Zusammenfassung Englisch Abitur 2019

Q1.1 The USA – the formation of a nation

1. development and principles of American democracy and the Constitution

Political system
The political system in the United States is divided into three branches; the Legislative, the Executive and the
Judicial. → federalism and division of power

The Legislative Branch

→ Congress, which is divided into two chambers (House of Representatives and the Senate)
• both chambers
• have equal power
• are elected directly by the citizens of the USA
• must agree before a bill can become a law → can cause difficulties if one political party has the
majority in the House of Representatives, and the other majority in the Senate
House of Representatives Senate
435 members 100 members
Each member represents a congressional district of Each state selects two
about 600,000 people
Representatives serve for two years Senators serve for six years
All House seats are re-elected every two years One third of the Senate is re-elected every two years

The power of Congress

➢ to make laws
➢ to impose and collect taxes, and control federal spending
➢ to control trade with other countries and within the States
➢ to print money and regulate its value
➢ to declare war and make peace agreements
➢ to maintain, arm and discipline the armed forces
➢ to promote science
➢ to oversee and check the activities of the Executive Branch

Executive Branch
→ President and Vice President & organization of approximately four million people (incl. Military)
 ➢ in order to be elected president, candidates must have been born in the USA, be at least 35 years of age
and have lived in the USA for at least 14 years
➢ Until the election of Barack Obama in 2008, all presidents were white males.
➢ A president serves a 4-year term of office and cannot serve more than two terms overall
➢ he and the Vice President are elected by the Electoral College and are the only political figures to be
elected nationally, all other elections taking place at state or district level
• The idea of the Electoral College originally came about because, in the early years of the USA,
people living outside the cities did not normally have much information about the individual
presidential candidates. Communication were not good and the poor transport connections did not
allow candidates to travel widely and visit the people. It was also thought that ordinary, and often
uneducated, citizens did not have the skilled judgment necessary for choosing a good president.
Therefore, respected local people were nominated as “electors” to represent presidential candidates.
The rest of the citizens voted for one of the electors, who would in turn give the votes to the
candidate of their choice.
➢ the do not have to be members of a political party that holds the majority in Congress

the role of the president

→ Head of State, Head of Government, Commander-in-Chief of the military and Chief Diplomat
• suggesting new laws to Congress
• signing or vetoing laws passed by Congress → veto can be overturned by a two-thirds majority in
Congress
• appointing (→ must be approved by the Senate)
• federal judges (incl. Supreme Court)
• members of the Cabinet, of federal agencies (e.g. CIA), and other federal employees and diplomats
• managing national affairs and the federal government
• pardoning criminals (except those who have committed a crime against the State)
• influencing foreign policy
• have control over military strategy and matters of national security → needs approval of Congress for
most decisions he makes → can become difficult

Judicial Branch
→ two types of courts: the federal courts (Supreme Court) and the State Courts
• State Courts
• each state has its own laws and legal procedures
• they deal with civil cases involving private individuals or between citizens and local or state
governments
 • each state has its supreme court, which has the final say in matters concerning that particular state’s
laws and constitution, and is the final court of appeal in such matters
• however, if the case involves a federal question, i.e. is connected to the US Constitution or laws
concerning the USA on a national level, it may be taken to a federal court on appeal
• Federal system – the Supreme Court
• highest court in the land → the final judgments are given regarding constitutional and legal matters
• the court has nine judges who are nominated by the president → job for a life time
• President Trump’s first appointment (2017) was Neil Gorsuch, a political conservative.
→ conservative politics are slightly in the majority in the Supreme Court
• the most important job for the Supreme Court: to rule on whether certain laws or government policies
are unconstitutional or not
• all federal courts must follow the ruling made by the Supreme Court in matters concerning the
Constitution and federal laws
• only hears a small amount of cases that are sent there for appeal, choosing those with the greatest
importance for the nation or the Constitution

The Declaration of Independence

• written in 1776 by Thomas Jefferson
• all American citizens are created equal: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created
equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life,
liberty and the pursuit of happiness”
• the pursuit of happiness: no limitation in fulfilling your dream, free choice of religion and career, to
become rich/ to own a house/farm etc.
• “all men are created equal” → principle of equality doesn’t include blacks, as slaves they were not
regarded as “men” or “human beings” nor were they citizens of the United States
• opportunity for every American (at first, women were excluded form this definition) to lead his/her life
the way he/she wants to, making his/her own personal dreams come true
• refers to the American Dream; but also is not right since blacks have always been excluded from this
definition
• stresses the rights of the Individual, while at the same time taking the rights of others into consideration
• 1776: the thirteen colonies declared their independence from England, and were, therefore, at war with
England
• Declaration of Independence questioned the rights of the British king, George III, in that it stated that
everyone was created equal (quite revolutionary at the time)
• The fact that the new American government was to radically different from that of the British king was
pointed out in the preamble to the American constitution
The Constitution of the United States of America (17.05.1787)
The United States’ system of government is based on its Constitution: Britain’s American colonies had gained
their independence in 1776, and in the years that followed it became clear that the central government needed
more power if the country was to become and remain united. The Constitution was formulated in 1787 and ratified
in 1788. It is still considered to be one of the great political documents of the Western world today.

basic ideas:
1. governing by agreement of the governed → citizens have the power to elect the people who govern them
2. belief in fundamental rights of the people (civil rights)
3. a representative democracy
4. federalism (power is divided between state and federal government)
5. separation of power into three branches (legislative, executive, judicial)
6. system of checks and balances → government is limited by constitutional law (no branch can become too
strong)
7. flexibility of the constitution → amendments can be made to the Constitution as necessary

the bill of rights

The first ten amendments to the Constitution were added in 1791 and are known collectively as the Bill of Rights.
They set down certain civil rights that every citizen should have.
group1: amendment 1-4: rights of the individuals/liberties
1. freedom of speech/religion/the press/ to assembly/ petition
2. rights to militia/ right to bear arms
3. protection from quartering troops
4. protection of individuals from unreasonable search

group2: amendment 5-8: legal rights

5. due to progress of law interdicting of double jeopardy; protection of private property
6. rights to speedy and public trial
7. right to a civil trivial by jury
8.prohibition of excessive bail and cruel or unusual punishment

group3: amendment 9 and 10

9: it states that there are other rights that may exists alongside to the ones explicitly mentioned in the Constitution
and even tho they are not listed, it doesn’t mean they cannot be violated
10. federalism: divided power between federal and state law

the system today:

 ➢ There are the same number of electors for each states as the total number of Senators and Representatives
for that state.
➢ The people cast their vote for one of the presidential candidates.
➢ The votes cast in each state are collected, and the candidate with the most votes receives all of the
electors’ votes for that state. This is known as a “majority” or “winner-takes-all” system
➢ There are 538 electoral votes in the country as a whole, so a candidate needs at least 270 votes to win
➢ The main disadvantage of this system is that the candidate who received the largest number of individual
votes from the people (the “popular vote”) does not necessarily win

→ Declaration of Independence has never been 100% fulfilled → blacks have never had the same rights / today
opportunity as whites did

2.landmarks of American history

15th century More than 10 million Native Americans live in the area of the USA
16th & 17th century European colonies are founded on the East Coast
1620 Puritans arrive at Cape Cod → Pilgrim Fathers, Plymouth (siehe religion)
1765-1783 American Revolution, 13 American colonies reject British government
1773 Boston Tea Party → The Boston Tea Party was a political protest. The target was the Tea
Act, which allowed the British East India company to sell tea from China in American
colonies without paying taxes apart from those imposed by the Townshend Acts. American
Patriots strongly opposed the taxes in the Townshend Act as a violation of their rights.
Demonstrators, destroyed an entire shipment of tea sent by the East India Company. They
boarded the ships and threw the tea into the Boston Harbor. The British government
responded harshly and the episode escalated into the American Revolution. The Tea Party
became an iconic event of American history, and since then other political protests such as
the Tea Party movement have referred to themselves as historical successors to the Boston
protest of 1773.
1775 War of Independence ( American Revolutionary War) begins
th
4 of July, 1776 Declaration of Independence was passed by the Congress → important holiday: symbolic
significance for Americans
1783 Treaty of Paris →formally ended the American Revolutionary War; British Crown
formally recognized American independence and ceded (abtreten) most of its territory east
of the Mississippi River to the United States, doubling the size of the new nation and paving
the way for westward expansion
1787 Philadelphia Conference: organization of two principle powers
1789 Implementation of the U.S. Constitution
1861-1865 American Civil War between the United States and 11 Southern states that formed the
“Confederate States of America” over slavery, states’ rights and westward expansion. The
election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 caused seven southern states to secede and form the
Confederate States of America; four more states soon joined them. The War Between the
States, as the Civil War was also known, ended in Confederate surrender in 1865. The
conflict was the costliest and deadliest war ever fought on American soil, with some
620,000 of 2.4 million soldiers killed, millions more injured and much of the South left in
ruin.
1863 Emancipation Proclamation (frees the slaves of the Confederate States)
1917 USA enters WW I
1930s The Great Depression: at its peak more than 20% of Americans unemployed
th
December 9 , 1941 USA enters WW II, after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor
August 6th, 1945 Detonation of the first nuclear bomb over Hiroshima
1947-1991 “Cold War” between NATO and Russia (Warsaw Pact)
1950-1953 Korean War: a war between North Korea (with the support of China and the Soviet Union)
and South Korea (with the principal support of the United States
1955-1975 Vietnam War → conflict between the communist government of North Vietnam against
South Vietnam and its principal ally, the United States. The conflict was intensified by the
ongoing Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. More than 3 million
people (including over 58,000 Americans) were killed in the Vietnam War, and more than
half of the dead were Vietnamese civilians. Opposition to the war in the United States
bitterly divided Americans, even after President Richard Nixon ordered the withdrawal of
U.S. forces in 1973.
September 11th, “9/11” →terrorist attacks on the US (World Trade Center and Pentagon)
2001
January 20th, 1017 Inauguration of Donald Trump as the 45th President of the United States

History of slavery and abolition(Abschaffung der Sklaverei)

• 1619-1808: Approximately 300,000 people were shipped from Africa to work as slaves in the US. They
lived mainly in the southern states and worked on the cotton, tobacco and sugar cane plantations → crops
made the plantation owners extremely rich, and were major products for export
→ welcome source of cheap labor
• after 1808: no more slaves were transported to the US, but many were born in the country
• 1833: the National Anti-Slavery Society, an abolitionist movement, was founded, although most of its
supporters came from the northern states rather than the southern states where most slaves lived
◦ moral questions about slavery and the treatment of blacks as second-class human beings triggered the
American Civil War
• 1865: Slavery was abolished after the American Civil War → 13th amendment
• 1868: The 14th Amendment of the Constitution gave black Americans the status of citizens
• 1870: All male American citizens were given the right to vote, regardless of their race
• 1890: Jim Crow Laws were introduces → slavery is replaced by segregation and racism

civil rights movement 1954

• 1954: the NAACP won a famous court case, which ruled that it was illegal to have separate schools for
different races
◦ “separate but equal” concept was unconstitutional
• 1955: Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to white passengers on a public bus in Montgomery,
Alabama. As a result, she was arrested and convicted. In protest, black people boycotted the buses for
over a year until segregation on public buses was liftet
• 1961: Student volunteers took trips on interstate buses in the south to try and end segregation on public
transport → known as Freedom Rides
 • 1963: March on Washington, DC for Jobs and Freedom (Peaceful protests): „I have a dream“- speech,
where he spoke of his hope that one day all Americans would be equal
◦ 100 years had passed since slavery was abolished, but still blacks did not enjoy the same rights as
whites
• 1964: civil rights act: equal status for blacks in all social matters
• 1965: voting rights act → made it easier for minorities to register to vote
• 1968: Martin Luther King, Jr was assassinated
• 1970-1976: As a measure to end segregation in schools, white children were taken by bus to schools in
black areas, and vice versa.
• 1972: laws were passed to encourage positive discrimination for ethnic minorities in the field of
employment
◦ blacks are still disadvantaged and underprivileged in many areas
◦ affirmative action → positive discrimination, ghetto situation, schooling segregation

◦ black people’s reality: instead of middle class, higher education, well-paid jobs, suburban homes:
underclass, urban ghettos, unemployment
positive discrimination: if there were equally qualified candidates for a job and one was from an ethnic minority,
employers were supposed to give the job to the minority candidate.

Jim Crow Laws (1890-1960)

• laws to enforce segregation → officially to protect the blacks, but in reality laws were used to maintain
the unfair treatment and limitation of the rights of the blacks
• Separate entrance into public buildings, separate restrooms and drinking fountains
• had to sit in the back of trains and buses
• separate schools, were not allowed to play in the same sport teams
• White nurses were not allowed to attend to black, male patients
→ “separate but equal”

Interracial marriage
• White elite class feared that blacks would make inroads (in etwas eindringen) in the white’s world by
marrying and having children
• Interracial marriage was outlawed in many states
• 1967: Interracial marriage becomes legal

Malcolm X: real name Malcolm Little (1925-1965)

• wanted to get rid of the name his white slave master gave to his ancestors
• African-American Muslim minister and human rights activist, fought for black rights
 • one of the greatest and influential African-Americans
• had a hard childhood → father dies early, mother in a mental hospital
• went to prison at the age of 20, there he became a member of the Nation of Islam
• After his parole(Entlassung), he began to preach → became one of the most influential leaders, was the
public face
• left the Nation of Islam and founded his own protest group
• 1965: was murdered by a fanatic Black Muslim because of his leaving

Martin Luther King (1929-1968)

• American Baptist minister and activist
• leader and spokesperson in the Civil Rights Movement
• used tactics of nonviolence and civil disobedience based on his Christian beliefs inspired by Ghandi
• led the Montgomery bus boycott and founded the Southern Christian Leadership
• Helped to organize nonviolent protests like the one in Birmingham and the March of Washington
• 1964: received the Nobel Peace Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolent resistance
• 1968: was assassinated by James Earl Ray in Memphis, James Earl Ray was sentenced to 99 years in
prison
• Martin Luther King’s dream:
◦ America as a great nation of brotherhood
→ “One day this nation will rise up”
“(…) to transform the jangling discords (Zwietracht, Missstimmung) of out nation into a beautiful
symphony of brotherhood”
◦ Freedom and justice, human beings judged by the content of their character

Ku Klux Klan:
• positions: white supremacy, white nationalism, anti-immigration, they use terrorism (physical assault,
murder) to frighten African American
• Their costumes(robes, masks, hats) were designed to be terrifying and to hide their identities

African-Americans today
• More African-Americans are members of national and local governments, some of whom have held high
office
• Barack Obama was American’s first African-American President, serving two terms in office from 2008
to 2016
• far more black celebrities today in the field of sport, film and music
• more young African-Americans complete high school and college or university → better chances to get a
job; still high rate of high school drop outs among this ethnic group
• many blacks still live in deprived(sozial benachteiligt) areas → high unemployment rate and easy,
especially for young people, to become involved in criminal activities
 • In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, which hit the south-eastern states of the USA in 2005, the question
of discrimination once more came to the forefront of public discussion. The lack of organisation of
evacuation and relief for the affected areas led some people to claim that this was due to the fact that a
large percentage of those affected were black and living in poor areas. They felt that relief would have
arrived more quickly for a predominantly white area.

Positive Negative
Half of black wage earners belong to the middle class Unemployment 10,8% (white 5,2%)
82% of black over 25 have high school education Blacks are earning less than whites and have less
resources
60% sad that things are getting better Big gap between whites and blacks in education,
employment and wealth
Mixed friendships and neighborhoods Black children are more likely to be born in poverty
and to remain there
NY, LA, Chicago have had Black mayors 25% of African Americans live in poverty
2009 election of Barack Obama Standard of living lags behind
Blacks are dominating in many sports → Muhammad Discrimination still exists
Ali, Michael Jordan → Police violence against blacks

Problems with Trump

• Generalization of black people; says they all live in poverty and crime zones, have no education
• depiction of a hopeless violent black America doesn’t match reality
• some are worried his policies will negatively impact the black community access to quality, job
opportunities and affordable health care
• seems like he wants to eradicate all of the gains made by blacks
◦ Attack on the NFL players

Black Lives Matter

In recent years, there have been several cases of black people, often young, unarmed people, being killed by white
law enforcers. Frequently, these officers did not face any kind of punishment, but were able to argue that they has
acted in self-defense because they believed they were about to be attacked. It seemed that, despite the progress
made by the Civil Rights Movement, some things had not changed.
• The Black Live Matters movement was started as a hashtag on social media
• It came into being following the acquittal (die Freisprechung) of George Zimmerman, a member of the
local community watch scheme, who shot the African-American teenager Trayvon Martin dead.
Zimmerman claimed that Martin had been acting suspiciously, because he was walking alone in a
neighborhood in which there had been a lot of robberies.
• The aim of the organization is to rise awareness about police brutality against people of color
• It also supports other groups that suffer discrimination, such as black, LGBTQ, disabled people and
women
 • The organization has faced criticism for focusing on only black people, the hashtag “all lives matter” was
started as response
• However, supporters argue that the movement is not about suggesting other groups are less important.
Instead, it is raising awareness about a problem that African-American community face more than any
other
• in 2017, many football players staged a silent protest in support of Black Lives Matter by kneeling
instead of standing during the national anthem. This gesture was strongly criticized by many, including
President Trump
• The movement has now spread to other countries, such as the UK, Canada and Australia, where the
campaign focuses on the way Aborigines are mistreated by the police and government

Native Americans
It is not known how many Native Americans lived in North America before the first Europeans arrived, but there
are likely to have been at least two million. There were hundreds of different tribes, with their won language and
culture, although all believed they were an integral part of the cycle of nature. The idea of property and land
ownership was foreign to them, which became one of the many reasons for tensions between native tribes and the
new inhabitants of their country.

The first British settlers would probably all have dies in their new country if a friendly local tribe had not helped
them. Ironically, because of the local people had shown them how to survive, more and more European were able
to settle in the country. In return, the new settlers contributed to the dramatic fall in the number of Native
Americans, both accidentally and through deliberate persecution.

The native Americans and the new settlers

• The Europeans did not respect Native American beliefs and customs → some even tried to convert them
to Christianity.
• The Native Americans had little resistance to European diseases and often died from them.
• Because many Native American tribes were nomadic, it was easier for the settlers to occupy their land.
• Many tribes were forced to live on reservations, which they were not allowed to leave without
permission. The reservations were often located in areas that were not particularly good for farming,
hunting and fishing → these poor conditions weakened the tribes further.
• There were wars between the settlers and the Natives in which many Natives were killed.
• Although the government made several treaties with the Native American tribes with regard to land
ownership, they were quick to break them if, for example, they decided that they wanted to build
something on that land.
• Many attempts were made to assimilate the Native Americans into white society by making it almost
impossible for them to continue to live their traditional lifestyles → the long-term result was wide-spread
poverty and depression among them.
• Native Americans were not given American citizenship until 1924
 • It was only in the 1970s that tribes were finally recognized as self-determining associations with the same
rights as other ethnic groups.

Native Americans today

• There are approximately 1.8 million registered tribal members in the USA
• the federal government recognizes 562 different tribal governments throughout the county
• Native Americans still suffer from the long-term negative effects of European occupation which can, for
example, be seen in the fact that significant numbers of them suffer from mental health problems,
alcoholism and heart diseases
• many Native American governments get a larger part of their income from casinos situated on their
reservations. While some tribes feel that getting revenue through gambling conflicts with their traditional
culture, others use the money to build up a strong economy for themselves in order to improve their
situation.

recent political and social developments

Inaugural Speech of the 44th president of the United States of America

Barack Obama

Given on January 20th, 2009

• talks about the crisis

à war against far-reaching network of violence and hatred

à economy badly weakened

à healthcare is too costly

à school fails

• these challenges are real and not easy but they will be met

• end of the petty grievances and false promises

• time has come to reaffirm the enduring spirit and chose a better history

• comparison to Declaration of Independence; American dream

à all are equal, free and deserve the chance to pursuit their happiness

• hard work for a better life

• multicultural nation

• values upon which our success depends: hard work, honesty, courage and fair play, tolerance and
curiosity, loyalty and patriotism

• god calls to shape an uncertain destiny

Remarks of President Donald J. Trump – as prepared for delivery

Inaugural address, January 20th, 2017 in Washington D.C

• rebuild the country

• restore its promises for all of the people

• together; face challenges

• “We are one nation”

• America First

• Decisions on trade, taxes, immigration, foreign affairs will be made to benefit American workers and
families

• Protect the borders from ravages of other countries

• Bring back the jobs, borders, wealth, dreams

• New roads, bridges, highways, airports

• Get the peoples welfare back

• Friendship with the nations of the world

• Patriotism; no prejudices

• Gods people live together in unity; protected by God

• United America à unstoppable America

• “We will make America great again”

• “We will make America proud again”

• “We will make America safe again”

→ accusations of racism, discrimination and misogyny

→ divided America further

→ gave racist Americans a voice

Q1.2 Living in the American society

1. the American way of life

-individualism
early days:
• depending on their ability to confront the hardships and challenges of the wilderness on their own
→ have to work your way up
nowadays:
• idealization of the self-reliant, self-sufficient, independent individual (→ individual’s responsibility to
make a living and succeed in a competitive society)
• skepticism about any kind of government → guarantees great degree of personal freedom
 • great degree of personal freedom
• if you work hard, you prosper – if you fail, it’s your own fault

- religion
religious beginnings
Many of the early European settlers in what was to become the USA had left Europe for religious reasons. They
were being persecuted for their beliefs and wanted to live in a place where they would be free to practice their
religion in the way they wanted to. Many of their beliefs and principles formed the foundation of the present-day
USA.
The Puritans
• 1620: The Promised Land
◦ situation in England: over population & poverty
▪ pushing people to the New World could save both problems and has a positive side effect: to
improve from new goods from the colony
◦ The “Pilgrim Fathers”: Puritans
▪ Most Puritans migrated to America to flee religious persecution by the hands of the Church of
England
▪ Puritans wished to reform the Church of England, which they viewed too similar to the Catholic
Church
▪ They believed to establish the New Jerusalem, chosen by God in order to start a new civilization.
▪ Their ship was called Mayflower and their settlement was the Plymouth Colony.
• The original colonists survived in the new, unfamiliar territory they now found themselves in with help
from local Native Americans, who showed them how to grow and gather food.
• From 1630: The Puritans were Protestants who aimed to “purify” the Church of England of practices left
over from the days before the split with the Roman Catholic Church → they wanted their church to be
simple and “pure”, without hierarchies.
• The Puritans first settled in Massachusetts, and then spread throughout the new colonies. They were
intolerant of anyone who did not share their religious beliefs, even to the extent of punishing those who
did not conform.
• Since only church members were allowed to become politicians in the colonies under Puritan rule, they
were easily able to punish anyone who did not agree with them.
• 1636: Roger Williams, a Puritan Leader, was forced to leave Massachusetts because of his disagreement
with the colonial government there, As a result, he founded a colony of his own in Rhode Island, based on
principles of religious freedom rather than forced worship. Some of these principles, such as the
separation of church and state, religious tolerance and freedom of religion, were written into the America
Constitution
• The First Amendment of the Bill of Rights states that Congress must not make any laws to establish a
particular religion or prevent a particular religion from being practised.
→ Their search for religious freedom became one of the cornerstones of the national identity of the United states.

The Puritan legacy

The American mentality today owes a lot to the nation’s Puritan beginnings:
• “Protestant work ethic” → hard work and self-discipline lead to success
• belief to establish the New Jerusalem, chosen by God in order to start a new civilization → they therefore
felt that they had a moral right to defend their beliefs and way of life
• In addition to this, they believed strongly in a fair and equal society, and refused to tolerant anyone who
did not share their views on what a society should be like. Some people see this way of thinking reflected
in American’s perspective today: Americans believe their society is the best in the world, and it is difficult
for them to imagine why anyone would think otherwise.
• It was thought that personal wealth was a sign of God’s blessing, which is one reason why making a lot of
money is seen as a virtue (Tugendhaftigkeit)
• However, the Puritans also believed that it was their duty to help the needy; Americans today are very
generous (großzügig) when it comes to work of charity.

Religion in the USA today

Different religions
• America is a strongly religious country, with the majority identifying as Christian (around 75%)
• Half of them are Protestants, a quarter are Catholics; the others belong to Protestant sects such as the
Mormons or Jehovah’s witnesses. There are also several black churches.
• Some southern states, including Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, North and South Carolina,
and Kentucky, make up the so-called Bible Belt → many evangelical Protestants live here, who base their
lives closely on the teaching of the Bible → very conservative attitudes
• Other faiths represented in the USA are Jewish, Muslim, Buddhist and Hindu.

Muslims in the USA

• There are an estimated six to seven million Muslims in the USA, most of whom are well-integrated into
American life. A large percentage of them have a university degree and a professional career where they
earn a good salary
• However, there has been a sharp increase in anti-Islam feeling in recent years, which started in the wake
of the terrorist attacks (9/11), and have been further fuelled by the increase in attacks by Islamic
extremists since then.
• American Muslims say they have to face greater discrimination and stereotyping nowadays → they are
often faced with other people’s ignorance with regard to Islam
• Most Muslim organizations in the States emphasize their moderate standpoint, and strongly condemn any
form of violence or terrorism

-gun policy/crime
Due to the ease of obtaining a weapon, a large number of people in the US own a gun. As a consequence, there is
a large amount of gun crime in the country.
• The Second Amendment to the Constitution states that citizens have the right to keep and bear arms (to
protect their homes and families) → many people make use of that right and own a weapon
• The National Rifle Association (NRA) is a powerful lobby group which campaigns against gun control
based on the Second Amendment
• however, most shootings in the home are not due self-defense → a large percentage of them occur
because of accidents, e.g. if a child finds their parent’s weapon and fires it.
• In 2016, there were more than 38,000 gun-related deaths in the US → this includes suicides, but also
around 11,00 deaths through homicide (Totschlag)
• there were 263 mass shootings in the US in 2016
• there have been nearly 300 school shootings since 2013 → this statistic includes incidents where a gun
was fired but nobody was injured
These statistics can seem shocking for people living in countries where gun crime is far rarer and gun control
stricter. Likewise, the reaction to incidents involving firearms can seem illogical:
• the USA spends several billion dollars per year to protect itself against terrorist attacks; however, only a
tiny percentage of people are killed by terrorism each year in comparison to the thousand killed by
ordinary gun crime
• there are around 300 million guns in the USA → approximately one for each member of the population

President Obama pledged to rake action against the increase in gun crime, for example by making it more difficult
for people to buy one. However, he did not succeed in passing any new gun control laws due to opposition by the
Republicans. Although his successor, Donald Trump, has said he will talk about gun laws in due time, it seems
unlikely that he, as a Republican, will push for any major changes to the law

-mobility
• belief in limitless resources is related to the American tradition of mobility
• “going west” → fresh start in a land of spaciousness (geographical mobility)
nowadays
• no public transportation
• Driver’s license at the age of 16
• moving in another city easily
◦ often connected to a chance to succeed (e.g. better job or a more pleasant climate)
→ social mobility
• = upward and downward on the “ladder of success”
• accepted as a fact of life
• primarily related to individual achievement & their own flexibility when looking for new opportunities

Patriotism
→ national holidays such as Thanksgiving or Independence Day
→ flag and pride of their country (national pride)

Manifest Destiny
• The Term was coined by the American journalist John L. O’Sullivan in 1839
• stands for the belief that America is the one nation ordered by God to expand
• America’s Mission: to democratize the world
• America =chosen / a country that is superior to all other countries
• stresses the virtue of American people —> they are the ones to establish moral rules and values across the
globe —> US’s role as a global mediator in political conflicts also grew out of this concept
• America’s patriotism deeply routed in this concept
• used this belief to justify its territorial expansion and imperialism
• linked to the concept of the Frontier
The frontier
• originally referred to the line of settlement / civilization
• moving westward
• expansion of the American nation from coast to coast, pushing the borderline between civilization and
wilderness further and further back
• pacific coast was reached in the 2nd half of the 19th century
• after this mission: new challenges, new frontiers were needed —> space exploration (in particular moon
landing in 1969) / scientific and technological progress
• idea kept alive in American culture (science fiction genre etc.) as well as in political rhetoric (JFK speech
on the „new frontiers“ in space)

2.migration and the American Dream

American Dream
The American Dream is the dream of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for every man with
opportunity for each according to his ability to achievement

The basic myth of the American Dream

• belief that anyone, no matter what class you were born into, can reach ones own version of success in a
society where climbing the social latter is possible for everyone
• if a person works hard → improvement
• everyone has the same opportunities
• shaped by the American history, society and culture
• main elements can be found in the declaration of independence

Religious elements of the AD

• America as the new Canaan for persecuted people like the puritans
• a new world where the mistakes of the old world could be corrected
Political aspects of AD
• everybody has the right to pressure their goals with a minimum of state control
• centers around the idea of life, liberty and happiness
• government’s role to protect each persons unalienable rights
• this term attracted millions of people who hoped for a better life, freedom, self-fulfillment, economic
prosperity, success, “rags to riches” etc

The American Dream today

• critics see it as a clever political and economical marketing strategy
• should return to community spirit and social responsibility
• huge gap between rich and poor
• state welfare still controversial
• concept of a class less society never became reality → AD even makes it worse
• underclass refuses to join competitive, success oriented society
• mainstream America → uncaring
• middle class often works all day
• upper class enjoys the benefits of material success

Immigration in the USA

The land of opportunity has always attracted immigrants from around the world. As a result, the population of the
USA is made up of a wide variety of different races. The majority of the people came and still come today in the
hope of a better life. However, this ethic mix also includes the Native Americans, who had already settled
throughout North America when the first European settlers came along, and people from Africa who were brought
against their will to work as slaves.

Waves of immigration:
Date Main countries of origin
1000-1790 England, Scotland, Ireland, the Netherlands, Germany
1790-1849 Ireland, Germany, Italy, Britain, France, Russia, China, Mexico, South America
1850-1930 Germany, Britain, Ireland, French Canada, Italy, Scandinavia, Poland, East Europe
(mainly Jews)
1930-present The Philippines, Europe (post WW II, including refugees), Canada, Mexico, Korea,
Hungary, Japan, Cuba, Vietnam, Latin America

By far the largest group of immigrants today is from Mexico, followed by China, Cuba and India.

US Immigration Policy
• today: majority of immigrants are Hispanic
 • immigration was unrestricted until 1880
• immigration laws were passed → limit entry of special groups, based on country of origin
• 1924: “quota system” → favoring Western European countries
→ 1990: abolishment → fixed annual number of 700.000 immigrants a year
• illegal immigration reform 1996 → US authorities can deport illegal immigrants
• Hispanic immigrants want their share of the American Dream
→ steady work, safe place to live, pension plan, good education for children
• immense cultural shock of Hispanic-American population
→ immigrants speak mostly only Spanish
→ shift of American demographic level

Reasons for immigration

• 1st group:
◦ Members of religious groups that had broken away from the mainstream churches in their home
country came to escape religious persecution (e.g. the Puritans)
◦ Colonies were settled to grow tobacco → immigrants were needed for this work
◦ Land was cheap and economic conditions were better than at home
• 2nd group:
◦ The Great Famine (disease killed potato plants → starvation) in Ireland drove the Irish to leave their
country in their thousands
◦ there was political instability in other parts of Europe, e.g. during/ after the French Revolution
◦ gold was found in California : gold rush → thousands of people traveled to the USA on the hope of
making their fortune
◦ prospect of finding work in the US → people came to join members of their family already living
there
• 3rd group:
◦ to escape poverty in Europe
◦ two million Jews emigrated to escape the Nazis (1889-1924)
◦ Mexican Revolution (1911-1929): more than one million Mexicans immigrated in the US, but many
of them returned to Mexico
◦ economic boom of America encouraged people to come and try their luck in the land of opportunities
• 4th group:
◦ most immigrants at this time came to escape war and oppression in their home countries
◦ Jobs were plentiful after the end of the WW II, when many women who had to work during the war
went back to being housewives
◦ from 1948, displaced people, especially from Europe, were allowed to emigrate to the States
◦ people fleeing from Communist countries (Hungary, Cuba)

symbol of freedom for new immigrants

New immigrants entering the US for the first time via ship were greeted by the Statue of Liberty. It was a symbol
of the freedom they hoped to enjoy in their new country
• the statue was a gift from France to celebrate 100 years of American independence
• stands for freedom and independence

Ellis Island
The other symbol of the start of a new life for immigrants was Ellis Island, located near the statue
• New immigrants were taken there for medical checks and examination of their documents before they
were allowed to set foot on mainland USA
• It was a symbol of hope → the immigrants had finally (almost) reached the end of their journey and were
about to start a new life
• for some, however, the experience was not very pleasant → they were detained (festgenommen) on the
island if they did not pass the medical tests, or for legal reasons
• some were even sent back to their country of origin

The “melting pot” theory

• all nations are melted into a new race of men (new nation with mixed origins)
◦ literal sense: nationalities mixed together → new “product” → better
◦ figurative sense: foreign immigrant gives up his national identity, way of life, culture, language..
→ New nation! True American!
• Limits:
◦ melting pot only applied to the whites (no Indians or Blacks!)
• better term: “salad bowl”
◦ the various ethnicities living in the USA adding their own traditions, cultural values, etc to the
American people; nations do not merge into one, but stay distinct → “unity in diversity”

3. values and beliefs

• -the pursuit of happiness:
◦ personal fulfillment, to live according to one’s abilities, you can rise from rags t riches, unlimited
possibilities
→ reality: pursuit of material wealth, economic success
• -belief in freedom:
◦ distrust of authority; earliest colonists came to the US to escape from the controls by monarchs, the
church etc.
 → they established a ‘government of the people, by the people, for the people’ with
safeguards(Schutzmaßnahmen) →separation between church and state; Separation of power (judicial,
executive, legislative); disallowed all titles of nobility
→ self-sufficiency, self-reliance, volunteerism → individuals have to learn to be independent and
rely on himself in any thing, e.g. becoming a small businessman (seen as the ideal)
→ by loosing your freedom, you also lose the respect of your peer
◦ its understanding was shaped by the Founding Fathers
• -belief in equality of opportunity:
◦ each individuals should have an equal chance of success
→ government doesn’t interfere with personal independence and freedom, or place restrictions on
anyone’s effort to improve his financial and social status
• -belief in success
◦ The Puritan work ethic
▪ formed by the Puritan work ethic which guided people‘s attitude towards the “pursuit of
happiness”
▪ believe that success was an outward and visible sign of God’s grace who desired to achieve
success (and the grace of God) through hard work
◦ Social Darwinism
▪ the survival of the fittest
▪ if you are nor successful, it is your own fault
▪ helps to explain why welfare provision for the lower class is unfair

→ these believes combine to create what has become known as the ‘American Dream’

4. To kill a mockingbird
by Harper Lee, published in 1960

author
• Nelle Harper Lee was born in Monroeville, Alabama, in 1926

• Her father was a lawyer

• She doesn’t like to wear dresses and likes to play with boys

• She also starts to study law

• She quit her studies and moved to New York City in 1950 à she wanted to be a writer and
began writing short stories and working on “To kill a Mockingbird”

• The novel was an immediate success and has since become one of the most read books of
modern American literature

content
à story is set in the small town Maycomb, Alabama during the 1930s

à narrator is Jean Louise Finch, called Scout, who looks back on her childhood days; her brother à
Jem

à children are raised by their father Atticus, a widowed lawyer

à Calpurnia, the black housekeeper

à the town comprises three communities: the white folk, the black community and the “white trash”

à outwardly there is peace among the tree but beneath the surface a combination of hostility, racial
prejudice and friendlessness prevails

à although slavery has been legally abolished for many years, the inhabitants continue to believe in
white supremacy

à the novel projects the prejudice attached to the traditional southern values

PART ONE

• One summer seven-year-old Dill Harris comes to Maycomb to spend his holidays with his
aunt

• Scout, Jem and Dill become friends

• Together with their new playmate they try to get behind the secret of a haunted house in
their neighbourhood in which “Boo” (Arthur Radley) lives à he hasn’t been seen for years
since his father locked him up in the house

• They hope to get him out but without success

• The following September Scout starts school and she hates it

• On their last day at school before the vacations the children discover some chewing gum
and a small box in the knothole of a tree on the Radley property

• Jem and Dill try to look into the house but the roar of a shotgun drives them off

• In panic Jem catches his breeches in the fence and must abandon them à he returns to
pick them up and more objects begin to appear including replicas of Scout and Jem carved
in soap

• Jem and Scout decide to leave a not for whoever, they find a tree hole filled with cement

• One night in the following winter a neighbour’s house is on fire

• The children watch the fire brigade fight the flames

• When scout returns back home she finds herself wearing a woollen blanket around her
shoulders

à must have been wrapped around her by Boo Radley

 • Scout starts a fight at school in defence of her father who “defended niggers”

• Atticus tells Scout that he has accepted the defence of a black man, Tom Robinson,
because his conscience tells him so

à warns Scout that some people might condemn him for this but asks her to keep her fist
down

• Children are a bit ashamed of their father because he is so different from other fathers

• à he says he is not interested in guns; fulfils the childrens Christmas wishes and gives
them air-rifles à warns them not to shoot mockingbirds

PART TWO

• Atticus presence is required it the state legislature in Montgomery

• à Calpurnia takes Jem and Scout to a church service in her community

• The children learn that everybody in the black community knows their father well

• Reverend Sykes organizes a collection for Helen (Tom Robinsons wife) because he can’t find a
job

• Tom Robinson is accused of raping a white women

• At home Aunt Alexandra is waiting

• Scout is not pleased at all that her aunt will stay for the summer holidays

• As the trial is about to begin the defendant Tom Robinson is brought to Maycomb jail

• Atticus protects Tom against being lynched by a mob

• Tom R. is charged with the rape of a white women named Mayella Ewell à Atticus knows he’s
innocent and defends as best as he can

• Atticus has forbidden the children to attend the trial but they sneak into the courthouse

• Sheriff Tate and Mayella’s father Bob testify first, claiming that the girl was beaten on the right
side of her face and raped

• Atticus can prove that Mayella was hit by a left-handed man and that her father is left-handed;
Toms left arm is crippled

• Mayella repeats repeats her accusations against Tom à he assures he was called into the
house by Mayella herself and that she tried to seduce him

• à Tom Robinsons guilt is not proven beyond doubt

• Atticus efforts are in vain: Tom is convicted

• It’s hard for Jem to accept the verdict

• Atticus is confident that an appeal will be successful

• Black community appreciate his behavior; they bring lots of food to his house; Mayellas father
spits at Atticus
 • Tom Robinson takes the verdict very hard because he does not believe that he will find justice
in a white dominated legal system

• He tries to escape from prison but is shot

• Some of the white population use Toms attempt to run away as a proof of the black mans
inferiority

• Scout realizes despite all her fathers efforts Tom hadn’t stood a chance from beginning à
Prejudice cannot be overcome in a court

• New school year starts; people still talk about the Robinson case

• à critical of Atticus Finch, but re-elect him for the legislature

• Bob Ewell is given a job but soon loses it due to his laziness and blames Atticus Finch

• Scout and Jem are being followed on their way home from a Halloween party

• à they struggle to defend themselves until their attacker is pulled away in the dark; Scout sees
a man lying on the ground and another one carrying Jem away; she manages to get home

• Aunt Alexandra and Atticus call Doctor Reynolds and Sheriff Tate

• Jem has been brought home unconscious and has a broken arm

• Scout sees the man who brought Jem home but she doesn’t know who he is

• Sheriff Tate tells Atticus that Bob Ewell was found dead under a tree with a knife stuck under his
ribs à at first Atticus thought his son stabbed Ewell and will have to face a trial

à Sheriffs explanation: Ewell fell onto his knife, killing himself

• Atticus realise that the Sheriff wants to suppress evidence to save shy Boo Radley because it
was he who stabbed Ewell and rescued the children

• Scout agrees to the explanation of what happened because not to do so would be like shooting
a mockingbird

• Atticus thanks Boo who had all the time been waiting silently in the shadow of the veranda, and
Scout guides him home

characters

Atticus Finch:

• Jem’s and Scout’s father

• Descendant of one of the oldest families in Maycomb

• Highly respected personality in the community

• Competent lawyer and a member of the state legislature

• Understanding father with a lot of common sense and a dry sense of humor

• One of the few residents of Maycomb committed to racial equality and treats all those around
him with respect and consideration
 • Renounces violence but stands firm for his convictions

• Risking his standing in the community and his personal safety when necessary

• He doesn’t care about public opinion and ignores animosities of the prejudices white majority of
Maycomb

• Teaches his children moral principles and a strong sense of justice

Jean Lousie (“Scout”) Finch

• Narrator and protagonist of the story

• Is almost six years old when her story begins

• She is intelligent and a real tomboy à refusing to act like a lady

• Always trying to prove herself equal to her playmates Jem and Dill

• Has a natural feeling of what is right or wrong

• Quickly responds to insults with her fist

• She is outspoken, sincere, innocent, unprejudiced in contrast to the hypocritical whites in her
community

• Represents a new generation which will grow up without arrogance and racial prejudice

Jeremy (“Jem”) Finch:

• Four years older that his sister

• Adventurous boy; keen footballer

• Jem and Scout à close companions; spend their freetime together

• He wakes up to the hard facts of life when he has to cope with the verdict against Tom
Robinson

• End of the novel à Jem proves his courage as fearless protector of his sister

Arthur (“Boo”) Radley:

• Reclusive and mysterious neighbour who never leaves the house

• As a child mistreated by his cruel father

• Supposedly sinister character

• He symbolises one of the mockingbirds in the novel à a gentle creature that gives him
pleasure

• Delights the children by leaving little gifts for them; in the end he proves his virtue by saving
their lives
Bob Ewell:

• Uncultured and utterly evil

• Beats his children and has no scruples even in resorting to murder regain his lost dignity in the
community

• “antagonist” in the story

The neighbourhood:

• mainly old women: Miss Maudie Atkinson, Miss Stephanie Crawford, Miss Rachel Haverford

• gossip community

• à the authoress uses the expression “Mrs. Stephanie Crawford said..” very often à underlines
the gossip culture in Maycomb à reader can get influenced by the gossip

◦ establishes Mrs. Crawford’s charcter

• prejudices

Book vs film
Narration

• book: first-person story told by Scout → readers have a good insight in Scout’s inner perspective

• film: Scout as a narrator is only presented to set the mood of a scene

◦ seems to shift more to Jem’s experiences

• → Scout is still an important character, but the film expands on her brother’s role

Characters

• Aunt Alexandra doesn’t exist in the film

• Jem and Scout having a conversation about their deceased mother, brings her alive to the viewers

• Tom Robinson’s children and father show up in the film

important scenes not included in the film

• Calpurnia not taking the children to her church → scene shows racism from another perspective

• Jem and Scout finding “treasures” in the tree hole

• Mrs Dubose plays a much more important character in the book → children have virtually no contact
with her in the film

• Aunt Alexandra doesn’t exist in the film

• implied incest between Mayella Ewell and her father is never discussed in the film

◦ movies at this time weren’t allowed to cover such controversial subject matter
 • exploration of the aftermath of the trial or the conversations Atticus has with his children in trying to
understand the situation are missing

added scenes

• Atticus visits the family of Tom Robinson → to show seriousness of the trail

Themes and Interpretation

(1) from innocence to experience

◦ Jem and Scout near the end of their innocent childhood and are confronted with reality

◦ they see Boo as an evil monster → learn to respect him and discard prejudices

◦ Scout begins to fully understand “it’s a sin to kill a mockingbird”

→ good and innocent people must be protected/defended

(2) Stereotypes and Prejudice

◦ still very much alive → Aunt Alexandra calls black people “trash” → low social status

◦ BUT: look below the surface! Judge people by actions not backround

(3) Tolerance and Understanding

◦ Atticus teaches the children

(4) Maturity and courage

◦ real courage = standing up for one’s convictions

risking one’s standing in the community and personal safety

(5) Coexistence of good and evil

◦ good and evil exist side by side

◦ nature of injustice

(6) racial segregation and hatred against minorities

◦ novel was written during the times of the Civil Rights Movement

◦ set in the 1930s in Alabama → economic difficulties → Great Depression

→ tradition of racial segregation

◦ racial segregation

▪ no civil rights → needed to be registered to vote

→ couldn‘t serve in juries because they needed registered votes

◦ racial discrimination

▪ white majority regards Blacks as barely civilised

▪ sexual relationships between whites and blacks were unthinkable → common code

• Mayella was aware of that and took advantage of racist attitudes

▪ world history full of self-righteous majorities treating minorities with cruelty

 • e.g. Nazis

• Scout learns about it in school: she becomes aware of bigotry (Fatanismus) and
hypocrisy

→ all in all: intolerance, racism, ethnic cleansing, a call for fair treatment + equality + mutual
understanding

story of initiation

• special type of story

à contains an unsettling incident in the life of a child or young adult

• confronts the protagonist for the first time with an aspect of adult life (evil, death, aging,
destruction of personal principles)

• young person goes through different stages dealing with the experience

à shock

à disilluisionment

à looking for answers

à acceptance

à y doing so the protagonist achieves a deeper insight into adult life and his or her own
personality

Great Depression
• main reason: the catastrophic collapse of the stock market prices on the New York stock
exchange in October 1929

• led to a general + nationwide loss of confidence in the economy

• turned into a worldwide economic slump because of the special and intimate relationships that
had been forced between the U.S. and European economies after World War 2

• effected a lot of other people’s lives à people lost their job because they couldn’t earn money
anymore

• 1933 million of Americans out work

à Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)à 30$ per month for young men, semi-military style,
planted trees, created fish, …

àabandoned 1934, because rather work relief than welfare programs

• Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA)

• Aim: - raising cropsà farmers more money, can spend more à economy improves

• Consequence: -crops were destroyedà money more important than quality of crops
 • New Deal by Rooseveltà his promise for presidency

• emergency powers

• want economical relief, recovery and reform

à idea: government regulates economy

• Measures:
• Fireside chats, bank holidays, stock exchange, abolition of alcohol-prohibitions, rise gold price,
alphabet agencies
• WPA (Works Progress Administration)- distribution/ change of economical and political dutiesà
federal art projects, part-time jobs for students

Q1.3 – Manifestation of individualism

1.the American dream as a manifestation of individualism:

-from rags to riches
- if you work hard enough, you will improve your situation in life and will achieve your goals
- key concept within American history, society and culture → it is essential for the understanding of the American
society
-core values:
-belief in freedom: separation between church and state → most colonists came escaping
the English church
-disallowed all titles of nobility
-devised a democratic system based on the separation of power(legislative, judicial,
executive)
-self-sufficient, self-reliant (independent) and volunteerism

2.concepts of life
difference to kill a mocking bird and Gatsby
3. stories of initiation → mockingbird (Scout)

4.visions and nightmares

-war of Vietnam:
• soldiers thought they fought for the freedom and democracy their country represented
• wanted to show their dominance in the world (cold war)
• couldn’t define what’s good or bad anymore; right and wrong disappeared
• traumatic experience
• unnecessary war → lost it anyways
-9/11
 • On September 11 2001, Islamic extremists carried out four more or less simultaneous suicide attacks.
They hijacked four domestic flights; two of the planes were flown into the World Trade Center, one into
the Pentagon, and one crashed in the Pennsylvania countryside
• the reactions: shock that the country was not invulnerable to terrorist attacks on their own soil, gratitude
and support for members of the emergency service and the general public who risked their lives to save
others, and a surge in displays of patriotism.
• → America as the superior, being attacked by a terror organization
• Some of the terrorists had lived in the United States for more than a year and had taken flying lessons at
American commercial flight schools. Others had slipped into the country in the months before September
11 and acted as the “muscle” in the operation.

• The 19 terrorists easily smuggled box-cutters and knives through security at three East Coast airports and
boarded four early-morning flights bound for California, chosen because the planes were loaded with fuel
for the long transcontinental journey. Soon after takeoff, the terrorists commandeered the four planes and
took the controls, transforming ordinary passenger jets into guided missiles.

• total of 2,996 people were killed in the 9/11 attacks, including the 19 terrorist hijackers aboard the four
airplanes
• call on other states: “Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists”

→ criticism:
• “war on terrorism” is an ideology of fear and repression → creates enemies and promotes violence
instead of preventing acts of terror and strengthening security
• became an excuse for governments to repress opposition groups and disregard international laws and civil
liberties

Q2.1 Great Britain- past and present: the character of a nation

1.Great Britain- tradition and change

The British Empire
Britain’s colonial empire, which lasted from the late 16th to the mid 20th century, was the largest ever existed. At its
height (early 1900s), it comprised over 20%of the world’s land area and a population of 500 million. It was said
that “the sun never sets on the British Empire”. → empire was so extensive that there would always be daylight in
at least one of the colonies.

Reasons for empire-building

• GB= island → seafaring nation → exploration
• economic factors:
◦ foreign trade to bring wealth to the mother country
◦ source of raw material → provide a market for export (silk, cotton, salt, opium, tea)

The first empire

the first British colonies were in:
 • West Indian countries (Jamaica, Bahamas, Bermuda)
• Canada (Newfoundland, Hudson Bay)
• India (although it was not directly ruled by Britain until 1858)
• Gibraltar
• North America
◦ did not want protection of the mother country
◦ resisted to pay taxes (The Stamp Act of 1765), arguing they don’t have any reputation in the British
Parliament
◦ Boston Tea Party (1773) → Independence War (1783) → Founding of the United States

The Second British Empire (extending to the East)

• India + Far East: cotton, spice, tea, cloths → important for Britain
• Gibraltar, Malta, Cyprus, Aden → sea way via Suez Canal was protected
• St. Helena, the Cape Colony, Mauritius → Cape of Good Hope was protected
• in 19th century mother country developed policy of imperialism
◦ imperialism: “civilizing” the native population → imposing Western values, beliefs and many aspects
of white society on them
• Britain’s main colonies: Canada, Australia, New Zealand → mostly European settlers → European
civilization
• Africa and Asia: Western values were tried to impose on native population
◦ bring “civilization” to natives
▪ concept of racial and moral superiority of the Whites
• Africa: 1/3 was controlled by Britain
◦ “Cape to Cairo” railway → link colonies in the South with their rich supply of minerals like gold etc
with the north, where Britain controls the Suez Canal, which is extremely important for Britain →
provides a fast link to the east + better trade routes
• Australia
◦ at the beginning: mainly used as a penal colony for British prisoners
◦ after discovery of gold: became destination for people who wanted to seek their future

The break-up of the Empire

• Australia, New Zealand, Canada demanded the right to govern themselves
• rebellions in India
• growing nationalism and demand for independence in various states (e.g. Ireland, Kenya)
• conscription: citizens of British dependencies were expected to fight for Britain during the two World
Wars, which many colonies rejected
• economic reasons: after WW I, independence was given to some colonies (e.g. Egypt) to ease the
financial strain on Britain ( finanzielle Belastung GBs lindern)

Procedure
 • Initially, all colonies were known as “crown colonies” and were governed from London
• They then became “self-governing colonies” that were run by local governments, but some aspects of
government (e.g. defense) remained the responsibility of Britain
• The former colonies finally became “dominions”, which were free nations that kept the British monarch
as head of state. The transition first took place in the “white colonies” (Canada, Australia). Most African
and Asian colonies, did not gain their independence until after WW II.

The British Commonwealth

Many of Britain’s former colonies remain part of an organization called the Commonwealth of Nations. Initially,
this was a way of maintaining economic ties with former colonies that were now independent states; today it
allows member states to interact on a more informal level, states that had certain things in common (language and
culture) due to their association with Britain.

Foundation
• 1931: The Commonwealth of Nations was established as an association of all dominions, which were
now declared equal in all matters. These states had the right to reject any laws passed by the British
government and to pass legislation on domestic(inländisch) affairs.
• Former colonies that had become republics (e.g. India) and therefore did not recognize the monarch as
head of state, joined the Commonwealth at a later stage. They saw the British monarch as the symbolic
head of the Commonwealth but not of their own country.
• Economic ties and trade between Commonwealth countries remained important

→ today the Commonwealth has 52 members including Britain

Great Britain today

The role of monarchy
Britain is one of the few countries in Europe that is still a monarchy. While some people see the royal family as an
integral part of life in Britain, others believe it is time to put an end to what they see as an outdated institution.
Instead, in their opinion, Britain should become a republic, with an elected head of state.

Traditionally
• all-powerful
• political head of state
• able to imprison or execute anyone who disagreed with his decisions
• head of the Church → additional power over the citizens
• over time, lost the right to control Parliament

today
 • head of state and representative of country at home and abroad
• official head of the Church of England
• officially opens Parliament each year
• signing/refusing to sign a bill to either let it become a law or not
• appoints the Prime Minister after general election

2.being British: national identity and national stereotypes

What is “British”?
• Great Britain →the main island: England, Scotland and Wales
• The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland → official political name
◦ Union Flag → mixture between English, Scottish and Northern-Irish flag
• Citizens of Great Britain are therefor British. However, many choose to identify themselves by their
country of birth within Britain (English, Scottish, Welsh or Irish)

What are the British like?

Most common stereotypes:
• always polite
• standing in queues
• drinking lots of tea
• always talking about the weather
• loving the royal family
• always apologizing, even if it wasn’t their fault
• strong sense of fairness and justice
• love animals, sometimes more than they love other people
• “island mentality” → geographical separation gives them a sense of superiority → they don’t consider
themselves being a part of Europe
• strong pub culture → going out and getting drunk
• national pride
• living in a multicultural society
• love of sarcasm and irony
• school uniforms
• social classes

Social structure of Britain

• class-ridden society
◦ class distinction (Unterscheidung) and consciousness were important!
◦ Upper class - middle class (biggest one) - working class
 • class distinction through:
◦ language (“upper class accent” …)
◦ education (private schools, Oxford or Cambridge)
◦ hereditary titles (“Lord”)
◦ house and job, etc…

3.Elizabethan England – an introduction to the Golden Age

→ named after Queen Elizabeth (1533-1603) ; reigned for 45 years
• never got married/ no children to keep the power to herself → “married to England”
• close to her folk – supported their ideas, traveled to see the truth (poor, diseased, etc)
• very clever, strong, confident queen

Politics and economics

• England emerged as a world power
• International trade → rise of capitalism
• strongest naval force (Marine)
• Internal problems
◦ Constant clash between Catholics and Protestants → Reformation
◦ firm establishment of a Protestant Church with Elizabeth as head of Church of England
• new explorations
◦ sun, not the earth, is center of the solar system
◦ earth is round, not flat
◦ exploration of the New World

Culture
• The Golden Age → term used for the Renaissance in Britain at the tome of Elizabeth I
• Freedom of spirit → imagination
• Domestic study of the Bible → widely read and heard
• music
◦ traveling musicians – churches, country houses, local festivals
◦ for everybody – singing and dancing together
◦ story telling songs
• theater
◦ popular and affordable for everyone
◦ non-polite atmosphere→ loud conversations, expressions of disagreements with the play in forms of
throwing food on the stage
◦ no women; neither on stage, nor during the production of the play
World view
Belief that everything and everyone was arranged in a certain order – a hierarchy
 • the Great Chain of Being
◦ God was the head of all things
◦ the king, his representative on earth, was the head of state
▪ The Divine Right of Kings
• As God’s representative on Earth, the King was the supreme upholder of order on Earth
• Any violent act against the King was considered to be a mortal sin against God
◦ the Pope the head of the Church
• Place in the Universe
◦ Earth is the center of the Universe
→ new discoveries proofed that the sun was the center of the solar system

Q2.2 Ethnic diversity

1.Great Britain as a multicultural society

Immigration to Britain
Around 1 in 8 people living in Britain were born outside Britain. The largest groups of immigrants come from
Asia, especially the Indian subcontinent, the Caribbean, and Europe.
Foreigners come to Britain
• to work
• to study
• to seek asylum
• to join members of their families who already live there

Immigrants from former colonies

• In the 1950s and 1960s, there was an urgent need for workers in the UK, and foreigners (especially from
Caribbean, India and Pakistan) were encouraged to come to fill the gap.
• Citizens of Commonwealth countries are given a residence permit to live in the UK
• This group suffered during the economic downturn of the early 1970s, when there was a lot of
unemployment.

Immigrants from the EU

• Since Britain is a member of the EU, every Citizen of the EU is allowed to live and work in Britain
• Since Britain’s decision to leave the EU, there has been a significant fall in the number of people moving
to Britain
• large numbers of EU citizens have left the UK → uncertain about their future status once Brexit comes
into force
• Experts have warned that there may be a “brain drain” of specialists from EU countries, which would
cause problems for British industry in the long term.
Britain as a multicultural society
Ethnic background of the UK population:
main groups:
1) Whites
2) Indian
3) Black African
4) Black Caribbean
5) Pakistani
6) Bangladeshi
7) Chinese
8) Mixed race
Although white people make up the majority of British society (around 87%), the country has a lot of ethnic
diversity, especially in large cities.

Is a multicultural society good or bad?

Good Bad
Ethnic diversity enriches a society → introduces a wide A country’s national identity and traditions will be lost
variety of food, music and fashion if they become too diluted with those of other cultures
Ethnic food becomes part of their national culture → When cultures are very different, they cannot integrate,
Chicken Tikka Masala, Curry only exist side by side
Interacting with people from a variety of backgrounds Many migrants do not want to integrate into British
makes people more open-minded and tolerant society → they create division
For businesses, foreign workers bring a new People from different cultures do not always share the
perspective into the workplace → can lead to greater same values as the rest of the society → can lead to
creativity and productivity through different approaches conflict and racial tension
found in different cultures (religion / traditions/ gender concepts)
Multiculturalism can lead to a more peaceful society → People who do not identify with their host country can
people are more accepting of differences, unlike become isolated → they live within their communities
isolationist countries that are unused to foreigners and and are not integrated in society
therefore more suspicious and intolerant

Problems facing first-generation migrants

• Integration can be difficult, especially when the migrants don’t speak English
• Many of them have low-paid, unskilled jobs and live in inner city areas with poor housing
• They have to face discrimination → some people believe that migrants have only come to Britain to take
advantage of the social security system and free healthcare
• There has been a significant increase in anti-Islam sentiment in recent years. This is due to the increasing
number of terrorist attacks carried out by Islamic extremist groups in Western countries → deeper
suspicion of Muslims or “Muslim-looking” people
• there are not many members of ethnic minorities in politics, the police force, the army and similar fields
Problems facing second-generation migrants
• They live with two cultures: their family’s culture in the home with its traditions and beliefs, and outside
the home, the same Western culture that their classmates and friends share → this can lead to a cultural
clash
• They can feel distanced from their parents’ and grandparents’ culture → they may not speak their
language, and may never have visited the country their family comes from
• They feel that they have to live up to their parents’ expectations → they might feel guilty about trying to
lead their own life
• They might face discrimination → they are seen as foreign, when in fact they feel British
• They experience a crisis of identity → they do not completely belong to either culture

2.prejudice and the one-track mind

multicultural societies, prejudices and stereotypes, have always played a role in Britain:
→ stereotypes: generalized ideas about someone, often based on some kind of experience; can be positive or
negative
→ prejudices: fixed ideas or convictions; do not rest on empirical knowledge and are always negate

Attitudes towards immigration

• most British citizens welcome/accept immigrants
• need them as a workforce
→ carefully managed migration policy holds economic advantages

Integration, not assimilation

• immigrants are expected to have shared identities → assimilation
• but are expected to learn the language and practical knowledge about the UK and the British way of life
• atmosphere of mutual tolerance
◦ tolerance is limited by basic laws and moral principals
▪ Western “sharia law” → men have overwhelming power; women have a permanent status of
inferiority (Minderwertigkeit)
→ unacceptable

Muslims in Britain
• since 9/11, more critical spotlight on British Muslims
• growing number of Britons believe British Muslims need to integrate themselves more in mainstream
culture
• Most Muslims feel to be seen separated and different from the rest of the population; complain about high
level of Islamophobia
• Majority of moderate Muslims see themselves as British Muslims, not only Muslims
 • younger generation of British Muslims less willing to integrate → young radicals
◦ minority even thinks their community is too integrated
◦ turn to religion to give their life meaning
◦ don’t feel like they belong to either the British, not the Muslim British culture
→ live “parallel lives” in a separate community
◦ reject Western culture and values as inferior and idealize Islamic culture, “sharia law” and jihad

“My Son the Fanatic” - Hanif Kureishi (1994)

Summary (modern england, urban environment)
• Ali starts behaving suspiciously, throws away many of his belongings
• Parvez asks friends for help, they say he's doing drugs
• after checking everything Parvez finds nothing except that Ali prays a lot
• takes son out to eat → Ali lectures him on strict Muslim ways, Parvez is appalled and insulted
• Parvez and Bettina meet Ali at a mosque (Moschee)
• Ali insults Bettina
• once they get home Parvez beats Ali up out of anger

Characters
Parvez:
• immigrant from Pakistan, non-religious, Muslim
• cab driver
• leads very Western lifestyle
Ali:
• Parvez's son
• “disillusioned” with Western society, blames it for precarious living situation of immigrants in the UK
• seeks refuge in religion
• radicalized Muslim
Bettina:
• prostitute
• good friend of Parvez
• wants to help Parvez
•
Message
• deals with struggle of 2nd generation immigrants
→ they feel cast out of the society growing up in due to racism/ failed immigration
• seeks solace from poverty and discrimination in religion
• shows why Muslim that grew up in the West get radicalized
→ clash of cultures
→ clash of generations - lack of immigration

reasons why 2nd generations radicalize:

• poverty, bad living standard
• between identities and cultures
• don’t feel respected → discrimination ********* trouble mind // rhetorical

3. integration versus assimilation

Assimilation vs Integration
• assimilation
◦ one way direction (minority)
▪ minority adapts culture of host country in order to become a full part of the society
▪ giving up or modifying the minority culture to become acceptable to the majoritiy culture
◦ minorities sometimes critical about assimilation
▪ “they” will integrate into “our” society as if “our” ways are somehow “better” or superior
→ process of making a soup, where the ingredients lose their identity as they are blended together
(melting-pot theory)
• integration
◦ two way process → mutual compromise
▪ requires mutual respect from all parties
▪ influences from both cultures → both have to change a bit
▪ accepting the minority culture into the majority culture
▪ requires acceptance of the laws and ways of the host country
▪ minority doesn’t have to give up on their laws and ways → pre-condition: host country is
willing to accept foreign culture as equal
→ process of making a salad where individual ingredients, with their different colors and sizes contribute
to the beauty of the dish (salad bowl theory)

Q2.3 The English-speaking world

1.South Africa – past and present

history of South Africa
• Portuguese sailors first arrived “Cape of Good Hope”
• 1652: the Cape Colony was established by Dutch East India Company
 ◦ to secure direct trade relations
• indigenous population lost their land → resistance grew but white settlers succeeded to stay
• 1806: the British took over the Cape Colony for military and commercial reasons
• 1867: diamonds and gold were discovered → whites pushed natives further back and made them work on
the mines
• until 1902: Boer wars between British immigrants and Dutch descendants (Nachkommen)
• 1910: Union of South Africa was established → part of the British Empire
◦ racial segregation is part of the Union’s constitution
▪ Mines and Works Act: excludes black people from leading jobs
▪ Native Lands Act: prevents black people from owning land
• reserves 90% of the country’s land for the white minority
▪ Native Urban Area Act: special areas for blacks, far away from cities → townships
• 1948: National Party wins election → “apartheid” policy officially introduced
◦ non-whited groups (“Colored”, Asians and native Africans) were separated from each other
◦ not allowed to vote
◦ no mixed marriages
◦ segregation of public facilities
◦ limited education
• 1950: Freedom Charter → first protest against Apartheid led by Nelson Mandela
• no intervention of Western democracies because of Cold War, relied on material goods
• South Africa’s isolation
◦ 1960s UN resolutions, sanctions
◦ 1961 South Africa was forced to leave Commonwealth and becomes a republic
• Nelson Mandela is sentenced to life-imprisonment
• 1970s protests against apartheid
◦ Black Consciousness Movement – Steve Biko
▪ Blacks become more self-consciousness towards the whites
◦ 1976: pupils started protest against the orders of the government to teach secondary in Afrikaans
→ From now on, the whole world took notice on the events in SA
→ the pressure on the country from the inside and outside grew quickly
• 1986: Japan and Europe imposed sanctions against apartheid regime
◦ freedom fighters were trained in these countries (SA)
• 1990: state of Emergency under President F.W. de Klerk → massive reforms
◦ Nelson Mandela is released after spending 27 years in prison
• 1991: President De Klerk eventually ends the apartheid
• 1990-1994: South African government and the ANC negotiate laws on majority rule
→ power sharing government and new constitution
• 1994: ANC (African National Congress) wins the first free “multiracial”, “multicultural” elections →
Nelson Mandela becomes State President → official end of apartheid
• today: Rainbow Nation → multicultural and -racial country
2.living together
Rainbow Nation
• 1994: new beginning of South Africa
→ day of the first non-racial, free and democratic general election
• “Rainbow Nation” : a term coined by Archbishop Desmond Tutu to describe post-apartheid South Africa
• rainbow: associated with hope and a bright future
• was intended to sum up the unity of multiculturalism and the coming-together of people of many different
nations, in a country once identified with the strict division of white and black

Political and social issues

• HIV/AIDS, other health challenges, e.g. infections
• education and skill shortages
• horrible infrastructure
• post-apartheid lead to some socioeconomic gains
→ still unequal society in respect to wealth, income distribution, job access, social services, land
ownership
• most blacks are poor, have limited access to education, suffer from high unemployment
• townships = high-density housing settlement attribute to social. Political tension
• public corruption, violent crime, dissatisfaction of youth due to high unemployment rate
→ key solution for high unemployment rate + economic growth → IMPROVEMENT OF
EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
• land ownership is almost completely in the hands of white farmers
• huge difference between rich and poor
• Crime on South Africa
◦ highest rate of murder and rape → nearly became “normal”
◦ most crimes were committed in the townships
▪ reasons: poverty, lack of security, protection/defense, dissatisfaction
◦ incomplete police force: quick to shoot, often undermined by racial prejudice
▪ demand: more police, better trained
◦ witnesses often to not help/act adequately → culture of common acceptance → criminals are
motivated by people taking pictures
• anger & hopelessness among society
• Poverty
◦ people are dissatisfied with President, just words no action
◦ government wastes money on FIFA World Cup instead of fighting against the hunger in SA
◦ biggest problems: extreme hunger, unemployment, lack of access to resoures/primary health care/
clean water → diseases, governmental inaction
◦ demonstrations against government
General information
• White people superior
◦ causes uprising/protests
• Men are more superior than women → black women suffer the most from apartheid laws
• black people are badly educated compared to whites
• racial separation in industrial, territorial, administrative and residential spheres

3. national identity
• National symbols, such as the flag, become the brand image of a country
• National Anthem is very expressive
◦ expression by people of the love and loyalty to their country
◦ National pride and solidarity is expressed with deep emotions of the love and passion

Xenophobia → hatred/fear of foreigners

• violent dislike of foreigners, refugees
• apartheid is still alive
• lack of trust and effective conflict resolution mechanisms
• people have the feeling of no negative consequences
• competition of community leadership → violence against foreigners to strengthen their power

Blouvlei Guguletu
community around Cape Town township
Standard of living Standard of living
• self-built houses/shacks • not enough space to live
• people choose to live here, citizens love the → crowded, gray, ugly, impersonal
place • can be compared to a dump
• people had word, good infrastructure close by • lack of hygiene: streets are full of rubbish
(shops, schools, etc) • no financial means “rag-clothed people”
• enough teachers for their children → working • role of the government: no help for the people
school system → lack of self-determination
• lack of an academic education
People People
• close-knit community, people know each other, • no existing community
families supported each other • people are unhappy, they feel homesick →
• parents wanted their kids to go to school among standards
• only white people living in Bouvlei • they lost their humanity
• parents doesn’t have time to take care of their
children, most of them don’t go to school
• not enough teachers and schools
• long working hours
• only black people living in Guguletu
General information General information
• happy, peaceful, people live together with their • people were forced to live there → bad
neighbors feelings
• no one wants to leave • no opportunities
• feeling of home • violence, frustration, tension
• support through the community • life is marked by anonymity
 • lack of mutual support
• no existing community life

4.Mother to Mother
• also reproaches (vorwerfen) Amy for being killed → partly her own fault

Understandable Not understandable

Amy should have known the danger of coming to South You can never blame the victim → she had no bad
Africa near the twonships (rather than looking at her intentions
situation only idealistically)
Mandisa wants to clarify that the murder isn’t her fault She wanted to help to establish democracy → improve
the circumstances for a whole nation
Unconscious/ naive Has only had good experiences with the blacks so far,
has been to townships before
→ why should she worry this time?
→ she felt like one of them already, ahe knew their
language, dances etc
Amy was the only white person in Guguleti, so she was Even though she knows the danger, she didn’t expect
noticed quickly anything to happen to her

Q3.1 Human dilemmas in fiction and real life

1.extreme situations
2. being different
3.Othello
• Othello was probably written around 1603 and first performed in the Globe Theater in 1604; first printed
version was published in 1622
• Plot is based on story of the Italian novelist and poet Giovanni Battista Giraldi
• Drama comprises five acts
◦ Act I is set in Venice
◦ Acts II to V is set on Cyprus
• The time is the Renaissance (about 1570)

ACT I
• Play opens with Iago (Othello’s Ancient) and Roderigo (rich Venetian gentlemen) meeting in a street in
Venice
• Roderigo jewels to win Desdemona over for him
• Iago complains that Othello has not promoted him as his lieutenant; instead of him he chose Michael
Cassio
◦ → Iago feels offended; decides to stay in Othello’s service but only to get what he wants
 • Iago and Roderigo wake Brabantio to tell him that his daughter secretly married Othello; Iago leaves
• Brabantio calls on Roderigo to help him to find and confront Othello
• Othello is wanted by the Duke of Venice because of an imminent Turkish invasion of Cyprus Roderigo
and Brabantio appear on the scene → Brabantio is furious and accuses Othello of having used magic to
steal his daughter
• Othello claims that he won Desdemona’s love not by magic but by telling her the story of his life →
Desdemona confirms this and professes her love and allegiance to her husband; she asks for permission to
accompany her husband
• Roderigo is dejected and wants to drown himself
◦ → Iago consoles him by saying that he would undermine the couples love relationship by convincing
Othello that Desdemona betrays him with Cassio

ACT II
• Terrible storm rages, delaying the arrival of the Venetians on Cyprus
• Othello eventually makes it to the island with the news that the Turkish fleet has been wrecked in the wild
sea
• Iago tells Roderigo that Desdemona will soon become tired of Othello and is already showing interest in
Cassio
• Iago wants Roderigo to provoke Cassio into a fight which will disgrace and eventually eliminate the new
lieutenant
• To celebrate the destruction of the Turkish fleet in the storm, the Venetians gather in a hall in the castle
• Iago gets Cassio drunk
◦ → under the influence of alcohol he insults Roderigo and injures Montano (Othello’s predecessor in
the government of Cyprus)
• Othello is disgusted by Cassio’s behaviour and removes him from his position
◦ → “Cassio, I love thee, but never more be officer of mine” (II,3)
• Iago advises Cassio to ask Desdemona for help to regain Othello’s favour
◦ → his plan is to use Desdemona’s pleading for Cassio to make Othello jealous

ACT III
• With the help of Iago’s wife Emilia, Cassio gets access to Desdemona
◦ → she promises him to speak with Othello on his behalf
• Cassio leaves when Othello arrives because he doesn’t want to meet the general now
• Desdemona speaks to Othello asking him to take Cassio back
◦ → Othello hesitates
• Iago uses Cassio’s hasty exit and Desdemona’s pleading for Cassio to rouse Othello’s suspicion,
insinuating that Desdemona has an affair
◦ → he begins to doubt his wife’s loyalty but keeps it secret
 • Desdemona accidentally drops a handkerchief she has received as a gift from her husband
• Iago gets hold of it through his wife Emilia and puts it in Cassio’s room
• Iago kindles Othello’s jealousy by telling that he heard Cassio fantasise in his dream about Desdemona &
that he heard that Cassio is in possession of the handkerchief
• Othello vows revenge and makes Iago lieutenant
• When Othello asks Desdemona for the handkerchief she is unable to present it
◦ → he is upset and becomes angry and unkind; jealousy has taken hold of him
• Cassio asks his mistress Bianca to copy the embroidery on the handkerchief he found in his chamber; he
doesn’t know that its Desdemona’s

ACT IV
• Othello suspects that Desdemona gave the missing handkerchief to her new lover
• Iago tells Othello that Cassio said he spent a night with Desdemona; Othello loses consciousness When
Othello recovers Iago instructs him to listen to Cassio’s report about his affair
◦ → Cassio describes his relationship with the prostitute Bianca in a light-hearted and joking manner;
Othello believes he is talking about Desdemona and is totally enraged
• Bianca enters; gives Cassio the handkerchief
◦ → proof for the infidelity of Desdemona
• Iago offers the furious Othello to kill Cassio for him; suggests that he should strangle his wife
Desdemona enters with Lodovico (a messenger from Venice); he announces that Othello is commanded
home and Cassio should take his place on Cyprus
• Desdemona expresses her joy; Othello strikes her
• When the couple is alone Othello calls Desdemona “whore”, “public commoner” “strumpet”
• He tells her to wait for him in bed and send Emilia away
• Iago has persuaded Roderigo that he has to kill Cassio if he still wants to have a chance of winning
Desdemona

ACT V
• Iago instructs Roderigo to ambush Cassio
• Cassio is seriously injured, Iago pretends to take revenge for him and stabs Roderigo
◦ → the death will hide the fact that Iago has kept the gold and jewels Roderigo had given him for
Desdemona
• Othello has decided to kill Desdemona to bring about justice
• Desdemona professes her innocence asserting she only loved Othello
◦ → he stifles her
• Emilia comes in to report on Roderigo’s death and discovers the dying Desdemona
• Othello claims he killed Desdemona because he had proof of her infidelity from Iago
• Emilia tells him that Desdemona never loved anybody but Othello (did not deserve her love, raises alarm)
 • Emilia discloses that her husband Iago was behind this evil plot
◦ → Iago kills her
• Othello tries to kill Iago
• The wounded Cassio explains how the handkerchief came into his possession
• Othello realises his terrible mistake and stabs himself
• Iago is tried and executed

William Shakespeare’s Othello takes place in the 16th century Venice and also Cyprus.
Othello who is a noble black warrior in the Venetian army that secretly married a beautiful white women named
Desdemona. She is the daughter of a prominent senator named Brabantio. When he eventually find out (with Iagos
“help”), he is completely furious so he decides to disown Desdemona.
Iago has a secrete jealousy and resentment towards Othello because a soldier named Lieutenant Cassio has been
put in front of him and also suspects that Othello has been cheating with his wife. Waiting on revenge, Iago plans
a devious comeback to plant suspicions in Othello’s mind that Desdemona has been having an affair with Cassio.
He decided to start a street fight which Cassio is blamed for, and is then dismissed from his post by Othello.
Desdemona takes up Cassio’s case with her husband which only increases his suspicions about their affair. While
all of this is happening, Iago influences his wife to steal the handkerchief Othello gave to Desdemona. He
somehow he gets the handkerchief on Cassio, aiming for Othello seeing it and concluding that the possession is
proof of the affair. Due to the jealously, he orders Iago to murder Cassio. Then Othello decides to strangle
Desdemona. Immediately afterwards her innocence is revealed and Iago’s intrigues is exposed. In a fir of grief
and remorse Othello kills himself and Iago is taken into custody by the authorities.

Characters
Othello
• Hero of the play
• “the Moore” → black general of armies of Venice
◦ not socially accepted as a person (because of his skin color)
• Stranger in the Italian town
◦ nevertheless he is respected and honored by the Duke, his officers and the people of Venice
• widely traveled and experienced → qualities of a leader
• natural authority; brave; proud; noble; trusting; calm
• gentleman; rational; loves and believes his wife
• BUT: vulnerable: insecure about his age difference to Desdemona and his race
◦ easy for Iago to manipulate him into:
▪ very emotional way of speaking; foul-minded
▪ describing Desdemona as a whore
▪ confused and collapsed; irrational, murderous
▪ “curse of marriage” → change in his feelings towards marriage
 → torn apart between loving and killing her
The character of Othello transforms during the course of the play from a respected and courageous leader to a
madly jealous husband. Though Othello initial seems like an all-powerful military general, in reality, he is
emotionally vulnerable. Iago exploits this vulnerability ad this coupled with Othello's own inability to think for
himself, leads to Othello's demise. Therefore Iago is not the reason for this change in character, but is only the
catalyst for this change.

• Act 1 and 2
◦ Gentleman, rational, loves and believes his wife (“How I did thrive in this fair lady’s love”) , trusts
others easily (explained by Iago as a “free and open nature”)
◦ noble and respectful → the way he talks to the Venetian elite (very poetically, complex sentences
and polite language)
• Act 3 Scene 1 and 2
◦ suspicious (influenced by Iago), mistrusts, but still wants proof of Desdemona’s adultery
• Act 3 Scene 3
◦ Very emotional way of speaking, his personality changes rapidly
◦ takes “honest Iago”’s words as if they were the truth → not rational
◦ not giving Desdemona the opportunity to explain herself
• Act 4
◦ Behavior towards women (especially Desdemona) has now completely changed → slaps her in front
of her relatives
◦ he has lost control of the situation
◦ changes in his language: “blood, blood, blood” instead of his complexity
▪ calling Desdemona a whore
• Act 5 Scene 2
◦ Torn apart between loving Desdemona and wanting to kill her, is confused and without orientation of
what is good and bad; shows very cruel side towards Desdemona
◦ Realization of what he has done; guilt; comes back to his senses; faces the consequences → it is like
a frenzy (Blutrausch) has ended

Desdemona
• daughter of the Venetian senator Brabantio
• knows that her marriage won’t be accepted by her father and the society → secrete marriage
• In the confrontation with her father, she stands firm in her allegiance to Othello
◦ adultery is unimaginable for her
◦ she is surprised by Othello’s suspicions and his violent behavior towards her
• she professes her innocence up to the very last moment
• Victim of Othello (manipulated by Iago)
• She is the most innocent of all of Shakespeare’s heroines
• how she changes during the play:
 ◦ Before Cyprus: strong and independent woman, brisk, can speak up for herself
◦ after arriving in Cyprus: changes into a more obedient behaviour, lives up to the expectations of
society (how a married woman was supposed to behave)
◦ accepts her death, does not fight back, even takes the guilt, stays even though she senses her nearing
death, just tries to bargain for more time

→ relationship Othello – Desdemona

• Desdemona faces criticism for her bold choice of marrying a black man
• she fell in love with the stories he told → active character; chose to love him
• D. remains loyal to him even after their misunderstandings
• young relationship → don’t know each other very well, otherwise Othello wouldn’t have been so open to
Iago’s intrigue
• extremely passionate and overwhelming love; true feelings
• O. doesn’t trust her in the end; doesn’t want to hear the truth
• D. behaves like she is his property; he is her “lord”
◦ very obedient

Iago
• battle-hardened veteran of 28; serving Othello
• haunted by the thought of Emilia (his wife) betraying him with Othello
• hates Othello because he chose Cassio over him
• master manipulator
◦ managing to play people like puppets
▪ Roderigo, Othello, Emilia, Brabatio, Cassio
◦ blunt honesty makes people believe him
• brilliant improviser
◦ didn’t think about how his plan with Othello is supposed to end
◦ uses every occasion/person to further his purpose
• misogynist (Frauenhasser), racist, abusive husband
• can change his manners instantly and immediately
→ personification of evil

Emilia
• Desdemona’s loyal lady-in-waiting
• She knows about her husband’s malign (bösartige) nature but without realizing she assists Iago in his
intrigues
• Thinks about men in a negative way, but nevertheless she is obedient towards her husband
• After Desdemona’s death she betrays Iago and reveals his true nature
◦ → last act of rebellion
relationship Iago – Emilia
• trapped in the marriage made in hell
• I. uses E. as a tool → only cares for her if she’s of use to him
• eager to please her husband , loves him very much → steals handkerchief
◦ goes as far as betraying her friend Desdemona for him
• Iago still underestimates her; she is the only one who was able to bring Iago down

Michael Cassio
• highly educated young man from Florence
• Lieutenant of Othello
• Iago’s view: Cassio is a bookkeeper well-versed in statistics but inexperienced in combat
• Object of Iago’s intrigues
• relationship to Bianca
◦ Different views of how serious their relationship is, for Cassio it is only sexual
◦ Bianca gets jealous when she finds the handkerchief in Cassio’s room
◦ Cassio cares about his reputation → a prostitute is bad for his reputation
◦ C. tries to avoid her, especially around other men

themes and interpretations

• character tragedy
◦ in Shakespear’s early tragedies the catastrophe which destroys the protagonist result from an
inescapable and unavoidable fate
◦ In Shakespeare’s later plays the tragedy is not brought by some higher force or destiny
→ downfall of the protagonist is due to a fault flaw in his character
• Jealousy
◦ Othello
▪ he thinks that Desdemona cheated on him → sexual jealously
• Othello would lose hid manhood/social status if his wife betrayed him
▪ Othello is a tragic character → a gentle and noble man but he fails to see through Iago’s net of
lies
▪ Othello is naive → convinced that Iago is an honest man
▪ kills Desdemona to safe other men from her unfaithfulness
▪ It is interesting that Iago uses jealousy against Othello, yet jealousy is likely the source of Iago's
hatred in the first place
• → the reason Iago chooses to hurt Othello by making him jealous is that Iago is consumed
by jealously himself
◦ Iago
▪ jealous of Cassio’s promotion → Job related jealously
 ▪ jealous of Othello because
• he thinks that Othello slept with his wife → sexual jealously
• Othello (black man) is married to the “ideal” woman
◦ Roderigo
▪ jealous of Othello because Othello is married to Desdemona
▪ jealous of Cassio because he thinks Cassio is having an affair with D.
→ sexual jealously
◦ Bianca
▪ jealous because she thinks that Cassio is having an affair with another woman
▪ → sexual jealously
→ sexual jealousy is triggered by possessiveness and competitiveness
▪ different reasons: Othello because he loves D.; Iago because he is full of hate and has inferiority
complex
▪ destroys love, honor and nobility; leads to physical and emotional violence
◦ Imagery of jealousy
▪ green eyed monster; parasite that destroys his host from within
▪ something monstrous and dangerous
▪ poisonousness
• racism
◦ racial prejudice is alive in the Venetian establishment
◦ Othello’s background and the color of his skin make him an outsider
▪ leads to his insecurity which makes it easier for Iago to manipulate him
▪ Othello and Desdemona’s marriage was a disgrace
◦ Roderigo and Iago refer to him disparagingly (abwertend)
▪ “Barbary horse” “old black ram” “ a lascivious Moor”
◦ Shakespeare tries to illustrate Othello as a black hero
▪ Othello speaks eloquently and displays more gentlemanly qualities than those who judge him
▪ Iago (white) is actually the villain (Bösewicht)
• Pride/honor and reputation
◦ reputation is “the immortal part” which distinguishes man from animal
▪ → a life without reputation is not worth living
◦ Othello kills Desdemona to maintain (aufrechtzuerhalten) his reputation and honor
◦ → in the modern point of view: Othello’s, cassio’s and Iago’s actions are hard to understand but in
the light of the ancient concept of honor and reputation, their train of thought might be easier to
reconstruct
• appearance vs reality
◦ Othello
▪ appearance:
• Christian Moor and general of the armies of Venice
• Powerful and eloquent figure
 • respected by all those around him
▪ reality:
• insecurities because of his age, life as a soldier and his race
→ prerequisite for manipulation
◦ Iago
▪ appearance
• trustful and honest; hard worker and good friend; calm and respected
▪ reality
• manipulative, deceitful, jealous, hypocritical
◦ Roderigo
▪ appearance
• rich and young; gullible
▪ reality
• lovesick → does everything for Desdemona
• stupid and manipulated → Paragon of Iago’s manipulation
◦ Desdemona
▪ appearance
• independent ans strong
• self-possessed and determined
▪ reality
• suppressed by Othello's
• helpless and weak

Q3.2 Modeling the future

1.Science and technology

Science
• genetic engineering
◦ Manipulation or modification of organism using biotechnology

Applications of genetically modified organisms

• biological and medical research
• production of pharmaceutical drugs
• experimental medicine
• agriculture
• widest application: for crops resistant herbicides
Transgenic microbes
• Bacteria were the first organisms to be modified in the laboratory
• Genetically modified bacteria are used
◦ to produce insulin to treat diabetes
◦ to produce clotting factors to treat haemophilia
◦ to produce human growth hormones to treat various forms of dwarfism
◦ to facilitate crop growth in some soils or eliminate crop pests

Transgenic animals
• are used
◦ as experimental models to test genes whose function is unknown
◦ for the production of human hormones such as insulin

Transgenic plants
• have been engineered to
◦ resist pest, herbicides or harsh environmental conditions
◦ improve products shelf life
◦ increase their nutritional value
◦ produce bigger yields thus making farmland more efficient

Pro Con
Research to benefit the environment → engineering Danger: only a few large multinational corporations →
techniques for reducing the use of pesticides they’re interested in gaining control over the world’s
food production → farmers will be dependent
Aim: to develop plentiful, safe, healthy crops without Their goal: to make profit and not to reduce the hunger
using many chemicals in the world
Makes plants more resistant to drought Those large biotech firms acquire the patent rights for
large number of common plants
Promise of greater yields for developing countries No known long-term effects in the food chain → could
mutate in ways that are not good for the plants or for us
Genetically introduced vaccines against e.g. diarrhea- Through eating crops that hve been made resistant to
causing bacteria into third world crops such as bananas antibiotics, we can also become resistant, leaving us
more vulnerable to certain diseases
Land is used more efficiently

Designer babies
• refers to a baby whose genetic makeup has been artificially selected to ensure the presence or absence of
certain characteristics, especially with regard to the sex of the child
Pro Con
Child will not develop a hereditary disease later in life Treatment very expensive, painful, risky
The child will not pass on the defective gene → cancer Moral/ religious concerns
gene will eventually die out
Still gets other diseases
Where do you draw the line → there are other
hereditary diseases that are not fatal

Cloning
• Creation of an organism that is an exact copy of another
◦ every single bit of DNA is the same for both of them
◦ using cells to create an embryo or organ; a cell is marched with a donor ess off which the nucleus is
removed
• reproductive cloning: embryo is grown and then implanted
◦ not allowed with humans
◦ Dolly the sheep
aim: create identical beings
Pro Con
All the clones are genetically identical so they will have If a clone is affected by a disease or change in the
the required characteristics, e.g. cows that produce a lot environment, all of the others will be, too
of milk can be cloned to make a dairy farm more
productive
It may be possible to save species from extinction Cloning leads to less variation, and limits the
through cloning, or even bring extinct species back to opportunities for creating new varieties in the future →
life a lack of variation within a species can lead to
extinction

Savior Sibling
• a child conceived through selective in vitro fertilization as a potential source of donor organs or cells for
an existing sibling with a life-threatening medical condition
Pro Con
Take the families burden → time, money, seeing your Selecting human beings
child suffering
Big chance of being a donor match Do not value the child for being the own child
Able to safe someone’s life Savior Sibling may be emotionally damaged, when it
finds out why they were born
No guarantee that it’ll be successful
Technology
definition Artificial Intelligence (AT)
• human like intelligence performed by machines or software
• ability of a computer to think and learn
• field of study that tried to make computer “smart”

definition robot
• automated mechanical device which often looks like a human. It is usually run by a computer program

Pro Con
Unlimited memory capability Designers are the intelligent ones, robots only use their
given intelligence (algorithms and programs)
Unlimited energy
Help for elderly (keeps us out of (care homes) No feelings → no emotional, social intelligence →
elderly care??
Military advances → wars by robots (no empathy and Not able to discriminate between combatant and
compassion) innocent → wars??
Make daily life easier Ethical question → no laws?
While there is still time, ethical guidelines and laws on
the use of robots should be discussed and agreed upon
by citizens , politicians and relevant professional
people
No evidence of robots working against humans Might take over human brain, make them superior
Help the environment
Solving demographic problems
Space explorations /advancement in science
Completing dull duties → helping people with People loose their job → easy tasks replaced by robots
“memory tasks”
+jobs that human don’t want ro do could be done by
robots
Could make traffic safer
The AL industry creates jobs
→ big economic asset
Who is responsible when something goes wrong?

areas of application:
Microsurgery
→ help surgeons performing difficult operations that would otherwise be too fine for human hands

Dangerous jobs
→ used to asses and clean up dangerously polluted environments, chemical spills (chemische Verschmutzung) and
radioactive zones
→ used in search and rescue operations following catastrophes such as earthquakes

Military
→ to defuse bombs, also used as mine sweepers
→ drones can be used to observe enemies and to drop bombs

elderly care
→ help with the problem of the aging population

2. possibilities and responsibilities

the ethics of genetic engineering
Many people regard genetic engineering as simply the result of scientific progress, a way to improve our planet
and make life better for ourselves and our fellow human beings. Many other people are less sure. Genetic
modification is not a natural process, and it therefore means we are changing nature to suit our purpose. This is
why it is sometimes referred to as “playing God”: the implication is that we do not have the right to bring about
these changes, that they are something only God should do. However, even if they are not religious, there are
many people who question the ethics of genetic engineering and wonder whether we have gone too far.

Genetic engineering: positive viewpoint Ethical dilemmas

There is nothing wrong with the genetic modification The technology is not safe and may never be
of embryos: parents should have the right to choose the completely safe
physical features of their children
Parents should make sure their children have the best Perfect health does not guarantee a good life → there
possible life → this includes ensuring they will not are many other outside factors, some of which cannot
have to suffer from genetic diseases be predicted when the child is born
The human species will become stronger and better If we create a race of “super humans”, they may feel it
able to survive in the future if our genes are better is their right to mistreat ordinary people
There could be serious discrimination against disabled
people
The procedure will be expensive → only wealthy
people will be able to afford a “perfect” baby; in
addition to this, babies become products that can be
bought
The genetic modification of people will damage the
human gene pool → in the long term, human being may
not have the variety and resilience to survive
Parents should have the right to choose the gender of We already have the example of societies in the world
their child that prefer boys over girls, and encourage women to
abort female fetuses → creates an imbalance in society
and, often, a large surplus of males who cannot find a
female partner
Male children are important → parents need a son to Members of the other sec may feel unwanted or suffer
provide for them and the rest of the family, especially discrimination because they are seen as unnecessary
when they get old
In other cultures, it is good to have a daughter who can It sometimes goes wrong during the procedure and a
physically care for their parents in their old age child of the unwanted sex is born, the parents may find
it hard to love the child → they did not get what they
wanted
Parents who do this are selfish → they are not thinking
about how their decision will affect their child
Decisions of this kind are like playing God and
unethical → parents should accept the child they are
given and not try to make him/her perfect
The use of stem cells for medical research helped Embryos are living creatures and using them for
people who are in a desperate situation → if they are research in this way is murder.
lucky, a cure will be found

3. power and ambition

→ genetics in agriculture
• Danger: only a few large multinational corporations → they’re interested in gaining control over the
world’s food production → farmers will be dependent
• Their goal: to make profit and not to reduce the hunger in the world
• Those large biotech firms acquire the patent rights for large number of common plants
→ too much power for multinational companies → monopoly (Monopol)

→ danger of the “superhuman”

• if we create a race of “super humans”, they might feel superior
• there could be serious discrimination against disabled people
• the procedure will be expensive → only wealthy people will be able to afford a “perfect” baby; in
addition to this, babies become products that can be bought

Q3.3 Gender issues

1. gender and identity

gender identity
• central component of am individual’s identity in his or her gender
• unlike the biologically determined sex, gender (roles) are often perceived as being social structures
• society holds a set of stereotypical ideas about how “real” men and women are supposed to behave, look
like and be capable of
• traditionally men are thought of being masculine, strong, rational and powerful
• women are considered to be feminine, weak, emotional and submissive
• these characteristics have been used as a “justification” for men’s dominant role
 • with the feminist movement in the 1960s the validity of conventional gender roles was called into
question
• the media especially still presents images of “typical” men and women, keeping these concepts alive
• If they don’t behave as they are expected, they are not universally accepted in society
→ e.g. LGBT people
•
2. culture and gender – now and then
gender roles (traditionally)
Women Men
• Housewife • Makes money
• cooking, cleaning • good father
• taking care of the children • works physically/ CEO, company
• stays at home or • into handcraft
• part time work • makes the decisions
• dresses female • no weakness/feelings
• loyal, emotional, caring, gentle •
• adapts herself to the man

gender equality
how far have we got?

Optimistic view Pessimistic view

Almost same female and male workforce Female reputation in parliaments is the minority
Women entered dominant job categories that were In economics: only a tiny percentage of CEOs is female
almost exclusively reserved for men
→ doctors, lawyers, veterinarians
In some areas in the USA there is now a majority of Women still do most of the household and child care
female breadwinners
Female quote in sports grew Women are still victims of sexual abuse and rape →
abuse of benefits in physical force

Nature or Nurture (Erziehung) – Why do differences still exist?

• Differences since birth (treatment boys & girls → toys)
◦ handed down from one generation to the next → no escape
• Differences seem to be rooted in cultural rather than biological reasons
◦ Study: 15 y o from different countries took 2 tests: reading and maths → countries with gender
equality = equal abilities in maths BUT boys do better in geometry AND girls did better in reading
• in TV: represented in traditional roles (mother, sister, nurse)
• certain ways of showing the different gender:
◦ men in facial shots
◦ women full body shots
→ women objectified
• cartoons/fairy tales educate children in traditional gender roles
 • men seem more credible (rape)

Glass ceiling in women’s head

• combining work and motherhood → common fear
◦ fear of promotion/ leading positions
• most won’t risk “climbing another notch”
• answers why women act like that → mainly biological
◦ Girls doused in estrogen which helps to empathize

• Boys expose to testosterone, driving them daring and aggressive

3. gender issues in the arts

Gender roles in Othello
Manhood
• military exploits are one ways for a man to build their honor → Iago, Othello
• their ability to command the faithfulness of their women
• more personal freedom
• most male characters assume that all Venetian women are inherently promiscuous → Iago
• masculine code of honor is threatened by the ideal of active female sexuality
• losing control of their women= losing everything that makes them human
Othello
• proud, noble and brave warrior
• well-respected general (high military rank) and his military skills and adventures are widely known
• charismatic, charming, self-reliant
• his self-worth is measured by the way he is perceived by others
• obsessed with his masculine reputation
• beginning: perfect lover and husband
• end:
◦ Othello believes Desdemona is his possession, which is supposed to show his honor and reputation
as a man
◦ the believe that she has broken his honor and his nobility forces him to kill her
◦ picks up Iago’s behavior

Iago
• convinced of his good qualities as a soldier → more important to him than intellectual qualities
• sees women as “whores/pretenders” and as a sexual object
◦ purpose of women is fulfilling sexual needs of men; giving birth; being a housewife
• feels superior towards women, disrespectful
• wants to be the director of the play → needs control
 • end: Iago kills Emilia because she dishonors him by revealing his manipulation of Othello and Cassio

Cassio
• polite, respectful towards women → doesn’t agree with Iago
• attractive man
• his treatment of his mistress (Bianca) is often disrespectful
◦ calls Bianca a whore and Desdemona in a way too
• accuses Iago for his rude behavior towards women

womanhood
• a woman who is more sexually aware is considered to be lower class
• women in power are treated with distrust → they have questionable morals
• unmarried women are regarded as their father’s property and later their husbands
• role of women in Othello illustrates the traditional idealistic women and how they challenged male
dominated society
Desdemona
• ideal women: fair, virtuous, chaste, independent, eloquent
• purity, youth, beauty
• beginning: as long as she has Othello’s trust, she feels free to speak up for herself (self-confident); brisk,
frank for a woman at that time, strong and independent
• end: obedient, naive → seems to have turned into submissive wife
Emilia
• provides a feminist voice in Othello (modern world view)
• has a cynical attitude towards men
• sweet and dynamic
• mistreated by her husband; still loyal → but not in the end anymore!
• Life-experienced, sort of a teacher/mentor for Desdemona

Bianca
• prostitute
• in love with Cassio → he is not taking her serious in front of others
• opposite to Desdemona
• used and abused by male characters
• least powerful female figure → is the only female survivor

power and control

women
• under control of men
• D. calls O. “my lord”
• D. begs O.,
• even when O. treats her badly D. is still submissive
• D. begs O. for mercy in the end → would never speak up against him → BUT Emilia does
• E. is (very) submissive → shown in her language
• E. is loyal to D.
• E. defeats D. in the end → turns against her husband “It is proper I obey him, but not now” → exposes I.
→ turns into strong, independent woman in the end
• B. as a prostitute has neither control nor power
• D. kinds of controls O. by influencing him
• In the beginning D. is involved in military decisions by influencing O.
• D > E > B; but E influences D
• D. has to ask for permission to leave with O.