Atomic Absorption, Methods and Instrumentation

Steve J Hill and Andy S Fisher, University of Plymouth, UK

ã 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction types of light source are used for atomic absorption, of which
the hollow-cathode lamp (HCL) is the more commonly used.
Atomic absorption spectroscopy has become one of the most This is a lamp in which the cathode is coated with the analyte
frequently used tools in analytical chemistry. This is because metal of interest. Within the lamp, inert filler gas (neon or
for the determination of most metals and metalloids the tech- argon) is ionized by an electric current and these ions are then
nique offers sufficient sensitivity for many applications and is attracted by the cathode. The inert gas ions bombard the cath-
relatively interference free. There are two basic atom cells (a ode and in so doing excite the metal ions coated on it. It is this
means of converting the sample, usually a liquid, into free excitation of the metal that produces the emission of radiation
atoms) used in atomic absorption spectroscopy: (1) the flame with wavelengths characteristic of the analyte. HCLs are avail-
and (2) the electrothermal heating of a sample cell. It is gener- able for most metallic elements. A schematic diagram of a HCL
ally acknowledged that if sufficient analyte is present in the is shown in Figure 1.
sample, then it should be determined using a flame technique Electrodeless discharge lamps are used less frequently than
because this has added advantages of being rapid (assuming the HCLs except for analytes such as arsenic and selenium.
only a few elements need be determined) and, in comparison These lamps may be excited using either microwave energy
with alternative techniques, very simple to use. Electrothermal (although these tend to be less stable) or radiofrequency
atomic absorption spectroscopy (ETAAS) or electrothermal energy. The radiofrequency-excited lamps are less intense
vaporization atomic absorption spectroscopy (ETVAAS) than the microwave-excited ones, but are still 5–100 times
requires more operator skill and is less rapid, but yields sub- more intense than a standard HCL. In the electrodeless dis-
stantially superior limits of detection when compared with charge lamp, a bulb contains the element of interest (or one of
flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (FAAS). This section its salts) in an argon atmosphere. The radiofrequency energy
describes some of the methods and instrumentation that ionizes the argon and this, in turn, excites the analyte element,
have been developed for both flame and electrothermal tech- causing it to produce its characteristic spectrum. For analytes
niques of atomic absorption spectroscopy. such as arsenic and selenium, these lamps give a better signal-
to-noise ratio than HCLs and have a longer useful lifetime.
A schematic diagram of an electrodeless discharge lamp is
Instrumentation shown in Figure 2.

The basic principle of both FAAS and ETAAS is that a sample is

introduced into the atom cell, where it is desolvated and then Background Correction Systems
atomized. The analyte atoms so formed then quantitatively
absorb light in a way that is proportional to the concentration There are basically three types of automatic background cor-
of the atoms of the analyte in the cell. The light, which is at a rection system available for atomic absorption, although man-
specific wavelength, is then isolated from other wavelengths that ual methods such as the use of nearby nonatomic absorbing
may be emitted by the atom cell and then detected. Thus, much lines to estimate background absorbance may also be used. The
of the instrumentation used for ETAAS and FAAS is identical. three main automatic methods are the deuterium or hydrogen
Both techniques require a similar light source, background
correction system, line isolation device (monochromator or
polychromator), detector (photomultiplier or charge-coupled
device), and readout system. Each of these components is
discussed in the following sections, together with details of the
individual atom cells (flame and the electrothermal atomizer)
and sample introduction systems.

Light Source

The fundamental requirement of the light source is to provide a

narrow line profile with little background. It should also have a
stable and reproducible output with sufficient intensity to
ensure that a high signal-to-noise ratio is obtained. Two basic
Figure 1 Schematic representation of a hollow-cathode lamp.
This article is reproduced from the previous edition, copyright Reproduced from Ebdon L (1998) Introduction to Analytical Atomic
1999, Elsevier Ltd. Spectrometry, with permission from Wiley.

Encyclopedia of Spectroscopy and Spectrometry, Third Edition http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803224-4.00099-6 37

38 Atomic Absorption, Methods and Instrumentation

Figure 2 Electrodeless discharge lamp. Reproduced from Ebdon L (1998) Introduction to Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, with permission from
Wiley.

lamp, the Zeeman effect, and Smith–Hieftje background

correction. The deuterium lamp produces a continuum of
radiation, some of which will be absorbed by molecular spe-
cies within the atom cell. The amount of atomic absorption
observed using the deuterium lamp is negligible and hence the
atomic absorption signal is obtained by subtracting the absor-
bance of the continuum lamp from the total analyte
absorbance of the HCL. The deuterium or hydrogen lamp is
of most value at wavelengths in the UV region (<350 nm). The
Zeeman effect background correction system is more versatile.
It relies on a strong magnetic field operating at approximately
1 T and 50–60 Hz, placed either around the light source or,
more commonly, around the atom cell to split the signal into a
number of components. The p component is at the normal
analyte wavelength; the s components are typically of 0.01 nm
(depending on the strength of the magnetic field) on either
side of the p component and hence lie outside the atomic
absorption profile. Background can be corrected by subtracting
the absorbance with the magnetic field ‘on’, from the signal
with the magnet ‘off’. It should be noted that this is a simplified
description of the process, as different elements have different Figure 3 Schematics of (a) single-beam and (b) double-beam
splitting patterns and the magnetic field may be applied spectrometers. Reproduced from Ebdon L (1998) Introduction to
Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, with permission from Wiley.
longitudinally or transversely, which may also produce differ-
ent splitting patterns.
When utilizing the Smith–Hieftje system, the HCL is boosted optical layout shown in Figure 3a. The double-beam arrange-
periodically to a much higher current, causing the lamp to ‘self- ment (Figure 3b) is far more complex and offers far fewer
absorb’. In this state no atomic absorption occurs in the atom advantages for atomic absorption when compared with
cell but the molecular absorption still remains. Background double-beam spectrometers in molecular spectroscopy. This
correction is achieved automatically by subtracting the signal is because the reference beam does not pass through the
obtained at high current from that obtained using the normal atom cell. Despite this, double-beam instruments can compen-
current. The process is particularly efficient at removing interfer- sate for source drift and for warm-up and source noise.
ences such as that caused by phosphate or selenium determina-
tions, although the high currents used may shorten the lifetime
of the lamp. In modern instruments, modulation of the source
is achieved electronically. This enables discrimination between
Line Isolation Devices
absorption and emission signals. Previously, a rotating sector,
To ensure that only light of a wavelength specific to the analyte
often referred to as a ‘chopper’, placed between the source and
of interest is being measured, a line isolation device is required.
the atom cell was used.
Until recently, the line isolation device used for atomic absorp-
tion was a monochromator. There are numerous types of
monochromator, but modern instruments typically use one
Single-Beam and Double-Beam Instruments of three designs: Ebert, Czerny–Turner or Littrow configura-
tion. These are shown schematically in Figure 4.
The vast majority of instruments used for atomic absorption Light of all wavelengths enters the monochromator
measurements have a single-beam configuration, using the through an entrance slit and is then split into specific
 Atomic Absorption, Methods and Instrumentation 39

Figure 5 Echelle-based polychromator.

continuum light source that would enable 30–40 analytes to

be determined simultaneously.

Detection Systems

Traditionally, detection of the light isolated by the monochro-

mator has been accomplished using a photomultiplier tube
(PMT). Several configurations exist, for example end-on and
side-on, and the construction may be of different materials, to
increase the efficiency at different wavelengths; but basically
they all work in a similar way. Light enters the multiplier
through a quartz window and impacts with a photocathode
that is usually made from one of a number of alloys
(e.g. Cs–Sb, Na–K–Sb–Cs or Ga–As), which then emits elec-
Figure 4 Schematics of different monochromator types: (a) Ebert,
trons. These electrons are then accelerated down a series of
(b) Czerny–Turner, (c) Littrow. Reproduced from Ebdon L (1998)
Introduction to Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, with permission from dynodes, each being at a more positive potential than the
Wiley. previous one. As the electrons impact with successive dynodes,
further electrons are ejected and hence a cascade effect occurs.
In this way a single photon may cause the ejection of 106
wavelengths using either a prism, or more commonly, a dif- electrons. The number of electrons is then measured at the
fraction grating. By altering the position of this dispersing anode and the resulting current is proportional to the radiation
element, light of only the desired wavelength passes through reaching the PMT.
the exit slit to the detector. Since the method of atomic absorp- As described previously, a number of different materials
tion is so specific, very highly resolving monochromators are may be used to coat the photocathode in the PMT, and each
not required. Thus, the focal length of an atomic absorption has a different response curve. Some, for example the Cs–Sb
monochromator is often 0.25 or 0.5 m compared with a tube, have very little sensitivity above 600 nm, but others, for
minimum of 0.75 m required for conventional optical emis- example Ga–As, may be used up to almost 900 nm. The
sion spectroscopy. response profiles of some commonly used photomultipliers
A monochromator enables only one wavelength to be inter- are shown in Figure 6.
rogated at any instant; this was something of a weakness of Conventional spectrometers use a detector that is capable of
atomic absorption spectroscopy. New technology, however, measuring only one signal. Multielement instruments use
has enabled the development of multielement spectrometers state-of-the-art diode arrays or charge-coupled devices that
that use a bank of between 4 and 6 HCLs and an echelle-style can measure numerous spatially separated signals and can
polychromator employing orders of 100 or more and are thus therefore simultaneously determine the signals arising from a
capable of considerable dispersion. In addition, such instru- bank of HCLs. A charge-coupled device may be considered to
ments have no exit slit, and so a huge number of wavelengths be similar to an electronic photographic plate. The device
may be focused onto an array detector such as a charge- consists of several hundred linear photodetector arrays on a
coupled device. A schematic diagram of such an instrument is silicon chip with dimensions of typically 1318 mm. The line
shown in Figure 5. Research continues into producing a isolation device (often an echelle grating) separates the
40 Atomic Absorption, Methods and Instrumentation

size filter, passing the larger droplets to waste (85–90% of the

sample) and allowing the finer droplets to be transported to
the flame. For electrothermal atomizers, the sample is placed
into the atom cell either using a hand-held micropipette or by
an autosampler. Since most instruments are supplied with an
autosampler and the precision associated with their use is
superior to that of the micropipette, most laboratories make
use of this method of sample introduction.
As described previously, there are two basic types of atom
cell–flame and electrothermal tube–but both can have numer-
ous modifications. The flame cell most commonly used is the
10 cm length air–acetylene burner. This provides a flame that is
at approximately 2300  C (although the actual temperature
will depend on the fuel/air ratio). The flame may be used in a
fuel-lean mode, which produces a hot, oxidizing blue flame; in
a fuel-rich mode, which produces a cooler, reducing yellow
flame; or in a stoichiometric mode whose properties are
between the two. Different analytes give different sensitivities
depending on the flame type. Chromium, for instance, gives
better sensitivity in a reducing flame, whereas for magnesium it
is better to use a lean, oxidizing flame.
Different areas of the flame have different temperatures and
different chemical properties. The efficiency of atomization of
analytes will therefore depend critically on the area within the
flame. Hence, it is important that the light beam from the HCL
Figure 6 Response curves for several commercial photomultiplier passes through the region of the flame where atomization is
tubes. Reproduced from Ebdon L (1998) Introduction to Analytical
optimal. Optimization of the burner height is therefore neces-
Atomic Spectrometry, with permission from Wiley.
sary to ensure that maximum sensitivity is achieved.
Although an air–acetylene flame is sufficient for the atom-
analytical wavelengths, and these may then be detected on ization of the majority of analytes, it is not sufficiently hot or
different regions of the array. A detailed description of how reducing to atomize analytes that form refractory oxides (e.g.
the array works is beyond the scope of this text. Al, Mo, Si and Ti). For analytes such as these, a nitrous oxi-
de–acetylene flame of length 5 cm is used. This flame is hotter
(2900  C) and contains typically 2.5–3.0 times as much fuel
Instrument Control and Output Devices as the air–acetylene flame. Other flame types, for example
air–propane and air–hydrogen also exist, although they are
Manual controls and dials have slowly disappeared, with the less commonly used. The air–hydrogen flame (2200  C) is
large majority of modern instruments being controlled by almost invisible and has the advantage of being transparent
computer. In addition to controlling the instrumental param- at lower wavelengths offering improved noise characteristics
eters, the computer may be used to programme autosamplers, for elements such as lead or tin at around 220 nm. The inho-
save experimental parameters and data, calibrate with known mogeneity of flame chemistry and the need for burner height
standards, plot calibration curves, use scale expansion facilities optimization hold true for all flame types.
(if necessary) and produce statistical data from the results. A One common modification to a flame cell is to place a
continuous graphics mode enables the signal to be monitored quartz tube on the burner head so that the light beam passes
over a period of time. This is especially useful when flow through the length of the tube. This method is especially useful
injection, chromatography or hydride-generation transients when using sample introduction by hydride generation or by
are to be detected and integrated. Older instrumentation relied gas chromatography. The tube is heated either by a flame or
on a chart recorder for the same purpose. electrically using a wire winding. The analyte, which enters the
tube via a hole or slit cut into the side, is atomized within the
tube. The atoms then leave the tube but, because of their
Sample Introduction and Atom Cells retention in the tube, spend longer in the light beam than in
normal flame systems. An increase in sensitivity is therefore
For flame systems, the sample is introduced via a nebulizer and obtained. Another small modification of this system is that,
spray chamber assembly. Sample is drawn up the intake capil- instead of a quartz tube, a quartz T-piece may be used. How-
lary by the Venturi effect. The liquid sample column comes ever, the function is the same.
into contact with the fast moving flame gases and is shattered Electrothermal atom cells have changed radically since their
into small droplets. In many systems it is further smashed into inception in the late 1950s. The majority of electrothermal
still smaller droplets by an impact bead. The flame gases then devices have been based on graphite tubes that are heated
carry the aerosol (the nebular) through a spray chamber con- electrically (resistively) from either end. Modifications such
taining a series of baffles or flow spoilers. These act as a droplet as the West Rod Atomizer (a carbon filament) were also
 Atomic Absorption, Methods and Instrumentation 41

devised but were later abandoned. Tubes and filaments made Table 1 Comparison of characteristic concentrations for FAAS and
from highly refractory metals such as tungsten and tantalum ETAAS
have also been made, but they tend to become brittle and
Analyte FAAS (mg L 1) ETAAS (pg)
distorted after extended use and have poor resistance to some
acids. Their use continues, however, in some laboratories that Ag 30 5
need to determine carbide-forming elements. For example, Al 300 30
silicon reacts with the graphite tube to form silicon carbide, As 800a, 5b 42
which is both very refractory and very stable. The silicon is Au 100 18
therefore not atomized and is lost analytically. Use of a metal B 8 500 600
vaporizer prevents this. Ba 200 15
In electrothermal atomization the sample is introduced Be 16 2.5
Bi 200 67
into the tube, which is then heated in a series of steps at
Ca 13 1
increasing temperature. The sample is dried at a temperature
Cd 11 1
just above the boiling point of the solvent (but not so hot as to Co 50 17
cause frothing and spitting of the sample); ashed (charred at an Cr 50 7
intermediate temperature to remove as much of the concomi- Cs 40 10
tant matrix and potential interferences as possible without Cu 40 17
losing any analyte); and then atomized at a high temperature. Fe 45 12
During the atomization stage, the atoms leave the graphite Ge 1 300 25
surface and enter the light beam, where they absorb the inci- Hg 2 200a, 0.1b 220
dent radiation. The ashing and atomizing temperatures used K 10 2
La 48 000 7 400
will depend on the analyte of interest; for example, some
Mg 3 0.4
analytes such as lead are relatively volatile and so cannot be
Mn 20 6
ashed at temperatures above 450  C, otherwise volatile salts Mo 280 12
such as chlorides will be lost. Other analytes, for example, Ni 50 20
magnesium, are less volatile and can be ashed at temperatures Pb 100 30
close to 1000  C without analyte loss. Such elements require a Rb 30 10
much higher atomization temperature. The sensitivity of Sb 300 60
ETAAS is greater than that for FAAS because the atoms are Se 350a, 4b 45
formed within the confines of a tube and hence spend longer Si 1 500 120
time in the light beam. Also, since the sample is placed within Sn 400 100
Sr 40 4
the atom cell, 100% of it is available for analysis compared
Te 300 50
with the 10–15% available in flame systems. A comparison of
Ti 1 400 70
characteristic concentrations (concentration that gives an Tl 300 50
absorbance of 0.0044) obtained for flame and electrothermal U 110 000 40 000
techniques for many analytes is shown in Table 1. It must be V 750 42
stressed that the figures for ETAAS will depend critically on the Yb 700 3
injection volume and so values tend to be given in absolute Zn 10 1
terms (i.e. a weight). a
Under normal flame conditions.
Overall, the Massmann design of electrothermal atomizer b
With vapour generation.
in which the tube is heated from either end is still the most
common (Figure 7b), but more recently transversely heated
tubes have been developed (Figure 7a). The longitudinally
enhancement) that occurs when the sample contains large
heated tubes have a temperature gradient along the tube,
amounts of an easily ionized element. The presence of large
with the central portion being several hundred degrees hotter
concentrations of easily ionized elements will lead to a
than the ends. This can lead to condensation of analyte at the
large concentration of electrons in the flame. These electrons
cooler ends and subsequent reatomization from the hot graph-
prevent the ionization of the analyte and hence lead to higher
ite surface. Several atomization peaks may therefore result. The
atomic absorption signals. If the easily ionized element is not
transversely heated tubes do not have a temperature gradient
present in the standards, the analyte may be partially ionized
and therefore do not suffer from this problem.
(and lost analytically) and hence serious overestimates of the
true concentration will be obtained. This type of interference
may be overcome by adding an excess of easily ionized element
Interferences
to all standards and samples.
Chemical interferences may exist in several different forms:
Flame techniques are regarded as being relatively free from
interferences, but some distinct classes of interference do • Formation of less volatile compounds, for example when
exist. These include a few spectral interferences (e.g. Eu at phosphate is present during the determination of calcium.
324.753 nm on Cu at 324.754 nm), ionization interferences Calcium phosphate is refractory and hence atomization
and chemical interferences. Ionization interference is a will be retarded in comparison with calcium in the
vapour-phase interference (in the past often termed cation standards.
42 Atomic Absorption, Methods and Instrumentation

temperatures to be achieved and hence boiling away more

interference (a common example is a mix of palladium and
magnesium nitrates) or increases the volatility of the matrix
(for example, the introduction of air ‘burns away’ many inter-
ferences leaving the analytes in the atomizer). The matrix mod-
ifier may be placed in the autosampler and added to all
samples and standards. Other requirements for the STPF con-
cept include a rapid heating rate during atomization, inte-
grated signals (rather than peak height), a powerful
background correction system (e.g. Zeeman), fast electronics
to measure the transient signal, and isothermal operation.
Isothermal operation means that the analyte is vaporized
from the graphite surface into hot gas. In normal ETAAS, the
analyte leaves the hot tube wall and enters the cooler gas phase.
Under these circumstances it may recombine with some other
species to form a compound and thus be lost analytically. To
overcome this, platforms that are only loosely in contact with
the tube walls have been developed. The analytes in this case
are atomized not by the resistively heated graphite tube but by
the surrounding gas. The transversely heated tubes described
earlier have a platform as an integral part of the tube. A mod-
ification to this technique, called probe atomization, has also
been developed. Here the sample is placed on a probe and is
then dried and ashed in the normal way. The probe is then
removed from the tube, which is heated to the atomization
temperature. The probe is then reintroduced into the hot
environment.
Most analytical techniques for use with furnace work now
utilize the advantages of the STPF concept. Other interferences,
Figure 7 Electrothermal tubes available commercially: (a) transversely for example formation of carbides, may be partially overcome
heated graphite atomizer (THGA), (b) longitudinally heated Massmann by treating the atomizer with a carbide-forming element, such
atomizer. Reproduced from Ebdon L (1998) Introduction to Analytical as by soaking in tantalum solution. The principle is that the
Atomic Spectrometry, with permission from Wiley. tantalum occupies the active sites on the surface, thereby pre-
venting the analyte from forming a carbide.

• Formation of more volatile compounds, for example

chlorides.
Methods
• Occlusion into refractory compounds. Small amounts of
analyte may become trapped in a refractory substance and
Numerous methods have been described for use with AAS, but
hence not be atomized efficiently.
the majority require the sample to be in a liquid form. Some
• Occlusion into volatile compounds. Some compounds sub-
ETAAS systems allow the analysis of solids directly (e.g. by
lime explosively and hence atomization may be enhanced.
weighing small amounts onto sampling boats that may be
Most of these interferences may be overcome by using a hotter slotted into specialized tubes), but usually, if solids are to be
flame (e.g. nitrous oxide–acetylene); by adding a chelating analysed, acid decomposition methods are required. An alter-
reagent (e.g. EDTA) to complex preferentially with the analyte; native is the analysis of slurries, using finely ground material
by adding a releasing agent (e.g. lanthanum) that will combine (<10 mm) dispersed in a solvent. Manual agitation of the slurry
preferentially with phosphate; or by optimizing the flame con- ensures homogeneity of the sample, enabling a representative
ditions and viewing height. aliquot to be introduced. Some autosamplers come equipped
ETAAS was renowned for being highly prone to interfer- with an ultrasonic agitator that will perform the same task. This
ences. However, modern methods and instrumentation have method of analysis is frequently used in ETAAS.
decreased this problem substantially. Interferences include If samples containing high levels of dissolved (or sus-
memory effects, chemical interferences (loss of analyte as a pended) solids are to be analysed by FAAS, a flow injection
volatile salt, carbide formation, condensation and recombina- technique (in which discrete aliquots of sample are intro-
tion), background absorption (smoke) and physical interfer- duced) may be used. This has also been referred to as ‘gulp
ences such as those resulting from placing the sample on a sampling’. This prevents salting up of the nebulizer and block-
different part of the tube. The stabilized temperature platform age of the burner slot, which are obviously undesirable effects
furnace (STPF) concept has gone a long way in eliminating the that have an adverse effect on sensitivity and signal stability.
problem. The concept is that a ‘matrix modifier’ is required for Flow injection techniques may also be used to preconcentrate
interference-free determinations. This is a material that either analytes. If the sample flows through a column containing an
decreases the volatility of the analyte, enabling higher ash ion-exchange resin, the analytes will be retained. Elution with a
 Atomic Absorption, Methods and Instrumentation 43

between samples and standards. Alternatively, burner head

rotation may be used. This shortens the path in the flame
through which the light beam travels and hence decreases
sensitivity. However, there is often an increase in noise as a
result of using this approach.

Figure 8 Typical flow injection manifold for matrix analyte

preconcentration or matrix elimination. Conclusions

The sensitivity offered by the various techniques utilizing AAS

small volume of acid may yield very high preconcentration
for the determination of metals and metalloids is often suffi-
factors. This technique has been used for both FAAS and,
cient for many applications. Direct aspiration of samples in
more recently, for ETAAS, yielding limits of detection far supe-
solution into a flame atomic absorption instrument provides
rior to those achieved under normal conditions. A typical flow
the analyst with rapid acquisition of data with good precision.
injection manifold suitable for this type of application is
The technique is remarkably free from interferences and those
shown in Figure 8.
that do exist may usually be overcome by judicious choice of
A more traditional method of preconcentration is solvent
operating conditions. The instrumentation involved is rela-
extraction. FAAS may be used as a detector for analytes in
tively simple and, for flame work, analyses may easily be
organic solvents (sensitivity may even be improved because
performed by nonexpert operators. If increased sensitivity is
of improved nebulization efficiency), but occasional blocking
required, the analyst has the option of preconcentrating the
of the burner slot by carbon may occur. This may be removed
analyte using one of a number of methods prior to introduc-
by gentle rubbing with a noncombustible material (such as a
tion to FAAS, or alternatively may use ETAAS. The latter tech-
spatula). Organic solvents may also be introduced to ETAAS,
nique, however, does require more experience if reliable results
but the ‘dry’-stage temperature has to be modified to prevent
are to be obtained.
sample loss by spitting.
A potential disadvantage of using atomic absorption is that
Hydride generation is a common method for the detection
in the past instruments have been capable of determining only
of metalloids such as As, Bi, Ge, Pb, Sb, Se, Sn and Te, although
one analyte at a time. Modern instrumentation has improved
other vapours, for example Hg or alkylated Cd, may also be
this number to as many as six, although it must be stressed that
determined. This technique improves the sensitivity of the
compromise conditions (e.g. in ETAAS temperature pro-
analysis substantially. Since the sample is in the gas phase,
grammes) must be used. This may lead to a decrease in overall
the sample transport efficiency is close to 100%. The hydrides
sensitivity compared with single-element determinations.
atomize readily in the flame, although this approach is usually
However, the ongoing development of multielement AAS will
used in conjunction with a quartz T-piece in the atom cell.
certainly boost the use of this already popular and versatile
Methods have been developed that trap the hydrides on the
technique.
surface of a graphite tube for use with ETAAS. This leads to
preconcentration and further improvements in detection limit.
Chromatography has been coupled to AAS to effect specia-
See also: Atomic Absorption, Theory; Atomic Emission, Methods and
tion analysis. Here different chemical forms of an analyte are
Instrumentation; Atomic Spectroscopy, Historical Perspective.
separated (either by high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC) or, if they are sufficiently volatile, by gas chromatog-
raphy) prior to introduction to the atomic absorption instru-
ment. Gas chromatography is usually coupled directly with a Further Reading
T-piece interface arrangement, but HPLC couplings introduce
Dedina J and Tsalev DL (1995) Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.
the sample through the conventional nebulizer/spray chamber Chichester: Wiley.
assembly. A small postcolumn air bleed may be necessary to Ebdon L, Evans EH, Fisher A, and Hill SJ (1998) An Introduction to Analytical Atomic
compensate for the differences in flow rate between the chro- Spectrometry. Chichester: Wiley.
matograph (1–2 ml min 1) and the uptake rate of the nebu- Harnly JM (1996) Instrumentation for simultaneous multielement atomic absorption
spectrometry with graphite furnace atomization. Fresenius Journal of Analytical
lizer (5–10 ml min 1). Chromatography is not frequently
Chemistry 355: 501–509.
coupled with ETAAS because the atom cell is not well suited Haswell SJ (ed.) (1991) Atomic Absorption Spectrometry, Theory, Design and
to continuous monitoring. Applications (Analytical Spectroscopy Library). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
The limited linear range offered by the AAS technique may Hill SJ, Dawson JB, Price WJ, Shuttler IL, Smith CMM, and Tyson JF (1998) Atomic
be partially overcome by using alternative, less sensitive lines. spectrometry update – advances in atomic absorption and fluorescence
spectrometry and related techniques. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry
This is a useful technique that avoids the requirement to dilute 13: 131R–170R.
samples. Care must be taken, however, to ensure that viscosity Vandecasteele C and Block CB (1993) Modern Methods for Trace Element
effects do not cause a difference in nebulization efficiency Determination. Chichester: Wiley.