mannose-binding lectins by multiple molecules with overlapping but discrete func-
(MBLs) bind to bacterial carbohydrate motifs (including tions. Decay accelerating factor (DAF; CD55) is a glyco-
mannose). MBL-associated serine proteases (MASPs) func- phosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored, membrane-bound
tion similarly to C1r and C1s to cleave C4 and then C2, gen- regulator that accelerates the decay of cell surface–assembled
erating the C4bC2b C3 convertase. classical and alternative pathway C3 and C5 convertases
In the alternative pathway, complement activation occurs (facilitating disassociation of Bb from C3bBb and C2b from
spontaneously and continuously at a low rate (referred to as C4b, while also competitively inhibiting their reformation)
tickover). The mechanism involves C3 associating with a (14), thereby preventing amplification, downstream cleav-
water molecule to form C3 (H2O), which recruits factor B age events, and formation of the MAC (15). This decay
(fB) and factor D (fD). fD enzymatically cleaves fB, yielding accelerating activity functions intrinsically (i.e., restraining
Bb, the active serine esterase that cleaves C3 to C3a1C3b. complement activation only on the cell surface on which
C3b associates with Bb to form the C3bBb alternative path- DAF is expressed).
way C3 convertase. The thio-ester bond on C3 covalently Membrane Cofactor Protein (MCP; CD46) and its murine
reacts with various residues on cell surfaces, localizing C3 homolog Crry are surfaced-expressed regulators with cofac-
convertase formation predominantly to these sites. Proper- tor activity (16) functioning as cofactors for serum factor I
din has dual functions, directly binding to microbial targets (fI), which cleaves C3b to iC3b, thereby irreversibly prevent-
to provide a platform for assembly of the alternative path- ing reassembly of the C3 convertase. Crry also exhibits decay
way C3 convertase (6) and increasing the stability of the accelerating activity (17). The cleavage product iC3b (an op-
C3bB/C3bBb complexes (7). sonin) can be further broken down to C3c and C3dg
1638 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Figure 2. | Complement and adaptive immunity. (A) B cells express complement receptor 2 (CR2; CD21), which binds to C3dg, a C3 breakdown
product that functions as an opsonin. C3dg-coated antigens recognized by antigen-specific B-cell receptors plus CR2 initiate engulfment and lower
the threshold of B-cell activation, promoting antibody production. (B) Cognate interactions between T cells and antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
(T-cell receptor [TCR] 1CD28/80/86 or CD40/154) upregulate the expression of multiple alternative pathway components, including C3, C5, fB, fD,
C3aR, and C5aR, while simultaneously downregulating decay accelerating factor (DAF) expression (lifting restraint on complement activation).
Locally produced C3a and C5a act in an autocrine/paracrine manner through AKT signaling to promote maturation and cytokine production of
APCs, Th1/IFN-g expression, increased proliferation, and decreased apoptosis of T cells. (C) Regulatory T-cell generation, stability, and suppressive
function are decreased by C3a and C5a signaling-induced AKT signaling, which impairs nuclear translocation of Foxo1, a transcription factor for
FoxP3. AKT, phosphokinase B; pAKT, phosphorylated phosphokinase B; BCR, B cell receptor; iTreg, murine-induced regulatory T cell.

(through fI- and cofactor-dependent cleavage processes) (re- expressed CR1, which exhibits decay accelerating activity
viewed in ref. 18), the latter of which interacts with CR2 on and cofactor activity for fI, and C1 inhibitor, a serine pro-
B cells to facilitate B-cell activation (19). tease that irreversibly binds to and inactivates C1r, C1s,
Factor H (fH) is a plasma protein that also regulates com- MASP-1, and MASP-2, thereby limiting classical and MBL
plement activation at the C3 convertase step (reviewed in pathway activation. Ubiquitously expressed carboxypepti-
ref. 20). The carboxy terminus of this protein binds surface- dases rapidly inactivate the anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a
deposited C3b and surface-expressed polyanionic glycos- (reviewed in ref. 4).
aminoglycans, including sialic acid residues. After they are
bound, the N-terminal domains of fH exhibit decay acceler- Sources of Complement
ating and cofactor activities (Figure 3). fH restrains comple- Liver-derived plasma complement is essential for pro-
ment activation on host surfaces that do not express other tection from pathogens and contributes to antibody-initiated,
complement regulators, including exposed basement mem- complement-mediated autoimmune injury. Complement
branes in the glomerulus (which express glycosaminogly- components can be produced by tissue-resident (e.g., tubu-
cans), explaining, in part, the association between mutations lar cells in the kidney [21]) and migratory/immune cells,
in fH or fI and various C3 nephropathies (see below). including T cells and APCs (22–24). A thorough under-
Additional complement regulators (Figure 3) include the standing of complement-mediated kidney disease requires
GPI-anchored and surfaced-expressed protein protectin consideration of the source of complement production, the
(CD59), which blocks formation of the MAC, the surface- site of complement activation, the specific complement
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1636–1650, September, 2015 Complement and Kidney Disease, Mathern et al. 1639

Table 1. Complement receptor functions

Complement Alternative Effector

Ligand Cell Type
Receptor Names Functions

CR1 CD35, immune C3b, iC3b, Clearance of Many nucleated

adherence receptor C4b, C1q immune complexes, cells and RBCs,
enhancement of B cells, leukocytes,
phagocytosis, and monocytes, and
regulation of follicular dendritic
C3 breakdown cells
CR2 CD21, Epstein–Barr C3dg, C3d, iC3b Regulation of B and T cells and
virus receptor B-cell function, follicular
B-cell coreceptor, dendritic cells
and retention
of C3d-tagged
immune
complexes
CR3 MAC1, CD11b-CD18, iC3b, factor H iC3b enhances Monocytes,
aMb2 integrin contact of opsonized macrophages,
targets, resulting neutrophils, NK
in phagocytosis cells, eosinophils,
myeloid cells,
follicular dendritic
cells, and CD41
and CD81 T cells
CR4 CD11c-CD18, iC3b iC3b-mediated Monocytes and
aXb2 integrin phagocytosis macrophages

Modified from reference 130, with permission. CR1, complement receptor 1; RBC, red blood cell; MAC1, membrane attack complex 1.

effector components and receptors involved, and the func- undergo accelerated cell death in vitro and in vivo (24).
tion of complement regulators in each situation. The observations derived from murine models also apply to
human T cells (27). Building on these findings, a 2013 pub-
Links between Complement and Adaptive Immunity lication showed that resting human CD41 T cells contain
It has been known for decades that complement deple- C3 in granules that is rapidly cleaved by cathepsin-L to C3a
tion impairs antibody production (25). The mechanism in- and secreted after CD3 ligation. Evidence suggests that this
volves antigen-bound C3dg (an iC3b cleavage product) intracellular C3/C3a contributes to the aforementioned
binding to B cell–expressed CR2 (CD21), which facilitates promotion of T-cell survival and effector responses (28).
antigen presentation to B cells and lowers the threshold for Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are instrumental for allograft
B-cell activation (26) (Figure 2). tolerance induction and maintenance in rodents and as-
Work published since the early 2000s uncovered an un- sociated with improved long-term transplant outcomes in
expected role for complement as a regulator of T-cell immu- humans (29). Data published in 2013 indicate that comple-
nity. During cognate interactions between T cells and APCs, ment also regulates Treg induction, function, and stability
both partners upregulate and secrete alternative pathway (12,30) (Figure 2). Our group showed that peripheral, mu-
complement components C3, fB, and fD, produce C5, and rine, natural regulatory T cells (nTregs) express C3aR and
upregulate surface expression of C3aR and C5aR (23,24) C5aR and that signaling through these receptors inhibits
(Figure 2). These changes are a consequence of costimulatory Treg function (11). Genetic and pharmacologic blockade of
molecule signaling by CD28/CD80/CD86 and CD154/ C3aR/C5aR signal transduction in nTreg cells augments
CD40 (24), which simultaneously and transiently reduces their in vitro and in vivo suppressive activity. Mechanisms
cell surface–expressed DAF (thereby lifting restraint on com- involve C3a/C5a-induced phosphorylation of AKT and, as a
plement activation). Locally produced C3a and C5a bind to consequence, phosphorylation of the transcription factor
their receptors and function as autocrine and paracrine stim- Foxo1, which results in lowered nTreg Foxp3 expression.
ulators of the T cell and the APC (23,24). Signaling through Two additional sets of data showed that genetic deficiency
these GPCRs in T cells activates phosphoinositide-3-kinase-g or pharmacologic blockade of C3aR/C5aR signaling aug-
and induces phosphorylation of phosphokinase B (AKT) ments murine-induced regulatory T cell (iTreg) generation,
(22,24), upregulating the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 and stabilizes Foxp3 expression, and resists iTreg conversion to
downregulating the proapoptotic molecule Fas. Together, IFN-g/TNF-a–producing effector T cells (12,30). Pharmaco-
these complement-dependent mechanisms enhance T-cell logic antagonists to human C3aR and C5aR also augment in
proliferation and diminish T-cell apoptosis (22). C3aR/ vitro generation and stability of human iTreg from naïve
C5aR signaling is also required for T-cell homeostasis, be- precursors (12,30). These new results build on previously
cause T cells deficient in both receptors spontaneously published evidence that coengagement of the T-cell receptor
1640 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Figure 3. | Complement regulation. (A–D) Schematics depicting decay accelerating activity of (A and C) decay accelerating factor (DAF)/CD55
and factor H (fH), (B) CD59, which inhibits membrane attack complex formation, and (D) Membrane Cofactor Protein (MCP)/CD46 and fH,
which display cofactor activity for factor I (fI). Cofactor-mediated fI activity irreversibly cleaves C3b to iC3b and subsequently cleaves iC3b to
C3c and C3dg. (E) Schematic depicting the mechanism of C1-inhibitor (C1-inh), a protease that inactivates C1r, C1s, and mannose-binding
lectin-associated serine proteases (MASPs), irreversibly preventing reformation of the classical and mannose-binding lectin (MBL) pathways
initiating complexes. C1-inh also inhibits the kallikrein-kinin and coagulation cascades, two other mechanisms of complement activation.

and the complement regulator CD46 promotes regulatory are considered causative of various human kidney diseases.
IL-10 production (31) to delineate a crucial role for comple- Increasingly available evidence links the pathogenesis of
ment in modulating the balance between pathogenic and many of these antibody-initiated kidney pathologies to
protective adaptive T-cell responses. complement-derived effector mechanisms, in which plasma
complement is activated through the classical or MBL
pathways (Figure 4).
Complement and Kidney Disease Membranous Nephropathy. Membranous nephropathy
Antibody-Initiated Activation of Serum Complement (MN), a common cause of nephrotic syndrome in adults, is
Autoantibodies reactive to kidney-expressed self-antigens characterized by a fine granular deposit of IgG with C3 in
and/or antibody/antigen complexes deposited in the kidney the peripheral capillary loops (32,33). IgG4 reactive to the
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1636–1650, September, 2015 Complement and Kidney Disease, Mathern et al. 1641

Figure 4. | Mechanisms through which complement mediates antibody-initiated kidney diseases. (A) Complement and membranous ne-
phropathy (MN): autoantibodies reactive to podocyte-expressed phospholipase A2 receptor 1 (PLA2R1) activate complement through the
mannose-binding lectin (MBL) pathway. Cascade amplification promotes membrane attack complex (MAC) formation, which induces sublytic
signaling and dedifferentiation of the podocyte to impair its filtration capacity, leading to proteinuria. (B) Complement and immune com-
plex disease: circulating or in situ–formed immune complexes from kidney disease initiated by lupus, streptococcal infections, and
cryoglobulinemia are deposited in the subepithelial and/or subendothelial space of the glomerulus. Classical pathway activation induces
inflammation and recruitment of neutrophils and macrophages (M F), promoting tissue injury. (C) Complement and ANCA vasculitis. Cytokine-
induced neutrophil activation results in surface expression of myeloperoxidase (MPO; among other cytoplasmic antigens). On binding to
ANCA and cross-linking FcR, local complement activation results in C5a production, which induces vascular inflammation by ligating its
receptor C5aR. GBM, glomerular basement membrane; PMN, polymorphonuclear leukocyte.

M-type phospholipase A2 receptor, a transmembrane gly- are needed to determine if targeting complement is an ef-
coprotein expressed on the glomerular podocyte, is pres- fective therapy for this disease.
ent in 70%–98% of patients with MN (34,35). Although Anti-GBM Disease. Autoantibodies targeting the NC1
IgG4 does not efficiently activate complement through domain of type IV collagen are pathogenic mediators of
the classical pathway, deposition of C4d, a breakdown anti-GBM disease (43). The proliferative GN observed in
product of C4b, is detectable in essentially 100% of patients anti-GBM disease is characterized by linear deposition of
with primary MN (36,37). Together with the observations that IgG and various complement components along the GBM
MBL and hypogalactosylated IgG (including IgG4) can be (44). The classical and alternative pathways are implicated,
detected in subepithelial deposits in primary MN and that because MBL, C1q, fB, properdin, C3d/C4d, and C5b-9
hypogalactosylated IgG can bind to MBL and activate com- have been detected in GBM. An observed correlation be-
plement through the MBL pathway, the data suggest that tween intensity of fB deposition and glomerular crescent
MBL-initiated complement activation is pathogenic in MN. formation supports a pathogenic link (45). Evidence indi-
MACs are detectable in the urine of patients with MN and cates that local complement activation results in C3a- and
considered a dynamic marker of ongoing injury, supporting C5a-mediated inflammation as well as MAC-dependent
an integral role for complement in MN (reviewed in ref. 38). sublytic activation of cells within the glomerulus, which
Mechanistic studies in animal models, including Heymann together promote nephropathy and extracellular matrix
Nephritis, indicate that antipodocyte antibodies lead to in- formation (46). Together, these mechanistic findings sup-
sertion of MAC into podocytes and that blocking MAC for- port the need to test whether complement inhibition pos-
mation prevents phenotypic expression of disease (39). The itively affects outcomes in patients with anti-GBM
resultant sublytic podocyte activation alters cytoskeletal disease.
structure crucial for foot process and slit diaphragm integrity Immune Complex-Initiated Glomerular Diseases. Cir-
and function, leading to proteinuria (40,41). Associated pro- culating immune complexes that are deposited in the sub-
motion of extracellular matrix results in the characteristic epithelial or subendothelial compartments of the glomerulus
thickened glomerular basement membranes (GBMs) observed can also mediate complement-dependent glomerular in-
in this disease (42). jury, including GN associated with streptococcal infec-
Although one report in abstract form (G. Appel et al., tion, cryoglobulinemia, and lupus. These disease processes
unpublished data) suggested that anti-C5 mAb had no ef- are commonly characterized by neutrophils and C3 depos-
fect on proteinuria in patients with MN, additional studies its in glomeruli and systemic C3 depletion, suggestive of a
1642 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

pathogenic role of complement-mediated inflammation and The pathogenesis of FSGS remains unclear, but IgM and
immune cell recruitment (47). C3 deposits are commonly observed in the affected glo-
Animal model data supporting complement activation as meruli (63). Mutations in fH and C3 have been described
pathogenic in lupus nephritis include the observation that in cases of FSGS (64), and a murine model of IgG-initiated
fH-deficient MRL/lpr mice died with severe, diffuse GN FSGS in DAF-deficient mice (65) supports a role for com-
(48). Conversely, administration of a CR2-Crry fusion pro- plement dysregulation in some cases. Complement inhibi-
tein that targets complement regulation to C3b deposits tion has not been carefully studied as a therapy for FSGS.
(CR2 binds C3b) prevented expression of disease (49). In Postinfection GN, classically after Streptococcal pyogenes
MRL/lpr mice, C5aR blockade decreased glomerular in- infection, is characterized by proliferative GN and deposi-
flammation (50). Anti-C5 mAb ameliorated GN in the mu- tion of C3 with or without Igs (reviewed in ref. 66). Al-
rine NZB/W(F1) lupus model (51), indicating a role for though the majority of patients achieve complete remission
terminal complement. A phase 1 human trial with eculizu- of the associated nephritic syndrome, some experience de-
mab (anti-C5) suggested preliminary efficacy, but the treat- layed resolution or chronic GN, resulting in ESRD. A recent
ment period was too brief to draw definitive conclusions study published on 11 patients at the Mayo Clinic found
(52). Despite these observations, complement is not the multiple underlying causes of alternative pathway dysregu-
sole pathogenic mediator of lupus nephritis, because FcR lation in these chronic patients, including mutations in fH or
deficiency but not C3 deficiency prevented phenotypic ex- CFHR5 and/or the presence of C3 nephritic factors (67).
pression of disease in one model (53). Monoclonal gammopathy has also been associated with
The complexities of complement’s effects on lupus are the activation of the alternative pathway and subsequent
illustrated by the seemingly paradoxical observation that induction of membranoproliferative GN. Circulating l–light-
genetic absence of C4 or C1q in mice (54) and humans (55) chain dimers were found to bind to fH and inhibit its control
increases the risk of developing lupus nephritis. The mech- function, thus lifting restraint over alternative pathway reg-
anism is likely related to an absence of complement-derived ulation, but they differed from C3 nephritic factor in that the
opsonins, preventing clearance of immune complexes that dimers were unable to bind and stabilize the alternative
deposit in the glomerulus and promote FcR-dependent in- pathway C3 convertase (68).
flammation. Antibody-Initiated Injury to a Kidney Transplant. Donor-
ANCA-Induced Vasculitis. ANCAs contribute to small reactive anti-HLA antibodies are considered pathogenic me-
vessel vasculitis, which is characterized by a paucity of Ig diators of acute and chronic transplant injury (69). They
deposits (56) but with complement component deposition can bind to donor tissue and mediate damage through mul-
(Bb, C3d, C3c, and C5b-9) at sites of acute vascular and tiple mechanisms, including complement activation (70,71).
glomerular inflammation (57). Cytokine-primed neutro- A mechanistic link between antibody-mediated injury and
phils display ANCA-binding antigens (myeloperoxidase terminal complement activation was documented through
[MPO] and proteinase 3) on their surfaces and participate experiments performed in rodents: whereas heart allografts
in vascular injury. Complement depletion protected anti– transplanted into sensitized (with preexisting antidonor
MPO-treated mice from developing necrotizing crescentic antibodies) wild-type rats were rejected in 6–7 days, graft
GN (58). fB deficiency was protective, but C4 deficiency was survival was prolonged to .30 days in sensitized C62/2
not protective, implicating the alternative pathway. Whereas recipients (72). Documentation of impaired MAC complex
C5 deficiency or blocking anti-C5 mAb was protective (59), (C5b-9) formation in the C62/2 recipients (73) supports the
C6 deficiency was not protective (60), indicating that C5 conclusion that terminal complement is a key effector mech-
cleavage but not MAC formation is pathogenic. Additional anism. In work by others, anti-C5 mAb (inhibits C5 cleav-
animal studies showed that ANCAs stimulate neutrophils to age) plus cyclosporin and short-term cyclophosphamide
produce and release C5, and blockade or deficiency of C5aR resulted in prolonged heart allograft survival in presensi-
(60) prevented disease expression. Together, the data suggest tized mice, despite persistent antidonor IgG in the sera
that pathology is mediated by ANCA-induced, neutrophil- and the graft (74).
derived complement release and leads to C5a/C5aR-induced In 2013, studies in a humanized mouse model (8) showed
proinflammatory signaling, particularly in neutrophils and that antidonor HLA antibodies bind to human aortic en-
neutrophil-associated vasculature (61), rather than by MAC dothelium to initiate complement activation, resulting in
formation. A small molecule C5aR inhibitor limited expres- MAC insertion into aortic endothelial cells. This induced
sion of a murine model of anti–MPO-induced kidney disease endothelial cell activation, characterized by noncanonical
(60), and C5aR antagonism is being tested as a therapy for NF-kB activation and upregulated production of chemo-
patients with ANCA vasculitis (European Union Clinical kines, cytokines, and adhesion molecule expression, which
Trials Register ID EUCTR2011–001222015-GB). in turn, facilitated T cell–mediated injury to the aortic allo-
Other Glomerular Diseases. IgA nephropathy, char- graft (8). The findings support the conclusion that comple-
acterized by recurrent bouts of GN, focal mesangial cell ment bridges pathogenic humoral and cellular alloimmunity
expansion, and IgA deposition, is likely mediated by MBL- to mediate tissue damage.
dependent and/or alternative pathway-dependent, anti- Clinical studies have begun to test the efficacy of complement-
body-initiated complement activation (62). Deposits of C3 targeted strategies to treat human antibody-mediated trans-
and C5b-9 are detectable in the diseased glomeruli and plant rejection. Anti-human C5 mAb plus plasma exchange
correlate with disease severity and prognosis. Experimen- reduced the incidence of antibody-mediated rejection in 26
tal evidence suggests that sublytic MAC activates mesan- sensitized recipients of kidney transplants (75) and success-
gial cells, yielding mesangial proliferation and matrix fully reversed established antibody-mediated rejection in a
expansion (62). small cohort (76).
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1636–1650, September, 2015 Complement and Kidney Disease, Mathern et al. 1643

Complement-Based Diagnostics Relevant to Transplan- vation likely predominantly causes glomerular disease,
tation. The recognition that complement participates in because the glomerulus contains fenestrated endothelium
antibody-initiated allograft rejection suggested that iden- with exposed GBM that requires functional fH and fI to
tifying serum anti-HLA antibodies capable of binding C1q prevent local complement activation. Supporting this
would enhance their prognostic use after kidney transplan- concept, fH-deficient mice develop membranoproliferative
tation (77). A 2013 paper, indeed, suggests that, among pa- GN with low serum C3 levels (85), and recombinant fH
tients with serum anti-HLA antibodies, those binding to restores plasma C3 levels with resolution of C3 deposition
C1q1 had the worst kidney graft survival (78). In another in the GBM (86). Mice deficient in both fH and fB do not
example of complement-based diagnostics, C4d staining of develop disease, confirming a pathogenic role for alternative
kidney transplant tissue is currently considered one key crite- pathway activation (85). fH2/2/C52/2 mice and fH2/2
rion for diagnosing antibody-mediated allograft rejection (79). mice treated with anti-C5 mAb developed less severe dis-
ease, whereas C6-deficient mice were not protected,
Kidney Injury Mediated by Serum Complement in the inferring a role for C5a/C5aR in immune cell recruitment
Absence of Antibody (87).
Emerging evidence suggests that unrestrained C3 conver- Effective therapy for C3 nephropathies remains enig-
tase activity underlies the pathogenesis of several diseases matic, but limited studies in animal models and patients
involving the kidney, including paroxysmal nocturnal he- have suggested that restoration of alternative pathway
moglobinuria (PNH), forms of C3 nephropathy, and atypical regulation may prove effective. Infusions of fresh frozen
hemolytic uremic syndrome (aHUS) (Figure 5). plasma containing fH may benefit patients deficient in fH
PNH. PNH is a hematologic disorder characterized by (88), and therapy targeting C5 showed some success in
bone marrow failure, thrombophilia, complement-mediated patients with forms of C3 nephropathies (89,90).
intravascular hemolysis, and hemoglobinuria. It is caused aHUS. The current concept is that aHUS, characterized
by a clonal expansion of RBC precursors that contain a mu- by hemolysis and renal failure associated with kidney
tation in the X-linked phosphatidylinositol glycan anchor endothelial cell injury, typically in the absence of detectable
biosynthesis, class A gene (PIGA) that encodes for a protein complement deposition in the glomerulus (91), is also a
involved in GPI anchor synthesis (80). DAF and CD59 are result of complement dysregulation. Inherited loss-of-
GPI-anchored molecules that require posttranslational addi- function mutations in fI, MCP, and fH as well as acquired,
tion of GPI anchors to guide them to cell surfaces. The PIGA blocking, anti-fH antibodies have been associated with
mutation prevents DAF and CD59 surface expression on the cases of aHUS (92). Gain-of-function mutations in C3
affected RBCs. The inability to regulate alternative comple- and/or fB, which promote accumulation of the C3bBb con-
ment activation/amplification at the C3 convertase step (ab- vertase and overwhelm/resist complement regulation,
sent DAF) and prevent MAC formation (absent CD59) have been described (93).
causes spontaneous lysis of the mutant RBCs. Therapeuti- Additional insights derived from work using mice with a
cally inhibiting MAC formation with an anti-C5 antibody mutated fH were that they lack the ability to bind to cell
that prevents C5 cleavage reduces morbidity and increases surfaces but maintain its complement-regulatory capacity
quality of life for patients with PNH (81). Although effective (Figure 5). Although complement activation in the plasma
in preventing lysis, the anti-C5 mAb does not affect the un- was controlled, the animals developed C5-dependent fea-
regulated upstream production and deposition of C3b on tures of thrombotic microangiopathy (94,95), indicating
RBC surfaces resulting from the absence of DAF. Evidence that fH must regulate complement activation while bound
indicates that this C3b deposition functions as an opsonin, to surfaces in the kidney to prevent disease.
causing macrophage-dependent RBC destruction in the Most humans with inherited mutations associated with
liver/spleen, despite anti-C5 therapy (82). Alternative treat- aHUS or C3 nephropathy are heterozygotes. Current concepts
ment strategies, including those targeting C3 activation (83), are that common allelic variants in complement regulators
require additional study. present in the general population confer a complotype that
C3 Nephropathies. C3 nephropathies are nephritic kidney predisposes to disease (96) and that additional immune
diseases characterized by low serum C3 and glomerular C3 insults unmask complement regulatory deficiencies. As
deposits without IgG. Subsets of C3 nephropathies are one illustration supporting this concept, poststreptococcal
associated with serum C3 nephritic factors (Figure 5): ac- GN, generally a self-limited disease, resulted in progres-
quired autoantibodies that impair complement regulation by sive C3 nephropathy in a patient with a complement regu-
binding directly to the C3bBb C3 convertase or its compo- lator mutation (97).
nents, enhancing properdin-mediated stabilization of the com- Control of complement activation using eculizumab
plex, and/or inhibiting fH-mediated C3b degradation (84). (anti-C5) has revolutionized treatment of aHUS. Approx-
C3 nephropathies can also occur in association with genetic imately 85% of treated patients have achieved remission
mutations in complement components and/or regulators that (98). Those refractory to eculizumab may have disease
result in impaired complement regulation (Figure 5) (84). driven by C3 cleavage products (which would not be af-
Loss-of-function mutations in fH, gain-of-function mutations fected by anti-C5 mAb), raising the possibility that target-
in C3 (conferring resistance to fH-mediated cleavage), and ing C3 and/or C3a/C3aR may ultimately prove to be
gain-of-function mutations in complement fH regulatory pro- more effective.
teins (which compete with fH for binding to C3b and impair
the function of fH) have been described (84). Kidney-Derived Complement and Disease
Regardless of the specific molecular basis for the com- Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury. Ischemia-reperfusion (IR)
plement dysregulation, the resultant complement acti- injury results from tissue hypoxia, mitochondrial damage,
1644 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Figure 5. | Kidney diseases caused by abnormalities in complement regulation. (A, upper panel) Healthy red blood cells (RBCs) express CD59
and decay accelerating factor (DAF), preventing complement activation on their surfaces. (A, lower panel) Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglo-
binuria (PNH) is caused by mutation of the X-linked phosphatidylinositol glycan anchor biosynthesis, class A gene, resulting in a loss of
glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor biosynthesis that prevents surface expression of GPI-anchored DAF (CD55) and CD59. An inability to
regulate alternative pathway activation/amplification at the C3 convertase step (DAF; amplification loop) and prevent MAC formation (CD59),
results in spontaneous RBC lysis (membrane attack complex [MAC]). (B) C3 nephropathies. Factor H (fH) normally binds to polyanionic
glycosaminoglycans on glomerular basement membranes (GBMs) to restrain complement activation (Normal). Mutations in the C-terminal
region of fH (depicted as red regions of the protein) impair fH’s physiologic ability to bind to the basement membrane, lifting restraint on local
complement activation and contributing to glomerular inflammation and injury (mutant fH). C3 nephritic factors (right panel) can promote stability
of C3, and properdin (factor P [fP]) can stabilize the C3bBb C3 convertase or inhibit fH-mediated decay/degradation, lifting restraint on C3 con-
vertase-mediated amplification (looping arrow). (C) Atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome (aHUS). Among several mechanisms, mutations in fH that
impair its ability to bind to basement membranes (red regions of protein) permit complement regulation in the fluid phase (plasma regulation; left
panel) but prevent local complement regulation on surfaces (right panel), predisposing to vascular inflammation and hemolysis.

and ATP depletion followed by the generation of free oxygen overexpression of Crry (murine homolog of MCP) amelio-
radicals on reperfusion, which initially damage endothelium rated IR injury. IR injury was dampened in complement-de-
(99). Ensuing inflammation is driven by Toll-like receptor pleted mice and C3-deficient, fB-deficient, or C5-deficient
signaling, and cytokines, chemokines, and complement am- mice. Conversely, DAF-, Crry-, or fH-deficient mice are
plify the inflammation, resulting in tubular injury and kid- more susceptible to IR injury. Reciprocal transplant studies
ney dysfunction (Figure 6). showed that donor kidney–derived C3 and not systemic
To summarize findings reviewed elsewhere (100), comple- recipient C3 is the predominant mediator of IR injury
ment deposition and loss of membrane-bound complement (101). Using C3aR-, C5aR-, or C3aR/C5aR-deficient mice
regulators occur during murine kidney IR injury, and (102), investigators observed that deficiency of either or
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1636–1650, September, 2015 Complement and Kidney Disease, Mathern et al. 1645

Chronic Kidney Injury and Fibrosis. Mechanisms of

kidney fibrosis, including late kidney transplant failure,
involve immune and nonimmune mechanisms (106). The
functional and structural changes of chronic renal allograft
failure share similarities with those observed in other
forms of chronic progressive kidney disease, in which de-
cline of functioning nephron mass has been considered the
key event (107). Emerging evidence suggests that intragraft
complement activation contributes to this progressive kid-
ney injury (108). C3 is implicated in the activation of the
renin-angiotensin system and the epithelial-to-mesenchymal
transition (109,110). Together with observations that ab-
sence/blockade of C5/C5aR (but not blocking MAC forma-
tion) limited kidney fibrosis in several animal models
(111,112), the data suggest that kidney-derived complement
participates in fibrosis of native and transplanted kidneys
(Figure 7).
Associative evidence linking complement to progressive
human kidney transplant injury derives from studies of com-
plement gene polymorphisms and transplant outcomes.
Specific C5 polymorphisms in both the donor and recipient
have been associated with worse late graft function but not
risk of acute rejection (113). Although controversial, donor
kidney expression of a specific polymorphic variant of C3 is
associated with worse post-transplant outcomes (114,115).
Additionally, proteomic studies of kidney allograft tissue
revealed strong associations between chronic injury and alter-
Figure 6. | Complement in ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury. IR in- native pathway but not classical pathway complement com-
jury results from tissue hypoxia and reperfusion, promoting reactive ponents (116). An ongoing study of chronic anti-C5 mAb
oxygen species (ROS) production, which causes endothelial injury.
therapy in kidney transplant recipients (NCT01327573) could
Inflammation drives Toll-like receptor (TLR)–mediated signaling
and cytokine production as well as complement production and
potentially provide additional insight into the role of comple-
activation, which drives additional cytokine and chemokine pro- ment as a mediator of progressive graft dysfunction and in-
duction and immune cell recruitment through C3aR and C5aR terstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy.
signaling. DAMP, damage associated molecular pattern; HMGB1,
high mobility group protein B1.

both of these receptors protected mice from kidney IR in-

jury and that their expression on either renal tubular epi-
thelial cells or circulating leukocytes contributes to the
pathogenesis. Together, the data indicate that IR injury up-
regulates production of complement components by kid-
ney endothelial and tubular cells and infiltrating immune
cells. Local activation through the alternative pathway
yields C3a/C5a, which amplifies local inflammation
through autocrine/paracrine ligations with their kidney
cell–expressed receptors (102). Confirmatory evidence in
humans includes detection of soluble C5b-9 after reperfu-
sion of deceased donor but not living donor kidneys (103)
and higher expression of complement genes in deceased
versus living donor kidneys on reperfusion (104).
An analog of the human complement-regulatory pro-
tein CD35 (CR1; blocks C3 convertase) was conjugated to a
myristoylated peptidyl tail, such that, when administered
by intravenous perfusion of the harvested organ ex vivo, it
will self-insert into the lipid bilayer of the endothelial cell
membranes. This reagent was effective in preventing post-
Figure 7. | Chronic kidney injury and fibrosis. Chronic injury caused
transplant kidney IR injury in rats (105). The human re- by toxins or transplant-related immune responses upregulates com-
agent, mirococept (APT070), is being studied in a clinical plement production and activation within the kidney. C3 has been
trial for prevention of DGF (100). Eculizumab is also being implicated in the activation of the renin-angiotensin system and
tested for efficacy in preventing post-transplant DGF the promotion of the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, including
(NCT01403389 and NCT01919346). fibrosis. IR, ischemia reperfusion; RAS, renin-angiotensin system.
1646 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Complement and T Cell–Mediated Transplant Rejection components and receptors (129) now permit testing of the
Extending from the fundamental discoveries that absence intriguing concept that targeting complement in patients
of donor C3 prevents murine kidney transplant rejection with an assortment of kidney diseases has the potential to
(117) and that immune cell–derived complement augments abrogate disease progression and improve patient health.
effector T-cell differentiation and survival (23,24), studies
performed in transplant models revealed that wild-type Acknowledgments
mice reject DAF-deficient heart allografts with acceler- The authors thank P. Cravedi and J. Leventhal for their critical
ated kinetics (118). The accelerated rejection is caused comments.
by a complement-dependent augmentation of antidonor The work was supported by National Institutes of Health (NIH)
T-cell immunity. Donor or recipient DAF deficiency accel- Grant R01-AI071185 (to P.S.H.). D.R.M. is supported by NIH Medical
erated skin graft rejection (23), bypassed the requirement Scientist Training Program Grant T32-GM007280 (to the Icahn School
for CD4 help in murine heart transplant rejection (119), and of Medicine at Mount Sinai).
overcame immune privilege of the eye to cause rapid cor-
neal transplant rejection (120). Local complement produc- Disclosures
tion and C5a/C5aR interactions also influence effector P.S.H. receives grant funding from Alexion Pharmaceuticals.
CD81 T-cell responses to allogeneic vascular endothelial
cells (121) in in vitro culture systems and in vivo in response
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 Dendritic Cells and Macrophages: Sentinels in the
Kidney
Christina K. Weisheit,*† Daniel R. Engel,*‡ and Christian Kurts*

Abstract
The mononuclear phagocytes (dendritic cells and macrophages) are closely related immune cells with central
roles in anti-infectious defense and maintenance of organ integrity. The canonical function of dendritic cells is *Institute of
the activation of T cells, whereas macrophages remove apoptotic cells and microbes by phagocytosis. In the Experimental
kidney, these cell types form an intricate system of mononuclear phagocytes that surveys against injury and Immunology,
infection and contributes to organ homeostasis and tissue repair but may also promote progression of CKD. This University Clinic,
Rheinische Friedrich-
review summarizes the general functions and classification of dendritic cells and macrophages in the immune Wilhelms University,
system and recapitulates why overlapping definitions and historically separate research have created controversy Bonn, Germany and
about their tasks. Their roles in acute kidney disease, CKD, and renal transplantation are described, and †
Clinic for
therapeutic strategy to modify these cells for therapeutic purposes is discussed. Anesthesiology and
Intensive Care,
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1841–1851, 2015. doi: 10.2215/CJN.07100714 University Clinic,
Rheinische Friedrich-
Wilhelms University,
Bonn, Germany; and
Introduction: General Roles of Dendritic Cells lymph nodes, there are tissue-resident DCs that regu- ‡
Institute for
and Macrophages late infiltrating effector T cells by producing cytokines Experimental
All nonlymphoid tissues, including the kidney, harbor and chemokines (5,6). Immunology and
an intricate network of tissue-resident mononuclear As a rule of thumb, macrophages are innate immune Imaging, University
phagocytes, which include dendritic cells (DCs) and effector cells, and DCs induce adaptive immunity. Their Duisburg-Essen and
University Hospital
macrophages. Macrophages were originally described sentinel and regulatory functions overlap, and the Essen, Essen, Germany
.150 years ago by Slavjanski and Metchnikoff, and functionally dominant cell type depends on their tissue of
DCs were described by Steinman in 1973. These cell residence. In this review, we will summarize the pheno- Correspondence:
types are ontogenically related, and both serve senti- typical and functional characteristics of macrophages and Dr. Christian Kurts,
nel roles but possess distinct hallmark functions. Mac- DCs in the kidney and describe their role in acute renal Institute for
rophages are professional phagocytic cells that injury and CKD. Experimental
Immunology,
maintain tissue homeostasis (for example, by remov-
Rheinische Friedrich-
ing apoptotic cells) (Figure 1). During infection, they Ontogeny and Subsets of DCs and Macrophages Wilhelms University,
combat microbes by phagocytosis and production of Several DC classification system have been defined Bonn, Germany.
toxic metabolites. Furthermore, they alert other im- in mice and humans on the basis of the expression of Email: [email protected]
mune cells by secreting proinflammatory chemokines subset markers and functional properties (Table 1).
and cytokines (1). Many authorities distinguish CD11b-like myeloid
The canonical function of DCs is the activation of DCs (mDCs), CD8-like mDCs, Langerhans cells (im-
T cells (2). To this end, they gather antigens in tissues portant only in the skin and not further considered
and transport them to draining lymph nodes to present here), plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs), and inflammatory
them to specific T cells (3) (Figure 1). Immunogenic DCs (7–9). mDCs and pDCs are derived from a dis-
T-cell activation requires the DCs to have sensed tinct DC precursor in the bone marrow, whereas in-
pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) flammatory DCs, like inflammatory macrophages,
or danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs; originate from monocytes (10). The CD11b-like
for example, bacterial cell wall components, like LPS). mDCs preferentially activate CD41 T helper cells,
Without sensing such patterns, DCs remain in an im- the CD8-like mDCs are specialized at activating
mature functional state and cause antigen-specific CD81 cytotoxic T cells, and pDCs induce direct an-
T cells to undergo apoptosis. This is one major form tiviral immunity by secreting type I IFNs. Inflamma-
of so-called peripheral tolerance, which serves as a sec- tory DCs can perform all of these functions and
ond checkpoint (after thymic tolerance) against T-cell serve as a rapid supply of additional DCs in situa-
responses against autoantigens that are usually devoid tions of need, such as infections. For more informa-
of PAMPs (4). By contrast, DCs that have matured after tion on these important functions of DCs in mice
sensing PAMPs or DAMPS can induce vigorous pro- and humans, we refer to recent excellent reviews
liferation of specific T-cell clones, which are released (6,9,11).
into the circulation to infiltrate infected tissues to com- Macrophages have been classified in the last decades
bat the pathogens. In addition to DCs that migrate into according to the M1/M2 or the classic/alternative

www.cjasn.org Vol 10 October, 2015 Copyright © 2015 by the American Society of Nephrology 1841
1842 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Figure 1. | Canonical functions of renal dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages. Kidney DCs (orange) gather antigens (here represented in
green as microbes) and transport them to draining lymph nodes to present them to specific T cells (red). Tissue-resident DCs can regulate
activated T cells. Macrophages (violet) maintain tissue homeostasis, for example, by removing apoptotic cells. During infection, they may
combat microbes by phagocytosis.

activation dichotomy, with the former performing proin- Discrimination between DCs and Macrophages
flammatory antibacterial responses and the latter being The realization that macrophages can also perform DC
involved in antiparasite immunity and tissue repair (12–14). functions to a certain degree and vice versa has caused
However, these functions seem to represent merely two much uncertainty and debate about the exact demarcation
ends of a broad spectrum of macrophage polarization between these two cell types. To understand this ambiguity,
states (15). Another classification system uses the Ly6C one has to remember that the fields of DC and macrophage
marker to distinguish inflammatory and tissue-resident research have historically developed more or less indepen-
macrophages, which seem to perform distinct tasks in dent from each other. The marker molecules used to identify
the anti-infectious defense (16,17). This difference is also these cells considerably overlap; most notably, the murine
evident in blood monocytes: in addition to the classic DC marker CD11c used over three decades to distinguish
Ly6C1 inflammatory monocytes that are dependent on DCs from macrophages is known to also be expressed by
the chemokine receptor CCR2, a distinct subset of Ly6C2 certain macrophages (for example, in the lung or the
monocytes expressing high levels of the chemokine receptor splenic marginal zone) (9,23). Likewise, the macrophage
CX3CR1 has been described (18). The latter seem to act as marker F4/80 is expressed by DCs in most nonlymphoid
vascular sentinels that survey endothelial surfaces and tissues, including the kidney (26) (Table 1). The systems
may cause vasculitis and organ damage, which was explic- commonly used to deplete DCs or macrophages for loss-
itly shown in the kidney (19). of-function in vivo studies are often on the basis of these
Recent work showed numerous other functional states markers, and consequently, they are not specific either
of macrophages (20,21). This heterogeneity is further (27). Thus, many studies addressing either tissue macro-
complicated by the discovery that certain tissue-resident phages or tissue DCs were unknowingly studying the
macrophages, such as microglia and Langerhans cells, same cells, often neglecting knowledge from the other dis-
originate from not only the bone marrow but also, prim- cipline. In fact, the same mononuclear phagocyte may
itive precursors in the yolk sac and perhaps, the fetal liver simultaneously fulfill the current criteria used by the DC
(22,23). This finding has major implications for therapeu- community and those used by the macrophage commu-
tic strategies, because macrophages derived from primi- nity, because their definitions are not mutually exclusive.
tive precursors seed organs before birth and multiply by Of course, semantic debates are of little importance to cli-
local proliferation rather than recruitment from the cir- nicians, let alone to patients. Therefore, many serious immu-
culation (24,25). Obviously, tissue-resident macrophages nologists are currently discussing how to replace the numerous
cannot be targeted by preventing their tissue recruitment coexisting classification systems with a new system that is
in contrast to bone marrow–dependent macrophages. acceptable to both communities (28). Such a system will
The classification of human tissue DCs and macrophages likely leave the current DC-macrophage dichotomy be-
is less developed than that in mice because of technical hind and encompass ontogenetic and functional proper-
limitations (21). ties. Before a consensus is reached, we will here adhere to
Table 1. General characteristics of dendritic cells and macrophages

Renal DC Precursor Chemokine General Key Markers Key Markers

References
Subsets Receptors Functions Mouse Human

Myeloid/CD11b1- like DCs Common MDPs in the Tissue surveillance; immune tolerance CD11chigh CD11chigh 9,11
BM; CCR7, CCR2 Ag transport to LNs, activation of F4/801 F4/801
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1841–1851, October, 2015

T helper cells; recruitment of CX3CR11 BDCA-11

other immune cells to the kidney in CD11b1
GN and PN
Crosspresenting DCs/ CDP In renal LNs, CTL crosstolerance; CD11chigh CD11chigh 41,114
CD8a1-like DCs XCR11 very sparse in the kidney in lymph CD11b– BDCA-31
node T-cell activation; role within the CLEC9A1 CD14–
kidney is unclear XCR11 CD1a1
CD1031
Plasma-cytoid DC CDP Possibly viral clearance through type CD11cint CD11b– BDCA-21 115
I IFN; potential role in lupus nephritis CD8a– B2201 Gr11 CD11c–
Monocyte-derived/ Monocyte-derived Innate defenses against Tip-DCs CD11c1 CD11b1 DC-SIGN/CD209a1 9,10
inflammatory DC proinflammatory cytokine production F4/801 requires additional
Ly6C1 study
Inflammatory macrophages/ CCR21 MDP Displays high phagocytic activity; F4/801 CD14high 10
Ly6C1 macrophages cytokine release Ly6C1 CD162
CD11c2
Ly6C– macrophages CX3CR11 Sentinel function; initiation of F4/801 CD141 22,24
inflammatory response
MDP Maintenance of tissue homeostasis; Ly6C– CD161
clearance of cell debris
Yolk sac derived CD11c–

DC, dendritic cell; MDP, monocyte–DC precursor; BM, bone marrow; Ag, antigen; LN, lymph node; PN, pyelonephritis; CDP, common–DC precursor; CTL, cytotoxic lymphocytes.
Dendritic Cells and Macrophages, Weisheit et al.
1843
1844 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

the current nomenclature, which classifies renal mononu- of various diseases, including those affecting the kidney, and
clear phagocytes expressing CD11c as DCs and those lack- promising candidates for therapeutic intervention have been
ing this marker as macrophages. identified (35). However, most of these studies used mice
ubiquitously deficient for these sensors, and therefore, it is
unclear whether an observed beneficial affect can be attrib-
Pattern Sensors on DCs and Macrophages uted to DCs or macrophages.
DCs and macrophages express a great variety of recep-
tors to sense microbial PAMPs. The best studied examples
are the Toll-like receptors (TLRs), which detect cell wall DCs and Macrophages in the Kidney
components of gram-positive and -negative bacteria, flagel- The tubulointerstitium of healthy kidneys contains nu-
lin, and bacterial and viral RNA and DNA. In addition, TLR2 merous CD11c1 cells with extensive dendritic protrusions
and TLR4 also recognize self-components that are normally that can be classified by phenotypic and functional prop-
sequestered but released in situations of stress, sterile in- erties as tissue DCs of the CD11b type (Figure 3, Table 1)
flammation, or cellular damage. Such DAMPs signals gen- (26,36). Most of these DCs comply with some definitions of
erally include molecules like HMGB1, heat shock proteins, tissue macrophages (for example, in terms of F4/80 ex-
or fibronectin. DAMPs with more or less specificity to the pression) (21,37). A recent detailed study showed that
kidney include uromodulin (Tamm–Horsfall protein), hy- the murine kidney contains at least five discrete subpopu-
aluronan, and biglycan (29–31). lations of mononuclear phagocytes, which cannot be sim-
Table 2 lists these classes and additional classes of pattern- ply classified into the conventional entities, because they
sensing receptors expressed by DCs and macrophages such performed both traditional DC and macrophage functions
as lectins, like the mannose receptor, dectins, or DC-SIGN, to differing degrees (38). Cells with predominant DC func-
which recognize carbohydrate moieties, especially of micro- tionality are more abundant in the cortical tubulointersti-
bial origin (32). Retinoic acid-inducible gene 1–like helicases tium but mostly absent from the glomeruli (39,40). Only 5%
are intracellular sensors that detect the presence of viral nucleic of the tubulointerstitial DCs belong to the CD8-like subset
acids in the cytoplasm, whereas nucleotide-binding oligomeri- that has exclusive DC functionality (41), but their role in the
zation domain receptors-like receptors recognize intracellular kidney is unknown. Cells with unambiguous macrophage
bacterial PAMPs (33). Much attention has recently been given phenotype can be found in small numbers within glomeruli
to the NLRP3 inflammasome (Figure 2A), a large molecular (42) and in the subcapsular and periarterial connective tis-
complex that, in response to various types of crystals (e.g., silica, sues (43,44). Renal macrophages expressing very high lev-
asbestos, cholesterol, Alzheimer fibrils, and islet amyloid els of F4/80 originate mostly from the yolk sac (22) and are
polypeptide), proteolytically activates in phagocytes IL-1, more abundant in the medulla (40). Renal mononuclear
an inflammatory master regulator (34). Numerous other re- phagocytes are partially derived from common DC precur-
ceptors deliver additional information (for example, cytokine sors and monocytes (45).
receptors that inform about the activation state of neighbor- Most of these observations were made in mice, where
ing cells, metabolic sensors that detect consumption of nu- numerous experimental tools are available. Extrapolation
trients, or even neuronal synapses that provide a direct link to the human system is not straightforward, because the
to neural regulation). DCs and macrophages integrate all subset markers differ substantially between species. This
this information, respond with activation or maturation, may be one reason why, until now, only a few studies have
and become proinflammatory. Numerous experimental examined DC and macrophage subsets in human kid-
studies have examined the role of these sensors in models ney biopsies (46–48). These revealed new insight into old

Table 2. Selected pattern sensors relevant in kidney disease

MPh Functional
Receptor Disease Reference
Versus DC Role

TLR3/7/9 MPh Lupus model Harmful 116

(MRL-Fas mice)
TLR9 MPh Lupus model Harmful 117
(MRL-Fas mice)
TLR4 DCs and MPh Urinary tract infection Protective 53
NLRP3, inflammasome DC Oxalat-induced AKI Harmful 35,87
SIGIRR DCs IRI Protective 62
A2AR MPh IRI Protective 118
AT1R MPh Renal injury in obesity Harmful 84
IL-17R DCs and MPh UUO Harmful 85
TREM1 MPh UUO Harmful 86
uPAR MPh UUO Anti-inflammatory 119
but profibrotic

TLR, Toll-like receptor; SIGIRR, single Ig IL-1–related receptor; uPar, urokinase receptor; NLRP3, NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains
containing protein 3; A2AR, adenosine 2a receptor; AT1R, type I angiotensin receptor; TREM1, triggering receptor expressed on
myeloid cells 1; MPh, macrophage; UUO, unilateral ureteral obstruction; IRI, ischemia reperfusion injury.
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1841–1851, October, 2015 Dendritic Cells and Macrophages, Weisheit et al. 1845

Figure 2. | Role of renal DCs and macrophages in selected kidney diseases. (A) Inflammasome activation in DCs and macrophages results from
intratubular crystal formation, which is a consequence of the high osmolarity in the medulla that favors crystal formation. The inflammasome is
an intracellular multimeric enzyme complex that contains adaptor proteins and caspase 1, which proteolytically activates IL-1b, resulting in
inflammation. (B) Ischemia reperfusion injury activates DCs to produce TNF and chemokines that attract and stimulate injurious immune
effector cells. (C) Glomerular inflammation activates periglomerular DCs in the renal cortex. They capture and present deposited or filtered
antigens to CD4 T helper cells and stimulate these cells with IL-12. T cells secrete IFN-g and cause macrophages to produce injurious me-
diators, like TNF or nitric oxide (NO). DCs, dendritic cells; MF, macrophage.

disease entities, such as shifts in the distribution and num- DCs receive more proteins and in addition, high molecular
bers of myeloid cells (identified in humans by the BDCA-1 weight antigens that stimulate potentially harmful T cells—
marker) in lupus nephritis and necrotizing GN (47). There another way that proteinuria can injure the kidney.
is great potential in this area to improve the histopatho-
logic diagnosis of nephritis. Defense against Urogenital Tract Infections
Renal DCs and macrophages use TLR4 to detect uropathogenic
Homeostatic and Anti-Infectious Sentinel Functions Escherichia coli (53,54), the most prevalent cause of kidney
Maintaining Immune Tolerance against Renal Antigens infections. DCs respond by producing chemokines that
Kidney DCs constantly probe their environment using recruit neutrophilic granulocytes into the kidney to combat
their dendrites, suggesting a sentinel role (26,36,46,49). In- the bacteria by phagocytosis and production of toxic medi-
deed, DCs in healthy kidneys continuously sample glomer- ators (55) (Figure 4A). The DCs in the renal medulla are
ular and tubular self-antigens and small molecular weight particularly potent at recruiting neutrophils (40), perhaps
antigens that can constitutively pass the glomerular filter because they are the first to encounter the ascending bacteria
from the tubular lumen (50). It is unclear whether DCs do and/or because of microenvironmental cues that cause them
so by extending dendrites between epithelial cells into the to specialize at anti-infectious functions. Notably, kidney
tubular lumen as described for the intestine (51). In the ab- macrophages contributed to neither the chemokine produc-
sence of PAMPs, DCs express the suppressive molecule tion nor the phagocytosis of uropathogenic E. coli (55).
PDL-1 that induces apoptosis in T cells specific for such anti- By contrast, another study reported that renal macro-
gens (52). This function may serve to maintain immunologic phages are critical for the defense against candida (56),
tolerance against renal autoantigens or innocuous circulating which preferentially infect murine kidneys. The pheno-
small molecular weight antigens. However, this tolerance type of the macrophages in that study (MHC II1, F4/801,
mechanism is undermined in diseases associated with pro- and CX3CR11 ) resembles that of the DCs examined in
teinuria. When the glomerular filter becomes leaky, kidney the E. coli study, highlighting the current nomenclature
1846 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Roles in Kidney Disease

AKI
Acute and chronic kidney inflammation is usually as-
sociated with the intrarenal accumulation of DCs and
macrophages. Macrophages are widely considered impor-
tant sources of proinflammatory cytokines and injurious
mediators in various types of acute kidney diseases (58). In
ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI), an important problem in
kidney transplantation, kidney-resident DCs are the first to
produce proinflammatory chemokines and cytokines like
TNF (59), suggesting a proinflammatory role (Figure 2B).
However, functional studies showed that kidney DCs pre-
vented excess ischemic tissue damage (60,61), which has been
linked to anti-inflammatory signaling mechanisms involving
IFN regulatory factor 4 and immunosuppressive mediators,
like IL-10 and single Ig IL-1–related receptor (62). Protective
functions of DCs have also been shown in models of drug-
induced tubulotoxicity (63) and acute crescentic GN (64),
which may be mediated through the inducible costimulatory
ligand on DCs (65), a T-cell suppressor. However, these stud-
ies have to be interpreted with caution, because they were
Figure 3. | The renal mononuclear system. Two-photon microscopy obtained with the use of experimental techniques that may be
image of the renal mononuclear phagocyte system visualized by associated with systemic neutrophilia as a side effect (66).
transgenic reporter mice in which cells, which include DCs, macro-
Some studies may need to be revisited to clarify an influence
phages, and monocytes, harboring the receptor CX3CR1 express green
fluorescent protein. Reprinted from A. R. Kitching, with permission.
of side effects.
After acute injury, both DCs and CSF-1–dependent mac-
rophages orchestrated tissue repair by producing mediators
ambiguity resulting from overlapping definitions as de- like IL-22 (67,68), suggesting novel therapeutic avenues in
scribed above. both transplantation and acute tubular necrosis.
By contrast, the defense against bacterial cystitis entirely
depended on macrophages (more exactly on the interplay Chronic Progression of GN
between two functionally distinct macrophage subsets that Persistent signaling through pattern-sensing receptors cau-
can be distinguished by expression of the Ly6C marker) ses resident DCs to mature and become proinflammatory.
(16) (Figure 4B). Bladder-resident Ly6C2 sentinel macro- Furthermore, chronic kidney inflammation attracts circulatory
phages performed a role comparable with the role of DCs monocytes through chemokines. These differentiate within
in the kidney: they sensed the infection and produced che- the kidney into DCs and macrophages with proinflammatory
mokines that recruited neutrophils and Ly6C1 monocytes. functionality, which progressively replace resident immature
The latter did not directly combat bacteria but instead, per- DCs. Thus, the renal environment turns more and more
formed an innate immune helper cell function. After sens- proinflammatory and supportive of CKD progression. This
ing the infection, they produced the cytokine TNF as a helper functional change has been described in murine models of
signal that caused the sentinel macrophages to produce crescentic GN (40) and lupus nephritis (69). Matured DCs
additional chemokines to guide neutrophils into the front- stimulated T helper cells, which produced cytokines like
line of infection (the uroepithelium) to combat the bacte- IFN-g to activate renal macrophages to mediate kidney dam-
ria. These findings showed that the immune system bases age (Figure 2C), consistent with a type IV delayed type hy-
the decision of whether to induce antibacterial innate im- persensitivity reaction (70). This immune cell cross-talk may
munity on the agreement between several immune cells, be the mechanistic explanation for the well known mononu-
probably to reduce the likelihood of false-positive deci- clear periglomerular infiltrates regularly observed in many
sions that would cause collateral damage—a principle forms of GN (71). It is well established that the extent of
well known from T- and B-cell responses of the adaptive tubulointerstitial mononuclear infiltration correlates with
immune system. These findings also help to explain why the kidney function and its prognosis in many types of CKD,
TNF is so important in antibacterial infection and why including those not primarily by the immune system (like
TNF-blocking therapies cause exacerbation of bacterial diabetic or hypertensive nephropathy) (71), suggesting a
infections, including urogenital tract infections (57). It is general role of tubulointerstitial immune cell cross-talk in
unclear whether similar collaboration also occurs in the CKD progression. Thus, the histopathologic diagnosis of ne-
kidney during the defense against pyelonephritis. The phritis may be advanced by considering functional parame-
finding that different myeloid cells act as sentinels in blad- ters, like the DC maturation state (72), the T cell cytokine
der and kidney highlights the close relationship between production, or macrophage activation.
DCs and macrophages and the importance of microenvi-
ronmental factors that shape the local immune system. Role in Lupus Nephritis
Exact knowledge of the mechanisms of antibacterial de- Immune cell cross-talk is also important in lupus nephritis,
fense is important for designing superior therapies with a renal manifestation of a systemic immune disorder result-
minimal side effects. ing from a defect in the homeostatic clearance of apoptotic
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1841–1851, October, 2015 Dendritic Cells and Macrophages, Weisheit et al. 1847

Figure 4. | Immune response against urinary tract infection. (A) In bacterial pyelonephritis, ascending uropathogenic E. coli (green) is sensed
by Toll-like receptor (TLR) -expressing kidney DCs positioned in the medulla adjacent to collecting ducts and tubules. Medullary DCs respond
by secreting CXCL2 that attracts neutrophils to eliminate the bacteria. (B) In bacterial cystitis, resident Ly6C2 sentinel macrophages sense
uropathogenic E. coli and start secreting chemokines to recruit circulatory neutrophils and Ly6C1 monocytes. The latter differentiates into
Ly6C1 helper macrophages that release TNF as helper signal, which enables Ly6C2 sentinel macrophages to produce additional chemokines to
guide neutrophils into the frontline of infection (the uroepithelium) to combat the bacteria. MIF, macrophage migration inhibitory factor.

cells (73), sensing of the accumulating self-nucleic acids that usually lead to tissue fibrosis (34). The kidney is predis-
mimic a viral infection (74), and the ensuing loss of immune posed to inflammasome activation, because the concentra-
tolerance to nuclear autoantigens (75,76). In addition to tion of the primary filtrate and the high osmolarity in the
mDCs, pDCs also play an important role in this condition renal medulla favor crystal formation after the solubility
by sensing nucleic acids antigens using TLR7 and TLR9 coefficient of a given salt is exceeded within the tubular lumen
and driving intrarenal inflammation by secretion of type 1 (Figure 2A). Indeed, it has been reported that calcium oxalate
IFN (74). Lupus nephritis is one of two conditions in which crystals activate the inflammasome in renal DCs (87), which
DCs infiltrates in glomeruli have been described (77), the may cause progressive loss of kidney function over weeks
other one being ANCA-associated GN (78). (88). Additional examples of inflammasome-activating neph-
rotoxic crystals are formed by uric acid (resulting in gout
nephropathy) and adenine (89), which is released, for exam-
Role in Nonimmune CKD
DCs play a minor role in CKD driven by mechanic or toxic ple, during chemotherapy. Experimental studies have also
injurious mediators. The best studied example is unilateral shown a role of the inflammasome in IRI (90) and unilateral
ureteral obstruction, the standard kidney fibrosis model. Al- ureter ligation (91). Numerous stimuli other than crystals
though both DCs and macrophages showed signs of acti- have been reported to trigger the inflammasome, but it is
vation, only the removal of macrophages (but not DCs) unclear which of them are important in these conditions. Re-
attenuated kidney fibrosis (79,80). The important functional gardless of the underlying reasons, inhibition of the inflam-
role of macrophages explains the correlation between their masome product, IL-1, has recently been used successfully in
intrarenal numbers and the severity of fibrosis in human stud- many forms of sterile inflammation (92), albeit not yet in
ies (81). Mechanistically, activated macrophages secreted re- those affecting the kidney. Furthermore, small molecular
active oxygen species and proinflammatory cytokines, which weight inhibitors of the inflammasome itself are currently
induced apoptosis of tubular epithelial cells and stimulated being developed and tested. Finally, it might be possible to
interstitial fibroblasts to deposit extracellular matrix, leading prevent inflammasome activation by targeting the renal cells
to kidney fibrosis (82,83). Several macrophage-activating re- in which it is expressed (the DCs and macrophages).
ceptors have been described with inhibition that may be of
therapeutic value in nonimmune CKD (84–86) (Table 2).
Kidney Transplantation
Renal allograft rejection results from the recognition of graft
Intrarenal Inflammasome Activation antigens that provoke an immune response of the recipient
Many forms of sterile inflammation are driven by inflam- (93). DCs are central to both the direct and indirect allor-
masome activation and important for the nephrologist, ecognition pathways, where donor antigens are presented
1848 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

to recipient T cells by donor or recipient DCs, respec- should entail fewer side effects in other organs. However,
tively. Direct recognition may contribute to acute allograft under inflammatory conditions, CX3CR1 is not the only
rejection (94), whereas indirect recognition causes chronic receptor mediating monocyte recruitment; also, CCR1,
allograft rejection and alloantibody formation (95). This is CCR2, and CCR5 have been implicated (104,105). It re-
logical, because recipient B cells need to receive recipient mains to be seen whether and how much these receptors
T-cell help, which can be stimulated only by recipient DCs. can compensate when CX3CR1 is blocked. Particularly,
Donor DCs possess a limited half-life and can contribute CCR2 is important for proinflammatory macrophages,
to rejection only in the acute phase. During that phase, do- and its inhibition (or inhibition of its ligand CCL2) was
nor DCs are exposed to IRI-mediated damage that renders effective in mouse models of unilateral ureter ligation (79),
them particularly stimulatory. IRI can be studied in animals lupus nephritis (106), ischemia/reperfusion (107), and dia-
much more easily than full organ transplantation, and there- betic nephropathy (108). Chemokine receptors can be targe-
fore, abundant information is available on the molecular ted well by small molecular weight drugs; some of these are
mechanism of IRI, showing, for example, the potent pro- currently under investigation, but their value for treating
duction of proinflammatory cytokines (59). Consistently, kidney disease is unclear at present. Finally, some immuno-
the analysis of human kidney biopsies showed that a suppressive drugs, such as laquinimod, have been shown to
strong mDC influx during acute rejection predicts a poor reduce chemokine secretion and immune cell infiltration in
outcome (96). other tissues and may be of use in nephritis (109).

Therapeutic Manipulation of Renal DCs and Preventing DC Maturation and Macrophage Activation
Macrophages Another promising approach is to inhibit DC maturation,
Adoptive Transfer of DCs and Macrophages the prerequisite for their ability to aggravate chronic disease.
The transfer of tolerogenic donor-derived immature DCs An obvious candidate is the transcription factor NF-kB, a
before kidney transplantation seems to be a promising master regulator of immune cell activation, which offers
therapeutic strategy to prevent proinflammatory functions the additional advantage of also being active in two addi-
of kidney passenger DCs. Such donor DCs can promote tional main components of renal mononuclear infiltrates
alloantigen-specific T-cell unresponsiveness and transplant (T helper cells and macrophages). NF-kB inhibitors have
survival (97). Inhibition of T effector cells and induction of been used successfully in several immune-mediated disea-
regulatory T cells were observed in volunteers treated with ses, including SLE (110), but have not yet been used success-
DCs (98,99). These effects may be augmented by immuno- fully in primary CKDs. Interestingly, the effectivity of type I
suppressive therapies (100). angiotensin receptor blockade in CKD is partially mediated
Transfer of activated macrophages as Ehrlich’s magic bul- through inhibition of macrophages, which express this re-
lets that migrate into sites of inflammation has been shown ceptor as well (111). Table 2 lists additional receptors impor-
to aggravate kidney disease (101), consistent with the proin- tant in CKD with the potential to modify DC or macrophage
flammatory function of these cells. By contrast, the transfer activation. Some of the immunosuppressive agents used to
of macrophages genetically modified to express immuno- prevent transplant rejection prevented DC activation in vitro
suppressive mediators attenuated inflammatory kidney dis- (for example, sirolimus [112] and tacrolimus [113]). How-
ease (102,103). It remains to be seen whether such genetic ever, their usefulness in CKD is limited by side effects. Fi-
modifications are stable and safe enough for therapeutic use nally, the numerous recent inhibitors of proinflammatory
in humans. cytokines produced by DCs and macrophages possess ther-
apeutic potential, but these drugs will be discussed in an-
other review of this series.
Removal of DCs and Macrophages
The depletion of renal DCs and macrophages is the
Acknowledgments
most straightforward approach to prevent their disease- This work was supported by the German Research foundation
aggravating effects in CKD. In animals, this can be achieved (KFO228, SFBTR57). C.K. is a member of the excellence cluster
with the use of clodronate liposomes, which are not specific ImmunoSensation in Bonn.
for DCs or macrophages. More specific are the numerous
transgenic tools previously used in vivo for loss-of-function
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 T Cells: Soldiers and Spies—The Surveillance and
Control of Effector T Cells by Regulatory T Cells
Bruce M. Hall

Abstract
Traditionally, T cells were CD41 helper or CD81 cytotoxic T cells, and with antibodies, they were the soldiers of
immunity. Now, many functionally distinct subsets of activated CD41 and CD81 T cells have been described, each Immune Tolerance
with distinct cytokine and transcription factor expression. For CD41 T cells, these include Th1 cells expressing Laboratory,
the transcription factor T-bet and cytokines IL-2, IFN-g, and TNF-b; Th2 cells expressing GATA-3 and the cyto- Department of
kines IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13; and Th17 cells expressing RORgt and cytokines IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-21, and IL-22. The Medicine, University
of New South Wales,
cytokines produced determine the immune inflammation that they mediate. T cells of the effector lineage can Sydney, Australia; and
be naı̈ve T cells, recently activated T cells, or memory T cells that can be distinguished by cell surface markers. Renal Unit, Liverpool
T regulatory cells or spies were characterized as CD81 T cells expressing I-J in the 1970s. In the 1980s, suppressor Hospital, Sydney,
cells fell into disrepute when the gene for I-J was not present in the mouse MHC I region. At that time, a CD41 T cell Australia
expressing CD25, the IL-2 receptor-a, was identified to transfer transplant tolerance. This was the same pheno-
type of activated CD41CD251 T cells that mediated rejection. Thus, the cells that could induce tolerance and Correspondence:
Prof. Bruce M. Hall,
undermine rejection had similar badges and uniforms as the cells effecting rejection. Later, FOXP3, a transcription Department of Renal
factor that confers suppressor function, was described and distinguishes T regulatory cells from effector T cells. Medicine, Liverpool
Many subtypes of T regulatory cells can be characterized by different expressions of cytokines and receptors for Health Service,
cytokines or chemokines. In intense immune inflammation, T regulatory cells express cytokines characteristic of Locked Bag 7017,
effector cells; for example, Th1-like T regulatory cells express T-bet, and IFN-g–like Th1 cells and effector T cells Liverpool BC 1871,
NSW, Australia. Email;
can change sides by converting to T regulatory cells. Effector T cells and T regulatory cells use similar molecules to [email protected]
be activated and mediate their function, and thus, it can be very difficult to distinguish soldiers from spies.
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 2050–2064, 2015. doi: 10.2215/CJN.06620714

Introduction promote tolerance, whereas they are undesirable in

In this review, effector T cells are referred to as soldiers, cancer, where they prevent elimination of malignant cells
because they mediate immunity and destroy cells with by T cells. Thus, promoting Tregs in patients with trans-
the specific antigen. Until recently, the role of T regula- plants or autoimmunity is desirable, whereas in chronic
tory cells (Tregs) in monitoring and limiting every step of infection and malignancy, it may be undesirable.
the effector immune response has been underappreci-
ated. Although they are referred to as spies, their function
is to not only monitor immunity but also, actively control What Is a T Cell?
immunity. Tregs prevent uncontrolled immunity, un- T cells are mainly produced in the thymus and were
necessarily inflicting injury that, in its own right, may kill first recognized as lymphocytes that do not express
the host. surface Ig or genes for Ig (1). The hallmark of a T cell
Whereas an antibody identifies extracellular struc- is expression of an antigen-recognizing T cell receptor
tures, such as soluble antigen or antigen on surfaces of (TCR) (2). There are two forms of TCRs: an a- and
cells or organisms, T cells monitor the intracellular b-chain TCR (TCRa,b) expressed by 95% of peripheral
compartment of the host. They do this so that they can T cells (3) and a g- and d-chain TCR (TCRg,d) (4). TCRg,d
kill cells infected with a pathogen or cells that are T cells will not be discussed further. Each T cell has a
allogeneic, xenogeneic, or malignant cells expressing new unique TCR with the potential to recognize a unique
tumor-associated antigens. In autoimmunity, they kill antigen. Progeny of T cells express the same TCR
normal cells. To deal with the vast array of pathogens, and are clonally expanded to effect antigen-specific
T cell responses, such as Th1, Th2, and Th17, have evolved immunity.
to allow protective responses that are adapted to better The TCR is coexpressed with CD3, a complex of he-
eliminate the different types of pathogens. terodimers of CD3«,g and CD3«,d with a homodimer
Tregs are generated in all immune responses and limit of z-chain. The negatively charged transmembrane
response to pathogens, transplant tissue, and tumor cells. regions of the CD3 associate with positively charged
Normally, Tregs control autoimmune responses, and transmembrane regions of TCR. TCR has a small intra-
autoimmunity occurs when Treg responses fail. Tregs are cellular domain; thus, signaling after contact with a
beneficial in patients with transplants, because they can specific antigen is by CD3. CD3 is phosphorylated on

2050 Copyright © 2015 by the American Society of Nephrology www.cjasn.org Vol 10 November, 2015
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 2050–2064, November, 2015 T Cells: Soldiers and Spies, Hall 2051

an immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif that al- In nonimmune situations, MHC class II is only expressed
lows z-associated protein 70 to activate the intracellular by APCs and B cells. During immune inflammation, IFN-g
pathway that releases calcium from the endoplasmic reticu- induces expression of class II MHC on somatic cells and
lum. Calcium binds to calmodulin to activate phosphatase increases class I MHC expression (14). Activated Tregs are
activity of calcineurin to activated nuclear factor of activated the only T cells that express class II MHC (15), but its
T cells (NFAT). NFAT, a transcription factor, activates a se- function on Treg is unknown.
ries of genes, especially IL-2. Calcineurin inhibitors, such as
cyclosporin and tacrolimus, block activation of T cells by
Generation of Diversity in TCR for T Cells in Thymus—
inhibiting calcineurin activation.
Clonal Deletion and Selection for Ability to React to
Other molecules unique to T cells are CD2 and some
Self-MHC
isoforms of CD45. All other cell surface markers are differ-
A massive number of different TCRs are generated when
entially expressed on T cell subpopulations or non–T cells.
CD41CD81 thymocytes are produced. This occurs by ran-
dom selection of different combinations of variable and
Presentation of Antigen to TCR junctional genes for a- and b-chains and diversity genes for
TCR, unlike antibody, does not directly bind to unpro-
b-chain. These form three hypervariable or complementarity
cessed antigen. TCR recognizes peptides of antigen presented
determining regions that are the sites where TCRs interact
by MHC present on cell membrane. The role of MHC mo-
with antigenic peptide and the MHC (6). The antigen rec-
lecules as presenters of antigen was first recognized when the
ognition site of TCR interacts with the peptide and the sur-
crystal structure of human HLA-2 identified a peptide not
rounding self-MHC structure.
encoded by the HLA gene in a groove created by the variant
There is negative selection by clonal deletion of thymo-
a1- and a2-domains (3,5,6).
cytes with TCR that strongly recognize self-antigen (16–18),
Antigenic peptides presented by class I MHC molecules,
which leads to tolerance to self. Autoimmune regulator, a
such as HLA-A,B,C, are usually from proteins synthesized
transcription factor, induces expression of a large number
within a cell and bind to class I MHC before its expression
of proteins found in peripheral tissues in thymic medullary
on the cell surface (7).
epithelial cells (19). Peptides from these normal proteins ex-
The antigenic peptide in a class I MHC groove is usually
pressed in peripheral tissues are presented on self-MHC to
nine amino acids. Each class I MHC only presents peptides
thymocytes and promote deletion of autoreactive clones.
with a consensus motif, usually at p2, p3, and p5 amino
Mutations in autoimmune regulator cause Autoimmune
acids, that fits its groove. The antigenicity is generated by
Polyendocrinopathy Syndrome type 1 with hypoparathyroidism,
the amino acids at the other positions. Humans have six
primary adrenocorticoid failure, and chronic mucocutaneous
class I MHCs, two HLA-A, two HLA-B, and two HLA-C,
candidiasis (20). The mechanisms for deletion of autoreactive
with different consensus motifs that each can present thou-
clones are not perfect, and surviving autoreactive T cells are
sands of different peptides. Thus, a cell can display many
normally controlled by peripheral mechanisms that prevent
thousands of intracellular peptides in class I MHC, like a
their activation, including by Treg.
chip array (8). CD8 binds to the invariant a3-domain of
In the thymus, there is also positive selection of T cells with
class I MHC (9), facilitating TCR on CD81 T cells survey-
TCR that can bind to antigen associated with self-MHC (21).
ing antigen presented by class I MHC.
If a TCR does not bind to self-MHC, the thymocyte dies. If a
Antigenic peptides presented by class II MHCs (in humans,
thymocytes TCR recognizes class II MHC, CD4 expression is
HLA-DR, HLA-DP, and HLA-DQ) are usually from proteins
retained, and CD8 expression lost. If the TCR recognizes
produced outside the cell. These foreign proteins are ingested
class I MHC, the thymocyte continues to express CD8 but
and processed by class II MHC-expressing cells, such as
not CD4. Nearly all T cells released from the thymus express
dendritic cells, monocytes, macrophages, oligodendro-
either CD4 or CD8.
cytes, Langerhans cells, and B cells. TCR recognizes an-
The majority of peripheral TCRa,b T cells is effector
tigenic peptides of $15 amino acids entrapped in a groove
programmed to become soldiers. A minority of peripheral
created by the variant a1- and b1-domains (10). CD4
CD41 TCRa,b Τ cells released from the thymus expresses
binds to the invariant b2 of class II MHC to facilitate
CD25 and FOXP3, and they are professional Tregs or spies.
TCR recognition of antigenic peptides presented by class
Both effector T cells and Tregs have a vast array of TCR to
II MHC (11,12).
recognize a broad repertoire of specific antigen.
The TCR antigen recognition site interacts with both the
peptide and the surrounding MHC structure. This explains
MHC restriction of cytotoxic T cells, which only kills virally Nonantigen-Specific Adhesion Molecules Required for
infected cells expressing the same class I MHC that ac- Signal 1 to Activate T Cells
tivated the T cell (13). LFA1, LFA2(CD2), and LFA3(CD58) were identified to
The pathways for presentation of antigen by MHC are facilitate cytotoxic T cells interaction with target cells (22)
complex (7). To activate T cells, antigen-presenting cells (Figure 1). CD2 binds to LFA3 expressed on APCs and other
(APCs) must first be activated by the antigen and induced cells (23) and is widely expressed in the kidney (24). LFA1,
to express MHC and costimulatory molecules. APCs are an integrin heterodimer of CD11a and CD18, binds to inter-
activated by bacterial wall molecules or virus materials, cellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM1) and is the initial con-
such as double-stranded DNA, that bind to Toll-like re- tact of T cells with APCs. LFA1 is also expressed by B cells,
ceptors (7). This leads to production of inflammatory me- macrophages, and neutrophils. ICAM1, although constitu-
diators, such as TNF-a, IL-1b, and PGE2, which further tively expressed by APCs, can be induced on other cells
activate APCs (7). by IFN-g (25). Antibodies to LFA1, LFA2, and LFA3 can
2052 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Figure 1. | Activation of effector and regulatory T cells by antigen presenting cells. Key surface molecules in activation of (A) Teffector cells and (B)
T regulatory cells (Tregs). The key molecules required for both cells are similar. The T cell receptor complex includes CD3, CD2, CD4 or CD8, LFA1,
and CD45R, and activation of T cell receptor (TCR) by antigen results in Signal 1 for Teffector cells and Tregs. In effector T cell–lineage T cells, CD28
on the T cells is activated by B7.1 and B7.2 on antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and generates Signal 2, which combined with Signal 1, initiates effector
T-cell activation. The activation of effector T cells is augmented by CD40L binding to CD40 and cytokines, such as IL-2 and IL-12, for generation of
Th1 cells. With Tregs, CTLA4 binds to B7.1 and B7.2 and limits activation through CD28. Thus, the effector T cells Signal 2 pathway is not required for
Treg activation. The second signal for Treg activation is generated by IL-2 binding to the IL-2 receptor, which includes CD25.

delay or prevent rejection and are potential therapeutic tar- transplant rejection and some autoimmunity. Antagonists of
gets in transplantation and autoimmunity. CTLA4 (ipilimumab) block Treg function and allow immune
These molecules form an immunologic synapse around destruction of tumors, such as melanoma.
the TCR/MHC interaction (26). The synapse includes TCR, Signal 2 activates a separate intracellular pathway in
CD3, CD4 or CD8, CD2, LFA1, and CD45 that collectively T cells that is blocked by target of rapamycin (mTOR) in-
produce Signal 1 for T-cell activation (Figure 1). Signal 1 is hibitors, such as rapamycin, that also bind to FKBP. This
blocked by calcineurin inhibitors, such as cyclosporin, complex of rapamycin/FKBP blocks activation of mTOR
which complexes with cyclophilin, or tacrolimus (FK506), but not calcineurin. mTOR inhibitors act by blocking sig-
which complexes with FK506 binding protein (FKBP). Both nal 2 and prevent rejection.
complexes inhibit calcium binding to calcineurin and The combination of Signal 1 and Signal 2 induces expression
the induction of phosphatase activity required to release of genes required for T cell activation and promotes T cell
NFAT. proliferation to produce effector T cells (Figure 1A). In vivo
The molecules and mechanisms of antigen recognition natural T regulatory cells (nTregs) cannot active Signal 2 (Fig-
and generation of Signal 1 required to activate antigen- ure 1B), albeit in vitro, this pathway is activated by anti-CD28
specific T cells are common to effector T cells and Tregs to polyclonally expand nTreg.
(Figure 1). CD40L is expressed by T cells and binds to CD40 on APCs,
B cells, and macrophages as well as other cells. CD40L binding
Signal 2 for T Cell Activation to CD40 activates the APCs that, in turn, activate T cells. Other
CD28 expressed by naïve T cells binds to B7.1(CD80) or T cell surface molecules promote APC activation, including
B7.2(CD86) on APCs and generates Signal 2 (27). B7.1 and inducible T cell costimulatory (CD278), a member of the CD28,
B7.2 are normally only expressed by specialized APCs, CTLA4 family (28).
such as dendritic cells and Langerhan’s cells. These APCs
need to be activated by a pathogen binding to Toll-like re- Naı̈ve, Activated, and Memory T Cells
ceptors to induce the inflammasome and production of The T cells that have not previously contacted their re-
IL-1b, IL-6, and TNF-a. This increases expressions of levant antigen are naïve. The normal immune system has a
MHC and ligands on APCs that are required for T cells massive reservoir of naïve T cells, with the potential to re-
to bind. Normal healthy somatic cells cannot activate T cells, spond to millions of different antigens presented by self-MHC.
because they do not express B7.1 and B7.2. CTLA4 from For a specific virus, ,0.01% of naïve T cells have a specific
Tregs preferentially binds and blocks to B7.1 and B7.2, pre- TCR, whereas 1%–9% of naïve T cells have TCRs that rec-
venting induction of Signal 2. mAbs to block costimulation ognize MHC on incompatible allografts.
have been used to prevent rejection. CTLA4-Ig (abatacept, Naïve T cells are programmed to recirculate from blood
and belatacept) blocks T-cell activation and prevents renal into peripheral lymphoid tissues and then back to blood
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 2050–2064, November, 2015 T Cells: Soldiers and Spies, Hall 2053

by the lymphatics to facilitate contact with their specific is expressed by naïve T cells. On activation of T cells, CD45RA
antigen (29). They traffic past APCs activated by antigen in is replaced by CD45RB, CD45RC, and/or CD45RO. In
tissues that migrated through the afferent lymphatics to alloimmune responses, naïve T cells express CD45RB (34),
lymphoid tissues. Naïve T cells that recognize antigen and blocking CD45RB prevents rejection. Memory T cells
are arrested and activated by these activated APCs (30). only express CD45RO(gp180) where exons 4–6 are spliced
CD62L expressed on naïve T cells binds to ligands on high out. The major component of antithymocyte globulin is
endothelial venules to facilitate this migration into lymphoid anti-CD45.
tissues (31). The chemokine receptor CCR7 on naïve T cells is
bound by CCL21 and CCL19 from the lymphoid tissues to Soldier Versus Spy T Cells
attract them (32). CD62L and CCR7 distinguish naïve from The majority of T cells expressing TCRa,b are program-
effector and memory T cells, which express other integrins, med to be effector cells and express either CD4 or CD8 but
such as VLA4, and chemokine receptors that promote mi- do not express the IL-2Ra(CD25) or FOXP3 (35). A minority
gration into inflamed tissue (Table 1). Activated T cells and (,5%) population of professional spies is CD41CD82CD251
effector memory T cells migrate through normal tissues (33) FOXP31 Tregs (35,36). Most early work on T cells focused on
to survey for cells expressing specific antigen. Central mem- immune destruction of infected, malignant, transplanted, or
ory cells express CD62L and CCR7 and migrate through normal self-cells in autoimmunity but not Tregs.
lymphoid tissues, like naïve T cells. Other markers of mem- In the early 1970s, T cells that suppress immunity were
ory T cells are expression of CD45RO, CD44, and higher described as CD81I-J1 T cells. Thymocytes were suppres-
expression of CD2 than naïve T cells. sive, and removal of the thymus made animals prone to
Effector T cells and Tregs express the same markers and autoimmunity. When no gene for I-J was found in the mu-
traffic in the same way (Table 1). rine MHC region, suppressor T cells fell into disrepute, and
most work in the field was abandoned (37).
CD45, a Marker of T-Cell Activation. The revival of Tregs started when CD41CD82 T cells
CD45 is expressed by all leukocytes but not expressed by and not CD81 T cells were found to transfer antigen-specific
other cells. CD45 is encoded in 34 exons that are fully tran- tolerance and suppress naïve T effector cells (38). The
scribed and glycosylated in a gp220 expressed by B cells and CD41 T cells that transferred tolerance expressed CD25,
other leukocytes but not T cells. The intracytoplasmic domain the IL-2 receptor-a (15). This created a paradox, because
of CD45 contains two tyrosine phosphatases that associate CD4 1 T cells activated to mediate rejection expressed
with kinase associated with TCR/CD3 and Ig signaling. CD25 (39), and their depletion with mAbs to CD25 reduced
CD45 is essential for antigen-driven activation of B and rejection in animals (40,41) and humans (42). We now know
T cells and promotes their differentiation and proliferation. that depletion of CD251 T cells prevents induction of toler-
The ligand for CD45 is unknown. ance in transplant and autoimmunity. Thus, the soldiers and
On T cells, exons 4–6, which encoded CD45RA, CD45RB, spies had the same markers.
and CD45RC, respectively, are spliced out to generate po- Other observations supported the existence of CD41
tentially eight different protein products. CD45RA(gp200kd) Tregs. First, transferred tolerant CD41 T cells interacted

Table 1. Comparison of phenotype of Th effector lines and Th-like T regulatory cells

Th1 Th1-Like Th2 Th2-Like Th17 Th17-Like

Marker
Effector Treg Effector Treg Effector Treg

CD4 111 111 111 111 111 11

TCR/CD3 111 111 111 111 111 111
CD2 111 111 111 111 111 111
CD45 RO RO RO RO RO RO
CD25 11 111 2 111 2 111
FOXP3 2 111 2 111 2 111
T-bet 111 111 2 2 2 2
IRF4 2 2 11 111 2 2
RORgt 2 2 2 2 111 11
Stat 1 1 4, 5 4 3 3
Chemokine receptor CXCR3 CXCR3 CCR8 CCR8 CCR6 CCR6
IFN-g 1111 111 2 2 2 2
IL-5 2 2 1111 111 2 2
IL-17A 2 2 2 2 111 1
IL-2 111 2 2 2 2 2
IFNGR 11 111 2 2 2 2
IL-12Rb2 111 111 2 2 2 2
IL-5Ra 2 2 2 111 2 2

Treg, T regulatory cell; TCR, T cell receptor.

2054 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

with a second host’s CD41 T cells to induce transplant Activated T effector cells and Tregs express different cytokine
tolerance (43). Second, autoimmunity in neonatal thymec- receptors and cytokines. These patterns of expression distin-
tomized mice was prevented by CD41CD251 T cells (44). guish different subpopulations (Figures 2 and 3).
Third, in the early 2000s, the transcription factor FOXP3
identified Tregs from activated CD41CD251 T effectors Activation of Professional Soldiers—T Effector Cells
(35,36). FOXP3 prevents IL-2 production and induces Effector lineage CD41CD252CD127hiFOXP32 T cells acti-
CD25 expression. vated by antigen are clonally expanded and can develop into
Defects in the FOXP3 gene lead to immunodysregulation functionally different CD41 T cell lines. Different pathways
polyendocrinopathy enteropathy X–linked syndrome are driven by the cytokine milieu and the cytokine receptors
manifesting as enteropathy, dermatitis, nail dystrophy, au- induced during activation (Figure 2) and induce functional
toimmune endocrinopathy, lymphoid enlargement, and distinct T cells, such as Th17, Th1, Th2, or Tfh cells.
infections (45). Scurfy mice have defects in FOXP3, wide-
spread uncontrolled lymphoid hyperplasia of CD41 T cells, Th17 Cells
T cell infiltration of organs, and overexpression of cytokines Th17 cells are induced if the inflammatory cytokine IL-6
(46). Similar phenotypes to scurfy are found in CTLA4, IL-2, (and IL-1b in humans) is present with TGF-b (48,49). The
and CD25 knockout mice, indicating the key role that these transcription factors Stat3 and RORgt are induced and reg-
molecules play in nTreg function. ulate Th17 cytokine expression. TGF-b alone induces a reg-
ulatory cell, known as induced T regulatory cell (iTreg) (49).
The Survival and Maturation of T Cell Subpopulations Pathogens activate Toll-like receptors on APCs that induce
Depends on the Cytokine Milieu IL-6 and IL-1b. The full maturation of Th17 cells requires
Different functional T cell subpopulations express dif- IL-23 (50) and IL-21 produced by Th17 cells (51).
ferent cytokine receptors and cytokines. Cytokine binding Th17 cells produce IL-17A and IL-17E and IL-21 and IL-22
to its specific receptor induces Jaks, Stats, and cell line- but do not produce the Th1 cytokines IL-2, IFN-g, or TGF-b
specific transcription factors. or the Th2 cytokines IL-4, IL-5, or IL-13. The Th1 cytokine
Expression of cytokine receptors distinguishes different IFN-g inhibits Th17 cells and promotes Tregs (52). Th17 cells
subpopulations. Effector lineage T cells need IL-7 to survive express CCR6 to promote migration to tissue.
and express IL-7Ra(CD127). CD41CD251FOXP31 Tregs ex- Th17 cells provide immunity to bacteria and fungi at
press IL-2R and need IL-2 to survive. Tregs have low expres- epithelial and mucosal barriers. IL-17A and IL-17E recruit
sion of CD127, and depletion of CD127hi cells is used to neutrophils. IL-22 stimulates epithelial cells to produce
enrich Tregs and eliminate activated effector CD41CD251 antimicrobial agents that destroy bacteria and fungi. Th17
T cells (47). Memory T cells are maintained by IL-15 and cells can directly kill target cells and by release of cytokine,
express IL-15Ra. promote IgM production to kill pathogens. Th17 cells

Figure 2. | Induction of soldiers into functionally distinct cell lines. On contact with antigen on APCs, Th0 cells can be activated to different Th
subsets cells. The pathway of differentiation is driven by the nature of the antigen to which they are making an effector response. The most
primitive is driven by inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-1b to induce the transcription factor RORgt that produces Th17 cells producing
a unique set of cytokines (top pathway). Th1 cells are initially activated by IL-2 to induce T-bet and a Th1 phenotype of cytokine expression
(middle pathway). Th2 cells are induced by IL-4 to express GATA3 and Th2 cytokines (bottom pathway). The maturation of all cell lines is
augmented by other cytokines: IL-22 for Th17 and IL-12 and IFN-g for Th1. There are other lineages, such as Tfh and Th9 cells (not illustrated),
that are induced by different cytokines, have a different transcription factor, and produce different cytokines.
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 2050–2064, November, 2015 T Cells: Soldiers and Spies, Hall 2055

Figure 3. | Induction of cell lines of spy cells into functionally distinct Treg lines. The most common method of expanding natural T regulatory
cells (nTregs) is polyclonal activation with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 with high concentrations of IL-2 (top pathway). This expands nTregs that
retain the nTreg phenotype and have no increased potency to suppress. In the last few years, it has been appreciated that nTregs (CD41CD251
CD127loFOXP31T) are not an end line of cells that only functions to suppress the initiation of immune cells in a nonantigen-specific manner.
The pathways for activation of nTregs with T cell receptors that recognize the specific antigen are as complex as those described for activation of
effector T cells, which are outlined in Figure 2. With antigen and high concentrations of IL-2, nTregs within days express receptors for Th1
cytokines, IFN-g, and IL-12 (57) (middle pathway). They have enhanced capacity to suppress to specific antigen. This is a first step in activation
of these cells, which we call Ts1 cells (57). If inflammation persists, Th1 cytokines IFN-g and IL-12 (in the absence of IL-2) can further expand the
antigen-specific Treg (58). These are highly potent Th1-like Tregs that express both FOXP3 and T-bet (the Th1 transcription factor) and produce
IFN-g but not IL-2 (58). Other cytokines induce separate pathways: Th2, Th17, and Tfh responses induced Th2-, Th17-, and Tfh-like Tregs,
respectively. As an example, specific antigen and IL-4, in the absence of IL-2, activate antigen-specific Ts2 cells that express receptor for IL-4
and IL-5 but not for IFN-g and IL-12 (57) (bottom pathway). They enhance antigen-specific suppressor capacity and can be further activated by
specific antigen and IL-5 in the absence of IL-4 to Th2-like Tregs that have a very potent antigen–specific suppressor capacity.

mediate many autoimmune responses (53), including multi- IFN-g induces B cells to switch to complement-fixing Ig.
ple sclerosis, Crohn’s disease, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, Th1 cytokines IFN-g and IL-12 activate macrophages to
and uveitis. Th17 also plays a role in transplant rejection and produce TNF-a and induce nitric oxide synthase to pro-
GN models (54), but their full role in renal diseases remains duce nitric oxide. These are the M1 subpopulations of mac-
to be elucidated. rophages that can kill bacteria and other pathogens. IFN-g
and TNF-a activate endothelial and other cells to express
Th1 Cells classes I and II MHC and ICAM1, and therefore, the T cells
Th1 cells were considered the central pathway of CD41 can interact with these cells (14).
T-cell activation for autoimmunity, intracellular infections, and Th1 cytokines promote antigen–specific CD41 CD251
allograft rejection. Activated CD41 T cells express IL-2R, a FOXP3 1 Tregs to express receptors for Th1 cytokines
complex of a-, b-, and g-chains that induces Jak1, Jak3, and IFN-g and IL-12, which are called Ts1 cells (57), and these
Stat5 (55). IL-2 produced by the activated T cells acts as a Ts1 cells can be activated further to Th1-like Tregs (58).
growth factor inducing proliferation to Th1 cells expressing Th1 responses together with Th17 are key to targeted de-
the transcription factor T-bet, which induces IFN-g and TNF- struction of cells with infection or malignant transformation as
b but not Th17 or Th2 cytokines. Th1 expresses CXCR3, well as foreign cells with alloantigen in transplants. Th1 with
which promotes migration to sites of Th1 inflammation. Th17 cells mediate many forms of autoimmunity. Th1 and Tc1
Th1 cells directly mediate tissue injury by release of IFN-g cells are key to injury in models of nephritis (56,59,60).
and TNF-a as well as cytotoxic mechanisms, such as perforin
and granzymes. Th1 cells are the principal mediators of trans- Th2 Cells
plant rejection and also, mediate some forms of GN (56). Th2 cells are induced in responses to parasites and allergens
Th1 cells release cytokines that induce other inflammatory and are driven by IL-4 (61,62), which binds to the IL-4Ra (63)
cells. Th1 cytokines, IL-2, IFN-g, and IL-12p70 help activation and the common g-chain to activate Jak1 and Jak3, the tran-
of CD81 T cells to cytotoxic Tc1, which expresses IFN-g and scription factors Stat4 and GATA-3 (55). CD41Th2 cells ini-
cytolytic molecules, such as perforin and granzymes. These tially produce IL-4 and later, IL-5 and IL-13. Th2 cells were
are cytotoxic/killer cells that destroy infected, malignant, and considered anti-inflammatory and protolerance induction (64).
allografted cells. Tc1 mediates autoimmunity in type 1 dia- IFN-g inhibits Th2 induction. Th2 expresses CCR8, which fa-
betes and GN (56). cilitates migration into tissues with Th2 inflammation.
2056 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Th2 cytokines affect other immune cells. IL-4 induces Naïve nTregs express CD45RA, whereas activated effec-
CD81 T cells to a noncytolytic Tc2 phenotype that does not tor and regulatory T cells express CD45RO. nTregs express
express perforin, granzyme, and IFN-g. IL-4 and IL-5 (in CTLA4(CD152) and glucocorticoid-induced TNF receptor
mice but not humans) induce Ig isotype switches in B cells (GITR), which are also expressed by activated effector T cells.
to produce noncomplement-fixing IgG and IgE. IL-4 and CTLA4 produced by nTregs binds B7.1(CD80) and B7.2
IL-13 convert macrophages to an M2 phenotype, which (CD86) to block activation through CD28, sending a negative
lacks the inflammatory activity of M1 cells. Th2 cytokines signal to TCR/CD3 (82). nTreg through CTLA4 downregu-
promote antigen-specific CD41 CD251 FOXP31 Tregs to lates B7.1 and B7.2 expression by APCs (83) (Figure 1B). Fu-
Ts2- and Th2-like Tregs (57,65). sion molecules of CTLA4 with Ig(Belatacept) prevent rejection
Th2 responses are dominant in some forms of drug- and autoimmunity. Ipilimumab, which blocks CTLA4 and
induced interstitial nephritis, where there is eosinophilia, Treg, is approved for melanoma treatment (84).
and can contribute to rejection. Treatment with IL-4 to pro- nTregs at physiologic ratios of ,1:10 only partially sup-
mote Th2 responses reduces injury in models of nephritis press naïve T-cell responses, and full suppression requires
(66,67) and allograft rejection (68) as does treatment with ratios of $1:1 to naïve CD41 T cells (85–88). Full suppres-
IL-5 (65,69) or IL-13 (70). These treatments reduce Th1 and sion in vivo by nTregs requires marked depletion of effec-
macrophage activation, promote a Th2-dominant response, tor T cells (85) or expansion of nTregs, which is transiently
and induce Ts2- and Th2-like Tregs. Th2 dominance alone achieved in mice with an IL-2 and anti–IL-2 mAb complex
does not explain immune tolerance and is not necessary of (89). Depletion of nTregs after neonatal thymectomy (90)
tolerance induction (71,72). or anti-CD25 mAb therapy leads to autoimmunity and
prevents induction of transplant tolerance.
Tfh Cells There is a paradox, in that anti-CD25 mAb (daclizumab
Follicular helper T cells (Tfh) promote B cell maturation or basiliximab) is used as an induction therapy in patients
and activation in B cell follicles in secondary lymphoid with renal transplants and reduces rejection by depletion of
tissues. They are induced by inducible T-cell costimulator activated effector CD251 T cells. Although effective in reduc-
on APCs. They function by secretion of IL-4 and IL-21 (73) ing rejection, these antibodies also deplete CD251 Tregs and
and the expression of CD40L, which binds CD40 on follic- may impede induction of transplant tolerance. The ONE
ular B cells and causes isotype switching of Ig, somatic Study, which is trialing immunoregulatory cells in recipients
hypermutation of Ig, and proliferation to germinal center of renal transplants, excludes use of anti-CD25 mAb therapy,
B cells, thereby promoting their maturation to memory B because it may prevent tolerance induction by host or thera-
cells and Ig-secreting plasma cells. Tfhs are regulated by peutically administered nTregs.
the transcription factor bcl-6 (74) and express CXCR5.
Activation of nTregs
CTLA4 binding to B7.1 and B7.2 blocks the activation of
Professional Spies—Tregs CD28 on nTregs, and therefore, in vivo, this second signal is
The most important professional Tregs are CD41CD251
not activated and not required for nTreg activation. The
CD127loFOXP31 T cells produced by the thymus. CD41
alternate second signal for nTreg activation requires high
CD81 thymocytes interact with class II MHC-expressing
levels of IL-2 (91) compared with those required to activate
cells in the medullar and Hassall’s corpuscles of thymus,
effector T cells. Thus, both in vivo (92) and in vitro (93)
where thymic stromal lymphopoietin promotes myeloid and
nTreg activations are blocked by calcineurin inhibitors,
plasmacytoid dendritic cells that induce Tregs (75). Treg in-
which inhibit Signal 1. mTOR inhibitors, which inhibit Sig-
duction requires TGF-b, stimulation of CD28 by B7.2, and
nal 2, block effector T-cell activation but spare Treg activa-
IL-2 activating the IL-2R to induce Stat5 and FOXP3 (76).
tion and allow preferential expansion of Tregs.
FOXP3 induces CD25 and inhibits IL-2 expression.
After a process of clonal deletion and selection, CD41
CD82CD251CD127loFOXP31 T cells with a wide array of In Vitro Expansion of nTregs
TCR specificity are released. These are naïve nTregs that Many groups propose to use nTregs to prevent graft-
are also known as thymic-derived T regulatory cells (tTregs) versus-host disease, graft rejection, and autoimmunity. To
(77). tTregs have epigenetic demethylation of the T regula- do this, they enrich nTregs and expand their number in
tory cell–specific demethylation region (TSDR), a promoter vitro. The most common method for expansion of nTregs is
region of foxp3. This selective demethylation of TSDR makes culture with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 mAbs with high con-
it hard for foxp3 to be switched off and stabilizes the nTreg centrations of IL-2. Over a period of weeks, tens of thou-
lineage (78), and therefore, they and their progeny cannot sandfold increases in nTreg numbers can be achieved.
revert to effector T cells (79,80). Homeostatic regulation ensures However, they remain nTregs in phenotype and function
that CD41CD251FOXP31 Tregs remain as ,10% of peripheral and need to be at ratios of $1:1 with effector lineage T cells
CD41 T cells (81). to fully suppress an immune response. Expansion of nTreg
nTreg survival requires low levels of IL-2, whereas effector with an mTOR inhibitor to selectively block effector T-cell
lineage T cells express high levels of IL-7a(CD127) and de- activation can also be used (94). Tang and Lee (95) esti-
pend on IL-7 to survive. Depletion of CD127hi cells enriches mated that it will be impossible to prepare sufficient
CD41CD251FOXP31 nTregs by removing activated effector nTregs to induce tolerance for transplant or autoimmunity.
lineage CD41CD251FOXP32 T cells. nTregs express helios, Marek-Trzonkowska et al. (96) in Poland were first to use
an ikaros transcription family member, that differentiates nTregs as therapy in patients with type 1 diabetes and recipients
tTregs from periphery-induced iTregs. of bone marrow with graft-versus-host disease (97). The ONE
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 2050–2064, November, 2015 T Cells: Soldiers and Spies, Hall 2057

Study is examining a variety of in vitro–activated nTregs to IL-4 Promotes Antigen-Specific Tregs

promote tolerance in clinical renal transplants but will be com- In our studies, culture of nTregs with specific antigen and
bined with conventional immunosuppression, except that anti- IL-4 induces antigen-specific Tregs that express the specific
CD25 will not be used, because it could deplete Tregs (98). IL-5 receptor (IL-5Ra CD125) (109). These CD41CD251 T
Inducing antigen-specific Tregs has also been trialed (57,58,99). cells express FOXP3 and IFN-g but not IL-5 or IL-2 (57,65)
The use of Tregs as a therapy was recently reviewed (100). and were named Ts2 cells. Ts2 cells have increased antigen–
specific suppressor potency in vivo and in vitro, suppressing
Activated/Antigen-Specific CD41CD251FOXP31 Tregs at ,1:10, whereas fresh nTregs only fully suppress at $1:1.
There is a common misunderstanding that all CD41 We found that treatment with IL-5 promoted these cells to
CD251FOXP31 T cells are nTregs. CD41CD251FOXP31 control autoimmunity (65) and transplant rejection (57).
Tregs are a very heterogeneous population and include dif- Tregs controlling Th2 responses express the transcription
ferent subclasses of activated antigen-specific Tregs as well as factor IRF4 (110). Additional activation of these cells with
nTregs, which have been recently reviewed (101,102). Acti- antigen and IL-5 and without IL-4 induces a more potent
vated antigen-specific Tregs are induced from nTregs or antigen-specific Th2-like Treg (Figure 3).
iTregs. The pathways for activation of antigen-specific Tregs
are similar to those for activated effector T cells (Table 1).
The original examination of CD25 expression on tolerant
Soldiers Become Spies
In Situations with No Inflammation
CD41 T cells was undertaken, because tolerance-transferring
T effector lineage cells contacting antigen are not acti-
cells die in culture, even if stimulated with specific antigen
vated or converted to iTregs (Figure 4). Naïve CD41CD252
(15,103) but did survive if a cocktail of T cell–derived cytokines
T cells that contact an antigen that their TCR recognizes
or IL-2 was present (15,103). Because IL-2 alone was insuffi-
can convert to an antigen-specific iTreg if there is TGF-b
cient to maintain antigen-specific Tregs (15,103), we examined
but no IL-6. Thus, in normal tissue remodeling or after
which other cytokines promoted antigen-specific Tregs.
noninflammatory tissue injury, the autoantigens released
Culture of nTregs with alloantigen and Th1 and Th2
do not activate effector T cells, because there are no in-
cytokines identified that both IL-2 and IL-4 induced poly-
flammatory cytokines. TGF-b produced to promote tissue
clonal activation of nTregs (57). We identified two path-
repair induces protective iTregs to prevent autoimmunity.
ways for activation of nTregs: one by Th1 cytokines and
one by Th2 cytokines (57) (Figure 3). Others have de-
scribed similar pathways with Th17 and Tfh cytokines, Anergy
which are reviewed in references 101 and 102. These path- Effector lineage T cells that contact specific antigens through
ways parallel those for activation of Th1 and Th2 cells and their TCR/CD3 and other ligands associated with Signal 1 that
use many of the same cytokines and activation pathways do not receive a second signal through CD28 become anergic
as effector T cells (Table 1). (27). Anergic cells are not activated to proliferate or express
IL-2 if re-exposed to the specific antigen with a Signal 2. They
cannot be mobilized as a soldier.
IL-2 Promotes Antigen-Specific Tregs
Numerous studies activated nTregs with antigen and IL-2
and produced antigen-specific Tregs with increased suppres- Th3 Cells
sion to specific antigen. In our studies, culture of nTregs with The first CD41 Tregs that were described to be induced
specific antigen and IL-2 induces antigen-specific Tregs that from effector lineages were Th3. Th3 cells are induced in
express the receptors for IFN-g (57) and IL-12 (58) (Figure 3). mucosa by specialized dendritic antigen presenting cells,
These CD41CD251 T cells express FOXP3 and IL-5 but not known as CD103+DC (111). Th3 is suppressed in mucosa
IFN-g or IL-2, and we named them Ts1 cells (57). They have by release of IL-10 and TGF-b (112). Th3 cells induce oral
increased antigen–specific suppressor potency in vivo and in tolerance induced by antigen exposure through the gut.
vitro, suppressing at ,1:10, whereas fresh nTregs only fully
suppress at $1:1. iTregs
Additional activation of these cells with antigen and IL-12 CD41CD252FOXP32 T cells that are exposed to antigen
without IL-2 induces a more potent antigen-specific Th1-like in the presence of TGF-b (49), where there is no IL-6 or
Treg (58) (Figure 3, Table 1). The Th1-like Tregs that we IL-1b by inflammation, are induced to express FOXP3
generated suppressed in vitro at 1:1000 and delayed fully (113,114). TGF-b inhibits RORgT expression and develop-
allogeneic graft rejection in nonimmunosuppressed normal ment of Th17 cells (115). These iTregs have a CD41CD251
hosts (58). These Th1-like Tregs expressed FOXP3, T-bet, and phenotype and express other markers of nTregs, such as
the receptors for IL-12 and IFN-g. They expressed IFN-g but CTLA4 and GITR, but they do not have demethylation of
not IL-2. They are considered Th1-like Tregs, because they TSDR of FOXP3 and do not express helios. Thus, expres-
express T-bet and IFN-g. Of note, the continued presence of sion of FOXP3 is not stable (78). This process of generation
IL-2 blocks generation of Th1-like Tregs, suggesting that the of iTregs increases the number of antigen-specific Tregs
current methods of Treg expansion with repeated IL-2 expo- when there is autoantigen released by normal tissue remodeling
sure may select against growth of antigen-specific activated and noninflammatory tissue injury (101,102) that is associated
Tregs (58). Th1-like Tregs occur in humans, including recip- with TGF-b release (116).
ients of renal transplants (104). iTregs can control Th17 responses in autoimmunity (114)
Th1-like Tregs can be generated by IL-12 (105,106), IFN-g and rescue scurfy mice (113). iTreg induction is inhibited
(107,108), or IL-27, but the final Treg induced by each by the presence of IL-6 (117). The presence of IL-4 with
pathway is probably different. TGF-b induces Th9 cells expressing IL-9 and IL-10 (118).
2058 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Figure 4. | Newly recruited CD41 T-cell soldiers induced to be spies. Professional soldier lineage CD41CD22CD127hiFOXP32 T cells can fail to
be activated into effector cells when they contact antigen. This figure illustrates four pathways that will be described in order from top to bottom.
(1) Anergy is induced when there is no Signal 2, and these cells, when re-exposed to specific antigen with activated antigen-presenting cells (APCs),
are not activated and do not proliferate or produce IL-2. This occurs in the absence of inflammation and activated APCs (pathway 1). (2) Induced
Tregulatory cells (iTregs) are induced by TGF-b and antigen when there is no IL-6 or IL-1b (pathway 2). These cells express FOXP3 and CD25 but can
revert to effector T cells, because FOXP3 expressions are not stable. (3) In the mucosa, to induce oral tolerance, TGF-b and antigen can induce
Th3 cells that can express FOXP3 (pathway 3). Th3 cells suppress by release of TGF-b. (4 ) Tr1 cells are induced by repeated culture with
antigen and IL-10, which converts the APCs to DC-10 cells (pathway 4). They do not express FOXP3 or CD25 and suppress by release of TGF-b
and IL-10.

iTreg survival depends on IL-2 (119,120); iTregs can revert Activated T cells as well as B cells and macrophages
to effector T cells (121). express programmed cell death protein-1 (PD1; CD279), a
member of CD28 family. PD1 on binding to programmed cell
Tr1 Cells death protein-1 ligand (PD-L1) or PD-L1/B7 complex blocks
Tr1 cells are induced by repeated culture of naïve CD41 TCR signaling (130) and can lead to activated T-cell deaths.
T cells with antigen and IL-10, which induces APCs to DC- PD-L1 in normal tissue is expressed in kidney, heart, lung,
10 cells (122). Tr1 cells are CD41CD252Foxp32 T cells that thymus, and spleen and upregulated on dendritic cells and
produce IL-10 and TGF-b as well as some IL-5, IFN-g, macrophages during inflammation. The second ligand for
and IL-2 but no IL-4 (123). Tr1 cells suppress autoimmune PD1 is PD-L2 that is restricted to dendritic and tumor cells.
and allograft responses by release of IL-10 and TGF-b and PD1 knockout mice develop lupus nephritis and cardio-
through perforin/granzyme B (124). Therapy with Tr1 myopathy, suggesting that this pathway prevents autoim-
cells is in clinical trials. munity in the kidney and heart. PD-L1 is expressed on
many tumor cells, and treatment with mAbs against PD1
(nivolumab and pembrolizumab) is effective in some pa-
Activated Effector T Cells Fail to Fight or Become tients with melanoma, nonsmall cell lung cancer, or renal
Spies cell cancer. Treatment with PD1 antagonists can unmask
T Effectors Die from Exhaustion autoimmunity and theoretically, may unmask rejection of
T effectors die from exhaustion from ongoing activation renal transplants as may inhibitors of CTLA4.
and proliferation, leading to clonal pruning with a reduction Activated effector T cells during intense inflammation are
in the number of antigen-reactive clones (125) (Figure 5). The induced to express IL-10 (131). IL-27 binds to the IL-27 receptor
mechanism of clonal exhaustion remains unclear but is (132) on Th1, Th2, or Th17 cells and induces IL-10 (133,134).
driven by persistent antigen activation of TCRs (126). It IL-10 is anti-inflammatory and prevents APC activation. IL-27
may include Treg elimination of effector T cells. is a member of the IL-12 family, in which cytokines and their
receptors are heterodimers formed by various combina-
T Effectors Die of Activation-Induced Cell Death tions of proteins in the family (135). IL-12, IL-23, and
Activation-induced cell death can be caused by Fas/FasL- IL-27 promote effector T cells and induce IFN-g. IL-12p40,
mediated apoptosis after repeated stimulation of TCR in- IL-27, and IL-35 inhibit activated T cells. IL-12 (58,105,106)
ducing FasL (127). Fas/FasL also induced apoptosis in Tregs and IL-27 promote Tregs to Th1-like Tregs (105).
(128). The Fas/FasL pathway alone cannot induce immune Activated Tregs infect activated T cells to become Tregs
tolerance (129). by two mechanisms (43,136). First, TGF-b on the surface of
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 2050–2064, November, 2015 T Cells: Soldiers and Spies, Hall 2059

Figure 5. | Activated and aggressive CD41 T cell soldiers convert to spies. Fully activated T cells programmed to mediate antigen-specific
injury can be neutralized or change sides. Five pathways are illustrated, and described from top to bottom. (1) Neutralization or cell death
occurs from repeated T cell receptor (TCR) activation and proliferation of effector T cells (pathway 1). The cells can die of exhaustion, leading to
clonal pruning. (2) Excessive and repeated stimulation of TCRs on effector cells induces them to express surface molecules that, when they bind
ligand, induces apoptosis (pathway 2). This leads to activation induced cell death (AICD). The best described pathways are Fas/FasL and
programmed cell death protein-1 (PD1) /programmed cell death protein-1 ligand (PD-L1). (3) Induction of IL-10 expression by effector T cells
(pathway 3). After repeated stimulation and expansion, activated effector T cells can be induced to express IL-10 usually by IL-27 binding to IL-27R. The
release of IL-10 by these effector T cells reduces inflammation, especially the activation of APCs. The last two pathways involve T regulatory cells (Tregs)
infection of effector T cells to convert them to Tregs. Direct contact with activated Tregs can infect effector T cells to make them regulatory. (4) TGF-b on
Treg surface can, by cell-cell contact, induce FOXP3 and endow Treg function in effector T cells (pathway 4). (5) IL-35 released from activated Tregs binds
the IL-35 receptor on activated T cells and converts them into FOXP32 iTr35 cells (pathway 5). AICD, activation induced cell death.

Tregs binds to activated T effectors by a TGF-b receptor Activated Tregs can suppress the function of activated
and induces expression of FOXP3 and the ability to sup- CD41 T cells, CD81 T cells, B cells, and macrophages.
press (137). Second, activated Tregs secrete IL-35 that They control all aspects of immunity, albeit that memory
binds to IL-35 receptor on activated effector T cells and con- CD41 T cells are less responsive to control by Tregs (15).
verts them to iTr35. iTr35s are distinct from iTregs and Tr1
cells and are FOXP32 (138). iTr35s occur in humans and are Do Spies Become Soldiers?
potent suppressors (138). There is concern that, if Tregs can change to effector lineage,
their use as therapy may be unreliable, if not dangerous
Mechanisms of Action of Activated Tregs (144–147). At present, the consensus is that nTregs/tTregs that
A variety of mechanisms mediates suppression. With nTregs, have demethylation of TSDR are stable, and their progeny
CTLA4 binds to B7.1 and B7.2 to block these molecules and remain Tregs (144,145). nTregs have demethylation of regions
prevent T-cell activation. It is an oversimplification to attribute of other genes essential to their function, including CTLA4
all suppression to IL-10 and TGF-b, which mainly suppress in and GITR (148). Transfer of nTregs to lymphopenic hosts,
mucosa (139). where there is inadequate IL-2, can lead to transient loss of
With activated Tregs, IL-10 or IL-35 can suppress but is FOXP3 (149). In uncontrolled immune inflammation, Tregs
not essential (140). Activated Tregs can express CD39 can be induced to the Th1-, Th2-, or Th17-like Tregs as de-
and CD73 that metabolize extracellular ATP and ADP scribed above. Whether these cells are effector or only sup-
to adenosine, which suppresses activated effector T cells pressor is not resolved, but to survive, they depend on
through the A2A adenosine receptor (141). IFN-g, perforin, cytokines produced by the effector T cells (57,58,103).
and granzyme B used by cytotoxic T cells also mediate Induced or peripherally generated Tregs (iTregs/pTregs)
suppression by some activated Tregs (142,143); thus, the that develop from effector lineage T cells activated by
main weapons of cytotoxic T cells are used by Tregs to antigen and TGF-b if there is no IL-6 or IL-1 express FOXP3
suppress. and become regulatory. These cells are plastic and readily
2060 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

revert to effector lineage if exposed to IL-6 in the absence of The laboratory of B.M.H. was supported by the National Health
TGF-b (150). and Medical Research Council of Australia of Australia, Bob and
Jack Ingham, the South Western Sydney Local Health District, the
Role of T Cells in Renal Diseases Juvenile Diabetes Foundation, Novartis Basel CH, Multiple Sclerosis
Although antibodies are considered the main mediators of Research Australia, and anonymous donations. The author has re-
GN, T cells also play a central role. First, T cells provide help ceived research funds from Novartis Pharma CH.
for isotype switching of antibody from IgM to IgG, IgA, and
Disclosures
IgE. Th1 cells provide the cytokines to promote development
B.M.H. holds patents related to the generation and production of
of complement fixing antibodies, such as IgG1 and IgG3. Th2
antigen–specific T regulatory cells and the diagnosis of immune
cells promote noncomplement fixing antibodies IgG2 and
tolerance. B.M.H. owns and holds licenses for mAbs used to assess
IgG4. IgA induction requires TGF-b from T cells in the mu-
and monitor immune cells. Research funding is by the National
cosa. Thf cells promote B-cell proliferation and the matura-
Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, Multiple Scle-
tion of B-cell response in lymphoid follicles.
rosis Research Australia, and in the past, Novartis Basle CH. B.M.H.
There is compelling evidence that T cells also contribute
is a full-time employee of UNSW Australia and Liverpool Hospital.
directly to glomerular injury (151), especially in nephritis,
In the last 5 years, B.M.H. held no consultancy agreements, received
where there is no or little Ig and complement deposition.
no honoraria, and had no scientific advisory roles or other interests
In experimental models, infiltration of T cells in glomeruli
related to science.
is associated with injury, especially Th1 and Th17 cells
(54,60,66) but not Th2 cells, which tend to be protective
(67,152). These are reviewed in an companion article by References
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 Cytokines: Names and Numbers You Should Care About
Stephen R. Holdsworth*† and Poh-Yi Gan*

Abstract
Cytokines play an important role in host defense against microorganisms. They orchestrate innate immunity by
inducing protective local inflammation and systemic acute phase responses. Cytokines are important in initiating,
amplifying, directing, mediating, and regulating adaptive immunity. Unfortunately, they may also direct tissue
damage if excessive responses occur or if they are involved in directing and mediating autoimmunity. Under these *Center for
circumstances, cytokines are potential therapeutic targets. Over the last 20 years, we have seen the successful Inflammatory
development and clinical implementation of biologic strategies that target key cytokines in specific inflammatory Diseases, Department
diseases with efficacy, specificity, and toxicity profiles challenging conventional drug therapies. These therapies of Medicine, Monash
University, Clayton,
are finding new applications and many new agents show promise. Unfortunately, these new cytokine-based Victoria, Australia;
therapies have had little effect on renal disease. This review provides evidence that common renal diseases, and †Department of
including those causing AKI and the autoimmune proliferative and crescentic forms of GN, have cytokine Nephrology, Monash
mediation profiles that suggest they would be susceptible to cytokine-targeting therapeutic strategies. Health, Clayton,
Victoria, Australia
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 2243–2254, 2015. doi: 10.2215/CJN.07590714
Correspondence:
Prof. Stephen R.
Introduction colony stimulating factors (granulocyte colony–stimulating Holdsworth, Centre
Cytokines amplify and direct the generation of ap- factor [G-CSF] and granulocyte–macrophage colony– for Inflammatory
propriate patterns of immunity to combat particular stimulating factor [GM-CSF]), and some growth factors Diseases, Department
of Medicine, Monash
microbial threats. These same cytokines can cause host (TGF-b and PDGF). University, Monash
tissue injury if the activation/amplification of host Medical Centre, 246
defense is overexuberant, as occurs in some infective Clayton Road,
and sterile forms of inflammation. These pathologic Clayton, VIC 3168,
Cytokines in Host Defense Australia. E-mail:
cytokine-driven outcomes are seen in many types of Innate Immunity Stephen.holdsworth@
AKI caused by physical, drug, chemical, and ischemic Most living organisms rely on innate immunity (in monash.edu
injury. If immune tolerance is lost and host tissue the absence of adaptive immunity) for host defense.
antigens become autoimmune targets, cytokines can Cytokines play critical roles in orchestrating the rapid
direct and mediate inflammatory autoimmune dis- effective response of leukocytes and parenchymal
eases. Important renal examples are the autoimmune cells to the detection of microorganisms or significant
forms of inflammatory/crescentic GN. Cytokines act in noninfective damage to parenchymal cells. These cells
concert to generate inflammation in host defense and are hardwired with receptors that recognize and re-
disease, but some cytokines attenuate inflammation and spond to common pathogen proteins through Toll-like
induce repair. Individual cytokines can be inhibited by receptors (TLRs) and danger-associated molecular pat-
antibodies or competitive receptors or by the therapeu- tern receptors (1). Although leukocytes are the major
tic use of immunomodulatory cytokines. These biologic source of innate cytokine responses, parenchymal cells
agents are now widely used to treat inflammatory are increasingly recognized as also producing innate
diseases. There are a number of common renal diseases inflammatory cytokines and interacting with leuko-
that could potentially be treated by targeting cytokines. cytes to optimize cytokine responses in generating
This review will address these issues. host defense. The major acute innate cytokines, IL-1,
TNF-a, IL-6, IL-12, CXCL8 (formerly IL-18), G-CSF,
Cytokine Nomenclature and GM-CSF, are used locally to activate endothelial
Cytokines are glycoproteins that regulate the functions cells and local tissue leukocytes (mast cells [MCs], den-
of the immune system. Definitions are imprecise because dritic cells [DCs], gd T cells, and neurones), triggering
of redundancy of function and the capacity of tissue cytokine-mediated amplification loops generating che-
parenchymal cells and leukocytes to produce them. mokine release, generating endothelial cell adhesion
Hence the terms lymphokine and monokine have been molecule expression, slowing blood flow, and increas-
dropped. Originally described by their perceived major ing vascular permeability. These changes facilitate the
function, the term IL has been adopted. When an agreed accumulation of humoral defense proteins, comple-
characterization of a cytokine is broadly accepted, a ment, coagulation proteins, acute phase proteins, and
number is attributed (e.g., IL-6). However, the use of Ig. They also recruit and activate a range of leukocytes
descriptive names for some key cytokines persists, in- (including innate lymphocytes, gd T cells, natural killer
cluding IFNs (a, b, and g), TNF (TNF-a and TNF-b), cells, natural killer T cells [NKT] cells, and innate

www.cjasn.org Vol 10 December, 2015 Copyright © 2015 by the American Society of Nephrology 2243
2244 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

leukocyte-like cells). The net result of these orchestrated transcription factors STAT6 and GATA3 producing IL-4,
events is inflammation. Concurrently, two further processes IL-5, IL-9, and IL-13 that drives humoral and IgE mediated
are initiated: a cohort of cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-a) are immunity. In 2005, a new distinct Th subset was defined on
generated that act systemically to prepare the whole organ- the basis of its predominant production of IL-17, named
ism for microbial defense by initiating the acute response Th17 cells (4). Lineage commitment of Th17 cells requires
syndrome (2) and local foreign material is processed and TGF-b and IL-6 for the expression of the transcription fac-
presented by antigen-presenting cells (APCs) to initiate tors, STAT3 and RORg-t, whereas maintenance and expan-
adaptive immunity. These secondary processes are also crit- sion of Th17 cells relies on IL-23. Activated Th17 cells
ically dependent on cytokine direction and are also respon- produce IL-17A-F, IL-21, IL-23, and IL-22 and activate cells,
sive to inhibitory cytokine modulation (Figure 1). particularly neutrophils, important in host defense against
extracellular pathogens. Antigen presentation by TGF-b
alone activates Foxp3-inducing regulatory T cells (Tregs),
Adaptive Immunity
CD41 T cells play a central role in adaptive immunity producing IL-10, TGF-b, and IL-35. Tregs play an impor-
which is characterized by antigen specificity and memory/ tant role in modulating effector T-cell responses and pre-
recall capacity. T-cell specificity is a consequence of the di- venting autoimmunity.
versity of T cell receptors (TCRs) from which thymic pro- Three further Th subsets have been defined: Th9, Th22,
cessing eliminates potentially autoreactive T cells to form the and T follicular helper. The Th2 subset is reprogrammed to
T-cell repertoire. Antigen recognition (signal 1) is initiated by become Th9 when IL-4 plus TGF-b activates STAT6, IRF4,
TCR binding to antigens ingested, processed, and presented GATA3, and PU.1 to produce IL-9, IL-10, IL-17, IL-21, and
(as peptides) on major histocompatibility complex molecules IL-22, promoting tissue inflammation (5). Th22 is important
by specialized APCs. Activation of T cells requires secondary in skin immunity (protection and regeneration). TGF-a and
signals provided by costimulatory molecules (including IL-6 activates transcription factor, AHR, to direct the differ-
CD40, CD80, and CD86) expressed on APCs to engage entiation of IL-22, producing Th22 cells. T follicular helper
CD154 or CD28 on T cells. Innate cytokines released at cells migrate to follicular B-cell zones via CXCR5 where they
the time of antigen presentation (a third signal) deter- help B cells activating Bcl-6 to produce IL-21 (6) (Table 1).
mine the specific Th subset differentiation pathway the
(now activated) T cells will follow. In 1986, Mossman and Cytokines as Therapeutic Targets
Coffman demonstrated that there were two separate path- Many conventional immunomodulating drugs induce their
ways of Th subset differentiation, Th1 and Th2 (3). Th1 therapeutic effects, at least in part, by attenuating the actions
lineage commitment is directed by IL-12, which induces the of injurious cytokines. These drugs include glucocorticoids.
specific signal transducers and activators of transcription Their targets include transcription factors, nuclear factor-k B,
(STAT) factors, STAT4 and T-bet, resulting in the production and activator protein 1, inducing transcription of inflamma-
of effector cytokines, IFN-g, and TNF-a by the differentiated tory cytokines (7). They also effect post-translational events,
Th1 cells. Th1 cells activate macrophages to mount cell- including intracellular signaling and effector cytokine mRNA
mediated immune responses against intracellular pathogens. stability (8). Downstream effects reduce leukocyte trafficking
Th2 differentiation occurs in the presence of IL-4 to activate (by attenuating TNF-a– and IL-1b–enhanced endothelial cell

Figure 1. | Production of major acute innate cytokines involved in local and systemic responses following leukocyte activation via TLRs or
danger-associated molecular pattern receptors. DC, dendritic cell; GM-CSF, granulocyte-macrophage colony–stimulating factor; MC, mast
cell; Rc, receptor; TLR, Toll-like receptor.
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 2243–2254, December, 2015 Cytokine: Names and Numbers, Holdsworth and Gan 2245

adhesion molecule expression). They reduce the number of

B cell maturation
circulating T cells and inhibit IL-2 production. Th cell differ-

CXCR4, CXCR5
TFH entiation shows a shift to Th2 with attenuation of monocyte
IL-12 without effecting IL-10 production. This results in the
IL-21, IL-6
reduction of Th1 responses favoring Th17 (9). A number of
other well established anti-inflammatory drugs (pentoxifylline

IL-21
Bcl-6
and thalidomide) also attenuate inflammatory cytokine gene
transcription (10).

Skin homeostasis
and pathology
CCR4, CCR6,

Biologic Approaches to Cytokine Therapeutic

TGF-a, IL-6
Th22

Manipulation
CCR10

Attempts to biologically target cytokines were led by stud-

IL-22

ies in shock; however, their beneficial effects were limited.

Arh

Clinical trials in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and psoriasis were

more effective. These studies in RA and psoriasis were fa-
Tissue inflammation

cilitated by the capacity to repeatedly access the affected

tissues (synovial joints and skin) to determine dominant
IL-9, IL-10, IL-17,

cytokines and to correlate their presence with disease severity,

IL-21, IL-22
STAT6, IRF4,

production
and mucus

outcomes, and treatment responses. Administering immuno-

Th9

TGF-b, IL-4

GATA3

neutralizing candidate cytokines in synovial and dermal

tissues in vitro allows their biologic effect to be studied.
Finally, preclinical study of the biologic effects of admin-
—

istering or blocking cytokines in vivo in relevant animal

models provided proof of concept for efficacy, specificity,
IL-17A–F, IL-21,

and potential toxicities. The clinical success of anti–TNF-a

Autoimmunity
STAT3, RORgt

IL-22, IL-23
CCR4, CCR6

monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) in human RA and psoriasis

TGF-b, IL-6,
Th17

helped establish an accepted role for these biologics as main-

stream therapeutics (11). Subsequently, anti–TNF-a strategies
IL-23

were successfully applied to other related rheumatologic dis-

eases (12) and then to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) (13).
However, anti–TNF-a therapy was not effective in ANCA
vasculitis (14) and multiple sclerosis (MS) (15). A number of
CCR8, CXCR4

IgE immunity
STAT6, GATA3

IL-4, IL-5, IL-13

Table 1. Phenotypical and functional characteristic profiling of CD41 T helper subsets

different strategies have been used to achieve therapeutic

Humoral and
CCR3, CCR4,

outcomes by cytokine manipulation. Most involve neutraliz-

Th2

ing cytokine effects in disease either by immunoneutralization

or the use of competitive decoy receptors (Table 2). Several
IL-4

potentially therapeutic mAbs targeting other key innate

proinflammatory cytokines (particularly IL-1 and IL-6)
were developed and tested in a number of inflammatory
CXCR3, CCR5

Cell mediated
IFN-g, TNF-a
STAT4, T-bet

and autoimmune diseases.

IL-12, IFN-g

immunity
Th1

Cytokines for Which Biologic Therapies Have Shown

Clinical Effectiveness
TNF-a
Treg, regulatory T cells; TFH, T follicular helper.

There are now five approved therapeutics for rheumato-

CCR7, CXCR4

IL-10, TGF-b,

logic use, including RA, ankylosing spondylitis, and psoriatic

tolerance
Treg

arthritis. Four are mAbs (infliximab, centolizumab, adalimumab,

Immune
IL-35

and golimumab), whereas etanercept is a recombinant human

Foxp3
IL-10

TNF receptor (Rc) fused to the Fc portion of IgG that acts as a

competitive inhibitor. These therapeutics modify inflamma-
tory joint damage and systemic inflammatory symptoms (16).
Cell surface chemokine

Optimal outcomes in RA often require combination of con-

Pathway determining

Transcription factors

ventional methotrexate with anti–TNF-a mAb (17).

Signature cytokines
Characteristic

Effector responses

IL-6
cytokines

IL-6 is a pleiotropic cytokine first described as a T- and B-

receptors

cell growth factor produced by T cells, macrophages, and

endothelial cells. It is a potent inducer of local and systemic
inflammation where it plays a key role in the acute phase
response (e.g., IL-6 binds to cell surface IL-6Rc and
2246 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Th1 (driven by IL-12) and Th17 (enhanced by IL-23) path-

Table 2. Strategies used for therapeutic cytokine manipulation ways of Th differentiation. Ustekinumab and briakinumab
are such inhibitory mAbs. They have been assessed in se-
Monoclonal antibody- IL-1, IL-6, TNF-a, IL-12, vere refractory Crohn’s disease but without efficacy (23).
mediated cytokine IL-23/IL-23, IL-17, Ustekinumab is also effective in psoriasis (24).
immunoneutralization IFN-a
Modified cytokine CTLA-4, TNF-a Rc IL-17A
receptors: competitive IL-17A is important in host defense by mobilizing and
inhibitors
activating neutrophils, whereas pathologic IL-17A responses
Upstream drugs with Syk, S1P, BLyS, JAK
efficacy through lead to the development of autoimmunity. Secukinumb is an
cytokine attenuation inhibitory anti–IL-17A mAb and is effective in psoriasis,
Immunomodulating IL-10, TGF-b psoriatic arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis (25); however,
cytokines as therapeutic studies in RA show mixed results and no clear consensus of
agents significant benefit (26). Furthermore, in Crohn’s disease treated
Cytokine gene therapy IL-1Ra with secukinumb, no benefit or disease excerbation was
observed (27). In a phase II clinical trial, secukinumab treat-
CTLA-4, cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4; Rc, receptor; Syk, ment showed promising results in MS (28).
spleen tyrosine kinase; BLyS, B lymphocyte stimulator; JAK,
Janus kinase. IL-10
This cytokine can attenuate the production of inflam-
matory cytokines. IL-10 is a prominent participant in human
inflammatory diseases (e.g., significant amounts can be mea-
sured in the synovium of patients with RA). Administration
signaling is facilitated by glycoprotein 130). Tocilizumab of IL-10 did not attenuate RA activity (29), but it is beneficial
is a mAb targeting IL-6Ra. This mAb attenuates joint in- in psoriatic arthritis (30). In ulcerative colitis, IL-10 was in-
flammation, bone erosion, and systemic inflammation in effective when administered at doses that were not associ-
RA (18). Tocilizumab is also effective in juvenile RA (Still’s ated with side effects, including anemia (31).
disease) and Castleman’s disease (19).
Biologic Therapies that Have Downstream
IL-1
IL-1 is an innate cytokine with powerful capacity to Anticytokine Effects
activate macrophages and epithelial cells and acts in con- Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte Antigen-4
While strictly speaking, cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-
cert with IL-6 to induce systemic acute phase responses. It
4 (CTLA-4) Ig is not primarily a cytokine therapy, blockade
has a natural antagonist, IL-1RA. IL-1RA competitively
of costimulatory molecules essential to adaptive immunity
inhibits IL-1Rc binding by IL-1a and IL-1b. Anakinra is a
can secondarily block cytokine-mediated inflammation.
human recombinant form of IL-1RA. Therapeutically, anakinra
T-cell surface receptors CD28 and CTLA-4 bind APC
has been unsuccessful compared with anti–TNF-a ther-
ligands CD80 and CD86. CD28 is pivotal in enhancing
apy for RA, but it is highly effective in modulating the
immune activation, whereas CTLA-4 delivers an inhibitory
Cryopyrin-associated periodic syndromes, including neo-
signal. Abatacept and belatecept are approved by the US
natal onset multisystem inflammatory disease, Muckle–
Food and Drug Administration for treatment of resistant RA
Wells syndrome, acute and chronic gout, and juvenile
(32). It is effective in this situation; however, it as expected
RA (20).
carries a risk of serious infection.
IL-2
IL-2 is a growth factor for activated T cells. CD28- Cytokine Gene Therapy
dependent costimulation of activated T cells induces expres- Gene therapy has been demonstrated to be an effective
sion of the high affinity IL-2 (g, b, and d) receptor (CD25). way of treating pathologic inflammation. Rheumatoid syno-
Basiliximab is a mAb designed to bind and block the IL-2Rc via are arthroscopically removed from patients awaiting joint
on activated T cells. This mAb is widely used to prevent replacement and transfected with the gene for IL-1RA.
early kidney transplant rejection. Reimplantation of this transfected synovia back into the
A Cochrane systematic review shows that basiliximab is joint attenuated disease (33). This technique has also been
effective at reducing rejection 3 and 6 months postrenal trans- successfully used in collagen arthritis.
plantation. Because Tregs express high levels of CD25, there is
the potential risk that its efficacy may be limited by its Cytokine Signal Transduction Inhibition
potential effect on blocking immunomodulation. A human- Blocking cytokine signaling pathways can effectively
ized anti–IL-2Rc mAb, daclizumab shows no apparent differ- prevent cytokine participation in inflammatory diseases. A
ences from basiliximab (21) and has been reported to be number of small molecular weight inhibitors have pro-
effective in treating uveitis in eight of ten patients in an gressed to clinical trial; however, specificity and toxicity
open-label study (22). have limited their progress to the clinic.

IL-12/IL-23 Janus Kinase Inhibitors

These dimeric molecules share one chain in common, Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors are small molecules with
p40. Targeting p40 offers the opportunity to attenuate both multiple effects on cytokine signaling pathways that inhibit
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 2243–2254, December, 2015 Cytokine: Names and Numbers, Holdsworth and Gan 2247

the effects of cytokine-induced cell activation and conse- clinical data available do not support this role in human
quent pathologic inflammation (34). Tofacitinib preferen- RA and IBD. However, preliminary data in MS, targeting
tially inhibits JAK-1 and JAK-3. In clinical trials, the degree IL-17, shows evidence of benefit. Although much more data
of benefit in resistant RA was similar in efficacy to are necessary before firm conclusions can be drawn, these
adalimumab, a TNF-a inhibitor. It may lack specificity be- observations on the therapeutic benefit on inhibiting single
cause side effects, including sepsis, disturbed liver func- cytokines suggest that different combinations of cytokine
tion tests, raised creatinine, and neutropenia, were may direct specific patterns of disease (Table 3).
reported during its use (35).

Spleen Kinase Inhibitors Therapeutic Cytokine Targeting in Renal Diseases

Inhibition of spleen kinase signal transduction pathway There are three renal diseases where there is good
prevents downstream gene transcription (i.e., synthesis of evidence that immune cytokines play significant roles in
proinflammatory cytokines). The best studied spleen ki- disease pathogenesis and where their therapeutic manip-
nase inhibitor is fostamatinib. It has been successfully ulation could potentially be efficacious. These diseases are
used in collagen arthritis in mice (36) and has been studied AKI, lupus nephritis, and proliferative/crescentic GN.
in .3000 patients with RA in several clinical trials. Re-
sponder rates for acute disease were encouraging, but Innate Immunity: AKI
side effects were common (37). Fostamatinib acts by in- AKI is the most common hospital-based kidney disease
hibiting TNF-a–induced IL-6 production by fibroblast-like (37). Much of our understanding of the mechanisms of in-
synoviocytes (38). jury in AKI come from two experimental models: ischemia
Collectively, data from current clinical trials are insuf- reperfusion injury (IRI) and cisplatin-induced AKI. These
ficient to draw general statements about cytokine thera- models highlight the roles of cytokines and leukocytes in
peutic manipulation in chronic autoimmune inflammatory mediating injury. This is sterile inflammation. The initiat-
disease in humans. However, several observations seem ing trigger is followed by tissue stress and necrosis, initi-
appropriate. TNF-a is clearly an important mediator in in- ating the production of pathogen-associated molecular
jurious inflammation in several autoimmune and autoin- pattern molecules (including hypoxia-inducible factor
flammatory diseases. However, there is also evidence to and high-mobility group box 1), inducing the upregulation
suggest that in other diseases, it is either redundant or of leukocyte adhesion molecules, chemokines, and TLR
potentially immunomodulatory (MS and ANCA vasculi- signaling (39). Leukocyte infiltration is rapid and signifi-
tis). IL-1b is also strongly linked to most autoinflammatory cant, involving neutrophils, monocyte, macrophages,
diseases and gout. Clinical trials with IL-6 are more lim- and a variety of T cells (including CD41 Th1 cells, natural
ited, it is present together with TNF-a (in RA) and both killer cells, NKT cells, gd T cells, and DCs) (40).
TNF-a and IL-1b in autoinflammatory diseases. The fact Macrophages, DCs, and MCs are potent producers of
that individual immunoneutralization of IL-6 is beneficial TNF-a, whereas MCs are the only leukocytes that store
in these diseases suggests independent requirement for the presynthesized TNF-a in granules. Blocking degranulation
expression of this cytokine. The effectiveness of IL-17 and of MCs in cisplatin AKI with disodium cromoglycate pre-
IL-23 immunoneutralization to attenuate psoriasis and vented the increase of TNF-a in serum and protected from
psoriatic arthritis supports the case for these diseases being injury (41). Inhibition of TNF-a is also beneficial in endotoxin-,
Th17 mediated. However, TNF-a is also required for the cisplatin-, and ischemia-induced AKI (42,43). IL-1 is respon-
generation of inflammation in this disease because TNF-a sible for enhancing neutrophil influx in IRI (44). NLRP3
neutralization is also beneficial. Although experimental ani- inflammasome knockout (2/2) mice are protected against
mal models have provided evidence that the CD41 Th17 IRI but not in cisplatin-induced AKI (45). However,
subset directs inflammatory injury in RA and IBD, the caspase-12/2 mice are protected from cisplatin-induced

Table 3. Clinical efficacy of biological inhibitors of cytokines

Cytokine Inhibition Biologic Effectiveness Proven Ineffective

IL-1 Anakinra Juvenile arthritis and cryopyrin-associated RA

Canakinumab periodic syndromes
Rilonacept
IL-6 Tocilizumab RA and juvenile arthritis —
TNF-a Adalimumab RA, juvenile arthritis, ankylosing Multiple sclerosis and
Certolizumab spondylitis, IBD, and psoriasis ANCA vasculitis
Etanercept
Golimumab
Infliximab
IL-12/IL-23 Ustekinumab Ankylosing spondylitis, IBD, and psoriasis —
Briakinumab
IL-17 Secukinumab Ankylosing spondylitis and psoriasis RA and IBD

RA, rheumatoid arthritis; IBD, inflammatory bowel disease.

2248 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

AKI (46), but IL-1b2/2 mice are not (47). The role of IL-6 in the IFN-a signature (57). The levels of serum IFN-a and
AKI is complex. Evidence in ischemic AKI is consistent with expression of IFN-a–regulated genes correlate with disease
an injurious role for an endogenous IL-6 (48). However in an activity, autoantibodies, and complement levels (58). IFN-a
HgCl2 model, it was shown that while IL-6–mediated inflam- signaling pathway polymorphisms have been shown in fam-
matory responses contributed to injury, IL-6 trans-signaling ilies with SLE (59). IFN-a is thought to be a promising ther-
induced protective responses (49). apeutic target for SLE, and several mAb inhibitors are in
Cytokine-based immunomodulation can potentially be clinical trials. Sifalimumab is a humanized anti–IFN-a
used as preventative or therapeutic in AKI. The therapeutic mAb. Its use in SLE was associated with reduction in SLE
potential of administering anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 flares and activity (60). In a recent clinical trial, use of
has been demonstrated to be effective in both ischemic and rontalizumab (another anti–IFN-a mAb) reduced the expres-
cisplatin-induced AKI (50). More recently, it has been appre- sion patterns of IFN-a–driven genes, improved disease se-
ciated that Tregs can protect from cisplatin (51) and ischemic verity, and improved flare rates in patients with SLE.
AKI (52). Adoptive transfer of Tregs before cisplatin and However, patients with lupus nephritis were not included
before ischemia protected from the development of AKI. in this trial. AGS-009 is an IgG4 humanized mAb that in-
The number of Tregs required for protection in mice sug- duced significant attenuation of IFN-a signatures after a
gests the procedure is feasible in humans. Additionally, single dose (61). A novel approach has been to vaccinate
transferring Tregs to mice 24 hours after ischemic AKI was patients with SLE with IFN-a–kinoid molecules to induce
beneficial in promoting repair (53). autoantibodies to IFN-a. All immunized patients returned
Cytokines released from kidneys with AKI can have the IFN-a signature to baseline (62).
significant effects on distal organs by circulatory spillover. TNF-a. Mouse models of lupus nephritis have shown
Mortality in intensive care units is predicted by distal both potentially protective and accentuating roles for TNF-a.
organ involvement in AKI. Recent studies suggest systemic New Zealand Black (NZB)/New Zealand White (NZW) and
proinflammatory effects are triggered in three waves by the MRL/lpr mice with decreased synthetic capacity of TNF-a
immune release of host alarm signals (alarmins) from the develop lupus nephritis, but in the kidney, intrarenal ex-
AKI-damaged kidney (54). This begins with a uric acid surge, pression of TNF-a correlates with disease activity and in-
which induces a second wave of endothelial cell Weibel– flammation (63). In NZB/NZW mice with IFN-a–induced
Palade bodies released, which is then followed by a third nephritis, anti–TNF-a antibodies attenuate renal inflam-
wave of high-mobility group box 1 protein release. These mation and injury despite maintained immune complex
events are potent triggers for GM-CSF, IFN-g, CXCL8, deposition (64).
G-CSF, IL-12, TNF-a, and IL-6 (55). Recently, renal DCs The data on the role of TNF-a is conflicting; hence, the
were implicated in inducing cytokine-mediated injury in benefits of targeting TNF-a in human lupus nephritis is un-
ischemic AKI. Renal DCs can powerfully influence AKI by certain. However, there is the general view that there is suf-
enhancing or attenuating injury. After injury, DCs initiate ficient data to advise against TNF-a inhibition. Several studies
innate inflammatory responses presenting glycolipids and show that circulating levels of TNF-a and renal expression is
stimulating NKT cells, recruiting neutrophils and initiating increased (65); however, other studies show TNF-a produc-
the IL-17/IL-23 signaling pathway. DCs produce TNF-a, tion by PBMCs was lower in patients with lupus nephritis
IL-6, IL-12, IL-23, IL-17, and IFN-g to amplify injury and than controls (66). Additionally, TNF-a production was as-
inflammation. However, adenosine A2ARc signaling can sociated with reduced TNF-a bioactivity because of high
attenuate DC activation and protect from injury in ischemic serum levels of TNF receptors, which also correlated with
AKI (56). increased disease activity (67). Finally, in patients with lupus
nephritis, 10 weeks of infliximab treatment reduced protein-
Autoimmune Crescentic Glomerulonephritis uria but increased anti-DNA antibodies. Longer treatment
Lupus Nephritis was associated with adverse effects (68). In patients with
SLE is a disease with evidence of genetic, epigenetic, and RA treated with anti–TNF-a mAbs, lupus syndromes devel-
environmental contributions. There appears to be many oped, anti-DNAs were induced (69), and some patients
different immune abnormalities associated with this dis- developed GN (70).
ease, including significant abnormalities of cytokine circuits. IL-6. IL-6 is likely to act in concert with type 1 IFNs to
It is also likely that there are multiple paths of autoimmunity induce B-cell autoimmunity in SLE. Its levels are elevated
depending in part on which component of immunomodu- in lupus nephritis and correlate with disease activity (71).
lation is defective. Although it is likely that cytokines are IL-6 has been demonstrated in glomerular immune com-
therapeutic targets in this disease, the known presence of plexes and proximal tubular epithelial cells in lupus ne-
multiple immunoregulatory abnormalities suggests that SLE phritis (72). Intrinsic renal cells produce IL-6, and this can
should not be considered as a single homogenous disease. be enhanced by anti-DNA antibodies (73). In lupus-prone
IFN-a. There is good evidence that IFN-a is an impor- mice, IL-6 exacerbates GN while inhibiting IL-6 signaling
tant inducer of antichromatin autoimmunity in patients attenuated GN and reducing autoimmunity, therefore en-
developing SLE. Early in the disease, it has been demon- hancing survival (74). Most IL-6 inhibition trials have oc-
strated that immune complexes (containing DNA and/or curred in RA while data are emerging in SLE. Tocilizumab
RNA) are taken up by plasmacytoid DCs by FCgR-mediated reduced acute phase reactants, anti–double-stranded DNA
internalization. Together with TLR7 and TLR9 stimulation, antibody, and SELENA-SLEDAI scores in patients with
this induces IFN-a production, driving autoimmunity. moderately active lupus nephritis (75).
Evidence supporting this comes from the high incidence A number of biologic interventions target molecules or
of IFN-a–regulated genes in PBMCs of patients with SLE, immune cells upstream of cytokine production. The beneficial
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 2243–2254, December, 2015 Cytokine: Names and Numbers, Holdsworth and Gan 2249

effects are likely to result from their effects on cytokine animal model of human crescentic GN. There is considerable
mediation of target organ inflammation. data showing that immune cytokines are critically involved
B-cell Activating Factor. B-cell activating factor is also in inducing nephritogenic autoimmunity and mediating glo-
known as B lymphocyte stimulator and is essential for B-cell merular injury in these models. Moreover, studies in this
maturation, survival, and Ig class switching. Its levels are model provide proof of concept that the inhibition of selected
elevated in SLE and correlate with disease activity and flares cytokines can prevent and treat disease.
(76). Belimumab, a humanized anti-B lymphocyte stimulator Numerous innate cytokines have been associated with
mAb has been shown in two trials to demonstrate a modest pathogenesis of anti-GBM GN. A pathogenic role in anti-
but significant benefit in reducing disease activity. Patients GBM GN has been demonstrated for each of the following
with lupus nephritis were excluded, but in one trial, 15% of innate cytokines: GM-CSF, G-CSF, IL-1b, TNF-a, and
patients had evidence of nephritis. A post hoc analysis CXCL8, by studies in cytokine gene–deleted mice. All of
showed significant reduction in proteinuria. Trials in lupus these innate cytokines recruit inflammatory cells to the
nephritis are underway (77,78). kidney and direct the subsequent development of anti-
Abatacept. The data at hand do not provide evidence for GBM GN. Gene deletion of the key Th1 cytokines (IL-12
CTLA4-Ig efficacy in the treatment of lupus nephritis. A and IFN-g) resulted in attenuated crescentic GN, and gene
phase IIb trial involving patients with lupus with poly- deletion of the key Th1 transcription factor (T-bet) is pro-
arthritis and discoid lupus did not meet its primary or tective (85,86). After the discovery of the CD41 Th17 subset,
secondary end point, flare prevention, and the infection studies using mice deficient in p19, p35, and p40 (compo-
incidence was significantly higher in the abatacept arm nents of the key Th1 and Th17 cytokines, IL-12 and IL-23,
(79). In another 12-month trial of abatacept or placebo, intra- respectively) were used to analyze the relative contributions
venous infusion plus steroid and mycophenolate mofetil of each Th subset in anti-GBM GN. Paust et al. demonstrated
were compared in patients with class III and class IV lupus that Th17 cells contributes to anti-GBM GN with the use of
nephritis. Complete response and renal improvement crite- IL-23p192/2 and IL-17A2/2 mice (87), whereas Odobasic
ria were the same in all groups. Infection was not higher in et al. examined the reciprocal relationship between Th1 and
the abatacept group (80). Th17 and demonstrated that early nephritogenic responses
Anti–TNF-Related Weak Inducer of Apoptosis. There were mediated by Th17 cells, but late disease is Th1 depen-
is growing evidence for the anti–TNF-related weak inducer dent. They also demonstrated that each Th subset counter-
of apoptosis (Tweak)/factor inducible 14 pathway in en- regulated the other (88). Furthermore, Steinmetz et al. used
hancing injury in lupus nephritis. In lupus nephritis, mice with gene deletion of RORg-t, the key Th17 transcrip-
Tweak and its receptor are upregulated in renal tubular tion factor, to confirm the participation of the CD41 Th17
cells, inducing proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-6, subset (89). Direct comparison has been made between the
adhesion molecules, and chemokines (81). Immunoneu- effects of transferring Th17 and Th1 polarized ovalbumin
tralization of Tweak decreases renal inflammation in mu- (OVA) specific CD41 TCR transgenic cells into naïve mice
rine models (82), and these mAb are being studied in lupus with OVA planted on the GBM using a non-nephritogenic
nephritis (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT0130890). anti-GBM/OVA conjugated antibody. Transfer of both CD41
Laquinimod. Laquinimod is a small molecule that im- T-cell clones induced GN. However, transfer of Th1-polarized
munomodulates APCs to redirect Th subset differentia- cells induced a monocyte and macrophage predominant in-
tion with downregulation of IL-6, IL-12, IL-23, IL-17, and filtrate lesion, whereas Th17-polarized cells induced less in-
TNF-a and increased IL-10. In experimental murine lupus, jury with a neutrophil predominant infiltrate (90). To assess
laquinimod delayed the onset of lupus nephritis. When key Th2 cytokines, anti-GBM GN was induced in IL-42/2
administered as a therapeutic, it attenuated disease severity and IL-102/2 mice. Both groups had augmented Th1 re-
by reducing IFN-g and IL-17A production by splenocytes sponses and increased glomerular injury, whereas infusion
while enhancing IL-10 and Treg frequency (83). In a phase of IL-10 attenuated disease. Tregs are not only important in
II study in active lupus nephritis, mycophenolate mofetil maintaining self-tolerance but are also necessary in control-
and high-dose steroid were administered with or without ling overt inflammatory responses. Transfer of Tregs (CD41
laquinimod. Laquinimod had an additive effect with renal CD251) before and after the induction of experimental anti-
function and proteinuria improvement. Adverse effects were GBM GN suppressed the development of GN by reducing
not observed (84). Th1 responses (91). Interestingly, Eller et al. demonstrated
Despite many trials of therapeutics that attenuate cyto- that Treg-derived IL-9 is essential for the recruitment of
kine action being performed in SLE, there is still much that MCs, and both are required to attenuate anti-GBM GN (92).
needs to be understood about the role of cytokines in this Cytokine Production by Resident Renal Cells. Resident
disease. Unfortunately, the simple application of therapies cells within the kidney, including tubular and glomerular
successful in other immune inflammatory diseases (as in cells, interact with infiltrating leukocytes resulting in their
the case of anti–TNF-a immune neutralization) appears to synthesis of injurious TNF-a in response to leukocyte-
be much more problematic in SLE. Finally, the diversity of produced IL-1 (73). The relative roles of leukocyte and
patterns of disease and the involvement of different organs resident cytokine production have been studied in anti-
means lupus nephritis is unfortunately an exclusion in GBM GN in mice using cytokine chimeric mice where the
many trials, denying these patients the opportunity for cytokine gene has been deleted from either bone marrow–
potentially more effective treatments. derived leukocytes or from resident renal cells (86). Nonchi-
Experimental Antiglomerular Basement Membrane meric TNF-a2/2 mice are significantly protected from the
Glomerulonephritis. Experimental antiglomerular base- development of GN. When the TNF-a gene is knocked out
ment membrane (GBM) GN is the most widely studied from resident cells, similar attenuation was observed,
2250 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

whereas knockout of the TNF-a gene in bone marrow only target autoantigens, proteinase 3 or myeloperoxidase
caused mild protection, suggesting that TNF-a produced by (MPO) (93). In treatment of refractory disease with T
resident cells is the major source of injurious TNF-a in this cell–specific targeted therapies, antithymocyte globulin
disease. These studies also produced evidence of complex was beneficial and capable of inducing remission (94). Fur-
cytokine interactions between resident cells and infiltrating thermore, cytokine profiling of biopsied nasal mucosal tis-
leukocytes. Studies with IL-1b2/2 and IL-1R12/2 mice sue, bronchoalveolar lavage, and PBMCs from patients
showed that IL-1b mainly derived from leukocytes actives with granulomatous polyangiitis demonstrated increased
IL-1R1 on resident cells, inducing TNF-a production that expression of IFN-g, denoting a Th1 cytokine pattern (95).
causes significant glomerular injury (86) (Figure 2). Nogueira et al. found that in the serum of acute or convales-
Autoimmune Anti-GBM Glomerulonephritis. In auto- cent AAV patients, IL-17A and IL-23 levels were increased,
immune anti-GBM GN, the target autoantigen is the non- and this correlated with disease severity and ANCA titer
collagenase domain of the alpha 3 chain of type IV collagen. (96). IL-6 was also elevated in active disease. Chavele et al.
Immunization with this antigen induces autoimmunity shown reported that in patients with MPO-AAV, MPO-stimulated
by the production of circulating anti-GBM antibodies and the recall responses showed elevated IFN-g (97). Collectively,
development of crescentic GN. IFN-g2/2 mice developed these data provide evidence in support of both Th1 and
worse disease. The relative contributions of Th1 and Th17 Th17 involvement in AAV. Furthermore, IL-17–producing
to disease development were assessed using p352/2 (defi- cells were found in renal biopsies from patients with acute
cient in Th1 subset) and p192/2 (deficient in Th17 subset) vasculitis, and most of the IL-17–positive cells present were
mice. The p192/2 mice were protected from GN, but the innate leukocytes (neutrophils and MCs) (98).
p352/2 mice were unaffected compared with controls, In experimental MPO-ANCA GN, IL-17A2/2 mice
confirming a pathogenic role for Th17 but not for Th1 in were protected from the development of anti-MPO auto-
this disease. immunity and glomerular injury (99). Immunoneutraliza-
ANCA-Associated Crescentic Glomerulonephritis. The tion of TNF-a caused significant reduction in lung
most common cause of crescentic GN is ANCA-associated hemorrhage and renal injury in Wistar–Kyoto rats with
vasculitis (AAV). Evidence suggests cytokines directing induced anti-MPO AAV (100).
the underlying nephritogenic autoimmunity are likely to The only cytokine-based clinical trials in AAV have been
be therapeutic targets that could be neutralized with avail- of anti–TNF-a. Treatment with etanercept (anti–TNF-a
able biologic agents. mAb) was not effective and was associated with a high
PBMCs from patients with ANCA-associated GN have rate of treatment-related adverse side effects (101). A
CD41 T cells that proliferate when stimulated with the smaller clinical trial using adalimumab with prednisolone

Figure 2. | Innate macrophages produce IL-1 which binds to IL-1Rc on intrinsic renal cells (endothelial cells, podocytes, and mesangial cells)
to produce injurious TNF-a that amplifies T effector cell responses resulting in crescent formation and glomerular injury. Rc, receptor.
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 2243–2254, December, 2015 Cytokine: Names and Numbers, Holdsworth and Gan 2251

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2011 Nourshargh S, Pusey CD: Therapeutic effect of anti-TNF-alpha
93. King WJ, Brooks CJ, Holder R, Hughes P, Adu D, Savage CO: T antibodies in an experimental model of anti-neutrophil cyto-
lymphocyte responses to anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic plasm antibody-associated systemic vasculitis. J Am Soc
autoantibody (ANCA) antigens are present in patients Nephrol 17: 160–169, 2006
with ANCA-associated systemic vasculitis and persist dur- 101. Wegener’s Granulomatosis Etanercept Trial (WGET) Research
ing disease remission. Clin Exp Immunol 112: 539–546, 1998 Group: Etanercept plus standard therapy for Wegener’s gran-
94. Schmitt WH, Hagen EC, Neumann I, Nowack R, Flores-Suárez ulomatosis. N Engl J Med 352: 351–361, 2005
LF, van der Woude FJ; European Vasculitis Study Group: Treat- 102. Laurino S, Chaudhry A, Booth A, Conte G, Jayne D: Prospective
ment of refractory Wegener’s granulomatosis with antithymo- study of TNFalpha blockade with adalimumab in ANCA-
cyte globulin (ATG): An open study in 15 patients. Kidney Int 65: associated systemic vasculitis with renal involvement. Nephrol
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95. Csernok E, Trabandt A, Müller A, Wang GC, Moosig F, Paulsen J,
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inflammation. Arthritis Rheum 42: 742–750, 1999 cjasn.org.
 B Cells, Antibodies, and More
William Hoffman,* Fadi G. Lakkis,*†‡§ and Geetha Chalasani*‡§|

Abstract
B cells play a central role in the immunopathogenesis of glomerulonephritides and transplant rejection. B cells
secrete antibodies that contribute to tissue injury via multiple mechanisms. In addition, B cells contribute to
disease pathogenesis in autoimmunity and alloimmunity by presenting antigens as well as providing costimulation
and cytokines to T cells. B cells also play an immunomodulatory role in regulating the immune response by *Departments of
secreting cytokines that inhibit disease onset and/or progression. B cell–targeted approaches for treating immune Medicine (Renal-
diseases of the kidney and other organs have gained significant momentum. However, much remains to be un- Electrolyte), †Surgery,
derstood about B-cell biology in order to determine the timing, duration, and context of optimal therapeutic and ‡Immunology,
§
Thomas E. Starzl
response to B cell–targeted approaches. In this review, we discuss the multifaceted roles of B cells as enhancers Transplantation
and regulators of immunity with relevance to kidney disease and transplantation. Institute, University of
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 11: 137–154, 2016. doi: 10.2215/CJN.09430915 Pittsburgh School of
Medicine, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, and
|
Renal Section,
Introduction cavities and produce IgM antibodies directed against Veterans Affairs
Historically, immune responses have been classified so-called thymus- or T-independent antigens, usually Pittsburgh Health Care
as cellular or humoral. Cellular responses are medi- carbohydrate or phospholipid antigens present on System, Pittsburgh,
ated by T lymphocytes, which recognize and attack Pennsylvania
commensal bacteria. They are called T independent be-
their targets directly or indirectly by enlisting the help cause they do not require T-cell help to elicit antibody
Correspondence:
of other immune cells, while humoral responses are production. Such antibodies are polyreactive or poly- Dr. Geetha Chalasani,
characterized by the production of antibodies by B specific in that they can bind to both self-antigens and Thomas E. Starzl
lymphocytes and their progeny, plasma cells. These microbial antigens. Transplantation
antibodies permeate extracellular spaces, where they A prototypical example of antibodies secreted by B1 Institute, University of
protect against infection and also contribute to tissue Pittsburgh School of
B cells are those directed against ABO blood groups, Medicine, Veterans
injury in autoimmunity and transplantation. B cells which arise naturally during the first few months of Affairs Pittsburgh
have therefore traditionally been associated with life because of structural similarities between the ABO Health Care System,
humoral immunity, but we now know that they are system and bacterial carbohydrate antigens recognized 200 Lothrop Street,
equally critical to cellular immunity. B cells participate by B1 B cells (5,6). Natural IgM antibodies secreted by W1554 Biomedical
Science Tower,
in T-cell activation via antigen presentation, costimu- B1 B cells play an important role in maintaining tissue Pittsburgh, PA 15261.
lation and cytokine production; affect antimicrobial homeostasis because of their ability to bind altered self- Email:
defenses and tissue inflammation; and, importantly, antigens, such as those expressed by apoptotic cells in [email protected]
serve as regulatory cells that modulate both cellular ischemia-induced tissue injury and oxidized LDLs in
and humoral responses. Here, we review the classic atherosclerosis (7). In addition to IgM, B1 B cells also
humoral and the more recently described cellular produce polyreactive IgA antibodies that contribute to
functions of B cells, with particular emphasis on their mucosal immunity along with IgA secreted by FO B
roles in the pathogenesis of GN, transplant rejection, cells (8). Although the existence of B1 B cells as a dis-
and AKI. tinct lineage in humans has been controversial, B cells
expressing CD5 that are the source of poorly glycosy-
Primer in B-Lymphocyte Biology lated IgA1 and thought to be B1 B cells are increased
B-Lymphocyte Lineage Subsets in patients with IgA nephropathy and contribute to
Three principal classes of B lymphocytes exist in disease pathogenesis (9–11).
mice and humans, classified on the basis of their MZ B cells develop from transitional B cells after
ontogeny and anatomic localization: B1 and B2 B induction of neurogenic locus notch homolog protein
lymphocytes, consisting of the marginal zone (MZ) 2 (NOTCH2) and engagement of its ligand delta-like 1
and follicular (FO) B cells (Figure 1). B1 lymphocytes on endothelial cells, with subsequent retention
arise from B1 progenitors in fetal liver and persist as a within the marginal sinus of the spleen mediated by
self-renewing population beyond the neonatal period, sphingosine-1-phosphate, integrins lymphocyte
with little input from the bone marrow (BM) in adult- function–associated antigen 1, and very late antigen
hood, while B2 lymphocytes develop from transitional 4 (a4b1-integrin, CD49d/CD29), and cannabinoid
2 (T2) B cells that originate from BM precursors with receptor 2 (4). MZ B cells express polyreactive B-cell
continued output throughout life (1–4). In mice, B1 B receptor (BCRs), complement receptors (CD21 and
cells predominantly reside in the peritoneal and pleural CD35), and MHC class 1–like molecule CD1d; they

www.cjasn.org Vol 11 January, 2016 Copyright © 2016 by the American Society of Nephrology 137
138 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

produce polyreactive IgM antibodies that facilitate clearance kinase induced by BCR-mediated signals (2). Although FO
of blood-borne microorganisms and apoptotic cells (4). B cells participate in T-independent IgM responses, they are
Similar to B1 B cells, MZ B cells recognize T-independent primarily responsible for the generation of long-lasting,
carbohydrate and phospholipid antigens, a classic example high-affinity IgG antibodies with the help of T lymphocytes,
being the recognition of pneumococcal capsular polysaccha- critical for classic humoral immunity mediating protection
rides; thus, the susceptibility of splenectomized individuals after infection or vaccination. As will be discussed later, FO
to systemic pneumococcal infection (12). Both B1 and MZ B B cells specific to self-antigens or transplantation antigens
cells constitutively express Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and can also play a key role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune
readily respond to pathogen-associated or endogenous TLR kidney disease and transplant rejection.
ligands, with or without antigen recognition via their BCR.
Thus, B1 and MZ B cells respond like innate cells in Antibody Types
mediating rapid IgM antibody responses (approximately Because a principal function of B lymphocytes is anti-
1–3 days) that bridge the temporal gap in immunity body production, it is important at this point to summarize
against infections until the emergence of FO B cell–derived the salient features of these defense molecules and describe
IgG antibodies (about 7 days). Unlike B1 B cells, MZ B cells their different isotypes or classes. Antibodies, also known
also participate in responses to T-dependent protein anti- as immunoglobulins, are glycosylated protein molecules
gens by generating high-affinity isotype switched antibodies present on the surface of B cells (surface immunoglobulins)
and transporting complement-bound opsonins onto FO serving as antigen receptors (BCR), or are secreted into the
dendritic cells (DCs) in splenic follicles aiding germinal center extracellular space where they can bind and neutralize their
(GC) reactions (13). MZ B cells thus represent a versatile target antigens (15). A single antibody molecule consists of
population in their ability to rapidly generate antibodies four protein chains: two “heavy” and two “light,” linked
via not only T-independent but also T-dependent pathways to each other by disulfide bonds (Figure 2). The N-terminus
that were previously attributed solely to FO B cells. Abnormal regions of the heavy and light chains, which collectively
increases in B1 and MZ B cells are described in murine make up the antigen-binding site, are where the variability
models as well as in patients with autoimmune diseases, between one antibody molecule and another resides, hence
including lupus (3,4,14). determining specificity.
Finally, FO B cells, which reside in spleen and lymph Five isotypes, or classes, of antibodies (IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA,
nodes, are the conventional B lymphocytes of the adaptive and IgE) exist, and they are distinguished according to the
immune system and are the most numerous of all B cell C-terminus regions of the heavy chains, which are constant
lineages. FO B cells arise from transitional B cells in the and therefore do not participate in antigen binding. Instead,
spleen through a pathway dependent on Bruton tyrosine these regions (designated Fc) are important for the effector

Figure 1. | B-cell lineage subsets and functions. B lymphocytes of all lineages arise from progenitors derived from hematopoietic stem cells
(HSCs). Most B1 B lymphocytes develop from B1 progenitors in the fetal liver with little input from bone marrow beyond the perinatal period.
B2 B lymphocytes develop from transitional 2 (T2) B cells derived from B-cell progenitors in the bone marrow, with subsequent differentiation
into marginal zone (MZ) and follicular (FO) lineages occurring in the spleen. Stronger B-cell receptor (BCR) signals induce Bruton tyrosine
kinase (BTK) and support maturation to FO B cells, while weaker BCR signals allow expression of neurogenic locus notch homolog protein
2 (NOTCH2) giving rise to MZ B cells. B lymphocytes of each lineage have distinct and overlapping functions in recognizing antigens via
T-independent and T-dependent pathways, production of rapid IgM, and long-lasting IgG antibody responses essential for host defense.
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 11: 137–154, January, 2016 B Cells in Renal Disease and Transplantation, Hoffman et al. 139

Figure 2. | Antibody structure. Antibodies (immunoglobulins) are composed of two heavy chains (VH and CH) and two light chains (VL and CL).
The antigen-binding fragment, Fab, is composed of one variable domain from each heavy and light chain (VH and VL). The variable domains
contain the complementarity determining regions (CDRs) with the most sequence variations and determine antibody specificity. The constant
domains CH2 and CH3 of the heavy chain make up the crystallizable fragment, Fc, which mediates effector functions through binding to Fc
receptors (FcRs) on cells and to complement (C1q).

functions of antibodies, the means by which antibodies the constant regions of specific antibody classes, or they
eliminate pathogens or alternatively cause tissue injury. In activate the classic pathway of the complement system by
addition, there are four subclasses or isotypes of IgG binding to C1q (Table 1). Which effector mechanism dom-
antibodies (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4). Antibodies exert inates is determined by the heavy-chain isotype and bind-
effector functions in three principal ways: They neutralize ing affinities of activating and inhibitory FcR on immune
their targets (e.g., they bind to a virus and prevent it from cells. For example, IgM and IgG3 are excellent complement
entering a cell), they activate macrophages and other im- activators, while IgG1 and IgE bind FcR to activate macro-
mune cells by binding to Fc receptors (FcRs) that recognize phages and mast cells, respectively (15).

Table 1. Immunoglobulin isotypes and functions

Immunoglobulin Isotype
Characteristic
IgM IgG1 IgG2 IgG3 IgG4 IgA IgE

Heavy chain m g1 g2 g3 g4 a «
Molecular mass, kDa 970 146 146 165 146 160 188
Serum level (mean adult), mg/ml 1.5 9 3 1 0.5 2.1 531025
Half-life in serum, days 10 21 20 7 21 6 2
Polysaccharide antigens 11 1 111 1/2 1/2 11 11
Protein antigens 1 11 1/2 11 11 1 1
Placental transfer – 111 1 11 –∕1 – –
Neutralization 1 11 11 11 11 11 –
Classic pathway of complement activation 1111 11 1 111 – – –
Sensitization for killing by natural killer cells – – 11 – 11 – –
Binding to macrophage and phagocyte Fc receptors – 1 – 1 –∕1 1 1
Binding to mast cells and basophils – 1 – 1 – – 111

1 denotes relative presence and – denotes relative absence of response to type of antigen or specified characteristic.
140 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Figure 3. | B-cell development and mechanisms of self-tolerance. B-cell development begins in the bone marrow and is completed in pe-
ripheral lymphoid tissues, such as the spleen. Development in the bone marrow progresses sequentially through pro-B, pre-B, and immature B
cell stages and expression of surface IgM, mature B-cell receptor (BCR). Immature B cells with strong reactivity to self-antigen undergo clonal
deletion or rearrange their immunoglobulin gene segments; this is called receptor editing, which eliminates self-reactivity and allows entry to
the transitional B-cell pool. Transitional B cells depend on B cell–activating factor (BAFF) for survival and differentiate into mature B cells in the
spleen. Those transitional 1 and 2 (T1/T2) B cells with strong self-reactivity undergo clonal deletion or remain outside splenic follicles as
hyporesponsive anergic B cells that can be rescued upon receiving T cell help to enter the mature B-cell pool. Mature B cells that are activated
by foreign antigen and enter germinal center (GC) reactions give rise to isotype-switched memory B cells and plasma cells. During the process
of somatic hypermutation (SHM), a few memory B cells acquire self-reactivity due to random immunoglobulin gene rearrangements and persist
as IgG1 self-reactive clones in the periphery.

Pathogenic antibodies in patients with autoimmunity, of IVIG by binding to DC-specific intercellular adhesion mol-
such as lupus and transplant rejection, are usually IgG, ecule 3–grabbing nonintegrin expressed on macrophage and
with the isotype influenced by the nature of the antigen DC subpopulations, and causing upregulation of the inhibi-
(e.g., polysaccharide antigens incite IgG2, whereas protein tory FcgRIIb (22–24). In addition to changes in glycosylation,
antigens induce IgG1; Table 1) and concomitant cytokine binding affinity to FcR is also influenced by polymorphisms
milieu of the immune response (e.g., IL-4 and IL-21 induce in activating (e.g., FcgRIIIa) and/or inhibitory (e.g., FcgRIIb)
IgG1 and IgG3) (16). Among IgG isotypes, IgG1 and IgG3 FcRs and contributes to pathogenesis in autoimmune diseases
bind FcgR most efficiently and also activate complement, such as lupus (25,26).
contributing to their associated proinflammatory effects.
IgG1 is the predominant isotype, constituting 60%–75% B-Lymphocyte Development and Mechanisms of Self-
of serum IgG and has a longer half-life (3 weeks), pro- Tolerance
viding the basis for the commonly used dosing regimens B lymphocytes primarily originate in the BM, except for B1
(every 3–6 weeks) of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) B cells, which arise from fetal liver as previously discussed
when used as replacement in immunoglobulin deficien- (1,3). B lymphocytes develop from common lymphoid pro-
cies or treatment of autoimmune diseases. Efficient bind- genitors of hematopoietic stem cells, which also give rise to T
ing of IgG to its FcgR is influenced by post-translational lymphocytes and natural killer cells with commitment to
modifications of the sugar moieties attached to the CH2 B-cell lineage being determined by the expression of paired
domain of the Fc fragment, affecting structural stability box protein 5 (Pax5) (27). B-cell development progresses
and function (17). through sequential maturation steps within the BM before
Differences in glycosylation of antibody molecules due to release of immature B cells into the circulation and subse-
altered expression of glycosyltransferases are observed in quent completion of differentiation into mature B cells
various disease states and contribute to pathogenesis (18). For within the spleen. Developing B cells progress through re-
example, poorly galactosylated IgA1 aggregates form im- arrangement of immunoglobulin heavy- and light-chain
mune complexes with IgG that trigger a cascade of proin- gene segments (variable V, diversity D, joining J) from
flammatory events upon binding to mesangial cells in IgA pro-B to pre-B to immature B cells, culminating in the ex-
nephropathy (19); nonfucosylated IgG-Fc, which increases pression of IgM mature BCR on the cell surface that can bind
binding to FcgRIIIa and antibody-dependent cellular cytotox- antigens (Figure 3) (28). The maturation steps depend on
icity, is observed in patients with antiplatelet alloantibodies close interactions between developing B cells and BM stro-
and controllers of HIV infection (20,21); degalactosylated IgG mal cells, which provide critical adhesive integrins, growth
is found in several autoimmune diseases, suggesting its path- factors, chemokines, and cytokines (e.g., Fms-like tyrosine
ogenicity; and increased terminal sialic acid residues linked to kinase 3, thrombopoietin, C-X-C motif chemokine ligand
IgG Fc fragment confer potent anti-inflammatory properties [CXCL] 12, and IL-7) (27). Immature B cells exiting the BM
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 11: 137–154, January, 2016 B Cells in Renal Disease and Transplantation, Hoffman et al. 141

home to the spleen, where they differentiate into transitional be eliminated during development to avoid autoimmunity,
1 and 2 B cells, which mature into MZ or FO B cells guided while still preserving a diverse BCR repertoire in the mature
by BCR signals, B cell–activating factor (BAFF), and expres- B-cell pool essential for host defense. Developing B cells
sion of transcription factors, NOTCH2 and BTK (2,4,28). MZ transit through several selection processes in the BM and
B cells are retained in the spleen while FO B cells recirculate, spleen that serve as checkpoints in purging autoreactive
populating various secondary lymphoid tissues (e.g., lymph clones and establishing self-tolerance (28). BCR recognition
nodes, tonsils, and gut-associated lymphoid tissues, such as of self-antigen within the BM and the threshold of generated
Peyer patches). signals determine selection of immature B cells to move
The random rearrangement process of immunoglobulin forward to the transitional B-cell stage: positive selection
genes during B-cell development ensures the generation of clones with low-level (also referred to as “tonic”) BCR
of a vast repertoire of BCRs capable of recognizing a huge signals; clones with no BCR signals fail to survive; and
diversity of antigens. This results in inherent generation of clones with strong signals are targeted for apoptosis
B cells that also recognize various self-antigens. In fact, 75% (clonal deletion, also termed negative selection), unless
of immature B cells in humans are estimated to be self- they rearrange their light-chain immunoglobulin gene
reactive (29). These self-reactive or autoreactive B cells must segments (termed receptor editing), and re-express a

Figure 4. | B-cell activation and differentiation into memory B cells and plasma cells. B cells that have encountered antigen migrate to the T–B
border by upregulating C-C chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) and Epstein-Barr virus–induced receptor 2 (EBI2), where they first encounter cognate
T cells that mature into T follicular helper cells (Tfhs). B cells can differentiate into extrafollicular plasma blasts or memory B cells independent
of germinal centers (GCs). B cells that express B-cell lymphoma 6 (Bcl6) return to the follicles, where they are retained via sphingosine-1-
phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2) expression to form GCs with Tfhs. Within GCs, B cell–Tfh interactions via MHC 2–T-cell receptor, B7–CD28,
CD40–CD40L, inducible costimulator ligand (ICOSL)–inducible costimulator (ICOS), programmed cell death protein ligand 1 (PDL1)–
programmed cell death protein 1 (PD1), and IL-21 receptor (IL-21R)–IL-21 facilitate somatic hypermutation and immunoglobulin isotype class-
switch recombination (CSR) that generate high-affinity GC-dependent memory B cells and long-lived plasma cells. Following antigen
re-exposure, extrafollicular memory B cells now enter GCs to generate isotype-switched and high-affinity secondary memory B cells and
plasma cells, while GC-dependent memory B cells can rapidly differentiate into secondary plasma cells or re-enter GC to produce secondary
memory B cells and plasma cells. DC, dendritic cell.
142 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

BCR that now meets the threshold for positive selection peripheral tolerance (31,34). Despite the absence of autoreactive
into the transitional B-cell pool (Figure 3). clones entering the naive B cell pool, following foreign
B-cell repertoire modification of immature B cells that antigen-mediated activation and GC reaction, some IgG1
occurs within the BM by clonal deletion and receptor memory B cells acquire self-reactivity as a consequence of
editing is termed central tolerance, and the latter mechanism somatic hypermutation that also contribute to autoanti-
contributes to elimination of a majority of self-reactive clones bodies in SLE (31).
(20%–50%). Additional selection mechanisms occurring
within the spleen remove the remaining autoreactive clones B-Lymphocyte Activation and Differentiation
that recognize peripheral self-antigens: Transitional B cells A hallmark of humoral immunity is the generation of
with strong BCR signals undergo clonal deletion or attain a long-lived memory B cells and plasma cells that produce
state of hyporesponsiveness, termed anergy, with shortened high-affinity, isotype-switched antibodies essential for host
survival (1–5 days) (Figure 3) (30). However, these periph- defense. B-cell activation and differentiation into extra-
eral tolerance mechanisms can be circumvented by elevated follicular or GC-driven memory B cells, plasma blasts, or
levels of BAFF and T-cell help of anergic B cells, enabling plasma cells are guided by integration of (1) nature of an-
autoreactive clones to enter the mature B-cell pool (31). tigen, such as polysaccharide, glycolipid, or protein; (2) as-
Self-reactive B lymphocytes that escape clonal deletion, sociated TLR signals; and (3) cytokine and costimulatory
receptor editing, or anergy are eliminated by CD41 T cells helper signals (35). Polysaccharide and glycolipid antigens
via Fas receptor–Fas ligand and CD40–CD40L interactions are poor activators of T cells, and in general, B1 and MZ B
in addition to being held in check by CD41 T cells and B cells responding to these antigens are activated indepen-
cells with regulatory properties (Tregs and Bregs, respec- dent of conventional T-cell help. However, unlike FO B
tively) (32,33). Failure of one or more of the self-tolerance cells, B1 and MZ B cells express TLR in their nascent state,
checkpoints described earlier is central to development of which allows them to integrate signals from TLR ligands
autoimmune diseases, such as lupus, that also affect the (such as LPS, Cytosine-phosphate-Guanine DNA, and
kidneys (31). For example, in patients with systemic lupus double-stranded RNA) derived from pathogens or dam-
erythematosus (SLE), defects in BCR signaling due to muta- aged cells, along with antigen recognition, to differentiate
tions in BTK or protein tyrosine phosphatase nonreceptor rapidly into IgM or isotype-switched short-lived plasma
type 22 (PTPN22) gene polymorphism disrupt central toler- blasts and memory B cells in extrafollicular areas without
ance, and elevated serum BAFF levels and Fas receptor–Fas entering the GC (36). MZ B cells also interact with other
ligand polymorphisms contribute to observed defects in helper cells, such as natural killer T cells, neutrophils, and

Figure 5. | B cell–activating factor (BAFF), a proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL), and their receptors. BAFF and APRIL are transmembrane
proteins of the TNF family that can be proteolytically cleaved to produce soluble forms. They are produced by myeloid cells, such as dendritic cells
(DCs), neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, and stromal cells. BAFF binds strongly to receptors, B cell–activating factor-receptor (BAFF-R) and
transmembrane activator and cyclophilin ligand interactor (TACI), and weakly to B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA), whereas APRIL binds strongly to
BCMA and moderately to TACI. APRIL can also exist bound to heparin sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) in extracellular matrix and interacts with TACI in
this form. BAFF promotes survival and maturation of transitional B cells into mature B cells, supports B cell proliferation, class-switch recombination
(CSR), and plasma cell survival. APRIL is critical for T-independent responses and supports CSR and survival of plasma cells.
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 11: 137–154, January, 2016 B Cells in Renal Disease and Transplantation, Hoffman et al. 143

DCs, that provide cytokines (BAFF, a proliferation-inducing to the surface of the B lymphocyte. These peptide–MHC-2
ligand [APRIL], IL-21, IL-6, and IL-10) and costimulatory complexes are what antigen-specific CD4 T cells recognize to
signals (CD40L) within the extrafollicular areas, facilitating establish intimate contacts with B cells and provide them
limited somatic hypermutation and antibody diversifica- with the help needed for their proliferation and differentia-
tion (36). Thus, B1 and MZ B cells generate predominantly tion. Because the CD4 T cell providing help is activated by
low-affinity IgM or isotype-switched IgG antibodies in the same antigen as the B cell, the contact and interaction
extrafollicular areas independent of conventional T-cell between these T and B cells is referred to as “cognate” or
help (4). “linked.” T–B interactions required for B lymphocyte activa-
For protein antigens that are recognized primarily by FO tion are orchestrated not only in time but also in space (37).
B cells, activation is initiated upon antigen recognition by They take place within secondary lymphoid tissues guided
the BCR and critical helper signals derived from antigen- by the expression of chemokine receptors and corresponding
specific CD4 T cells (Figure 4). Upon binding antigen, the ligands (38). Naive B cells, for example, express C-X-C motif
BCR sets two key processes in motion. First, it signals to chemokine receptor 5 and are retained in clearly delineated
the cell’s interior to trigger essential gene expression pro- areas, called primary lymphoid follicles or B-cell zones, in
grams. Second, it internalizes the antigen and delivers it to lymph nodes by CXCL13 from FO DCs (38). After antigen
endosomal compartments, where it is degraded into pep- recognition, B cells upregulate C-C chemokine receptor 7
tides that are then bound to MHC-2 molecules and recycled and Epstein-Barr virus–induced receptor to migrate to the

Figure 6. | Cellular functions of B cells. B cells interact with T cells and innate cells, such as dendritic cells (DCs), via several mechanisms that
influence the outcome of the immune response. Antigen presentation, costimulation (such as CD40–CD40L, inducible costimulator ligand
[ICOSL]–inducible costimulator [ICOS]), and cytokine production (such as IL-6 and TNF-a) contribute to enhanced T-cell activation and
differentiation (e.g., T follicular helper cells), cytokine polarization (e.g., Th1 and Th17), and formation of long-lived memory T cells.
Lymphotoxin (LTa) produced by B cells contributes to formation of tertiary lymphoid organs in peripheral tissues that are sites of in situ
immune responses causing tissue injury. B cells and plasma cells also secrete cytokines, such as IL-10 and IL-35, that reduce T-cell acti-
vation and cytokine production and increase T cells with regulatory properties in addition to modulating functions of innate cells, such as
DCs (e.g., decreased IL-6 and IL-12), to attenuate immune responses.
144 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

boundary of the follicle adjacent to the T-cell zone (referred APRIL of the TNF family, required for survival of B cells
to as T–B border), where they initiate cognate interactions during various stages from their initial development to
with early T follicular helper cells (Tfhs) (39,40). T-cell terminal differentiation (Figure 5). BAFF and APRIL are
help for B cells comes in the form of costimulatory li- produced by myeloid cells (such as DCs, macrophages,
gands (CD40L; inducible costimulator ligand) and cyto- and neutrophils) and stromal cells (57,58) and bind to recep-
kines (e.g., IL-4, IL-21, and IFN-g) that stimulate B-cell tor transmembrane activator and cyclophilin ligand inter-
proliferation and differentiation. actor (TACI) and B-cell maturation antigen, while BAFF
Some of the activated B cells develop into extrafollicular also signals through B cell–activating factor-receptor (BAFF-R)
plasmablasts and early memory B cells without entering (Figure 5) (57). BAFF is essential for survival and matura-
the follicles (extrafollicular pathway). Activated B cells that tion of transitional B cells, sustains GC reaction, and sup-
upregulate B-cell lymphoma 6 (Bcl6) return to the follicles ports CSR (57,59). Signaling through TACI, both BAFF and
(FO pathway), where they are retained by the expression APRIL, promote T-independent antibody responses and
of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 to form GCs with CSR, while BAFF also functions in limiting B-cell expansion
Tfhs, which support affinity maturation of immunoglobu- through TACI (57,60). Plasma cell survival requires APRIL
lin antigen–binding sites and immunoglobulin class and/or BAFF signaling through B-cell maturation antigen,
switching (40,41). whereas immunoglobulin class-switched memory B cells are
Within the GC, IL-21 and costimulatory signals derived maintained independent of BAFF or APRIL (57,61,62). Dys-
from Tfh (Figure 4) sustain extensive B-cell proliferation regulation of BAFF is associated with autoimmune diseases,
and induce gene expression programs essential for somatic such as SLE and ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV), and
hypermutation (SHM) and class-switch recombination targeting soluble BAFF using belimumab has shown benefit
(CSR) to generate high-affinity class-switched memory B for patients with lupus nephritis (63–65).
cells and plasma cells (41). SHM and CSR require the ex-
pression of the DNA-editing enzyme activation-induced
cytidine deaminase: SHM induces point mutations within B Lymphocytes as Enhancers and Regulators of
the immunoglobulin gene segments that encode the vari- Cellular Immunity
able antigen-binding regions, enabling selection of high-affinity In addition to their obvious role in humoral immunity, it
clones into memory and plasma cell pools by competition is now established that B lymphocytes contribute directly
for antigen within the GC; CSR replaces genes that deter- to cellular immunity via at least three mechanisms: (1) they
mine isotype classes, allowing generation of antibodies with serve as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) that enhance T
different effector functions without changing their antigen lymphocyte–mediated immunity; (2) they function as bona
specificities (42–44). fide cellular effectors that produce inflammatory cytokines;
GC B cells that have successfully acquired Tfh signals and (3) a subgroup of them, known as Bregs characterized
and competed for the limited antigen within the GC with by IL-10 secretion, modulate immune responses (Figure 6)
high-affinity interactions upregulate Bcl2 family prosurvival (66,67). Moreover, B cells maintain secondary lymphoid or-
factors and are selected into the memory B-cell or plasma gan architecture, particularly of the spleen, and promote the
cell pools (37,45–47). Productive Tfh interactions with GC B formation of ectopic lymphoid tissues (tertiary lymphoid
cells initiate sequential expression of transcription factors, tissues) at sites of chronic inflammation, which then become
IFN regulatory factor 4, B lymphocyte–induced maturation hot spots of local T- and B-lymphocyte activation (Figure 6)
protein 1 (also known as PR domain zinc finger protein 1), (68–72). Together, these “cellular” functions of B cells signif-
and X-box binding protein 1, which commit their differenti- icantly contribute to the pathogenesis of autoimmunity and
ation into long-lived plasma cells after repression of Bcl6 allograft rejection.
(48,49). Blimp1 expression is essential for sustaining plasma
cell development via both extrafollicular and FO pathways, B Lymphocytes as APCs
while Xbp1 functions to support immunoglobulin secretion Antigen captured by the BCR is internalized into endo-
(35,50–52). somal compartments, where it is processed into peptides
Plasma cells home to the BM via C-X-C motif chemokine that then reemerge on the cell surface bound to MHC-1 and
receptor 4, where they reside in survival niches supported -2 molecules. This allows B lymphocytes to present anti-
by stromal cells secreting CXCL12 and cytokines (IL-6; genic peptides to both CD4 and CD8 lymphocytes as a
APRIL) and produce antibodies maintaining serologic “professional” APC (e.g., a DC) would. In addition, and
memory independent of further antigen exposure (35). similar to DCs, B cells express the necessary costimulatory
Memory B cells recirculate and form extrafollicular or FO molecules and cytokines required for full activation of the
aggregates in lymphoid tissues, where they differentiate T lymphocytes they engage. These include B7 and CD40
rapidly into plasma blasts (GC-dependent memory) or molecules, which ligate the T lymphocyte costimulatory
re-enter GCs upon antigen rechallenge (extrafollicular receptors CD28 and CD40L, respectively, and the cytokines
and GC-dependent memory), resulting in further diversi- IL-6 and IFN-g (73–75). B cells also express innate TLRs,
fied secondary antibody responses (47,53–56) (Figure 4). which respond to pathogen-associated molecular patterns,
Memory B cells and plasma cells generate high-affinity further enhancing their APC function (75–77). Although
immunoglobulin class-switched diversified antibodies, on a per-cell basis B cells are not as potent APCs as DCs,
which are the basis of long-lived humoral immunity and the fact that they proliferate in response to antigen gives
are difficult therapeutic targets in autoimmune diseases. them a clear numeric advantage. Experimental data in
At this juncture, it’s relevant to discuss the two key cyto- mouse models of antimicrobial as well as lupus and anti-
kines, BAFF (also known as B-lymphocyte stimulator) and graft immunity have established that antigen presentation
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 11: 137–154, January, 2016 B Cells in Renal Disease and Transplantation, Hoffman et al. 145

Figure 7. | B cells as enhancers and regulators of immunity in kidney disease and transplantation. B cells can promote or inhibit immune
responses, mediating kidney injury, GN, and transplant rejection by various mechanisms of action, and the balance between
these functions influences disease outcomes. Isotype-switched antibodies contribute to antibody-mediated rejection (AMR) and GN
(e.g., lupus, IgA nephropathy, ANCA-associated vasculitis [AAV]) by forming immune complexes and activating FcgR while natural
IgM antileukocyte antibodies are protective in ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI). Antibody-independent functions of B cells contribute
to lupus and ischemia-reperfusion injury and mediate graft rejection by presenting antigen and driving T-cell activation. B cells
form tertiary lymphoid structures that are the sites of local immune responses causing tissue injury in lupus nephritis, AAV, idiopathic
membranous nephropathy (IMN) and graft rejection. Various B-cell populations with regulatory functions (e.g., IL-10) contribute to
graft survival and GN remission (e.g., AAV), and their disrupted numbers or function are observed in transplant rejection and GN relapse
(e.g., AAV and lupus).

by B cells ensures optimal T-cell activation, cytokine produc- in all known major B-cell subpopulations (e.g., FO and MZ
tion, and generation of long-lasting memory T cells B cells) (96). Recent data have shown that T cell immuno-
(73,75,78–82). In the absence of this B-APC function, mem- globulin mucin 1 (TIM-1), a member of the T immunoglob-
ory T-cell numbers and function are impaired after an anti- ulin and mucin domain family of proteins, serves as an
genic challenge and organ damage is attenuated in lupus. inclusive marker for Breg (about 6%–8% of all B lym-
phocytes in the mouse express TIM-1 and about 30% of
B Lymphocytes as Cellular Effectors these produce IL-10) (96). A monoclonal antibody binding
It is increasingly recognized that during an immune TIM-1 enhances allograft survival in a Breg-dependent
response, some B cells acquire the ability to produce effector manner. In addition to B cells, some plasmablasts
cytokines with inflammatory properties (83). Examples of (IgM1CD1381) exert regulatory functions via production
these are IFN-g, TNF-a, and IL-17 (67,75,84,85). IFN-g and of the cytokine IL-35 (97). Via IL-10 or IL-35, Bregs mod-
TNF-a have direct injurious effects on endothelial and ulate innate cells, such as DCs, macrophages, or natural
epithelial cells, thus contributing to both allograft rejection killer cells (e.g., decreased IL-6 and IL-12), decrease inflam-
and inflammatory renal disease (86–89). Similarly, IL-17 matory T-cell cytokines, and increase regulatory Tregs, cur-
stimulates cytokine and chemokine production by endothelia, tailing the ongoing immune response (95,97–101). Bregs
epithelia, and fibroblasts, which then drive neutrophil in- have also been identified in humans, specifically in the
filtration and inflammation (90). Effector cytokines from CD24highCD38high transitional and CD24highCD271 memory
B cells also influence activation of CD4 T cells, their cytokine B-cell subsets, and their numbers correlate with better re-
production, and memory development (67,75,84,85), likely nal transplant outcomes (102–104). Altered numbers and/
in a bystander fashion, unlike antigen presentation by B or function of Bregs have been described in SLE and AAV,
cells, which requires cognate interactions. contributing to disease pathogenesis and/or relapse
(102,105–107). The presence of potent Bregs could explain
Bregs why pan-depletion of B cells in humans using anti-CD20
A regulatory function for B cells has been demonstrated (rituximab) has led to paradoxical or unsatisfactory clini-
in multiple mouse models of autoimmunity and trans- cal results in renal transplantation, as well as autoimmune
plantation, whereby indiscriminate B-cell depletion or renal disease (108,109). Similarly, indiscriminate use of an-
deficiency paradoxically caused worsening of disease tibodies targeting BAFF could be detrimental because Breg
outcomes (66,91–95). In each case, the regulatory function development and IL-10 production appear to depend on
could be attributed to IL-10 production by a small subset of BAFF signaling through TACI (110,111). Selective agents
B cells. Overall, IL-10–producing Bregs constitute about 1% that spare or enhance Bregs are therefore greatly needed to
of all B lymphocytes in the mouse and appear to be present optimize B cell–targeting therapies.
146 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Role of Antibodies and B Lymphocytes in Renal Disease contribute to pathogenic antibody responses, indicating
Role in Renal Transplantation that pan-depletion of B cells can have deleterious effects on
Interest in B lymphocytes and antibodies as causative disease progression (128–131). Long-lived plasma cells lack
agents in transplant rejection stems from the beginnings of CD20, the target of rituximab, and account for alloantibody
renal transplantation, when it was realized that patients production even after mature B cells that express CD20 are
with preformed antibodies against donor antigens reject depleted. Targeting plasma cells using proteasome inhibitors
their grafts within minutes to hours after transplantation alone has limited efficacy, likely due to rapid differentiation
(so-called hyperacute rejection) (112). Preformed antibodies of memory B cells into plasma cells to repopulate depleted
that cause hyperacute rejection are those against the ABO niches, underscoring the challenges in efficacious removal of
blood antigens or HLA. Careful ABO matching of donors pathogenic B cells (132).
and recipients and careful testing of the recipient’s serum for Data emerging from experimental models and humans
antibodies against the donor’s HLA before transplantation strongly suggest that B cells contribute to rejection in-
have eliminated hyperacute rejection in the clinic. However, dependently of their antibody-producing role. In mice, B
the dilemma of what to do with prospective renal transplant cells promote both acute and chronic rejection by func-
recipients on the waiting list who are highly sensitized to the tioning as APCs, and B-lymphocyte participation in the
general population (i.e., those with high panel-reactive anti- pathogenesis of chronic rejection can occur in the absence
bodies) remained, many of them dying before a suitable of secreted antibody (80,133). A recent study in human
donor could be identified. Strategies have therefore been renal allograft recipients provided compelling evidence
devised to desensitize such patients, allowing them to that although activation of B cells resulted in production
receive a deceased- or living-donor kidney once their an- of both TNF-a and IL-10, it was the relative abundance of
tidonor antibody titers had subsided. Successful strate- TNF-a to IL-10 expression in transitional B cells that
gies include the use of plasmapheresis and IVIG, the correlated strongly with acute rejection and 3-year graft
latter likely exerting its effects via Fc receptors by down- outcomes (104). Patients with stable renal allograft func-
modulating B-cell function and Fab-mediated effects on tion had similar numbers of transitional B lymphocytes and
target cells (23). Of note, ABO-incompatible heart trans- similar IL-10–to–TNF-a ratios as healthy individuals,
plantation, and possibly other organ transplantation, is while those with graft dysfunction had reduced transi-
feasible in infants before the development of significant tional B-lymphocyte numbers and reduced IL-10–to–TNF-a
anti-ABO antibody titers (113). Transplanted infants in ratios. B-lymphocyte clusters have also been observed
fact acquire tolerance to the incompatible ABO antigen, within renal allografts undergoing acute and chronic rejec-
providing firm proof that human B cells are prone to tion, contributing to local immune response and causing
tolerance if challenged while the immune system is still graft injury (134–137). Together, these findings underscore
relatively immature (114). the importance of the cellular functions of B cells, whether
More recently, the significance of donor-specific anti- regulatory or effector, in shaping renal allograft outcomes
bodies (DSAs) that arise after transplantation has come to (Figure 7).
the fore. These antibodies, usually against donor HLA but The role of B cells in renal transplantation tolerance has
sometimes directed against non-HLA epitopes, are associ- also been an intense area of study. Several independent
ated with poor renal allograft outcomes because of acute or reports provided evidence that operationally tolerant
chronic antibody-mediated rejection (AMR) (115–119). kidney transplant recipients (those who have stable graft
AMR is often associated with acute or chronic cellular re- function in the absence of all pharmacologic immunosup-
jection and the presence of DSAs also correlates with in- pression) exhibit various B-cell alterations within their
creased risk of isolated cellular rejection, indicating peripheral blood mononuclear cells, including increased
that DSAs are a useful biomarker for heightened antidonor B-cell numbers, B cell–specific gene expression, transitional
immunity (120–124). Strategies to combat the develop- B cells producing IL-10, memory B cells with an inhibitory
ment of DSA have largely relied on the use of adequate phenotype, and granzyme B–expressing B cells that curtail
T-lymphocyte immunosuppression, such as with tacroli- proliferation and cause apoptosis of CD4 effector T cells
mus, because pathophysiologic antidonor antibodies (138–142). These studies provide the impetus to explore
belong to T cell–dependent isotypes, usually complement- new strategies to induce or enhance regulatory B cells in
fixing (for example, IgG3) and the requisite role of T-cell humans for the purpose of achieving tolerance or minimiz-
help for B-cell differentiation. B-cell depletion with rit- ing long-term, conventional immunosuppression after kid-
uximab has been attempted as a prophylactic therapy at ney transplantation.
the time of renal transplantation (induction therapy) to
improve graft outcomes or as a treatment for AMR (125– Role in GN
127). In the former case, it was paradoxically associated B lymphocytes are incriminated in the pathogenesis of
with increased, rather than decreased, risk of acute re- both systemic and kidney-targeted autoimmune diseases
jection and in the latter the results have been ambiguous (Figure 7). They are responsible for the generation of
(108,127). autoantibodies and circulating immune complexes that de-
These clinical studies highlight the heterogeneity of posit in the kidney and cause GN. As discussed previously,
targeted B-lymphocyte populations (memory B cells, they can also contribute to tissue injury by producing in-
plasma cells) and functions (effector versus regulatory) and flammatory cytokines and by presenting antigen to T
therefore the need to devise more selective depletional lymphocytes. The significance of B lymphocytes in human
approaches. In addition, dysregulation of BAFF levels, GN can be best inferred from studies that correlate circu-
especially after depletion of cells consuming BAFF, lating or renal interstitial B cell phenotype and function
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 11: 137–154, January, 2016 B Cells in Renal Disease and Transplantation, Hoffman et al. 147

with disease activity and from studies that attempted predominantly naive and immature B cells, and sustained
B-lymphocyte depletion or inhibition to treat the disease. suppression of memory B cells and plasma cells, whereas
These include SLE, AAV, Henoch-Schönlein purpura changes in anti-dsDNA antibodies did not correlate with
(HSP), cryoglobulinemia, and idiopathic membranous ne- response (159–161). Development of antichimeric anti-
phropathy (IMN). bodies against rituximab and elevated BAFF levels with
Lupus Nephritis. SLE results from systemic loss of B-cell poor B-cell repopulation were associated with lack of re-
tolerance, leading to production of high titers of autoan- sponse (109,130,162).
tibodies against double-stranded DNA (dsDNA), RNA, Belimumab is a monoclonal IgG1 humanized antibody
and nuclear proteins (143–145). Dysregulated BAFF levels against soluble BAFF and is the first biologic therapy to be
and augmented signal transduction downstream of the approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for
BCR, specifically in the BtK-Lyn-Syk kinase pathway, con- SLE in 50 years. Depletion of B cells by BAFF deprivation
tribute to increased B-cell activation with increased fre- using belimumab normalized complement levels and re-
quencies of memory and plasma cells in patients with duced dsDNA titers and SLE severity in two phase 3
SLE (65,131,144,146–148). The presence of anti-dsDNA an- randomized clinical trials (163). Post hoc analysis of the trial
tibodies identifies patients at risk of lupus nephritis, con- data demonstrated improvement in renal flare rates and re-
sistent with experimental evidence that these antibodies duction in proteinuria with anti-BAFF, with greatest benefit
have a causative role in GN when deposited as immune in those with high disease activity, suggesting efficacy in
complexes in the kidney. However, B cell–deficient but not lupus nephritis, while serologic memory to past vaccine im-
antibody-deficient mice are protected from lupus nephri- munizations was preserved (163–165). It remains to be ex-
tis, indicating that cellular functions of B cells also contribute amined whether the beneficial effects of anti-BAFF in lupus
to disease pathogenesis (149,150). In addition to glomerular are due to resetting aberrant checkpoints of peripheral B-cell
lesions, lupus nephritis is characterized by inflammation and tolerance eliminating autoreactive clones and/or attenuating
scarring of the renal interstitium, which predicts progression T-cell activation by blocking costimulatory functions of
to renal failure. BAFF (65,166).
Recent studies on human renal biopsy specimens have In contrast to anti-BAFF, treatment with atacicept,
established the presence of conspicuous interstitial B a recombinant fusion protein that blocks both BAFF
lymphocyte infiltrates in lupus nephritis (151,152). These (membrane-bound and soluble) and APRIL, led to severe
are often organized along with T cells and DCs into lymph hypogammaglobulinemia with serious infections and wors-
node–like structures that are known as tertiary lymphoid ening proteinuria when given with mycophenolate mofetil
tissues (151,153,154). B lymphocytes within these struc- in lupus nephritis (60).
tures are actively dividing (supported by local BAFF and Taken together, these studies confirm the key require-
APRIL), are undergoing somatic hypermutation, and ment for APRIL and not BAFF in maintaining serologic
sometimes form germinal centers (151,153–155). The pres- memory (60,165). Small molecule inhibitors of Btk and Syk
ence of germinal centers is strongly associated with tubu- have shown early promise in mouse models of lupus ne-
lar basement membrane immune complexes, providing a phritis and await examination of efficacy in patients with
highly plausible link between local B-lymphocyte activa- lupus nephritis (167).
tion and progression of lupus nephritis in humans AAV. AAV comprises systemic syndromes character-
(151,153,154). ized by necrotizing inflammation of blood vessels; the most
On the basis of the causal relationship between significant clinicopathologic manifestation in the kidney is
B-lymphocyte activation and SLE, B lymphocyte–targeting rapidly progressive GN (168). AAV is characterized by
therapies have been tested in the clinic in patients with SLE circulating ANCA, the principal targets of which are pro-
who have or do not have lupus nephritis. First tested were teinase 3 and myeloperoxidase present in neutrophils and
the monoclonal anti-CD20 antibodies, rituximab and ocre- monocytes. In mouse models, the transfer of antimyeloper-
lizumab, which target the B-lymphocyte surface molecule oxidase antibodies or B cells from affected animals trans-
CD20 expressed on mature B cells, causing depletion of fers disease to healthy animals (169). In humans,
these cells. Two large randomized phase 3 trials failed to B-lymphocyte clusters have been observed in rapidly pro-
demonstrate statistically significant superiority of B-cell de- gressive GN kidneys, similar to those described in lupus
pletion with either agent over standard-of-care therapy in nephritis (170). Aberrations in circulating B cells have been
patients with active proliferative lupus nephritis (156,157). described in patients with active disease in AAV with in-
However, a trend toward more patients reaching complete creased BCR signaling, altered proportions of CD51 B cells,
or partial remission at 1 year (primary endpoint), and im- and decreased Breg numbers or function (105–107,171). Not
proved proteinuria and renal function (secondary end- surprisingly, therefore, rituximab in combination with corti-
points) was observed in the B-lymphocyte depletion costeroids is an effective (and Food and Drug Administration–
groups (109,156,157). Patients treated for class 3 lupus ne- approved) therapy for inducing remission in patients
phritis attained complete remission most successfully, with AAV, but its efficacy in treating patients with advanced
while those with class 5 lupus nephritis were the least renal disease has not been established yet (172). Rituximab
likely to respond (109). It is unclear whether adjunct ther- has also been successfully used to treat relapsing or refrac-
apies, such as those also targeting T cells, would improve tory AAV and to maintain remission, and neither extent of
response rates because T cells can contribute to B-cell ac- B-cell depletion nor ANCA titers correlate consistently with
tivation and mediate tissue damage in SLE (158). Favor- response (173). The observation that circulating levels of
able outcomes with rituximab treatment were associated BAFF correlate with disease activity has prompted an ongo-
with attaining complete B-cell depletion, reconstitution of ing phase 3 trial to test belimumab combined with
148 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

azathioprine in the maintenance of remission in patients of B cells and antibodies in renal ischemia-reperfusion
with AAV (63,173–175). Recent studies suggest an inverse injury (IRI). Following IRI, B cells infiltrate the kidney and
relationship between circulating Bregs in the peripheral interfere with the repair phase, and in their absence injury
blood and disease activity or relapse in patients with is attenuated with increased tubular proliferation (188,189).
AAV, highlighting the need to better understand the role Conversely, adoptive transfer of serum recapitulated
of these important regulatory cells in controlling autoimmu- renal injury and transfer of B cells worsened tubular
nity (105–107,171). atrophy (188,189). B1 B cells infiltrated kidneys under-
HSP. HSP represents a spectrum of IgA nephropathy going IRI, and reduction of peritoneal B cells only
with multiorgan involvement and vasculitis of small vessels. partially attenuated IRI; this finding suggests that other
Immune complexes formed with aberrantly glycosylated B-cell lineages, such as FO and MZ B cells, could also
IgA1 cause vasculitis that affects the kidney in approximately contribute to injury (189,190). Natural IgM enriched in
50% of patients with HSP, with similar renal lesions as in IgA antileukocyte autoantibodies protected against IRI by
nephropathy. CD5-expressing B1 B cells are increased in markedly attenuating leukocyte infiltration and activa-
patients with IgA nephropathy and are the source of tion of pathogenic T cells (191). Thus, early antibodies
galactose-deficient IgA, which contributes to disease path- produced by B cells, such as natural IgM, play a pro-
ogenesis (9). Although anecdotal reports have shown a sig- tective role, while their later antibody responses and/or
nificant response to rituximab in patients with HSP who cellular functions could be pathogenic in IRI.
did not respond to conventional therapy, further studies
are needed to examine the use of B-cell depletion in treating
HSP (176–178). Concluding Remarks
Cryoglobulinemia. Polyclonal IgG with or without B cells link the innate and adaptive arms of immune
monoclonal IgM forms immune complex deposits, causing response by their ability to respond rapidly to damage-
vasculitis and renal disease in patients with mixed cryo- associated molecular patterns and antigenic stimuli, and
globulinemia. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is the also form long-lived serologic memory. B cells perform
main cause of mixed cryoglobulinemic vasculitis, and the diverse functions, such as antibody secretion, cytokine pro-
most common renal lesion is membranoproliferative GN. duction, antigen presentation, and lymphoid architecture
HCV-related MZ B-cell expansion and aberrant activation- organization, that intersect with both innate (such as DCs)
induced cytidine deaminase expression sustains B-cell and adaptive T-cell roles in shaping the outcome of the
activation and immunoglobulin production (179,180). immune response toward immunity or tolerance (Figures 6
Rituximab treatment of HCV-associated mixed cryoglobu- and 7). Disruption of B-cell tolerance by cell-intrinsic (BCR
linemic vasculitis is superior to conventional therapy, signaling) or cell-extrinsic (BAFF, T-cell help) defects, dysre-
supporting a key role for B cells in disease pathogenesis gulated BAFF levels, and impaired regulatory functions con-
(181,182). tribute to pathogenesis of autoimmunity. Depleting B cells
Idiopathic Membranous Nephropathy. Subepithelial could therefore potentially re-establish B-cell tolerance by
deposition of IgG in the glomerular capillary wall is a purging autoreactive clones, eliminate pathogenic anti-
hallmark of idiopathic membranous nephropathy and, body-producing B cells, and interrupt cellular functions of
along with the presence of B cells in renal biopsy B cells that enhance pathogenic T cell activation. However,
specimens, implicates B lymphocytes in the pathogenesis nonselective pan-depletion of B cells can also remove the
of the disease (183). Moreover, approximately 80% of beneficial Bregs, increase BAFF levels, and potentially
patients have antibodies against the podocyte-derived worsen disease. Instead, targeting B cells to correct specific
antigen, phospholipase A2 receptor (PLA2R) (184). defects or remove pathogenic B cells while sparing others
Circulating levels of anti-PLA2R antibodies are a biomarker would prevent undesired immune activation or immune
for disease activity and response to treatment (185). Single- deficiency. Future studies aimed at disease-specific under-
arm studies suggest a role for rituximab in treating idiopathic standing of how pathogenic B cells arise could facilitate not
membranous nephropathy; however, responses are only the development of novel selective therapies but also
detected in only about 60% of patients, with others pro- the optimal use of existing therapies, such as rituximab and
gressing to ESRD (186). An ongoing phase 3 randomized belimumab, for best outcomes.
trial is comparing efficacy of rituximab to cyclosporine in
inducing long-term remission in idiopathic membranous Acknowledgment
nephropathy (187). Results of another phase 2 open-label This work was supported by funds from National Institutes of
clinical trial testing the efficacy of belimumab in PLA2R Health grant R01 AI079177 (G.C.).
autoantibody-positive idiopathic membranous nephrop-
athy on remission of proteinuria and autoantibodies are Disclosures
awaited (ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01610492). An important None.
need is development of immunologic or other biomarkers to
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 Immunosuppressive Medications
Alexander C. Wiseman

Abstract
Immunosuppressive agents are commonly used in the nephrologist’s practice in the treatment of autoimmune and
immune-mediated diseases and transplantation, and they are investigational in the treatment of AKI and ESRD.
Drug development has been rapid over the past decades as mechanisms of the immune response have been better
defined both by serendipity (the discovery of agents with immunosuppressive activity that led to greater under- Division of Renal
standing of the immune response) and through mechanistic study (the study of immune deficiencies and auto- Diseases and
immune diseases and the critical pathways or mutations that contribute to disease). Toxicities of early Hypertension,
immunosuppressive agents, such as corticosteroids, azathioprine, and cyclophosphamide, stimulated intense Transplant Center,
University of
investigation for agents with more specificity and less harmful effects. Because the mechanisms of the immune Colorado, Denver,
response were better delineated over the past 30 years, this specialty is now bestowed with a multitude of Aurora, Colorado
therapeutic options that have reduced rejection rates and improved graft survival in kidney transplantation,
provided alternatives to cytotoxic therapy in immune-mediated diseases, and opened new opportunities for in- Correspondence:
tervention in diseases both common (AKI) and rare (atypical hemolytic syndrome). Rather than summarizing Dr. Alexander C.
clinical indications and clinical trials for all currently available immunosuppressive medications, the purpose of Wiseman, Transplant
Center, University of
this review is to place these agents into mechanistic context together with a brief discussion of unique features Colorado Denver,
of development and use that are of interest to the nephrologist. Mail Stop F749, AOP
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 11: 332–343, 2016. doi: 10.2215/CJN.08570814 7089, 1635 North
Aurora Court, Aurora,
CO 80045. Email:
Alexander.wiseman@
Introduction further understanding of the mechanisms of the im- ucdenver.edu
Immunosuppressive agents have a long history, with mune response. Similar to cyclosporin A, sirolimus
a recent acceleration in growth in number. After the (previously called rapamycin) was discovered and devel-
discovery by Nobel Prize awardee Philip Hench that oped as an antifungal, but it was found to have antineo-
the corticosteroid cortisone had significant anti- plastic and immunosuppressive properties, the
inflammatory effects in patients with rheumatoid mechanisms of which were only later appreciated and
arthritis (RA) in 1949 (1) and the independent dis- described as mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)
coveries by Calne et al. (2), Murray et al. (3), and pathways (7,8).
Zukoski et al. (4) that azathioprine (AZA) was an In recent decades, immunosuppressive drug devel-
effective immunosuppressive agent in the prevention opment has slowed from its accelerated pace in the late
of kidney allograft rejection in the early 1960s (2–4), 1990s, but it still shows steady growth. With improve-
many of the mechanisms of the immune response ments in efficacy and specificity of existing agents, it is
remained opaque. The 1960s and 1970s were marked increasingly difficult to develop an agent that meets
by a borrowing of cyclophosphamide from the de- superiority and safety measures necessary to gain reg-
veloping field of cancer chemotherapy for use in im- ulatory and public opinion approval. This is particularly
mune diseases and transplantation, whereas the use of true for diseases that the nephrologist may encounter:
antilymphocyte serum as a lymphocyte-depleting most uses of immunosuppressive agents are in rare,
agent gained favor in the developing field of kidney orphan category diseases that are difficult or unlikely to
transplantation. The late 1970s and early 1980s brought be studied in large multicenter trials. Thus, many of the
revolutionary changes in drug development and discov- newer agents that the nephrologist may encounter will
ery; two key developments were the technology to de- inevitably be in off-label use stemming from expe-
velop monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) for human rience in other fields, such as rheumatology and
therapeutic use and the discovery of the immunosup- oncology. Exceptions to this generalization are emerg-
pressive effects of cyclosporin A from fermentation ex- ing attempts to treat the inflammation identified in the
tracts of the fungal species Tolypocladium inflatum (5,6). settings of AKI and maintenance hemodialysis.
The 1990s were a period of significant immunosup- To provide a framework for understanding the mul-
pressive drug development, because increased insight titude of immunosuppressive agents currently avail-
into B and T cell development, activation, and prolif- able and in late-stage development, this review will
eration, cytokine and chemokine signaling, and com- summarize key agents commonly encountered in
plement activation led to targeted therapeutics, nephrology practice by immune cell target rather
particularly mAbs that could later be humanized (Fig- than disease state or clinical indication. Together with
ure 1). In reciprocal fashion, drug discovery often led to the previous reviews within this Renal Immunology

332 Copyright © 2016 by the American Society of Nephrology www.cjasn.org Vol 11 February, 2016
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 11: 332–343, February, 2016 Immunosuppressive Medications, Wiseman 333

Agents Targeting Signal 1

Anti-TCR Agents. Inhibition of the first point of antigen
presentation (the MHC/TCR complex) has been an attrac-
tive target in transplant immunosuppression. The murine
anti-CD3 mAb Muromonab-CD3 (OKT3) was the first mAb
approved as a drug for human use in 1986 for the preven-
tion of rejection in renal, heart, and liver transplants (9). It
targeted the CD3 subunit of the TCR complex and led to
rapid elimination of functional T cells. It is now no longer
Figure 1. | Schematic representation and nomenclature of mAbs in
in production because of waning utilization, primarily be-
clinical use. The suffix denotes of the degree of human versus non-
cause of significant side effects related to the mitogenicity
human components.
associated with its murine source. This early experience
led to the development of humanized forms of anti-
Series, it is hoped that the reader will be able to intertwine TCR–based agents in an effort to reduce this mitogenicity
the science with its clinical applications. as well as other anti-TCR mAbs that targeted other recep-
tor subunits (10–12). These next generation therapeutics
were subsequently forwarded for the treatment of new-
T Cell–Directed Therapy onset diabetes and as induction agents in kidney trans-
Therapeutic agents that target T cell function can be sep- plantation but have been hindered by ongoing safety
arated into those that inhibit signal 1 (the interaction of the and efficacy issues.
T cell receptor [TCR] complex with an antigen-presenting Calcineurin Inhibitors (Cyclosporin and Tacrolimus).
cell [APC] either carrying antigen or in the case of transplan- After initial TCR binding, a calcineurin-dependent signaling
tation, acting as antigen itself) and its resulting intracellular pathway is induced that leads to initial T cell gene tran-
signaling and those that inhibit signal 2 (the costimulatory scription necessary for additional activation. Two commonly
signal provided by additional T cell/APC interaction that used calcineurin inhibitors (CNIs; cyclosporin and tacrolimus)
leads to full activation of the T cell) (Figure 2). Agents that and one investigational agent (voclosporin) inhibit the ability of
inhibit further downstream activation and proliferation (oc- calcineurin to dephosphorylate nuclear factor (NF) of activated
casionally referred to as signal 3) are typically driven by T cells (NFAT), required for translocation from cytoplasm to
cytokine production and signaling and will be discussed in nucleus, and prevent calcineurin-dependent gene transcription
later sections. (13,14). In the early 1980s, cyclosporin transformed the field of

Figure 2. | Immunosuppressive agents targeting T cell/antigen-presenting cell interaction and early T cell activation. This depicts agents that
inhibit signal 1 and signal 2 in T cell activation. APC, antigen-presenting cell; CNI, calcineurin inhibitor; CTLA4, cytotoxic T lymphocyte–
associated protein 4; ICAM, intracellular adhesion molecule 1; LFA-1, lymphocyte function–associated antigen-1; NFAT, nuclear factor of activated
T cells; TCR, T cell receptor.
334 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

transplantation with dramatic reductions in acute rejection A number of mAbs against CD40 are in development, with a
rates, and it has been shown to be effective in a number of fully human anti-CD40 (ASKP1240; Astellas) under study in
immune diseases, including a number of glomerulopathies phase 2 clinical trials in kidney transplantation (30).
(15,16). In the late 1990s, tacrolimus was introduced in kidney
transplantation and over time, has shown to be more potent
in reducing the rates of acute rejection (17,18). Growing B Cell–Directed Therapy
experience in glomerular disease suggests its use to be of The goals of B cell inhibition include inhibiting not only
similar value as cyclosporin (19). One potential nonimmu- the humoral response to auto- or alloantigen but also, the
nosuppressive mechanism that could explain CNI efficacy APC function and B/T cell interactions that lead to efficient
in glomerular disease is the ability to inhibit synaptopodin T cell activation and proliferation. B cell therapies can be
degradation in the podocyte, thereby stabilizing the actin considered in the context of the agents that inhibit matu-
cytoskeleton and reducing proteinuria (20). ration and differentiation of the resting B cell throughout its
Tacrolimus and cyclosporin share the side effect of CNI- development to a highly active antibody-producing plasma
induced vascular constriction that contributes to an increase cell (Figure 3).
in BP as well as diminished renal perfusion. This is pri-
marily a dose-dependent phenomenon; it can result in renal B Cell Targeting
ischemia and acute tubular necrosis in the acute setting, and Anti-CD20 Targeting: Rituximab, Ocrelizumab,
with prolonged ischemia, it can result in chronic kidney Ofatumumab, and Veltuzumab. CD20 is a transmembrane
injury. Aside from the direct vascular effect on renal blood protein present on pre-B and mature B lymphocytes, but it
flow, the potential direct nephrotoxic effects of CNI agents is not present on stem cells, normal plasma cells, or other
remain an active area of debate and research (21). To ad- cell lines. Its role in B cell development includes regulation
dress these issues of toxicity and side effect profiles (includ- of activation for cell cycling and B cell differentiation. The
ing post-transplant diabetes), alternative formulations of first agent to target CD20, rituximab, is a chimeric anti-CD20
tacrolimus (extended release) as well as the novel CNI mAb (30% murine and 70% human) that leads to B cell
voclosporin have been developed and are approved or in depletion through a number of mechanisms, including
late-phase clinical trials in transplantation (22–24). complement-dependent cytotoxicity, growth arrest, and ap-
optosis (31). This depletion is durable, with B cell counts
suppressed for up to 6–9 months and occasionally, beyond.
Agents Targeting Signal 2
Costimulation Blockade by CD80/86:CD28 Targeting Efficacy data pertinent to nephrology practice include the
(Abatacept and Belatacept). The interaction of CD80/86 treatment of ANCA-associated vasculitis, with supportive
on the APC with CD28 on the T cell (costimulation) is re- data in antibody-mediated rejection and forms of nephrotic
quired for optimal T cell activation. After upregulation and syndrome (32–34). The chimeric nature of the antibody leads
the generation of an effective immune response, the T cell to side effects attributable to cytokine release, such as
expresses the cell surface molecule cytotoxic T lymphocyte– fever, bronchospasm, and hypotension. Agents that are
associated protein 4 (CTLA4), which competitively binds to humanized (ocrelizumab) or fully humanized (ofatumumab)
CD80/86 and downregulates the T cell response. To mimic have been developed to minimize these untoward infusion
this downregulatory effect, human IgG heavy chains were reactions. However, ocrelizumab development in RA has
linked with CTLA4 to create a fusion protein for clinical use. been discontinued because of an increased risk of serious
The first generation CTLA4-Ig that was clinically developed, infections (35). A phase 1/2 trial of ofatumumab in RA has
abatacept, is approved for the treatment of RA and is under shown preliminary efficacy, with mild/moderate infusion re-
investigation in other autoimmune diseases, including lupus actions still prevalent (36). All anti-CD20 therapy carries a
(25). Recently, abatacept has been proposed to be of poten- risk of hepatitis B reactivation in patients positive for hepatitis
tial value in the treatment of FSGS in a small series of cases, B surface antigen or hepatitis B core antibody (37). Therefore,
in which immunostaining of podocytes is positive for CD80 before starting treatment, patients should be screened for
(B7–1) (26). Abatacept was ineffective in preclinical primate hepatitis B surface antigen and hepatitis B core antibody.
studies in the prevention of kidney transplant rejection, lead- Anti-CD22 Targeting: Epratuzumab. CD22 is expressed
ing to development of another CTLA4-Ig with significantly on B cells during B cell maturation and loss of CD20 expres-
higher affinity for CD80/86 for transplantation (belatacept) sion. B cell receptor signaling is modulated by phosphoryla-
(27). This agent is Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in- tion of CD22, which regulates B cell activation. Epratuzumab
dicated for use as a substitute for CNIs at the time of trans- is a humanized anti-CD22 mAb that inhibits B cell activation
plant (28). and has a more modest depleting effect on B cells than
Costimulation Blockade by CD154:CD40 Targeting (Anti- rituximab. It is currently in phase 3 trials in patients with
CD40 mAb). The CD154 (also known as CD40L; present moderate to severe SLE after phase 2 trials suggested a low
on activated T cells): CD40 (on APCs) interaction is a crit- rate of adverse events, similar to placebo (38,39).
ical step in T cell costimulatory signaling, because this
interaction leads to the upregulation of CD80/86 on APCs. Targeting B Cell Differentiation: Belimumab and Atacicept
Targeting the induced surface molecule CD154 on acti- A key pathway for differentiation of B cells is the binding of
vated T cells was a focus of drug development until it was the cytokine B cell–activating factor (BAFF; also referred to
recognized that CD154 was also present on platelets, and BlyS) to its B cell receptors [(BAFF-R, B cell maturation
agents binding this cell surface molecule led to an increase (BCMA), and transmembrane activator and CAML interac-
in thrombotic events in both primate and early-phase human tor (TACI)] and the binding of the cytokine proliferation–
trials (29). Attention has, thus, turned to targeting CD40. inducing ligand to its B cell receptors (BCMA and TACI).
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 11: 332–343, February, 2016 Immunosuppressive Medications, Wiseman 335

Figure 3. | Immunosuppressive agents targeting T cell/B cell interaction, plasma cell function, and complement-mediated injury. APRIL,
proliferation-inducing ligand; BAFF, B cell–activating factor; MAC, membrane attack complex; TACI, transmembrane activator and CAML in-
teractor; TCR, T cell receptor.

These interactions lead to increases in NF-kb, which in in clinically relevant renal outcomes (41). Atacicept is a
turn, promote B cell differentiation and inhibit apoptosis. recombinant fusion protein that inhibits both BlyS and
Belimumab is a humanized anti-BAFF/BlyS mAb that in- proliferation-inducing ligand. In phase 2 trials in RA, effi-
terferes with ligand/receptor binding and inhibits this mat- cacy was not shown (42), whereas in a phase 2/3 trial in
uration. It is currently approved for use in active SLE (40). patients with lupus nephritis, the trial was terminated after
However, patients with severe active lupus nephritis were pronounced reduction in Ig levels and the occurrence of
excluded from the pivotal trials, and post hoc analyses of severe pneumonia, leaving in question the further develop-
renal outcomes were inconclusive in showing improvement ment of this agent (43).
336 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Plasma Cell Targeting: Bortezomib and up- and downregulation of the immune response. Phar-
All B cell agents previously described have no direct activity macologic targeting of specific cytokines is expected to re-
against plasma cells, and thus, for diseases in which plasma cell direct or inhibit an untoward immune response (Figure 4).
maturation and antibody production are felt to be a primary
pathogenic mechanism, these previous agents are expected to
have limited efficacy. Critical to the function of highly Nonspecific Cytokine Inhibition
metabolic cells, such as plasma cells, is the ability to regulate Corticosteroids. Corticosteroids bind to the intracellular
the degradation of proteins through the proteasome, which is glucocorticoid receptor and modulate a multitude of cel-
present in all eukaryotic cells. Inhibition of the proteasome lular functions by binding to glucocorticoid-responsive ele-
leads to inhibition of cell cycling and induction of apoptosis ments in the nucleus. Effects on the immune system are also
(44). Bortezomib is a proteasome inhibitor that was found to numerous but most clearly related to inhibition of all cyto-
be particularly effective in treatment of the plasma cell kine transcription by blocking transcription factors, such as
dyscrasia multiple myeloma and indicated by the FDA for NF-kb and activator protein-1 (56). This has numerous
the treatment of advanced myeloma in 2003 (45). Subsequent downstream effects, such as (1) depletion of T cells because
studies showed a benefit in myeloma with renal involve- of inhibition of IL-2, inhibition of Th1 differentiation, and
ment and antibody-mediated rejection of kidney allografts induction of apoptosis, (2) eosinophil apoptosis (either di-
by targeting antibody-producing plasma cells (46,47). Side rectly or by inhibition of IL-5), and (3) macrophage dys-
effects of peripheral neuropathy, cytopenias, and gastro- function because of inhibition of IL-1 and TNF-a. Its effect
intestinal effects occur in a dose-dependent fashion. on neutrophil function is modest; however, neutrophil mi-
gration to sites of inflammation is impaired, bone marrow
Complement Inhibition (Eculizumab) secretion of neutrophils is increased, and apoptosis is de-
The role of complement in renal disease is increasingly creased, all of which contribute to leukocytosis (57). Simi-
appreciated and contributes to disease by either direct acti- larly, B cells are not significantly inhibited by corticosteroids,
vation of complement or initial antibody fixation and sub- with only mild decreases in Ig production. Its side effect
sequent activation of complement. There is direct evidence of profile is well appreciated clinically and frequently maligned
its role in the thrombotic microangiopathic changes seen as a chronic therapy (58). Thus, despite its efficacy in a wide
in atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome (aHUS), antibody- range of immune and inflammatory conditions, a primary
mediated injury of the kidney allograft, and C3 GN (previously focus of many clinical development programs and clinical
called dense deposit disease or membranoproliferative GN trials is to find agents with similar efficacy but greater spec-
type 2) (48–50). To date, one agent is available for clinical ificity in immunosuppression without the attendant side
use. Eculizumab is a humanized mAb to C5 that effectively effects of corticosteroids.
inhibits its cleavage to C5a and C5b. Because C5a is a neu- Janus Kinase Inhibition (Tofacitinib). Janus kinases are
trophil chemoattractant and because C5b is required to cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases that mediate signaling from
form the C5b-9 membrane attack complex, inhibition of cytokine receptors to phosphorylation of signal transducers
this enzymatic step results in blockade of proinflammatory, and activators of transcription, enabling signal transducers
prothrombotic, and lytic functions of complement (Figure 3). and activators of transcription to enter the nucleus and
Its efficacy is most apparent for cases of aHUS in which a regulate gene expression and transcription. An inhibitor of
complement factor mutation has been identified. However, Janus kinase, tofacitinib, inhibits cytokine receptor signal-
therapy is recommended in all patients with aHUS who are ing from a number of cytokines, including IL-2, -4, -7, -9,
at risk for (or suffering from) renal failure given the potential -15, and -21, and has shown efficacy in psoriatic arthritis
of an unidentified complement mutation as a contributing and RA (59). Its development as an alternative for CNI in
factor (51,52). Although data regarding the use of eculizumab kidney transplantation was halted after a phase 2b trial
for the treatment of antibody-mediated rejection are currently showed similar rejection rates, better GFR, lower rates of
at the level of case reports, its use pretransplant for the pre- post-transplant diabetes, and higher rates of cytomegalo-
vention of antibody-mediated rejection as part of a desensiti- virus and BK virus infection and post-transplant lympho-
zation protocol has been shown to be of benefit (53). The cost proliferative disease (60).
of eculizumab remains a significant barrier to use. Inhibition
of the complement cascade increases the risk of serious infec-
Specific Cytokine Inhibition
tion from encapsulated bacteria; thus, vaccination for Neisseria
IL-2 Receptor Antagonist (Basiliximab). Activated T
meningitis, Streptococcus pneumonia, and Haemophilus influenza
cells produce IL-2 and express the a-subunit of the IL-2 re-
type b should be performed before therapy.
ceptor, rendering it fully functional. After T cells become
Additional indications for complement inhibition may be
activated in response to signals 1 and 2 activation, IL-2 bind-
in the treatment or prevention of ischemia/reperfusion injury
ing and subsequent intracellular signaling lead to prolifera-
(AKI in the native kidney and delayed graft function in the
tion of T cells. Humanized antibodies to the a-subunit of the
transplanted kidney) (54,55). A multicenter trial investigat-
IL-2 receptor (IL-2 receptor antagonists basiliximab and
ing the use of eculizumab in the prevention of delayed graft
daclizumab) limit proliferation of activated T cells and
function is underway, and numerous compounds targeting
have been approved for the prevention of acute rejection
the complement pathway are in preclinical investigation.
in kidney transplantation (the latter is no longer in produc-
tion), primarily in patients with lower immunologic risk (61).
Agents Targeting Cytokines Targeting TNF-a. TNF-a is an acute-phase cytokine re-
Cytokines are proteins that are secreted by a variety of leased by macrophages, T cells, B cells, neutrophils, natu-
cell types and function to direct the initiation, differentiation, ral killer cells, mast cells, and some nonimmune cell types
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 11: 332–343, February, 2016 Immunosuppressive Medications, Wiseman 337

Figure 4. | Immunosuppressive agents targeting later stages of T cell differentiation and proliferation and selected cytokines. This depicts
agents that inhibit signal 3, T cell proliferation. JAK, Janus kinase; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; PI-3K, phosphoinositide 3-kinase; R,
receptor; STAT, signal transducer and activator of transcription.

(smooth muscle and epithelial cells) in response to tissue to ischemic events, including postmyocardial infarction. At
injury (62). Well described roles for TNF-a include its re- present, three agents are clinically available: anikinra (an
lease by Th1 T cells to promote ongoing expansion of Th1 IL-1 receptor antagonist), rilonacept (a soluble decoy recep-
cells and proinflammatory responses and its release by tor), and canakinumab (an anti–IL-1b mAb). Of interest, IL-
synovial macrophages to induce synovial cells to increase 1b is elevated in patients on maintenance hemodialysis and
collagenase production, thus promoting bone and joint may contribute to the chronic inflammation noted in this
destruction. TNF-a binds to its receptors (TNF receptor population. Preliminary studies have examined the feasibil-
1 [TNFR1] and TNFR2) and stimulates apoptotic pathways ity of targeted inhibition of IL-1 in patients on chronic he-
as well as NF-kb signaling, which partially explains its di- modialysis, with additional studies ongoing (66).
verse physiologic effects. Currently, there are five TNF in- IL-6 Inhibition (Tocilizumab). IL-6 is expressed in re-
hibitors clinically available and indicated for the treatment sponse to inflammatory stimuli and contributes to CD8 T
of a variety of rheumatic diseases. Infliximab, adalimumab, cell differentiation, B cell differentiation, and activation of
golimumab, and certolizumab are mAbs to TNF-a that dif- the hepatic acute-phase response. Increased circulating IL-6
fer in the degree of chimerism and route of administration has been associated with mortality in AKI and ESRD,
(intravenous versus subcutaneous) (63). Etanercept is a TNFR malnutrition in ESRD, and rejection in recipients of kidney
fusion protein bound to IgG. All carry the risk of increased transplants (67). The humanized mAb tocilizumab is an
susceptibility to intracellular pathogens, such as tuberculo- inhibitor of IL-6 and has shown efficacy in RA (68). A
sis, coccidiomycosis, and Cryptococcus (64). phase 1/2 study in highly sensitized patients awaiting kid-
IL-1 Inhibition (Anikinra, Rilonacept, and Canakinumab). ney transplantation (NCT01594424) is currently evaluating
IL-1 is a signature proinflammatory cytokine and a primary safety and effect on donor-specific anti-HLA antibodies,
effector of many inflammatory conditions, including RA and with other kidney transplant studies planned (NCT02108600),
adult-onset Still’s disease. Two isoforms have been identi- but currently, no studies in native acute or chronic renal
fied: IL-1a and IL-1b. IL-1a is constitutively expressed, pres- disease are forthcoming.
ent intracellularly in vascular endothelium, mucosal IL-17 Inhibition (Secukinumab). IL-17 is a cytokine
epithelium, keratinocytes, liver, lung, and kidney, and re- produced by CD4 T cells, but it is also secreted by CD8
leased on cell necrosis (e.g., from injury/ischemia). IL-1b is T cells, eosinophils, monocytes, and neutrophils. IL-17 func-
induced by macrophage/monocytes in response to TNF and tions to increase inflammatory cell migration by stimulating
other proinflammatory cytokines (65). Inhibition of IL-1 has chemokine release, and it increases APC activity to enhance
been an attractive target not only for states of dysregulated adaptive immune responses. IL-17 has been shown to be a
inflammation but also, in the mitigation of injury in response key mediator of injury in a number of autoimmune diseases,
338 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

including ankylosing spondylitis, psoriasis, and multiple Pooled Polyclonal Antibodies as

sclerosis (MS). A human anti–IL-17A mAb (secukinumab) Immunosuppressive Agents
has been developed for clinical use, and recently, two phase Immune Globulins
3 trials in psoriasis now show greater efficacy compared with Intravenous Ig. Intravenous Ig (IVIG) is an Ig extract
placebo or the TNF-a inhibitor etanercept (69). pooled from several thousand plasma donors to create a
product that is IgG rich. Although IVIG was initially used
to provide passive immunity in patients with immune
Agents Targeting Chemokines and Cell Adhesion deficiencies (with doses of 500 mg/kg monthly), ongoing
At present, there are a handful of agents that target experience and research suggest a very diverse immuno-
specific chemokines or their receptors that have been ap- modulatory and anti-inflammatory role of IVIG therapy
proved for clinical use, although a multitude of others have noted with high-dose therapy (1–2 g/kg) (76). Although
been tested in early clinical development (70). Difficulties the mechanisms underlying these effects are broad and
in successful drug development targeting chemokines can may differ in each disease state in which a benefit has
be attributed to poorly predictive preclinical models, a re- been reported, a few common mechanisms often cited in-
dundancy in chemokine signaling that circumvents tar- clude (1) direct binding to natural antibodies, immuno-
geted therapy, and an incomplete understanding of the modulatory proteins (e.g., cytokines), or superantigens
signals that up- or downregulate chemokines that can oc- and pathogens, (2) inhibition of complement fixation on
casionally appear paradoxical. Those agents that have target tissues by acting as a complement sink, (3) Fc re-
found clinical applicability reflect this diversity. For exam- ceptor (FcR) binding and subsequent inhibition of the FcR-
ple, approved chemokine receptor antagonists include the mediated recycling of native IgG, and (4) stimulation of
CCR5 receptor antagonist maraviroc used in the treatment FcR-induced anti-inflammatory pathways. Its use in the
of HIV, the CXCR4 antagonist plerixafor approved for he- nephrology specialties is primarily in the setting of kidney
matopoietic stem cell mobilization, and the CCR4 human- transplant for desensitization (inhibition and elimination
ized mAb mogamulizumab approved for the treatment of of preformed HLA or blood group (ABO) antibodies to
T cell lymphoma. Relevant to nephrology practice, emapticap achieve a negative cross-match and permit transplant)
is an inhibitor to CCL2 (also known as monocyte chemo- and treatment of antibody-mediated rejection (77). Although
tactic protein 1), which has been studied in phase 1 and 2 effective as monotherapy, the addition of other modalities, in-
trials in diabetic nephropathy, with proof-of-concept stud- cluding plasmapheresis, rituximab, and bortezomib, provides
ies showing a reduction in albuminuria presumably by greater immunomodulatory effects and improved clinical
inhibiting inflammatory cell migration into the kidney outcomes (78). There are different products available that differ
(71). in their concentration of IgG, stabilizers, osmolality, and IgA
Antibodies targeting adhesion molecules have had a cir- content. The latter is important in that rare patients who suffer
cuitous and tenuous route to clinical use. The agent FTY720 from severe IgA deficiency may produce anti-IgA antibodies
(fingolimod) is a sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) receptor and suffer anaphylactic reactions when receiving IVIG prod-
modulator that binds to S1P receptors on lymphocytes, ucts. Side effects of IVIG include infusion-related effects (in-
preventing lymphocyte migration from lymph node to the cluding hives, fever, and anaphylactoid reactions), headaches
vasculature. Clinical trials in kidney transplantation were (including aseptic meningitis), thrombotic complications (in-
halted after no improvement over mycophenolate was noted cluding myocardial infarction), and AKI (predominantly seen
together with untoward side effects of prolonged QT in- with sucrose-containing preparations) (79).
terval, bradycardia (caused by S1P receptor binding on cardio- Polyclonal Antithymocyte Globulin. Therapeutic anti-
myocytes), and macular edema. However, S1P receptors are bodies to human lymphocyte antigens have been created
present on neural cells and seem to be critical in neural cell by a number of techniques: by immunizing rabbits with
migration during central inflammation in MS; fingolimod human thymocytes (Thymoglobulin), immunizing horses
has now gained approval for the treatment of relapsing/ with human thymocytes (Atgam), or immunizing rabbits
remitting MS (72). Similarly, efalizumab is a humanized with lymphocytes from a Jurkat T cell leukemia line
mAb to leukocyte function–associated antigen-1 that pre- (Fresenius antithymocyte globulin [ATG]). The resulting
vents lymphocyte activation and cell migration from the IgG fraction from sera is then purified and pasteurized for
vasculature into tissues. It had been shown to be effective use. The resulting antibodies are polyclonal (i.e., all cell
in moderate/severe plaque psoriasis, islet transplantation, surface molecules presented on the infused thymocytes
and kidney transplant, but it has been withdrawn from the may lead to a humoral response in the immunized source,
United States market after high rates of post-transplant lym- and the final preparation contains a vast array of diverse
phoproliferative disease and brain infections, including pro- antibodies to various antigens). Although the Igs in these
gressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, were reported cases are anti–T cell predominant, there are many shared
(73,74). Finally, natalizumab, a humanized mAb against cell surface antigens among T cells and other immune
the adhesion molecule a-4 integrin, blocks lymphocyte mi- cells; thus, the ATG products also have activity against
gration from vasculature to tissues and was approved by B cells, monocytes, and neutrophils to lesser degrees.
the FDA in 2004 for MS and later, Crohn’s disease; how- The primary mechanism of action of ATGs is lymphocyte
ever, similar to efalizumab, there have been concerns re- depletion, predominantly by complement-dependent lysis
garding serious infections, such as progressive multifocal and T cell activation–induced apoptosis (80). The two rab-
leukoencephalopathy, and it has been withdrawn and re- bit ATG products are most widely used at present for the
turned to the market, with strict monitoring programs in treatment and prevention of acute kidney allograft rejec-
place (75). tion (81). When compiling small head-to-head trials of
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 11: 332–343, February, 2016 Immunosuppressive Medications, Wiseman 339

Thymoglobulin versus ATG Fresenius, Thymoglobulin may and RNA synthesis) and immunomodulatory agents (con-
be considered more potent in terms of both efficacy and un- tributing to S-G2 cell cycle arrest in addition to other anti-
toward effects (82). All ATG products, as nonhumanized Igs, inflammatory effects) (95). Toxicities that are often noted
are prone to symptoms consistent with cytokine release (fe- include bone marrow suppression and gastrointestinal in-
ver, chills, hypotension, and pulmonary edema) related to tolerance (primarily upper gastrointestinal symptomatology).
natural killer cell and macrophage/monocyte binding of The xanthine oxidase inhibitors allopurinol and febuxostat
FcR binding as well as cellular cytotoxicity (83). slow elimination of 6-mercaptopurine and exacerbate the
risk of these side effects (96). Use of AZA has dramatically
decreased in kidney transplantation and rheumatologic
Immunosuppressive Agents with Multiple diseases with the introduction of mycophenolate (dis-
Cellular Targets cussed below), except in the setting of pregnancy plan-
Panlymphocyte Depleting Agents: Anti-CD52 (Alemtuzumab) ning. AZA has not been associated with teratogenicity,
Anti-CD52 (Campath 1H and alemtuzumab) is a hu- unlike mycophenolate (97).
manized mAb that binds to CD52, an antigen of unclear Mycophenolate. Mycophenolate is an inhibitor of IMPDH,
physiologic significance that is present on both B and T the rate-limiting enzyme of guanine nucleotide synthesis
cells. Ligation of CD52 results in depletion of both lym- critical for de novo purine synthesis and thus, DNA synthe-
phoid cell lines. Its ability to induce prolonged, significant sis. T cells (and B cells) are dependent on the de novo path-
lymphopenia for up to 6–12 months after dosing led to its way for DNA synthesis. Similar to AZA, primary side
use in refractory chronic lymphocytic leukemia (84). As a effects are gastrointestinal and hematopoetic. Its efficacy
humanized antibody, fewer infusion-related side effects in the prevention of rejection compared with AZA together
are noted than with other depleting agents, such as with better tolerability than mTOR inhibitors have led to its
ATG. In kidney transplantation, growth in off-label use use as the primary antimetabolite in transplantation,
as an induction agent had grown over the last decade despite a lack of definitive long-term data showing im-
but recently, was abruptly diminished subsequent to manu- proved graft outcomes. Its efficacy in autoimmune diseases
facturer removal from the United States market in prepara- and other glomerular diseases is increasingly appreciated
tion for relabeling for use in MS (85). Kidney transplant trials (98,99). Therapeutic drug monitoring has not revealed a
suggest equivalence to other depleting agents in the preven- clear relationship between mycophenolate exposure and
tion of rejection and efficacy in corticosteroid-withdrawal prevention of rejection in recipients of kidney transplants
regimens, but the long-term effect of prolonged lymphopenia or clinical efficacy parameters in rheumatologic diseases
on the risk for infection or post-transplant lymphoproliferative (100). Two formulations are available, mycophenolate mofetil
disorder is not determined (86,87). and enteric-coated mycophenolate sodium, with generic for-
mulations available for both. Despite generic availability,
Antiproliferative Agents: mTOR Inhibitors (Sirolimus and cost still is significantly greater than AZA.
Everolimus) Leflunomide. Leflunomide is a pyrimidine antagonist that
In lymphoid cells, the mTOR pathway leads to cell cycle blocks DNA synthesis and cell cycling from S to G2 phase.
progression from G1 to S phase and proliferation in response Its specific mechanism of action entails inhibition of the key
to cytokine stimulation, including but not limited to IL-2 rate–limiting enzyme dihydro-orotate dehydrogenase criti-
receptor binding (Figure 4). Inhibitors of mTOR that are clin- cal for de novo pyrimidine synthesis (101). It is approved for
ically available include sirolimus, everolimus, and temsirolimus; use in RA, but its in vitro activity against cytomegalovirus
the primary immunosuppressive mechanism of action of and BK virus has prompted its off-label use in kidney
these agents has been attributed largely to inhibition of transplantation for its potential dual antiviral and anti-
lymphocyte proliferation (7). However, mTOR signaling inflammatory properties (102). A very long half-life (.14
is not isolated to lymphocytes, and this intracellular signal- days), hepatic and bone marrow toxicities, and a lack of
ing pathway has been described in monocytes/macro- compelling data supporting an advantage over reduction
phages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, and endothelial in immunosuppression alone in the clinical management
cells (8). Thus, inhibition of mTOR may be expected to lead of BK virus have reduced interest in leflunomide for this
to a number of clinically relevant effects related to its anti- purpose, but it still is used off label in circumstances of
proliferative, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor ef- drug-resistant cytomegalovirus infection (103).
fects as well as a diverse side effect profile (88). mTOR
inhibitors have been evaluated for their ability to inhibit
cyst growth in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney dis- Cytotoxic Agents (Cyclophosphamide) as
ease, with conflicting and modest results in large multicenter Immunosuppressive Agents
trials (89,90), have been effective in reducing intimal prolif- A brief mention of cyclophosphamide is necessary given
eration and obliterative vasculopathy in heart transplantation its use as an immunosuppressant in life-threatening or severe
(91), have shown efficacy in the treatment of angiomyolipomas rheumatologic and renal diseases, including ANCA-related
(92), and have been approved for use in the treatment of vasculitis, lupus nephritis, and other systemic vasculidites.
advanced renal cell, breast, and other malignancies (93,94). Cyclophosphamide is an alkylating agent that is toxic to all
human cells to differing degrees, with hematopoetic cells
Antimetabolites: Inhibition of DNA Synthesis forming a particularly sensitive target (104). Primary tox-
AZA. AZA is an analog of 6-mercaptopurine; the me- icities, such as bladder toxicity, gonadal toxicity, and later
tabolites of these agents act as both purine analogs (in- malignancy, have led to attempts to minimize exposure
terfering with de novo purine synthesis and thus, DNA (,250–300 mg/kg cumulative dose to avoid gonadal
340 Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

toxicity and ,360 mg/kg cumulative dose to minimize the 16. Braun N, Schmutzler F, Lange C, Perna A, Remuzzi G, Risler T,
risk of malignancy), attempts to use intermittent intravenous Willis NS: Immunosuppressive treatment for focal segmental
glomerulosclerosis in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3):
rather than daily oral therapy to minimize exposure, and CD003233, 2008
search for alternative agents (for example, mycophenolate 17. Pirsch JD, Miller J, Deierhoi MH, Vincenti F, Filo RS: A com-
mofetil in lupus nephritis and rituxan in ANCA-related vas- parison of tacrolimus (FK506) and cyclosporine for immuno-
culitis) (105–107). suppression after cadaveric renal transplantation. FK506
Kidney Transplant Study Group. Transplantation 63: 977–983,
1997
Disclosures 18. Ekberg H, Tedesco-Silva H, Demirbas A, Vı́tko S, Nashan B,
A.C.W. has served as a consultant for Astellas, Tolera, and Veloxis Gürkan A, Margreiter R, Hugo C, Grinyó JM, Frei U,
and currently receives research/grant support from Alexion, Bristol Vanrenterghem Y, Daloze P, Halloran PF; ELITE-Symphony
Meyer Squibb, and Novartis. Study: Reduced exposure to calcineurin inhibitors in renal
transplantation. N Engl J Med 357: 2562–2575, 2007
19. Praga M, Barrio V, Juárez GF, Lu~no J; Grupo Espa~ nol de Estudio
de la Nefropatı́a Membranosa: Tacrolimus monotherapy in
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