Great Expectations

This article is about the Charles Dickens novel. For other

uses, see Great Expectations (disambiguation).

Great Expectations is Charles Dickens's thirteenth novel

and his penultimate completed novel; a bildungsroman
which depicts the personal growth and personal develop-
ment of an orphan nicknamed Pip. It is Dickens’s second
novel, after David Copperfield, to be fully narrated in the
first person.[N 1] The novel was first published as a serial
in Dickens’s weekly periodical All the Year Round, from
1 December 1860 to August 1861.[1] In October 1861,
Chapman and Hall published the novel in three volumes.
It is set among marshes in Kent, and in London, in
the early to mid-1800s,[2] and contains some of Dick-
ens’ most memorable scenes, including the opening, in
a graveyard, where the young Pip is accosted by the
escaped convict, Abel Magwitch.[3] Great Expectations
is full of extreme imagery – poverty; prison ships and
chains, and fights to the death[3] – and has a colourful cast
of characters who have entered popular culture. These Charles Dickens, c. 1860
include the eccentric Miss Havisham, the beautiful but
cold Estella, and Joe, the kind and generous blacksmith.
Dickens’s themes include wealth and poverty, love and
1.1 Beginning
rejection, and the eventual triumph of good over evil.[3]
In his Book of Memoranda, begun in 1855, Dickens wrote
Great Expectations is popular both with readers and liter-
names for possible characters: Magwitch, Provis, Clar-
ary critics, and has been translated into many languages,
riker, Compey, Pumblechook, Orlick, Gargery, Wopsle,
and adapted numerous times into various media.
Skiffins, some of which became familiar in Great Expec-
Upon its release, the novel received near universal tations. There is also a reference to a “knowing man”, a
acclaim.[4] Thomas Carlyle spoke disparagingly of “all possible sketch of Bentley Drummle.[10] Another evokes
that Pip’s nonsense”.[5] Later, George Bernard Shaw a house full of “Toadies and Humbugs”, foreshadowing
praised the novel, as “All of one piece and consistently the visitors to Satis House in chapter 11.[10][11] Margaret
truthfull.”[6] During the serial publication, Dickens was Cardwell discovered the “premonition” of Great Expecta-
pleased with public response to Great Expectations and its tions from a 25 September 1855 letter from Dickens to W.
sales;[7] when the plot first formed in his mind, he called H. Wills, in which Dickens speaks of recycling an “odd
it “a very fine, new and grotesque idea”.[8] idea” from the Christmas special "A House to Let" and
“the pivot round which my next book shall revolve.”[12][13]
The “odd idea” concerns an individual who “retires to an
old lonely house…resolved to shut out the world and hold
1 Development history no communion with it.”[12]
In an 8 August 1860 letter to Earl Carlisle, Dickens re-
As Dickens began writing Great Expectations, he under- ported his agitation whenever he prepared a new book.[10]
took a series of hugely popular and remunerative read- A month later, in a letter to Forster, Dickens announced
ing tours. His domestic life had disintegrated in the that he just had a new idea.[14]
late 1850s however, and he had separated from his wife,
Catherine Dickens. He was keeping secret an affair with
a much younger woman, Ellen Ternan. It has been sug- 1.2 Publication in All the Year Round
gested that the reluctance with which Ellen Ternan be-
came his mistress is reflected in the icy teasing of Estella Dickens was pleased with the idea, calling it “such a very
in Great Expectations.[9] fine, new and grotesque idea” in a letter to Forster.[8] He

1
2 1 DEVELOPMENT HISTORY

success and universally liked.”[7]

1.3 Revising

Advertisement for Great Expectations in All the Year Round.

planned to write “a little piece”, a “grotesque tragi-comic

conception”, about a young hero who befriends an es-
caped convict, who then makes a fortune in Australia and
anonymously bequeaths his property to the hero. In the
end, the hero loses the money because it is forfeited to the
Crown. In his biography of Dickens, Forster wrote that in
the early idea “was the germ of Pip and Magwitch, which
at first he intended to make the groundwork of a tale in
the old twenty-number form.”[15] Dickens presented the
relationship between Pip and Magwitch pivotal to Great
Expectations but without Miss Havisham, Estella, or other
characters he later created.
As the idea and Dickens’s ambition grew, he began writ-
ing. However, in September, the weekly All the Year
Round saw its sales fall, and its flagship publication, A
Day’s Ride by Charles Lever, lost favour with the pub-
lic. Dickens “called a council of war”, and believed that Charles Dickens, Jr. (in 1874), possibly the model for Herbert
to save the situation, “the one thing to be done was for Pocket
[him] to strike in.”[16] The “very fine, new and grotesque
Dickens gave six readings from 14 March to 18 April
idea” became the magazine’s new support: weeklies, five
1861, and in May, Dickens took a few days’ holiday in
hundred pages, just over one year (1860–1861), thirty-six
Dover. On the eve of his departure, he took some friends
episodes, starting 1 December. The magazine continued
and family members for a trip by boat from Blackwall
to publish Lever’s novel until its completion on 23 March
to Southend-on-Sea. Ostensibly for pleasure, the mini-
1861,[17] but it became secondary to Great Expectations.
cruise was actually a working session for Dickens to ex-
Immediately, sales resumed, and critics responded posi-
amine banks of the river in preparation for the chapter de-
tively, as exemplified by The Times's praise: "Great Ex-
voted to Magwitch’s attempt to escape.[15] Dickens then
pectations is not, indeed, [Dickens’s] best work, but it is
revised Herbert Pocket’s appearance, no doubt, asserts
to be ranked among his happiest.”[18]
Margaret Cardwell, to look more like his son Charley.[22]
Dickens, whose health was not the best, felt “The plan- On 11 June 1861, Dickens wrote to Macready that Great
ning from week to week was unimaginably difficult” but Expectations had been completed and on 15 June, asked
persevered.[17] He thought he had found “a good name”, the editor to prepare the novel for publication.[17]
decided to use the first person “throughout”, and thought
the beginning was “excessively droll": “I have put a child
and a good-natured foolish man, in relations that seem to 1.4 Revised ending
me very funny.”[19] Four weekly episodes were “ground
off the wheel” in October,[20] and apart from one refer- Following comments by Edward Bulwer-Lytton that the
ence to the “bondage” of his heavy task,[21] the months ending was too sad, Dickens rewrote it. The ending set
passed without the anguished cries that usually accompa- aside by Dickens has Pip, still single, briefly see Estella
nied the writing of his novels.[17] He did not even use the in London; after becoming Bentley Drummle’s widow,
Number Plans or Mems;[N 2] he only had a few notes on she has remarried.[17][23][24] It appealed to Dickens due
the characters’ ages, the tide ranges for chapter 54, and to its originality: "[the] winding up will be away from all
the draft of an ending. In late December, Dickens wrote such things as they conventionally go.”[17][25] Dickens re-
to Mary Boyle that "Great Expectations [is] a very great vised the ending for publication so that Pip meets Estella
2.1 In periodicals 3

in the ruins of Satis House, she a widow and he single. His 2.1 In periodicals
changes at the conclusion of the novel did not quite end ei-
ther with the final weekly part and the first bound edition, Dickens and Wills co-owned All the Year Round, one
because Dickens further changed the last sentence in the 75%, the other 25%. Since Dickens was his own pub-
amended 1868 version from “I could see the shadow of lisher, he did not require a contract for his own works.[39]
no parting from her.”[17] to “I saw no shadow of another Although intended for weekly publication, Great Expec-
parting from her”.[26] As Pip uses litotes, “no shadow of tations was divided into nine monthly sections, with new
another parting”, it is ambiguous whether Pip and Estella pagination for each.[32] Harper’s Weekly published the
marry or Pip remains single. Angus Calder, writing for an novel from 24 November 1860 to 5 August 1861 in the
edition in the Penguin English Library, believed the less US and All the Year Round published it from 1 December
definite phrasing of the amended 1868 version perhaps 1860 to 3 August 1861 in the UK. Harper’s paid £1,000
hinted at a buried meaning: '...at this happy moment, I for publication rights. Dickens welcomed a contract with
did not see the shadow of our subsequent parting loom- Tauchnitz 4 January 1861 for publication in English for
ing over us.'[27] the European continent.
In a letter to Forster, Dickens explained his decision to
alter the draft ending: “You will be surprised to hear that
2.2 Editions
I have changed the end of Great Expectations from and af-
ter Pip’s return to Joe’s...Bulwer, who has been, as I think
Robert L. Patten identifies four American editions in
you know, extraordinarily taken with the book, strongly
1861 and sees the proliferation of publications in Eu-
urged it upon me, after reading the proofs, and supported
rope and across the Atlantic as “extraordinary testimony”
his views with such good reasons that I have resolved to
to Great Expectations’s popularity.[40] Chapman and Hall
make the change. I have put in as pretty a little piece of
published the first edition in three volumes in 1861, five
writing as I could, and I have no doubt the story will be
subsequent reprints between 6 July and 30 October, and
more acceptable through the alteration.”[28][29]
a one-volume edition in 1862. The “bargain” edition
This discussion between Dickens, Bulwer-Lytton and was published in 1862, the Library Edition in 1864, and
Forster has provided the basis for much discussion on the Charles Dickens edition in 1868. To this list, Paul
Dickens’s underlying views for this famous novel. Earle Schlicke adds “two meticulous scholarly editions”, one
Davis, in his 1963 study of Dickens, wrote that “it would Claredon Press published in 1993 with an introduction by
be an inadequate moral point to deny Pip any reward Margaret Cardwell and another with an introduction by
after he had shown a growth of character,” and that Edgar Rosenberg, published by Norton in 1999.[32] The
“Eleven years might change Estella too.”[30] Forster felt novel was published with one ending, visible in the four
that the original ending was “more consistent” and “more on line editions listed in the External links at the end of
natural”[31][32] but noted the new ending’s popularity.[33] this article. In some 20th century editions, the novel ends
George Gissing called that revision “a strange thing, in- as originally published in 1867, and in an afterword, the
deed, to befall Dickens” and felt that Great Expectations ending Dickens did not publish, along with a brief story
would have been perfect had Dickens not altered the end- of how a friend persuaded him to a happier ending for
ing in deference to Bulwer-Lytton.[N 3][34] Pip, is presented to the reader (for example, 1987 audio
In contrast, John Hillis-Miller stated that Dickens’s per- edition by Recorded Books[41] ).
sonality was so assertive that Bulwer-Lytton had little in-
fluence, and welcomed the revision: “The mists of in-
fatuation have cleared away, [Estella and Pip] can be
2.3 First edition publication schedule
[35]
joined.” Earl Davis notes that G.B. Shaw published the
novel in 1937 for The Limited Editions Club with the first 3 Illustrations
ending and that The Rhinehart Edition of 1979 presents
both endings.[33][36][37] Publications in Harper’s Weekly were accompanied by
[42]
George Orwell wrote, “Psychologically the latter part of forty illustrations by John McLenan; however, this is
Great Expectations is about the best thing Dickens ever the only Dickens work published in All the Year Round
[43]
did,” but, like John Forster and several early 20th cen- without illustrations. In 1862, Marcus Stone, son of
tury writers, including George Bernard Shaw, felt that the Dickens’s old friend, the painter Frank Stone, was invited
original ending was more consistent with the draft, as well to create eight woodcuts for the Library Edition. Ac-
as the natural working out of the tale.[38] Modern literary cording to Paul Schlicke, these illustrations are mediocre
criticism is split over the matter. yet were included in the Charles Dickens edition, and
Stone created illustrations for Dickens’s subsequent novel,
Our Mutual Friend.[32] Later, Henry Mathew Brock also
illustrated Great Expectations and a 1935 edition of A
2 Publication history Christmas Carol,[44] along with other artists, such as John
McLenan,[45] F. A. Fraser,[46] and Harry Furniss.[47]
4 5 PLOT SUMMARY

4 Reception stealing food and a file to grind away his shackles, from
the home he shares with his abusive older sister and her
Robert L. Patten estimates that All the Year Round sold kind husband Joe Gargery, a blacksmith. The next day,
100,000 copies of Great Expectations each week, and soldiers recapture the convict while he is engaged in a
Mudie, the largest circulating library, which purchased fight with another escaped convict; the two are returned
about 1,400 copies, stated that at least 30 people read to the prison ships.
each copy.[48] Aside from the dramatic plot, the Dick- Miss Havisham, a wealthy spinster who wears an old wed-
ensian humour also appealed to readers. Dickens wrote ding dress and lives in the dilapidated Satis House, asks
to Forster in October 1860 that “You will not have Pip’s Uncle Pumblechook (who is Joe’s uncle) to find a
to complain of the want of humour as in the Tale of boy to visit. Pip visits Miss Havisham and her adopted
Two Cities,”[49] an opinion Forster supports, finding that daughter Estella, falling in love with Estella on first sight,
“Dickens’s humour, not less than his creative power, was both quite young. Pip visits Miss Havisham regularly un-
at its best in this book.”[15][50] Moreover, according to til it comes time for him to learn a trade; Joe accompanies
Paul Schlicke, readers found the best of Dickens’s older Pip for the last visit when she gives the money for Pip to
and newer writing styles.[4] be bound as apprentice blacksmith. Pip settles into learn-
Overall, Great Expectations received near universal ing Joe’s trade. When both are away from the house, Mrs.
acclaim.[4] Not all reviews were favourable; Margaret Joe is brutally attacked, leaving her unable to speak or do
Oliphant's review, published May 1862 in Blackwood’s her work. Biddy arrives to help with her care and be-
Magazine, vilified the novel. Critics in the 19th and 20th comes 'a blessing to the household'.
centuries hailed it as one of Dickens’s greatest successes
although often for conflicting reasons: GK Chesterton
admired the novel’s optimism; Edmund Wilson its pes-
simism; Humphry House in 1941 emphasized its social
context. In 1974, Jerome H. Buckley saw it as a bil-
dungsroman, writing a chapter on Dickens and two of
his major characters (David Copperfield and Pip) in his
1974 book on the Bildungsroman in Victorian writing.[51]
John Hillis Miller wrote in 1958 that Pip is the archetype
of all Dickensian heroes.[52] In 1970, QD Leavis suggests
“How We Must Read Great Expectations.”[53] In 1984,
Peter Brooks, in the wake of Jacques Derrida, offered
a deconstructionist reading.[54] The most profound ana-
lyst, according to Paul Schlicke, is probably Julian Moy-
nahan, who, in a 1964 essay surveying the hero’s guilt,
made Orlick “Pip’s double, alter ego and dark mirror im-
age.” Schlicke also names Anny Sadrin’s extensive 1988
study as the “most distinguished.”[55]

5 Plot summary

Miss Havisham with Estella and Pip. Art by H. M. Brock

Four years into Pip’s apprenticeship, Mr. Jaggers, a

lawyer, approaches him in the village with the news that
Locations in the novel he has expectations from an anonymous benefactor, with
immediate funds to train him in the gentlemanly arts.
On Christmas Eve, around 1812,[56] Pip, an orphan who He will not know the benefactor’s name until that per-
is about seven years old, encounters an escaped convict son speaks up. Pip is to leave for London in the proper
in the village churchyard while visiting the graves of his clothes. He assumes that Miss Havisham is his benefac-
mother, father and siblings. The convict scares Pip into tor. He visits her to say good-bye.
 5

Estella is the daughter of Molly and Magwitch.

London locations

Pip sets up house with Herbert Pocket at Barnard’s Inn.

Herbert tells Pip the circumstances of Miss Havisham’s
romantic disappointment, her jilting by her fiancé. Pip
goes to Hammersmith, to be educated by Mr Matthew
Pocket, Herbert’s father. Jaggers disburses the money Pip Magwitch makes himself known to Pip
needs to set himself up in his new life. Joe visits Pip at
Barnard’s Inn, where Pip is a bit ashamed of Joe. Joe A few days before the escape, Joe’s former journeyman
relays the message from Miss Havisham that Estella will Orlick seizes Pip, confessing past crimes as he means to
be at Satis House for a visit. Pip and Herbert exchange kill Pip. Herbert Pocket and Startop save Pip and pre-
their romantic secrets - Pip adores Estella and Herbert is pare for the escape. On the river, they are met by a police
engaged to Clara. boat carrying Compeyson for identification of Magwitch.
Pip and Herbert build up debts. Mrs Joe dies and Pip re- Compeyson was the other convict years earlier, and as
turns to his village for the funeral. Pip’s income is fixed well, the con artist who wooed and deserted Miss Hav-
at £500 per annum when he comes of age at twenty-one. isham. Magwitch seizes Compeyson, and they fight in the
Pip takes Estella to Satis House. She and Miss Hav- river. Magwitch survives to be taken by police, seriously
isham quarrel. At the Assembly Ball in Richmond Es- injured. Compeyson’s body is found later.
tella meets Bentley Drummle, a brute of a man. A week
Pip visits Magwitch in jail and tells him that his daughter
after he turns 23 years old, Pip learns that his benefac- Estella is alive. Magwitch responds by squeezing Pip’s
tor is the convict from so long ago. Abel Magwitch, was
palm and dies soon after, sparing an execution. After
transported to New South Wales after that escape. He be- Herbert goes to Cairo, Pip falls ill in his rooms. He is
came wealthy after gaining his freedom there. As long as
confronted with arrest for debt; he awakens to find Joe
he is out of England, Magwitch can live. But he returns at his side. Joe nurses Pip back to health and pays off
to see Pip. Pip was his motivation for all his success in
the debt. As Pip begins to walk about on his own, Joe
New South Wales. Pip is shocked, ceasing to take money slips away home. Pip returns to propose to Biddy, to find
from him. He and Herbert Pocket devise a plan to get that she and Joe have just married. Pip asks Joe for for-
Magwitch out of England, by boat. Magwitch shares his giveness, and Joe forgives him. As Magwitch’s fortune
past history with Pip. in money and land was seized by the court, Pip no longer
Pip tells Miss Havisham that he is as unhappy as she can has income. Pip promises to repay Joe. Herbert asks him
ever have meant him to be. He asks her to finance Herbert to join his firm in Cairo; he shares lodgings with Herbert
Pocket. Estella tells Pip she will marry Bentley Drummle. and Clara and works as a clerk, advancing over time.
Miss Havisham tells Pip that Estella was brought to her Eleven years later, Pip visits the ruins of Satis House and
by Jaggers aged two or three. Before Pip leaves the prop- meets Estella, widow to the abusive Bentley Drummle.
erty, Miss Havisham accidentally sets her dress on fire. She asks Pip to forgive her, assuring him that misfortune
Pip saves her, injuring himself in the process. She even- has opened her heart and that she now empathises with
tually dies from her injuries, lamenting her manipulation Pip. As Pip takes Estella’s hand and leaves the ruins of
of Estella and Pip. Jaggers tells Pip how he brought Es- Satis House, he sees “no shadow of another parting from
tella to Miss Havisham from Molly. Pip figures out that her.”
6 6 CHARACTERS

6 Characters confessing her plotting to Pip, she dies as the result

of being badly burned when her dress accidentally
catches fire.
6.1 Pip and his family
• Estella, Miss Havisham’s adopted daughter, whom
• Philip Pirrip, nicknamed Pip, an orphan and the
Pip pursues throughout the novel. She is a beauti-
protagonist and narrator of Great Expectations. In
ful girl, and grows more beautiful after her school-
his childhood, Pip dreamed of becoming a black-
ing in France. Estella represents the life of wealth
smith like his kind brother-in-law, Joe Gargery. At
and culture for which Pip strives. Since Miss Hav-
Satis House, about age 8, he meets Estella, a contact
isham ruined Estella’s ability to love, Estella cannot
which destroys his peace of mind. He tells Biddy
return Pip’s passion. She warns Pip of this repeat-
that he wants to become a gentleman. As a result
edly, but he will not or cannot believe her. Estella
of Magwitch's anonymous patronage, Pip lives in
does not know that she is the daughter of Molly, Jag-
London and becomes a gentleman. Pip assumes his
gers’s housekeeper, and the convict Abel Magwitch,
benefactor is Miss Havisham; the discovery that his
given up for adoption to Miss Havisham after her
true benefactor is a convict shocks him.
mother was arrested for murder.
• Joe Gargery, Pip’s brother-in-law, and his first fa-
ther figure. He is a blacksmith who is always kind • Matthew Pocket, Miss Havisham’s cousin. He
to Pip and the only person with whom Pip is al- is the patriarch of the Pocket family, but unlike
ways honest. Joe is disappointed when Pip decides her other relatives, he is not greedy for Havisham’s
to leave his home to live in London to become a gen- wealth. Matthew Pocket tutors young gentlemen,
tleman rather than be a blacksmith in business with such as Bentley Drummle, Startop, Pip and his own
Joe. He is a strong man who bears the shortcomings son Herbert.
of those closest to him.
• Herbert Pocket, the son of Matthew Pocket, who
• Mrs. Joe Gargery, Pip’s hot-tempered adult sister was invited like Pip to visit Miss Havisham, but she
Georgiana Maria, called Mrs. Joe, 20 years older did not take to him. Pip first meets Herbert as a “pale
than Pip. She brings him up after their parents’ young gentleman” who challenges Pip to a fistfight
death. She does the work of the household, but too at Miss Havisham’s house when both are children.
often loses her temper. Orlick, her husband’s jour- He later becomes Pip’s friend, tutoring him in the
neyman, attacks her, and she is left disabled until her “gentlemanly” arts, and sharing his flat with Pip in
death. London.
• Mr. Pumblechook, Joe Gargery’s uncle, an • Cousin Raymond, relative of Miss Havisham who
officious bachelor and corn merchant. While not is only interested in her money. He is married to
knowing how to deal with a growing boy, he tells Camilla.
“Mrs. Joe”, as she is known, how noble she is to
bring up Pip. As the person who first connected Pip • Georgiana, relative of Miss Havisham who is only
to Miss Havisham, he claims to have been the origi- interested in her money. She is one of the many rel-
nal architect of Pip’s expectations. Pip dislikes Mr. atives who hang around Miss Havisham “like flies”
Pumblechook for his pompous, unfounded claims. for her wealth.
When Pip stands up to him in a public place, after
those expectations are dashed, Mr. Pumblechook • Sarah Pocket, the sister of Matthew Pocket, rela-
turns those listening to the conversation against Pip. tive of Miss Havisham. She is often at Satis House.
She is described as “a dry, brown corrugated old
woman, with a small face that might have been made
6.2 Miss Havisham and her family out of walnut shells, and a large mouth like a cat’s
without the whiskers.”
• Miss Havisham, wealthy spinster who takes Pip on
as a companion for herself and her adopted daugh-
ter, Estella. Embittered after being jilted at the altar 6.3 From Pip’s youth
by her fiance some years before, Havisham is an ec-
centric woman who perpetually wears her wedding • The Convict, who escapes from a prison ship,
dress, and one shoe, as she was when she learned whom Pip treats kindly, and who in turn becomes
her bridegroom would not appear. She conceives a Pip’s benefactor. His name is Abel Magwitch, but
hatred for all men, and plots to wreak a twisted re- he uses the aliases Provis and Mr. Campbell when
venge by teaching Estella to torment and spurn all he returns to England from exile in Australia. He is
men, including Pip, who loves her. Miss Havisham a lesser actor in crime with Compeyson, but gains a
is later overcome with remorse for ruining both Es- longer sentence in an apparent application of justice
tella’s and Pip’s chances for happiness. Shortly after by social class.
6.5 Antagonists 7

• Mr. and Mrs. Hubble, simple folk who think they

are more important than they really are. They live
in Pip’s village.

• Mr. Wopsle, clerk of the church in Pip’s village. He

later gives up the church work and moves to London
to pursue his ambition to be an actor, adopting the
stage name Mr. Waldengarver. He sees the other
convict in the audience of one of his performances,
attended also by Pip.

• Biddy, Wopsle’s second cousin and near Pip’s age;

she teaches in the evening school at her grand-
mother’s home in Pip’s village. Pip wants to learn
more, so he asks her to teach him all she can. After
helping Mrs. Joe after the attack, Biddy opens her
own school. A kind and intelligent but poor young
woman, she is, like Pip and Estella, an orphan. She
acts as Estella’s foil. Orlick was attracted to her,
but she did not want his attentions. Pip ignores her
affections for him as he pursues Estella. Recover-
ing from his own illness after the failed attempt to
get Magwitch out of England, Pip returns to claim
Biddy as his bride, arriving in the village just after
she marries Joe Gargery. Biddy and Joe later have
two children, one named after Pip. (In the ending to
the novel discarded by Dickens but revived by stu- Mr. Wemmick and “The Aged P.”, illustration by Sol Eytinge Jr.
dents of the novel’s development, Estella mistakes
the boy as Pip’s child.)
swindler, he was engaged to marry Miss Havisham,
but he was in league with Arthur Havisham to de-
6.4 Mr. Jaggers and his circle fraud Miss Havisham of part of her fortune. Later
he sets up Magwitch to take the fall for another swin-
• Mr. Jaggers, prominent London lawyer who rep- dle. He works with the police when he learns Abel
resents the interests of diverse clients, both criminal Magwitch is in London, fearing Magwitch after their
and civil. He represents Pip’s benefactor and Miss first escapes years earlier. When the police boat en-
Havisham as well. By the end of the story, his law counters the one carrying Magwitch, the two grap-
practice links many of the characters. ple, and Compeyson drowns in the Thames.

• John Wemmick, Jaggers’s clerk, called “Mr. Wem- • Arthur Havisham, younger half brother of Miss
mick” and “Wemmick” except by his father, who is Havisham, who plots with Compeyson to swindle
referred to as “The Aged Parent”, “The Aged P.”, her.
or simply “The Aged.” Wemmick is Pip’s chief go-
between with Jaggers and looks after Pip in London. • Dolge Orlick, journeyman blacksmith at Joe
Mr. Wemmick lives with his father in John’s “cas- Gargery’s forge. Strong, rude and sullen, he is as
tle,” which is a small replica of a castle, complete churlish as Joe is gentle and kind. He ends up in a
with a drawbridge and moat, in Walworth. fistfight with Joe over Mrs. Gargery’s taunting, and
Joe easily defeats him. This sets in motion an es-
• Molly, Mr. Jaggers’s maidservant whom Jaggers calating chain of events that leads him to secretly
saved from the gallows for murder. She is re- injure Mrs. Gargery and try to kill Pip. The police
vealed to be Magwitch’s estranged wife and Estella’s ultimately arrest him for housebreaking locally.
mother.
• Bentley Drummle, a coarse, unintelligent young
man from a wealthy noble family. Pip meets him at
6.5 Antagonists Mr. Pocket’s house, as Drummle is also to be trained
in gentlemanly skills. Drummle is hostile to Pip and
• Compeyson (surname), a convict who escapes the everyone else. He is a rival for Estella’s attentions
prison ship after Magwitch, who beats him up and eventually marries her and is said to abuse her.
ashore. He is Magwitch’s enemy. In some editions He dies from an accident following his mistreatment
of the book, he is called “Compey.” A professional of a horse.
8 8 CONCISENESS

6.6 Other characters burned almost all of his correspondence, sparing only let-
ters on business matters.[62][63] He stopped publishing the
• Clara Barley, a very poor girl living with her gout- weekly Household Words at the summit of its popularity
ridden father. She marries Herbert Pocket near the and replaced it with All the Year Round.[58]
novel’s end. She dislikes Pip at first because of his The Uncommercial Traveller, short stories, and other
spendthrift ways. After she marries Herbert, they texts Dickens began publishing in his new weekly in
invite Pip to live with them. 1859 reflect his nostalgia, as seen in “Dullborough Town”
and “Nurses’ Stories.” According to Paul Schlicke, “it is
• Miss Skiffins occasionally visits Wemmick’s house
hardly surprising that the novel Dickens wrote at this time
and wears green gloves. She changes those green
was a return to roots, set in the part of England in which
gloves for white ones when she marries Wemmick.
he grew up, and in which he had recently resettled.”[58]
• Startop, like Bentley Drummle, is Pip’s fellow stu- Margaret Cardwell draws attention to Chops the Dwarf
dent, but unlike Drummle, he is kind. He assists from Dickens’s 1858 Christmas story “Going into Soci-
Pip and Herbert in their efforts to help Magwitch ety,” who, as the future Pip does, entertains the illusion
escape. of inheriting a fortune and becomes disappointed upon
achieving his social ambitions.[64] In another vein, Harry
Stone thinks that Gothic and magical aspects of Great Ex-
pectations were partly inspired by Charles Mathews's At
7 Background Home, which was presented in detail in Household Words
and its monthly supplement Household Narrative. Stone
Great Expectations’s single most obvious literary pre- also asserts that The Lazy Tour of Two Idle Apprentices,
decessor is Dickens’s earlier first-person narrator- written in collaboration with Wilkie Collins after their
protagonist David Copperfield. The two novels trace walking tour of Cumberland during September 1857 and
the psychological and moral development of a young published in Household Words from 3 to 31 October of
boy to maturity, his transition from a rural environ- the same year, presents certain strange locations and a
ment to the London metropolis, the vicissitudes of his passionate love, foreshadowing Great Expectations.[65]
emotional development, and the exhibition of his hopes
Beyond its biographical and literary aspects, Great Expec-
and youthful dreams and their metamorphosis, through
tations appears, according to Robin Gilmour, as “a rep-
a rich and complex first person narrative.[57] Dickens
resentative fable of the age.”[66] Dickens was aware that
was conscious of this similarity and, before undertaking
the novel “speaks” to a generation applying, at most, the
his new manuscript, reread David Copperfield to avoid
principle of “self help” and believed to have increased the
repetition.[19]
order of daily life. That the hero Pip aspires to improve,
The two books both detail homecoming. Although not through snobbery, but through the Victorian convic-
David Copperfield is based on much of Dickens per- tion of education, social refinement, and materialism, was
sonal experiences, Great Expectations provides, accord- seen as a noble and worthy goal. However, by tracing the
ing to Paul Schlicke, “the more spiritual and intimate origins of Pip’s “great expectations” to crime, deceit and
autobiography.”[58] Even though several elements hint even banishment to the colonies, Dickens unfavourably
at the setting — Miss Havisham, partly inspired by a compares the new generation to the previous one of Joe
Parisian duchess, whose residence was always closed Gargery, which Dickens portrays as less sophisticated but
and in darkness, surrounded by “a dead green vegetable especially rooted in sound values, presenting an oblique
sea,” recalling Satis House,[59][60] and the countryside criticism of his time.[66]
bordering Chatham and Rochester — no place name is
mentioned,[N 4] nor a specific time period, which is in-
dicated by, among other elements, older coaches, the ti-
tle “His Majesty” in reference to George III, and the old 8 Conciseness
London Bridge prior to the 1824–1831 reconstruction.[61]
The theme of homecoming reflects events in Dickens’s The format of the weekly periodical more-or-less lim-
life, several years prior to the publication of Great Expec- ited Dickens, notes Paul Davis. It required short chap-
tations. In 1856, he bought Gad’s Hill Place in Higham, ters, centred on a single subject, and an almost math-
Kent, which he had dreamed of living in as a child, and ematical structure.[67] Pip’s story contains three stages:
moved there from faraway London two years later. In his childhood and early youth in Kent, dreaming to rise
1858, in a painful divorce, he separated from Cather- above his humble station; his time in London after re-
ine Dickens, his wife of twenty-three years. The divorce ceiving the eponymous “great expectations"; and his final
alienated him from some of his closest friends, such as disillusionment when he discovers the source of his for-
Mark Lemon. He quarrelled with Bradbury and Evans, tune and slowly realises the vanity of his false values.[68]
who had published his novels for fifteen years. In early The novel further divides each stage into twelve parts of
September 1860, in a field behind Gad’s Hill, Dickens equal length. This symmetry contributes to the impres-
 9

sion of completion, underlined by a number of commen- she does not conceal. Similarly, Suhamy adds, Estella’s
tators, including George Gissing, who, when comparing “rejection” of Magwitch becomes a matter of interpre-
Joe Gargery and Dan'l Peggotty (from David Copper- tation; the young lady does not know he is her father but
field), preferred the former, as he was a stronger character still holds contempt for everything that appears below her
who lives “in a world, not of melodrama, but of everyday station.[76]
cause and effect.”[69] Great Expectations appears then as a tragedy, since the
G. B. Shaw called the novel “compactly perfect"; simi- characters suffer physically, psychologically or both, or
larly, Algernon Swinburne stated, “The defects in it are die, often violently, while suffering. Happy resolutions
as nearly imperceptible as spots on the sun or shadow of the web of love remain elusive, while the web of hate
on a sunlit sea.”[70][71] This impression of excellence also thrives throughout the novel. The only happy ending is
comes from, according to Christopher Ricks, “the brisk- Biddy and Joe’s friendship sealed in marriage by the birth
ness of the narrative tone.”[N 5] Pip’s thoughts while he is of two children, since the final reconciliations, except that
in London, preparing for a visit from Joe, his oldest friend between Pip and Magwitch symbolising Pip’s maturation,
and protector demonstrates this:[72] do not alter the general order. Though Pip extirpates the
web of hatred, the first ending denies him happiness and
Not with pleasure, though I was bound to the second leaves his future uncertain, punctuating his
him by so many ties; with considerable distur- storyline with a question mark.[77]
bance, some mortification, and a keen sense
of incongruity. If I could have kept him away
by paying money, I certainly would have paid 9 Point of view
money.[73]

Similar brevity is key to the “decantation”, stated Ricks,

particularly in the second sentence, showing Pip’s chill-
ing, pitiless indifference but “without making a terrific
demonstration of mercilessness.”[74]
Further, as explained by Henri Suhamy in his course on
Great Expectations, beyond the chronological sequences
and the weaving of several storylines into a tight plot, the
sentimental setting and morality of the characters form
a consistent “pattern”.[75] He describes this pattern with
two central poles, that of “foster parents” [parents adop-
tifs] (Miss Havisham, Magwitch, and Joe) and that of
“young people” [jeunes gens] (Estella, Pip and Biddy)
between two other poles called “Dangerous Lovers” [dan-
gereux amants] (one of Compeyson, the other of Bentley
Drummle and Orlick). Pip is the centre of this web of
love, rejection and hatred [amour, rejet, haine]. Biddy
and Joe grow from friendship [amitié] to love [amour], in
their relationship over the course of the story.
Pip before Magwitch’s return, by John McLenan

Although the novel is written in first person, the reader

knows - as an essential prerequisite – that Great Expecta-
tions is not an autobiography but a novel, a work of fiction
with plot and characters, including a narrator-protagonist
and pure virtual creations of Dickens’s imagination that,
by the mere virtuosity of his words, remains the real mas-
ter of the game and alone orchestrates the subtle complex-
ity of the different strata of speech.
Diagram (in French) of the structure of Great Expectations
In addition, as Sylvère Monod pointed out, the treat-
This is “the general frame of the novel”, as of the over- ment of the autobiography differs from David Copper-
whelming crisis when Pip realises his and Estella’s situ- field. Great Expectations does not draw from events in
ations. Suhamy specifies that the term “love” is generic, Dickens’s life; “at most some traces of a broad psycho-
applying it to both Pip’s true love for Estella and the so- logical and moral introspection can be found”.[78]
cial attraction Estella harbours for Drummle, the former However, according to Paul Pickrel’s analysis, Pip is both
of which she cannot feel and the superficiality of the latter narrator and protagonist; as such, he recounts with hind-
10 12 NOVELS INFLUENCED BY GREAT EXPECTATIONS

sight the story of the young boy he was, who did not know orphaned, grows up in a world full of sinister tombs, dan-
the world beyond a narrow geographic and familial envi- gerous swamps, and threatening masses of prison ships
ronment. The novel’s direction emerges from the con- emerging from the fog that dominate the shores. His ex-
frontation between the two layers of time. At first, the istence reproaches him: “I was always treated as if I had
novel presents a mistreated orphan, repeating situations insisted on being born in opposition to the dictates of rea-
from Oliver Twist and David Copperfield, but the trope son, religion and morality”.[84]
is quickly overtaken. The theme manifests when Pip dis- Some of the major themes of Great Expectations are
covers the existence of a world beyond the marsh, the crime, social class, empire and ambition. From an early
forge and the future Joe envisioned for him, the deci-
age, Pip feels guilt; he is also afraid that someone will find
sive moment when Miss Havisham and Estella enter his out about his crime and arrest him. The theme of crime
life.[79] This is a red herring, as the decay of Satis House
comes into even greater effect when Pip discovers that his
and the strange lady within signals the fragility of an im- benefactor is a convict. Pip has an internal struggle with
passe. At this point, the reader knows more than the pro-
his conscience throughout the book. Great Expectations
tagonist, creating dramatic irony that confers a superiority explores the different social classes of the Georgian era.
that the narrator shares.[80] Throughout the book, Pip becomes involved with a broad
It is not until Magwitch’s return, a plot twist that unites range of classes, from criminals like Magwitch to the ex-
loosely-connected plot elements and sets them into mo- tremely rich like Miss Havisham. Pip has great ambition,
tion, that the protagonist’s point of view joins those of the as demonstrated constantly in the book.
narrator and the reader.[81] In this context of progressive
revelation, the sensational events at the novel’s end serve
to test the protagonist’s point of view. Thus proceeds, in
the words of A. E. Dyson, “The Immolations of Pip”.[82]
11 Style
Great Expectations is written in first person and uses some
language and grammar that has fallen out of common use
10 Theme since its publication. The title Great Expectations refers to
the 'Great Expectations’ Pip has of coming into his bene-
Hope and social exclusion are two competing themes. factor’s property upon becoming a gentleman with no par-
The eponymous “Expectations” refers to its Victorian ticular profession, while being supported in gaining the
definition, “a legacy to come”.[83] The title immediately education of a gentleman. Great Expectations is some-
announces that money plays an important part in the times seen as a bildungsroman, a novel depicting growth
novel and its themes but is only part of a broader pack- and personal development from childhood to adulthood,
age whose coherence John Hillis-Miller highlights in his in this case, of Pip.[8]
book, Charles Dickens, The World of His Novels.[52]

12 Novels influenced by Great Ex-

pectations
Dickens’ novel has influenced a number of writers, Sue
Roe’s Estella: Her Expectations (1982), for example ex-
plores the inner life of an Estella fascinated with a Hav-
isham figure.[85] Miss Havisham is again important in
Havisham: A Novel (2013), a book by Ronald Frame, that
features an imagining of the life of Miss Catherine Hav-
isham from childhood to adulthood.[86] Rosalind Ashe’s
Literary Houses, (1982), second chapter is a paraphras-
ing of Miss Havisham’s story with details about the na-
ture and structure of Satis House, and coloured imagin-
ings of the house within.[87] Miss Havisham is also cen-
tral to Lost in a Good Book (2002), an alternate history,
fantasy novel by Jasper Fforde, which features a parody
version of Miss Havisham.[88] It won the Independent
Mr Pumblechook: “And may I--May I--?", by John McLenan. Mystery Booksellers Association 2004 Dilys Award.[89]
Magwitch is the protagonist of Peter Carey's Jack Maggs,
John Hillis-Miller first shows that, as in many novels by which is a re-imagining of Magwitch’s return to England,
Dickens, most characters, and in the beginning, the pro- with the addition, among other things, of a fictionalised
tagonist, are “outcasts” living in insecurity. Thus, Pip, Dickens character and plot-line.[90] Carey’s novel won the
 11

Commonwealth Writers Prize in 1998. Mister Pip (2006) • 1981 – Great Expectations – a BBC serial starring
is a novel by Lloyd Jones, a New Zealand author. The Stratford Johns, Gerry Sundquist, Joan Hickson,
winner of the 2007 Commonwealth Writers’ Prize, Lloyd Patsy Kensit and Sarah-Jane Varley. Produced by
Jones’s novel is set in a village on the Papua New Guinea Barry Letts, and directed by Julian Amyes.
island of Bougainville during a brutal civil war there in
the 1990s, where the young protagonist’s life is impacted • 1983 – an animated children’s version, starring
in a major way by her reading of Great Expectations.[91] Phillip Hinton, Liz Horne, Robin Stewart and Bill
Kerr.
• 1986 – Great Expectations: The Untold Story, star-
13 Film, TV and theatrical adapta- ring John Stanton, directed by Tim Burstall is a spin-
off film depicting the adventures of Magwitch in
tions Australia.

Like many other Dickens novels, Great Expectations has • 1989 – Great Expectations, a Disney Channel two-
been filmed for the cinema or television numerous times, part film starring Anthony Hopkins as Magwitch,
including: John Rhys-Davies as Joe Gargery, and Jean Sim-
mons as Miss Havisham, directed by Kevin Connor.

• 1917 – Great Expectations, a silent film, starring • 1998 – Great Expectations, a film starring Ethan
Jack Pickford, directed by Robert G. Vignola. Hawke and Gwyneth Paltrow, directed by Alfonso
Cuarón. This adaptation is set in contemporary New
• 1922 – a silent film, made in Denmark, starring York, and renames Pip to Finn and Miss Havisham
Martin Herzberg, directed by A. W. Sandberg. to Nora Dinsmoor. The film’s score was composed
by Scotsman Patrick Doyle, a regular collaborator
• 1934 – Great Expectations film starring Phillips of Kenneth Branagh.
Holmes and Jane Wyatt, directed by Stuart Walker.
• 1999 – Great Expectations, a film starring Ioan
• 1946 – Great Expectations, the most celebrated Gruffudd as Pip, Justine Waddell as Estella, and
film version, starring John Mills as Pip, Bernard Charlotte Rampling as Miss Havisham (Masterpiece
Miles as Joe, Alec Guinness as Herbert, Finlay Cur- Theatre—TV)
rie as Magwitch, Martita Hunt as Miss Havisham,
Anthony Wager as Young Pip, Jean Simmons as • 2000 – "Pip", a South Park episode that parodies and
Young Estella and Valerie Hobson as the adult Es- retells the Charles Dickens novel, and stars the South
tella, directed by David Lean. It came fifth in a 1999 Park character Pip.
BFI poll of the top 100 British films. • 2011 – Great Expectations, a three-part BBC serial.
Starring Ray Winstone as Magwitch, Gillian Ander-
• 1954 – a two-part television version starring Roddy
son as Miss Havisham and Douglas Booth as Pip.
McDowall as Pip and Estelle Winwood as Miss Hav-
isham. It aired as an episode of the show Robert • 2012 – Great Expectations, a film directed by Mike
Montgomery Presents. Newell, starring Ralph Fiennes as Magwitch, Helena
Bonham Carter as Miss Havisham and Jeremy Irvine
• 1955 - An Orphan’s Tragedy, a Hong Kong film as Pip.
adaptation starring a teenage Bruce Lee. Filmed
in Cantonese, the setting was moved to early 20th
Stage versions have included:
century Hong Kong and characters were renamed,
where Pip was renamed as Frank whom was por-
trayed by Lee. • 1939 – London stage adaptation made by Alec
Guinness, which was to influence David Lean's 1946
• 1959 – a BBC television version starring Dinsdale film, in which both Guinness himself and Martita
Landen as Pip, Helen Lindsay as Estella, Colin Jeav- Hunt reprised their stage roles.
ons as Herbert Pocket, Marjorie Hawtrey as Miss
• 1975 – Stage Musical (London West End). Music by
Havisham and Derek Benfield as Landlord.
Cyril Ornadel, starring Sir John Mills. Ivor Novello
Award for Best British Musical.
• 1967 – a television serial starring Gary Bond and
Francesca Annis. • 1988 – Glasgow Mayfest, stage version by the Tag
Theatre Company in association with the Gregory
• 1974 – Great Expectations – a film starring Michael Nash group
York as Pip and Simon Gipps-Kent as Young Pip,
Sarah Miles and James Mason, directed by Joseph • 1995 – Stage adaptation of Great Expectations at
Hardy. Dublin's Gate Theatre by Hugh Leonard.[92]
12 14 WORKS

• 2002 – Melbourne Theatre Company four hour re- • Paul Schlicke (1999), Oxford Reader’s Companion
telling, in an adaptation by company director Simon to Dickens, New York: Oxford University Press
Phillips
• Paul Davis (1999), Charles Dickens from A to Z,
• 2005 – Royal Shakespeare Company adaptation by New York: Checkmark Books, ISBN 0816040877
the Cheek by Jowl founders Declan Donnellan and
Nick Ormerod, with Sian Phillips as Miss Havisham • John O. Jordan (2001), The Cambridge companion
to Charles Dickens, New York: Cambridge Univer-
• 2013 – West End adaptation written by Jo Clifford sity Press
and directed by Graham McLaren. Paula Wilcox as
Miss Havisham, Chris Ellison as Magwitch.[93] • David Paroissien (2011), A Companion to Charles
Dickens, Chichester: Wiley Blackwell, ISBN 978-
• 2015 – Dundee Repertory Theatre adaptation writ- 0-470-65794-2
ten by Jo Clifford and directed by Jemima Levick.
[94]
• Robin Gilmour (1981), The Idea of the Gentleman in
the Victorian Novel, Sydney: Allen & Unwin, ISBN
9780048000057
14 Works • Paul Davis (2007), Critical Companion to Charles
Dickens, A Literary Reference to His Life and Work,
14.1 Text New York: Facts on File, Inc., ISBN 0-8160-6407-
5
• Charles Dickens (1993), Great Expectations, Ware,
Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Classics, ISBN 1- • Jerome Hamilton Buckley (1974), “Dickens, David
85326-004-5, an unsigned and unpaginated intro- and Pip”, Season of Youth: the Bildungsroman from
duction Dickens to Golding, Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Harvard University Press, ISBN 9780674796409
• Charles Dickens (1993), Great Expectations, Ox-
ford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 978-0-19-818591-8,
introduction and notes by Margaret Cardwell 14.4 Specific sources
• Charles Dickens (1996), Great Expectations, Lon-
14.4.1 About the life and work of Charles Dickens
don: Penguin Classics, ISBN 0-141-43956-4, in-
troduction by David Trotter, notes by Charlotte
• John Forster (1872–1874), The Life of Charles
Mitchell
Dickens, London: J. M. Dent & Sons, edited by J.
W. T. Ley, 1928
14.2 French translations • John Forster (1976), Life of Charles Dickens, Lon-
don: Everyman’s Library, ISBN 0460007823
• Charles Dickens (1896) [1864], Les Grandes
Espérances (in French), Translated by Charles • Hippolyte Taine (1879), History of English Litera-
Bernard-Derosne, Paris: Hachette[95] ture, Translated from French by H. Van Laun, New
York
• Charles Dickens (1954), De Grandes espérances, La
Pléiade (in French), Translated by Lucien Guitard, • G. K. Chesterton (1906), Charles Dickens, London:
Pierre Leyris, André Parreaux, Madeleine Rossel Methuen and Co., Ltd.
(published with Souvenirs intimes de David Copper-
field), Paris: Gallimard, ISBN 9782070101672 • G. K. Chesterton (1911), Appreciations and Criti-
cisms of the Works of Charles Dicken, London: J.
M. Dent
14.3 General sources
• S. J. Adair Fitz-Gerald (1910), Dickens and the
• Michael Stapleton (1983), The Cambridge Guide Drama, London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.
to English Literature, London: Hamlyn, ISBN
0600331733 • Gilbert Keith Chesterton (1911), Appreciations and
Criticisms of the Works of Charles Dickens, London
• Margaret Drabble (1985), The Oxford Companion to
English literature, London: Guild Publishing • George Gissing (1925), The Immortal Dickens, Lon-
don: Cecil Palmer
• Andrew Sanders (1996), The Oxford History of En-
glish Literature (Revised Edition), Oxford: Oxford • Humphry House (1941), The Dickens World, Lon-
University Press, ISBN 0-19-871156-5 don: Oxford University Press
14.4 Specific sources 13

• Una Pope Hennessy (1947), Charles Dickens, Lon- • Virginia Woolf (1986), Andrew McNeillie, ed., The
don: The Reprint Society, first published 1945 Essays of Virginia Woolf: 1925–1928, London:
Hogarth Press, ISBN 978-0-7012-0669-7
• Hesketh Pearson (1949), Dickens, London:
Methuen • Harry Stone (1979), Dickens and the Invisible
World, Fairy Tales, Fantasy and Novel-Making,
• Jack Lindsay (1950), Charles Dickens, A Biographi- Bloomington and Londres: Indiana University.
cal and Critical Study, New York: Philosophical Li- Press
brary
• Michael Slater (1983), Dickens and Women, Lon-
• Barbara Hardy (1952), Dickens and the Twentieth don: J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., ISBN 0-460-04248-3
Century. The Heart of Charles Dickens, New York:
Edgar Johnson • Fred Kaplan (1988), Dickens, A Biography, William
Morrow & Co, ISBN 9780688043414
• Edgar Johnson (1952), Charles Dickens: His
Tragedy and Triumph. 2 vols, New York: Simon • Norman Page (1988), A Dickens Chronology,
and Schuster Boston: G.K. Hall and Co.
• Sylvère Monod (1953), Dickens romancier (in • Peter Ackroyd (1993), Charles Dickens, London:
French), Paris: Hachette Stock, ISBN 978-0099437093
• John Hillis-Miller (1958), Charles Dickens, The • Philip Collins (1996), Charles Dickens, The Critical
World of His Novels, Harvard: Harvard University Heritage, London: Routletge
Press, ISBN 9780674110007
• E. A. Horsman (1959), Dickens and the Structure of 14.4.2 About Great Expectations
Novel, Dunedin, N.Z.
• Mary Edminson (1958), “The Date of the Action in
• R. C. Churchill (1964), Charles Dickens, From Dick- Great Expectations", Nineteenth-Century Fiction 13
ens to Hardy, Baltimore, Md.: Boris Ford (1): 22–35, JSTOR 3044100
• Earle Davis (1963), The Flint and the Flame: The • Richard Lettis and William Morris, ed. (1960), As-
Artistry of Charles Dickens, Missouri-Columbia: sessing Great Expectations, San Francisco: Chan-
University of Missouri Press dler, texts from Forster, Whipple, Chesterton, Lea-
• Steven Marcus (1965), Dickens: From Pickwick to cock, Baker, House, Johnson, van Ghent, Stange,
Dombey, New York Hagan, Connolly, Engel, Hillis Miller, Moynahan,
Van de Kieft, Hardy, Lindberg, Partlow
• K. J. Fielding (1966), Charles Dickens, A Critical In-
troduction, London: Longman • Julian Moynahan (1960), “The Hero’s Guilt, The
Case of Great Expectations", Essays in Criticism (10,
• Christopher Hibbert (1967), The Making of Charles 1), Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 60–79
Dickens, London: Longmans Green & Co., Ltd.
• Henri Suhamy (1971), Great Expectations, cours
• Harry Stone (1968), Charles Dickens’ Uncollected d'Agrégation (in French), Vanves: Centre de Télé-
Writings from Household Words 1850–1859, 1 Enseignement, p. 25
and 2, Indiana: Indiana University Press, ISBN
0713901209 • Edgar Rosenberg (1972), “A Preface to Great Ex-
pectations: The Pale Usher Dusts His Lexicon”,
• F. R. & Q. D. Leavis (1970), Dickens the Novelist, Dickens Studies Annual, 2
London: Chatto & Windus, ISBN 0701116447
• Edgar Rosenberg (1981), “Last Words on Great Ex-
• A. E. Dyson (1970), The Inimitable Dickens, Lon- pectations: A Textual Brief ln the Six Endings”,
don: Macmillan, ISBN 0333063287 Dickens Studies Annual, 9
• Angus Wilson (1972), The World of Charles • Michael Peled Ginsburg (1984), “Dickens and the
Dickens, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, ISBN Uncanny: Repression and Displacement in Great
0140034889 Expectations", Dickens Studies Annual 13 (Univer-
sity of California Santa Cruz)
• Philip Collins (1975), Charles Dickens: The Public
Readings, Oxford: Clarendon Press • George J. Worth (1986), Great Expectations: An An-
notated Bibliography, New York: Garland
• Robert L. Patten (1978), Charles Dickens and His
Publishers, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN • Anny Sadrin (1988), Great Expectations, Unwin Hy-
0198120761 man, ISBN 978-0048000514
14 16 REFERENCES

• Michael Cordell, ed. (1990), Critical Essays on 16 References

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[5] Cummings, Mark, ed. (2004). The Carlyle Encyclopedia.

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[14] Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to John Forster, mid-

15 Notes September 1860 (?).

[15] (John Forster 1872–1874, p. 9.3)

[1] Bleak House alternates between a third-person narrator
and a first-person narrator, Esther Summerson, but the [16] Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to John Forster, 4 Octo-
former is predominant. ber 1860.

[2] Nineteen double sheets folded in half: on the left, names, [17] (Paul Schlicke 1999, p. 260)
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[18] Dallas, E.S. (17 October 1861). “Great Expectations”.
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[3] George Gissing wrote: "Great Expectations (1861) would
be nearly perfect in its mechanism but for the unhappy [19] Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to John Forster, begin-
deference to Lord Lytton’s judgment, which caused the ning October 1860.
end to be altered. Dickens meant to have left Pip a lonely
man, and of course rightly so; by the irony of fate he was [20] Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to Wilkie Collins, 14 Oc-
induced to spoil his work through a brother novelist’s de- tober 1860.
sire for a happy ending, a strange thing, indeed, to befall
Dickens.” [21] Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to Edmund Yates, 24
February 1861.
[4] In Great Expectations, only London is named, along with [22] (Charles Dickens 1993, p. xxvii–xxx)
its neighbourhoods and surrounding communities.
[23] “The Ending of Great Expectations". Retrieved 25 January
[5] Briskness here evokes abruptness. 2013.
 15

[24] Symon, Evan V. (January 14, 2013). “10 Deleted Chap- [49] Charles Dickens, Letters, Lettere to John Forster, begin-
ters that Transformed Famous Books”. listverse.com. ning October 1860

[25] Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to John Forster, April [50] Forster, John. The Life of Charles Dickens. Retrieved 30
1861. January 2013.

[26] (Charles Dickens 1993, p. 412) [51] (Jerome Hamilton Buckley 1974)

[27] Great Expectations, Penguin , 1965, p. 496 [52] (John Hillis-Miller 1958, pp. 249–278)

[28] Ian Brinton. “Dickens Bookmarks 12 – Great Expecta- [53] (F. R. & Q. D. Leavis 1970)
tions” (PDF). Retrieved 25 January 2013.
[54] “Lucie Guillemette and Josiane Cossette, Deconstruction
[29] Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to John Forster, 25 June and difference, Trois-Rivières, Université du Québec” (in
1861. French). Retrieved 2 August 2012.

[30] (Earle Davis 1963, pp. 261–262) [55] (Paul Schlicke 1999, p. 264)

[31] (John Forster 1872–1874, p. 9. 3) [56] (Jerome Meckier 1992, pp. 157-197).

[32] (Paul Schlicke 1999, p. 261) [57] (Paul Schlicke 1999, pp. 261–262)

[33] (Earle Davis 1963, p. 262) [58] (Paul Schlicke 1999, p. 262)

[34] (George Gissing 1925, p. 19), chapter III, The Story- [59] (John Forster 1872–1874, p. III, 1)
Teller [60] Cited by George Newlin, Understanding Great Expecta-
tions, Westport Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000, p.xiv
[35] (John Hillis-Miller 1958, p. 278)
[61] Allingham, Philip V. (9 March 2001). “The Genres of
[36] Charles Dickens and Earle Davis (1979). Great Expecta-
Charles Dickens’ Great Expectations – Positioning the
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Novel (1)". The Victorian Web. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
0030779008.
[62] Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to Wills, 4 September
[37] For a more detailed look into the revision of the ending,
1860
see Calum Kerr, From Magwitch to Miss Havisham: Nar-
rative Interaction and Mythic Structure in Charles Dick- [63] Gladys Storey, Dickens and Daughter, London, Frederick
ens’ Great Expectations, "Great Expectations, Critical In- Muller Ltd, 1939, pp.106–107
sights” (PDF). Retrieved 27 January 2013.
[64] (Charles Dickens 1993, p. xiv)
[38] Orwell, George (1940). George Orwell: Charles Dickens.
Inside the Whale and Other Essays (London: Victor Gol- [65] (Harry Stone 1979, pp. 279–297)
lancz).
[66] (Robin Gilmour 1981, p. 123)
[39] (Robert L. Patten 1978, p. 271)
[67] (Paul Davis 1999)
[40] (Robert L. Patten 1978, pp. 288–293)
[68] (Paul Davis 1999, p. 153)
[41] Dickens, Charles; Muller, Frank (1987). Great Expecta-
[69] Cited by (Paul Davis 1999, p. 158)
tions. New York: Recorded Books. ISBN 1-4025-4950-
4. [70] Cited by David Trotter, Introduction to Great Expecta-
tions, Londron, Penguin Books, 1996, p.vii
[42] “Illustrations de McLenan”. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
[71] (Michael Cordell 1990, pp. 34, 24)
[43] “Image Gallery for Marcus Stone”. ArtMagick. Retrieved
28 January 2013. [72] Cited in Dickens and the Twentieth Century, Gross, John
and Pearson, Gabriel, eds, London, Routledge and Kegan
[44] “Various editions of A Christmas Carol". The Bookstall.
Paul, 1962, p.199-211.
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[73] (Charles Dickens 1993, p. 218)
[45] “Illustrations by John McLenan for Great Expectations".
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[75] (Henri Suhamy 1971, p. 15)
[47] “Illustrations by Harry Furniss for Great Expectations".
Retrieved 4 September 2012. [76] (Henri Suhamy 1971, p. 16)

[48] (Robert L. Patten 1978, p. 292) [77] (Henri Suhamy 1971, p. 17)
16 17 EXTERNAL LINKS

[78] (Sylvère Monod 1953, p. 443) • Great Expectations – Easy to read HTML version
[79] Pickrel, Paul. Price, Martin, ed. Great Expectations. • Great Expectations – PDF scans of the entire novel
Dickens: A Collection of Critical Essays (Englewood as it originally appeared in All the Year Round
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall). p. 160.

[80] Pickrel, Paul. Price, Martin, ed. Great Expectations. Other

Dickens: A Collection of Critical Essays (Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall). p. 158. • Original manuscript – held at Wisbech & Fenland
[81] Pickrel, Paul. Price, Martin, ed. Great Expectations. Museum, Wisbech
Dickens: A Collection of Critical Essays (Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall). p. 161.
• David Parker’s article on the London Fictions site
about the London of Great Expectations
[82] (A. E. Dyson 1970, p. 1)
• Map of Dickens’ London
[83] John Berseth (2001), “Introduction”, Great Expectations,
Dover (USA): Dover Publications, Inc., p. 1, ISBN 978- • 1953 Theatre Guild on the Air radio adaptation at
0-486-41586-4 Internet Archive
[84] (Charles Dickens 1993, p. 31)

[85] Nicolas Tredell, Charles Dickens: David Copperfield/

Great Expectations. (London: Palgrave Macmillan,
2013), p.209.

[86] Craig, Amanda (3 November 2012). “Havisham, By

Ronald Frame: To reimagine a dark star of classic fiction
is a daring move, but one that yields mixed results”. The
Independent.

[87] “Literary houses”. google.ca.

[88] Fforde, Jasper (2002) Lost in a Good Book, Hodder &

Stoughton, 0-340-82283-X

[89] “The Dilys Award”. Archived from the original on 2008-

08-26. Retrieved 2008-08-26.

[90] “Great Extrapolations”. nytimes.com.

[91] Olivia Laing. “Review: Mister Pip by Lloyd Jones”. the

Guardian.

[92] “Irish Playography entry for Hugh Leonard, Great Expec-

tations”.

[93] “Great Expectations Tickets”. LOVE Theatre.

[94] “Great Expectations”. Dundee Rep Theatre.

[95] Hammond, Mary. Charles Dickens’s Great Expectations:

A Cultural Life, 1860-2012. p. 155.

17 External links
• Great Expectations public domain audiobook at
LibriVox

Online editions

• Great Expectations at Internet Archive

•
• Great Expectations at Project Gutenberg
 17

18 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

18.1 Text
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18 18 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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