PHYSICS MODULE 5: ADVANCE MECHANICS

PROJECTILE MOTION

Inquiry question: How can models that are used to explain projectile motion be used to analyse and make
predictions?

● analyse the motion of projectiles by resolving the motion into horizontal and vertical components,
making the following assumptions:
– a constant vertical acceleration due to gravity
– zero air resistance
● apply the modelling of projectile motion to quantitatively derive the relationships between the
following variables:
– initial velocity
– launch angle
– maximum height
– time of flight
– final velocity
– launch height
– horizontal range of the projectile (ACSPH099)
● conduct a practical investigation to collect primary data in order to validate the relationships derived
above.
● solve problems, create models and make quantitative predictions by applying the equations of
motion relationships for uniformly accelerated and constant rectilinear motion

CIRCULAR MOTION

Inquiry question: Why do objects move in circles?

● conduct investigations to explain and evaluate, for objects executing uniform circular motion, the
relationships that exist between:
– centripetal force
– mass
– speed
– radius
● analyse the forces acting on an object executing uniform circular motion in a variety of situations, for
example:
– cars moving around horizontal circular bends
– a mass on a string
– objects on banked tracks (ACSPH100)
● solve problems, model and make quantitative predictions about objects executing uniform circular
motion in a variety of situations, using the following relationships:
𝑣2
– 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑟
2𝜋𝑟
– 𝑣= 𝑇
𝑚𝑣2
– 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑟

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 1 OF 34

 ∆𝜃
– 𝜔=
𝑡
● investigate the relationship between the total energy and work done on an object executing uniform
circular motion
● investigate the relationship between the rotation of mechanical systems and the applied torque
– 𝜏 = 𝑟⊥ 𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

MOTION IN GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS

Inquiry question: How does the force of gravity determine the motion of planets and satellites?

● apply qualitatively and quantitatively Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation to:

𝐺𝑀𝑚
– determine the force of gravity between two objects 𝐹 =
𝑟2
𝐺𝑀
– investigate the factors that affect the gravitational field strength 𝑔 =
𝑟2
– predict the gravitational field strength at any point in a gravitational field, including at the surface of a planet
(ACSPH094, ACSPH095, ACSPH097)
● investigate the orbital motion of planets and artificial satellites when applying the relationships
between the following quantities:
– gravitational force
– centripetal force
– centripetal acceleration
– mass
– orbital radius
– orbital velocity
– orbital period
● predict quantitatively the orbital properties of planets and satellites in a variety of situations,
including near the Earth and geostationary orbits, and relate these to their uses (ACSPH101)
● investigate the relationship of Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion to the forces acting on, and the
total energy of, planets in circular and non-circular orbits using: (ACSPH101)
2𝜋𝑟
– 𝑣= 𝑇
𝑟3 𝐺𝑀
– = 4𝜋2
𝑇2
● derive quantitatively and apply the concepts of gravitational force and gravitational potential energy
in radial gravitational fields to a variety of situations, including but not limited to:
2𝐺𝑀
– the concept of escape velocity 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √
𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
– total potential energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit 𝑈 = −
𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
– total energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit 𝑈 + 𝐾 = −
2𝑟
– energy changes that occur when satellites move between orbits (ACSPH096)
– Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion (ACSPH101)

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 2 OF 34

 PROJECTILE MOTION
OUTCOMES

● analyse the motion of projectiles by resolving the motion into horizontal and vertical components,
making the following assumptions:
– a constant vertical acceleration due to gravity
– zero air resistance
● apply the modelling of projectile motion to quantitatively derive the relationships between the
following variables:
– initial velocity
– launch angle
– maximum height
– time of flight
– final velocity
– launch height
– horizontal range of the projectile (ACSPH099)

PROJECTILE MOTION

An object moving freely under the force of gravity is called a projectile.

- There must be no other force other than the gravitational force acting on the object. Hence it moves “freely
under the force of gravity.”
- The net force of the projectile is the gravitational force (weight).
- Objects experience:
o A vertically downward force of 9.8 𝑁𝑘𝑔−1
o A vertically downwards acceleration of 9.8𝑚𝑠 −2

ANALYSING PROJECTILE MOTION

Projectile motion is two-dimensional motion:

- Break up the two-dimensional motion into two one-dimensional motions

- The horizontal motion (along x) and vertical motion (along y) are independent of each other (neither motion
affects the other) so can be treated separately.
- There is no acceleration in the horizontal direction, as gravity only acts vertically.

Horizontal Direction (x) Vertical Direction (y)

𝒗𝒙 = 𝒖 𝒙 𝑣𝑦 2 = 𝑢𝑦 2 + 2𝑎𝑦 ∆𝑦
∆𝒙 = 𝒖𝒙𝒕 1
∆𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
2
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡

The following assumptions are made:

- The curvature of the Earth is ignored (∆𝑥 ≪ 𝑟𝐸 ).

- The frictional resistance of the atmosphere is assumed to be negligible and ignored.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 3 OF 34

T YPES OF PROJECTILE MOTION QUESTIONS

NO INITIAL VERTICAL COMPONENT

Initial Velocity ux

Height h

Distance

- Velocity in the x-direction: Remains at its initial value

- Velocity in the y-direction: Initially zero but increases as object falls.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 4 OF 34

NO VERTICAL DISPLACEMENT

(max height)

Height h

Initial
Velocity

Distance

Characteristics Description
Initial horizontal velocity 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Initial vertical velocity 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Horizontal velocity at max. height 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥
Vertical velocity at max. height 0
Angle of projection for max. range 45°

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 5 OF 34

PROJECTILE FIRED AT AN ANGLE ABOVE THE GROUND

Maximum Height

hmax
Initial Height
ho

Distance

Characteristics Description
Initial velocity in the x-direction 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Initial velocity in the y-direction 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Vertical velocity at max. height 0
Angle of projection for max range 45°

CHANGING THE ANGLE OF LAUNCH

- 45°→ Best Horizontal and vertical distance

- ↓ 𝜃 → ↓ max height → ↓ time → ↑ Range
- ↑𝜃 → ↑ max height → ↑ time → ↓ Range

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 6 OF 34

 ROTATIONAL MOTION
OUTCOMES
● conduct investigations to explain and evaluate, for objects executing uniform circular motion, the
relationships that exist between:
– centripetal force
– mass
– speed
– radius
● analyse the forces acting on an object executing uniform circular motion in a variety of situations, for
example:
– cars moving around horizontal circular bends
– a mass on a string
– objects on banked tracks (ACSPH100)
● solve problems, model and make quantitative predictions about objects executing uniform circular
motion in a variety of situations, using the following relationships:
𝑣2
– 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑟
2𝜋𝑟
– 𝑣= 𝑇
𝑚𝑣2
– 𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟
∆𝜃
– 𝜔=
𝑡

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION (UCM)

An object travelling in a circle at constant speed is said to be undergoing uniform circular motion.

The net force of an object moving in uniform circular motion is directed towards the centre of the rotation and is
referred to as centripetal force.

Characteristics of uniform circular motion are:

1) Motion along a circular path of radius 𝑟.

2) Speed 𝑣 is constant, hence period 𝑇 of rotation is constant.
3) Angular velocity 𝜔 is constant. Angular velocity is the rate at which angular displacement changes (how
quickly the angle changes).
4) Linear velocity 𝑣⃗ is not constant since direction is continuously changing. The object’s linear velocity is
perpendicular to the net force throughout the object’s rotation.
5) Acceleration 𝑎 is directed towards the centre of the circle (centripetal acceleration 𝑎𝑐 ).
6) Requires a net force (a centripetal force 𝐹𝑐 ) towards the centre of the circle.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 7 OF 34

FUNDAMENTALS OF CIRCULAR MOTION

On formula sheet
Definition Unit Formula
Period 𝑻 Time taken to complete one revolution. Seconds 1
𝑇=
𝑓
Frequency 𝒇 The number of revolutions completed by Hertz 1
𝑓=
an object in one second 𝑇
Angular Displacement 𝜽 The position of the object around the Radians 𝜃
×𝜋
circle, measured as an angle 180
Angular velocity 𝝎 The rate of change of angular 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 ∆𝜃
𝜔=
displacement. It measures how fast or slow ∆𝑡
an object undergoes a change in angular 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
displacement.
Linear velocity 𝒗 The rate of change of linear displacement. 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑠 2𝜋𝑟
𝑣= =
It measures how fast or slow the linear 𝑡 𝑇
displacement is changing with respect to 𝑣 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑓 = 𝑟𝜔
time.
Centripetal acceleration 𝒂𝒄 The acceleration acting towards the centre 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑣2
of rotation on an object moving in a circle. 𝑎𝑐 =
𝑟
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑟𝜔2
Centripetal force 𝑭𝒄 The force acting on an object towards the 𝑁
centre of rotation required in order for the ∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
object to move in a circle.
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2

CONDITIONS FOR AN OBJECT TO EXECUTE CIRCULAR MOTION

Since the object will be accelerating, there must be a net force acting on the object. According to Newton’s Second
Law:

∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎

In uniform circular motion, the net force is directed towards the centre of the circular path and is referred to as the
centripetal force 𝐹𝑐 :

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟
Situation Force providing the centripetal Condition
force
Car driving around a corner Friction between the tyres and the 𝑚𝑣 2
road 𝑓 𝑓=
𝑟
Ball swinging around on a string Tension in the string 𝑇 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑇=
𝑟
Satellite orbiting a planet Gravitational force between the 𝑚𝑣 2
satellite and the planet 𝐹𝐺 𝐹𝐺 =
𝑟

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 8 OF 34

 𝑚𝑣 2
If the centripetal force and the details of the motion do not satisfy 𝐹𝑐 = , then the object will not execute
𝑟
uniform circular motion. It will not follow a circular path and instead follow a different trajectory.
Situation Condition Motion
Car driving around a corner The road is slippery, there is not The car will slide out of the turn into
𝑚𝑣 2 a greater radius
enough friction 𝐹 <
𝑟
Ball swinging around on a string The string is cut so tension in the The ball travels in a straight line.
𝑚𝑣2
string 𝑇 = 0 <
𝑟
Satellite orbiting a planet The satellite’s motion does not The satellite will move into an
satisfy the conditions of circular elliptical orbit.
𝑚𝑣 2
motion, hence 𝐹𝐺 ≠
𝑟

RPM → 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔

Revolutions per minute or ‘RPM’ is commonly used in situations involving circular motion.

Conversion of RPM to 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠:

1) Convert the minutes to per second by dividing by 60.

2) Convert the revolutions to radians by multiplying by 2𝜋

PROBLEMS INVOLVING UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

HOW TO ANALYSE UCM QUESTIONS

1) Identify the forces acting on the object. Draw a free body diagram.
2) Determine the direction of acceleration. For UCM, the acceleration is always towards the centre of the
circular path.
3) Decompose the forces so they are either parallel to the acceleration or perpendicular to it.
4) Apply Newton’s Second Law to the direction of acceleration and the direction perpendicular to that, and
fund the unknowns:

𝑚𝑣 2
o In the direction of acceleration there must be a net force: 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
𝑟
o In the direction perpendicular to the acceleration 𝑎 = 0 so 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0
o A common unknown that must be solved is centripetal acceleration. Once you know the
acceleration, other quantities can be found, such as unknown forces or the speed.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 9 OF 34

VEHICLES ROUNDING A CURVE ON FLAT ROAD

1) Lateral (perpendicular) force between tyres and the road surface (𝑓)
2) Normal force ( 𝑁)
3) Weight force ( 𝑤 )

The car does not accelerate vertically. Hence:

𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦

𝑁−𝑤=0

∴ 𝑁=𝑤

The driver can change the amount of lateral frictional force by turning the steering wheel, which causes the front
wheels to push the car left or right. The following situations are possible:

Centripetal Force Motion of Car

𝒎𝒗𝟐 Uniform Circular Motion
𝑭=
𝒓
𝒎𝒗𝟐 Car will move towards the centre of the circle. Radius
𝑭> creases so the car turns more sharply.
𝒓
𝒎𝒗𝟐 Car will move away from the centre of the circle.
𝑭< Radius increases so car turns more gently. This will also
𝒓
happen if there is not enough friction due to the road
being slippery.

CAR ON BANKED TRACK WITH NO FRICTION

On a cambered or banked road, the road is tilted into the centre of the turn or circular path. Banked tracks allow
vehicles to travel at higher speed without skidding.

- Thus the normal force is tilted and has a component towards the centre of the circle.
- The normal force then contributes to the centripetal force.
- If the car is turning at the correct speed, the horizontal component of the normal force will provide the
centripetal force and the car turns in a circle without relying on friction.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 10 OF 34

DESIGN SPEED

𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0 (1)/(2)

𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑚𝑎
∴ 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔-- (1) =
𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑚𝑔
𝑎
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 𝑁𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑔
𝒂 = 𝒈𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽
∴ 𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 -- (2) 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

𝑣2
𝑎 = 𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑟
∴ 𝑣 = √𝑔𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

CONICAL PENDULUM

A pendulum is a mass m at the end of a light string of length 𝑙. The top end is fixed to a frame or mount.

The forces on the mass are weight force downwards and tension force in the direction of the string. The string is at
an angle of 𝜃 from vertical. The pendulum rotates with a radius 𝑟, at a distance ℎ below the mount.

The analysis of the forces on the conical pendulum gives:

- The vertical component of tension 𝑇𝑦 = 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 balances the weight force:

𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0

𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔

𝑚𝑔
𝑇=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑚𝑔
- The horizontal component of tension 𝑇𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 provides the centripetal force, using 𝑇 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝛴𝐹𝑥 =𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎

𝑚𝑣 2
𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑟

- The horizontal component of the tension provides the centripetal force for the mass on the pendulum.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 11 OF 34

INCREASE IN TENSION ON CONICAL PENDULUM

- Vertical component stays constant → Balances the downward weight force → Angle increases
- Horizontal component increases → Centripetal force increases → Angle increases

CENTRIPETAL MASS BALANCE

A centripetal mass balance has a mass𝑚spinning on a string. The other end of the string is attached to a hanging
mass 𝑀and allowed to slide through a frictionless tube or pulley.

- The mass 𝑚 is spun at a certain speed so that the mass𝑀remains stationary.

On M: 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑇 − 𝑀𝑔 = 0

On M: Therefore 𝑇 = 𝑀𝑔

On m: 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔

𝑚𝑔
On m: Therefore 𝑇 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑚𝑔
𝑀𝑔 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑚
𝑀=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 12 OF 34

 𝑚
Relationship between masses and the angle at which it must rotate: = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑀

Equation for Centripetal Force:

𝑇𝑥 = 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎

𝑇𝑦 = 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔

𝑎
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑔

𝑎 = 𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

𝑚
𝑎 = 𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( ))
𝑀
𝑚
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( ))
𝑀

OUTCOMES
● investigate the relationship between the total energy and work done on an object executing uniform
circular motion

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION OF RIGID BODIES

A rigid body is a solid object or structure. Eg:

- Discs like wheels on a car or bicycle, or a ferris wheel.

- Spheres like a ball or the Earth.

When a rigid body rotates the entire object moves together.

- All parts of the object undergo uniform circular motion.

- The angular velocity 𝜔 is the same for all parts of the object.
- The linear velocity 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 depends on position.

NON UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

THE LOOP-DE-LOOP MANEUVER

In a loop-de-loop, a vehicle gains speed during a run up, and enters a vertical circular track that takes the vehicle
upside down at the top of the circle, to upright again at the bottom of the circle.

- In a loop-de-loop, a vehicle undergoes non-uniform circular motion because the speed changes around the
circle, unlike a rigid body.
- By analysing the changes in kinetic and potential energy, it can be determined that it is non-uniform

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 13 OF 34

At any instant the object is still in circular motion so:

𝑣2
- Its acceleration is 𝑎𝑐 = .The acceleration changes around the loop since the speed changes.
𝑟
𝑚𝑣2
- The force is 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = .The force changes around the loop.
𝑟
- The acceleration is towards the centre.
- The radial direction is towards the centre, since a vector pointing towards the centre would be along a
radius of the circle.
- The tangential direction is perpendicular to the radial since a tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the
radius.

Position Radial Force (Positive towards the Tangential Force (Positive in the
centre) same direction as velocity)

A: Bottom (Lowest Point) 𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔 0

B: Right 𝑁 −𝑚𝑔

C: Top (Highest Point) 𝑁 + 𝑚𝑔 0

D: Left 𝑁 +𝑚𝑔

At B: Weight is antiparallel to the direction of velocity and therefore is doing negative work.

At D: Weight is parallel to the direction of velocity, therefore is doing positive work.

Centripetal Force at each point:

𝑚𝑣 2
- A: 𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣2
- B & D: 𝑁 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
- C: 𝑁 + 𝑚𝑔 =
𝑟
The minimum value is when N = 0.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 14 OF 34

 TORQUE
OUTCOMES
● investigate the relationship between the rotation of mechanical systems and the applied torque
– 𝜏 = 𝑟⊥ 𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
DEFINITION OF TORQUE

Torque is defined as the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis.

The magnitude of the torque is calculated by the following formula:

𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

- 𝜏: Torque (𝑁𝑚)
- 𝒓⊥ : The perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the force.

The pivot point is the centre of the bolt. Since torque is a vector, the direction of torque is usually stated as being
either clockwise or anticlockwise.

CONDITIONS FOR MAXIMUM TORQUE

For a given force F, the torque produced by the forces is maximum when the force applied is perpendicular to the
line joining the forces and the pivot point.

EFFECT OF TORQUE ON THE ROTATION OF A SYSTEM

Torque is the equivalent force for rotational motion:

- Force will cause linear acceleration in linear motion

-
- Torque will cause angular acceleration in rotational motion

Torque is applied whenever there is a force acting tangentially to rotational motion.

- Torque will increase angular velocity if the tangential component of the force is in the same direction as
the velocity.
- Torque will decrease angular velocity if the tangential component of the force is in opposite directions to
the velocity.

T ORQUE OR ROTATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM

An object in rotational equilibrium has no net external torque. This however does not mean that the object is not
rotating, it may seem that the object is rotating with constant angular velocity.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 15 OF 34

 GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS
OUTCOMES
● apply qualitatively and quantitatively Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation to:
𝐺𝑀𝑚
– determine the force of gravity between two objects 𝐹 =
𝑟2
𝐺𝑀
– investigate the factors that affect the gravitational field strength 𝑔 =
𝑟2
– predict the gravitational field strength at any point in a gravitational field, including at the surface of a planet
(ACSPH094, ACSPH095, ACSPH097)
● derive quantitatively and apply the concepts of gravitational force and gravitational potential energy
in radial gravitational fields to a variety of situations, including but not limited to:
𝐺𝑀𝑚
– total potential energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit 𝑈 = −
𝑟
– energy changes that occur when satellites move between orbits (ACSPH096)
COMPARISON OF MASS AND WEIGHT

Mass Weight

Definition Mass is the measure of the inertia an Weight is the force with which an object is
object exhibits attracted to the Earth due to gravity.

SI Units 𝑘𝑔(kilogram) 𝑁(Newton)

GRAVITATIONAL FORCE OF ATTRACTION

NEWTON’S LAWS OF ATTRACTION

The existence of weight can be explained by the gravitational force of attraction which acts on all objects with
mass. The Law of Universal Gravitation states that:

“Every object (mass) in the universe attracts each other object (mass) with a force directly proportional to the product
of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from their centres”

- 𝑚𝐴 and𝑚𝐵 are the masses of any two objects

- 𝑟is the distance between their centres
- 𝐺is the universal gravitational constant 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔 −2

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 16 OF 34

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

The gravitational field is a model used to describe the region of influence within which the gravitational force
between any two objects with mass exists.

- The gravitational field is used to describe gravitational phenomena and is measured in Newtons per kilogram
(𝑁𝑘𝑔 −1 )
- Gravitational phenomena: Mass → Gravitational field → Gravitational force of attraction experience by
another mass in the field → Weight and acceleration due to gravity

The Earth’s gravitational field strength at a distance from the centre of the earth is:

- 𝑀𝐸 = mass of the Earth

- 𝑟= distance from the centre of the earth
- 𝑟𝐸 = radius of the earth (6371 𝑘𝑚)

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD VS. DISTANCE FROM CENTRE OF THE EARTH

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

The acceleration due to gravity is equal in magnitude to the gravitational field strength.

- If gravity is the only force acting on an object, then it will be the net force 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔
- From Newton's Second Law 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎
- Therefore 𝑎 = 𝑔

The acceleration due to gravity is the same for all objects at the same point in a gravitational field.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 17 OF 34

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

DEFINITION OF WORK

The work done on an object is defined as the force acting on the object over a displacement.

- It is mathematically given by: 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

- It is only the component of the force in the direction of displacement that does work on an object.

If𝐹is the net force, then the object will accelerate, and the velocity changes. Work causes a change of the kinetic
energy of the object.

POTENTIAL ENERGY

This defines potential energy as the work done by an upward external force on an object of mass 𝑚 as it is lowered
from one position to another without acceleration.

- Specifically, this defines the gravitational potential energy as the work done in moving an object from an
infinite distance to a distance 𝒓 from a centre of a large mass 𝑀.

COMPARISON OF POTENTIAL ENERGY

Definition The work done against the gravitational field The work done by an upward external force in
in moving a mass from the surface of the lowering a mass from infinity to a distance𝑟from
Earth to a position of heightℎabove. the centre of the Earth without acceleration.

𝑼=𝟎 At the surface of the Earth (arbitrary At infinite distance away from the centre of the
definition) Earth

As𝒓increases U increases to infinity U increases to 0 at infinity

Validity Formula valid near the Earth’s surfaceℎ ≪ Formula valid for all 𝑟 > 𝑟𝐸 .Used for large height
𝑟𝐸 so that𝑔is approximately constant changes or far from Earth’s surface

CHANGES IN GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

When the altitude decreases, gravitational potential energy decreases. Therefore the change in gravitational
potential energy is negative.

When the altitude increases, gravitational potential energy increases. Therefore the change in gravitational
potential energy is positive.

Note: It is important to add all distances.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 18 OF 34

GRAPHING CHANGE IN POTENTIAL ENERGY WITH DISTANCE

DERIVATION

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 19 OF 34

 ORBITS
OUTCOMES
● investigate the orbital motion of planets and artificial satellites when applying the relationships
between the following quantities:
– gravitational force
– centripetal force
– centripetal acceleration
– mass
– orbital radius
– orbital velocity
– orbital period
● predict quantitatively the orbital properties of planets and satellites in a variety of situations,
including near the Earth and geostationary orbits, and relate these to their uses (ACSPH101)
ORBITS OF SATELLITES

A satellite is an object that moves around another larger object. There are two types of satellites:

- Natural satellites, eg. moon

- Artificial satellites eg. International space station

ORBITAL SPEED OF SATELLITES

The Earth’s gravitational field holds the satellite in a certain path as it goes around the Earth, and that path is called
an orbit. In a stable orbit:

- The radius of the orbit remains constant.

- The gravitational force of attraction between the Earth and the satellite acts as the centripetal force
required to execute uniform circular motion around the Earth.

There are two methods for calculating orbital speed of a satellite:

DERIVATION OF ORBITAL SPEED

Gravitational force of attraction = Centripetal Force

𝐹𝐺 = 𝐹𝑐

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 20 OF 34

The orbits of satellites are described in two different ways:

- By indicating the radius of the orbit r. This is the distance between the Earth and the satellite.
- By indicating the altitude of the orbit h. This is the height of the orbit above the ground.

- The equation uses the radius of the orbit, not the altitude.

CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION

An object in orbit will accelerate towards the Earth at the acceleration due to gravity.

- The object will have a tangential velocity.

- The acceleration towards the ground is what keeps the object in uniform circular motion.

NEWTON’S THOUGHT EXPERIMENT

Newton predicted that an object projected horizontally from a high mountain would undergo projectile motion.

- He suggested that a ball could be pushed forward and it would travel a short distance before reaching the
ground. If it were pushed harder, it would travel further before touching the ground.
- If pushed fast enough, it would fall towards the Earth at the same rate as the Earth curves away from it. It
would be falling towards the Earth, but its path would be parallel to the Earth’s surface, so its height above
the ground would remain constant. This is circular orbit.
- The ball would constantly fall towards the ground, it just wouldn’t get closer to the ground.

WEIGHTLESSNESS

APPARENT WEIGHT AND TRUE WEIGHT

The true weight of a person is always their actual weight (mg), the gravitational force of attraction to the Earth.
True weight does not change.

The apparent weight of a person is the normal force acting on the person from the platform which they are standing
on.

- Apparent weight is responsible for the sensation of weight.

- Since apparent weight comes from the platform supporting you, it can vary.

EFFECT OF ACCELERATION ON APPARENT WEIGHT

1) When acceleration is 0, apparent weight = true weight.

2) When acceleration is upward, apparent weight > true weight. (Feels heavier)
3) When acceleration is downward, apparent weight < true weight. (Feels lighter)

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 21 OF 34

WEIGHTLESSNESS

Weightlessness occurs when there is no force of support on your body, hence when apparent weight is 0.

- When your body is in free fall, accelerating downwards at the acceleration due to gravity, then you are not
being supported (there is no force acting on you other than gravity).
- The sensation of apparent weight comes from the support that you feel from the floor, platform.
- Hence, if there is no support, there is no apparent weight.

For example: ISS is in free fall under the influence of Earth’s gravitational field → Astronauts in the ISS are also in free
fall → No normal reaction force from ISS acting on astronaut → Astronaut apparent weight = 0 → Apparent
weightlessness

SUMMARY

Acceleration Downwards: Acceleration at acceleration due to gravity:

Meaning the ‘apparent weight’ is less than the actual Meaning the ‘apparent weight’ is 0 and they ‘apparent
weight. weightless’

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 22 OF 34

T YPES OF SATELLITE ORBITS

Satellites can be positioned in orbits with different altitudes and shapes. Based on orbital radius, satellites fall into
one of three categories:

1) LEO: Low Earth Orbit

2) MEO: Medium Earth Orbit
3) GEO: Geostationary Earth Orbit

LEO: LOW EARTH ORBIT

A Low Earth Orbit describes a satellite which orbits Earth with altitudes around 160km - 1000km. Most LEOs are
polar orbits.

- The ISS is 460km above the Earth’s surface

- The Hubble Space Telescope is 559km above the Earth’s surface

LEO satellites are used for a variety of purposes:

- Remote sensing to study the surface of the Earth for minerals

- Military activity
- Telecommunications applications
- Special satellites like the Hubble Space Telescope

Due to the low altitude, a small amount of atmospheric drag (air resistance) acts on LEO satellites.

- As a result, over time, LEO satellites slow down and their orbits slowly decrease. This is known as orbital
decay.

Satellites in LEO can be used to provide relays for telecommunication applications. A constellation of LEO satellites
is required in order to provide continuous coverage:

- The coverage of LEO satellites is relatively narrow due to their proximity to Earth
- The orbital speed means a satellite is only overhead and in range for a short duration
- However, LEO satellites can capture detailed images of the Earth’s surface due to their low altitude and do
not require powerful amplifiers for successful transmission.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 23 OF 34

ELLIPTICAL ORBIT

A satellite in elliptical orbit follows an oval-shaped path:

- One part of the orbit is closest to the center of the Earth (perigee) and another part is farthest away
(apogee)
- A satellite in this type of orbit generally has an inclination angle of 64 degrees and takes 12 hours to circle
the planet.
- This type of orbit covers regions of high latitude for a large fraction of its orbital period.

A constellation of satellites can provide continuous coverage in order to be used for communication purposes. In
the case of the GPS system, there are three or more satellites covering any location on the planet.

GEOSTATIONARY ORBIT

A geostationary orbit is one in which the satellite is always in the same position with respect to the rotating Earth.
The velocity of the satellite relative to the ground is zero.

The satellite orbits at an elevation of approximately 35,800km because that produces an orbital period equal to the
period of rotation of the Earth. Hence, the satellite appears to remain in the same position above the Earth.

GEOSYNCHRONOUS ORBIT

An orbit in which the satellite completes one circuit around the Earth in one day, then appears in the same position
above the Earth’s surface is known as a geosynchronous orbit. Geostationary orbits are a special case of
geosynchronous orbits.

A satellite in geosynchronous orbit goes around the Earth once a day before returning to its original position.

- The duration of one orbit is the same as Earth’s rotational period.

- The orbital inclination is not always zero and shape of the orbit may be elliptical.
- A geostationary orbit is thus a geosynchronous orbit with orbital inclination of zero and a circular shape.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 24 OF 34

SUMMARY: LEO VS GEO

Type LEO GEO

Description Low Earth Orbit Geostationary Earth Orbit

Altitude 160 - 1000 km 35800 km

Radius 6531 - 7371 km 42300 km

Velocity

Period 87 - 105 minutes 24 hours

Time in Line of Sight 15 minutes 24 hours

Function - Remote sensing - Communications

- Military activity - Weather forecasting
- Telecommunications
- Specialised satellites

Advantages - Relatively cheap to build and - Always remains in the same position
deploy - No tracking is required from the
- Repair work can be carried out ground
whilst in orbit - The satellite can provide continuous
- Can capture detailed images of operation in the area of visibility of
Earth’s surface the satellite
- Does not require a powerful
amplifier for successful
transmission

Disadvantages - Small amount of atmospheric drag - Expensive to build and deploy

acts on the satellite. As a result, - Repair work cannot be carried out
over time, their orbits slowly decay - Cannot provide full coverage for high
- Time in line of sight is very short. A latitude regions (Russia)
constellation of satellites is
required to provide continuous
coverage

Examples - Hubble Space Telescope - Intercontinental communication

- International Space Station satellites

ORBITAL DECAY

All satellites in LEO are subjected to some degree of friction called atmospheric drag. The amount of atmospheric
drag depends on:

- Density of air
- Speed of the satellite
- The shape and size of the satellite

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 25 OF 34

 KEPLER’S LAWS
OUTCOMES
● investigate the relationship of Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion to the forces acting on, and the
total energy of, planets in circular and non-circular orbits using: (ACSPH101)
2𝜋𝑟
– 𝑣= 𝑇
𝑟3 𝐺𝑀
– =
𝑇2 4𝜋2
● derive quantitatively and apply the concepts of gravitational force and gravitational potential energy
in radial gravitational fields to a variety of situations, including but not limited to:
– Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion (ACSPH101)
KEPLER’S THREE LAWS - EMPIRICAL LAWS

Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion are all empirical laws based on observation. They only describe the patterns
in observation. They do not attempt to explain them with a more general underlying theory.

Kepler proposed that the motion of the planets around the Sun can be described by the following three laws:

- Planet move around the Sun in an elliptical orbit which has the sun in one of its two foci
- A line joining the planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times as the planet orbits
- The radius of the orbit cubed divided by period of the orbit squared is the same for all the planets in our
Solar System

KEPLER’S FIRST LAW: LAW OF ELLIPSES

Each planet has an elliptical orbit with the Sun at one focus.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 26 OF 34

 semi-minor

semi-major

- The sum of distance to both foci is a constant

- Eccentricity is how flat the ellipse is. It is defined as,

The orbits of all planets except for Mars, Mercury and Pluto are very close to being circular.

𝑏
- The ratio of the semi-minor to the semi-major axis for the Earth is = 0.99986.The eccentricity is 0.017
𝑎
- The orbit of Earth is nearly circular.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 27 OF 34

PROPERTIES OF ELLIPTICAL ORBITS

Elliptical orbits have the central body at one focus of the ellipse. For elliptical orbits, the central body will not be in
the center of the orbit. This can also be related to Kepler’s Second Law.

Highest
KE
Lowest KE Lowest
Highest GPE

The distance between the central body and the orbiting body (satellite) will vary as satellites move around the
ellipse.

- The minimum distance between the satellite and the central body occurs when the satellite crosses the
major axis nearest the central body. The general name for this position is periapsis, but the special names
are given depending on the central body.
- Similarly, the maximum distance is when the satellite crosses the major axis furthest from the central body.
The general name for this position is apoapsis.

Central Body Name of Closest Point Name of Furthest Point

General Periapsis/Pericenter Apoapsis/Apocentre

Sun Perihelion Aphelion

Earth Perigee Apogee

Star Periastron Apastron

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 28 OF 34

KEPLER’S SECOND LAW: LAW OF AREAS

Each planet moves so that a radius vector from the Sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.

Derivation of Kepler’s Second Law:

The length of an arc is given by:

Hence:

Can be expressed as:

Angular momentum given by: , hence .

Thus:

KEPLER’S THIRD LAW: LAW OF PERIODS

The ratio of the cube of a planet’s average distance from the Sun to the square of the planet’s period of orbit has
the same value for all the planets.

Kepler concluded that the radius and period of a planet’s orbit where related.

- Where K = 1 if the units are kept as AU and years.

- 𝑟is the average distance of the planet from the Sun (or satellite from a planet).
- 𝑇is the period of the orbit.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 29 OF 34

KEPLER’S THIRD LAW & NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Using Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, Kepler’s Third Law, K can be predicted in any situation.

Since gravitational force on the planet is equal to the centripetal force needed to keep it moving in a circle:

Substitute and rearrange to get

Therefore Kepler’s Third Law is: where G is the universal gravitational constant and M is the mass
of the central body around which the objects are orbiting.

- is independent of the mass of the planets. Therefore, it is a constant for all objects orbiting a
certain central mass M.

- The equation tells us that if comparing different satellites of the same central body, then the ratio
has a fixed value. This means that the ratio must be the same for each satellite

NOTES

- An object with a larger mass provides the force that keeps the object with the smaller mass moving in orbit.
In the case of our solar system, the Sun provides the force that keeps the planets moving in orbit.
- Once the distance of a planet is known, then its orbital period and velocity can be determined.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 30 OF 34

 ENERGY OF ORBITS
OUTCOMES
● derive quantitatively and apply the concepts of gravitational force and gravitational potential energy
in radial gravitational fields to a variety of situations, including but not limited to:
2𝐺𝑀
– the concept of escape velocity 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √
𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
– total potential energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit 𝑈 = −
𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
– total energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit 𝑈 + 𝐾 = −
2𝑟
– energy changes that occur when satellites move between orbits (ACSPH096)
– Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion (ACSPH101)
T OTAL ENERGY OF AN ORBIT

A satellite in orbit will both have kinetic energy and potential energy.

- Potential energy is:

- Kinetic energy is: using

- Hence total energy is:

UTILIZING THE EARTH’S ROTATIONAL MOTION

Relative to the centre of the Earth, the ground is moving due to the Earth’s rotation about its own axis. Hence, a
satellite on the ground will have kinetic energy due to the Earth’s rotation.

Rockets can be sent into orbit more efficiently by taking advantage of Earth’s rotational motion. To do this:

- It must be launched near the equator (to maximise its initial kinetic energy)
- Launched towards the east, so that the work done by the rocket is in the same velocity as the velocity of the
ground.

ENERGY REQUIRED TO CHANGE ORBITS

The work required to move between orbits is the difference in energy of the two orbits: . Hence:

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CHANGING ORBITS AND CHANGING POSITION

When moving from one point in a gravitational field to another it is assumed the object is stationary, so the kinetic
energy is zero.

- Hence there will only be a change in potential energy for the object.
- The work required must provide the potential energy.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 31 OF 34

When moving from one orbit to another the right orbital velocity must be achieved for each orbit.

- Hence, both kinetic and potential energy will change.

- Moving from an orbit close to Earth to an orbit further away from the Earth will require an increase in
potential energy but decrease in kinetic energy.
- Some of the initial kinetic energy can be converted into potential energy, so only half of the energy is
required compared to simply moving from one point to another as above.

Change in orbit Change in total energy Energy transformations

Moving to a higher altitude orbit Lower kinetic energy Some kinetic energy is converted to
Higher potential energy potential energy
Total energy increases Additional positive work is required
to increase total energy

Moving to a lower altitude orbit Higher kinetic energy Some potential energy is converted
Lower potential energy into kinetic energy
Total energy decreases Additionally negative work is
required to decrease total energy

- Total energy is always negative

- With increasing distance, the KE decreases, and the GPE increases, as the total energy.

ESCAPE VELOCITY

NEWTON’S CONCEPT OF ESCAPE VELOCITY

Escape velocity is the minimum velocity needed at a given distance from the planet to escape from the gravitational
field of that planet.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 32 OF 34

 - Newton suggested that if a ball was projected horizontally it would travel a short distance before reaching
the ground. If it was projected at a higher initial horizontal velocity, it would travel further before touching
the ground.
- Newton then suggested if the ball was projected with a sufficiently high speed, it would fall towards the
Earth at a slower rate than the Earth curves away from it. Therefore, it would never reach the Earth’s surface
and escape the Earth’s pull. The velocity required to achieve this is called escape velocity.

ESCAPE VELOCITY FORMULA

The law of conservation of energy to find the minimum value of the initial speed such that an object will escape
Earth’s gravitational field.

- Total mechanical energy (KE and GPE in the system remains constant)

- The starting conditions are that the object is at the surface of the Earth, with initial velocity equal to escape
velocity:
- 𝑟𝑖 = 𝑟𝑒 and 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐
- The final condition is that the object has escaped out to infinitely far away from Earth:
- 𝑟𝑓 = ∞ and 𝑣𝑓 = 0
- If the object is given an initial speed equal to 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 ,its total mechanical energy is equal to zero.

Escape velocity is:

- Independent of the mass of the object projected from the Earth. For example, a spacecraft has the same
escape velocity as a molecule.
- Independent of the direction of the velocity, provided the trajectory does not intersect the Earth.

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 33 OF 34

 EQUATIONS

Position Radial Force (Positive towards the Tangential Force (Positive in the
centre) same direction as velocity)

A: Bottom (Lowest Point) 𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔 0

B: Right 𝑁 −𝑚𝑔

C: Top (Highest Point) 𝑁 + 𝑚𝑔 0

D: Left 𝑁 +𝑚𝑔

PHYSICS M ODULE 5: ADVANCE M ECHANICS PAGE 34 OF 34

PHYSICS MODULE 6
Electromagnetism
 PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM
CHARGED PARTICLES, CONDUCTORS AND ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

Inquiry question: What happens to stationary and moving charged particles when they interact with an electric or
magnetic field?

● investigate and quantitatively derive and analyse the interaction between charged particles and uniform electric
fields, including: (ACSPH083)
𝑉
– electric field between parallel charged plates 𝐸 =
𝑑
– acceleration of charged particles by the electric field 𝐹⃗net = 𝑚𝑎⃗, 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝐸
⃗⃗
1
– work done on the charge 𝑊 = 𝑞𝑉, 𝑊 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑, 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
● model qualitatively and quantitatively the trajectories of charged particles in electric fields and compare them
with the trajectories of projectiles in a gravitational field
● analyse the interaction between charged particles and uniform magnetic fields, including: (ACSPH083)
– acceleration, perpendicular to the field, of charged particles
– the force on the charge 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣⊥ 𝐵 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵sin𝜃
● compare the interaction of charged particles moving in magnetic fields to:
– the interaction of charged particles with electric fields
– other examples of uniform circular motion (ACSPH108)

THE MOTOR EFFECT

Inquiry question: Under what circumstances is a force produced on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field?

● investigate qualitatively and quantitatively the interaction between a current-carrying conductor and a uniform
magnetic field 𝐹 = 𝑙𝐼⊥ 𝐵 = 𝑙𝐼𝐵sin𝜃 to establish: (ACSPH080, ACSPH081)
– conditions under which the maximum force is produced
– the relationship between the directions of the force, magnetic field strength and current
– conditions under which no force is produced on the conductor
● conduct a quantitative investigation to demonstrate the interaction between two parallel current-carrying wires
𝐹 𝜇 𝐼1 𝐼2
● analyse the interaction between two parallel current-carrying wires = 2𝜋0 and determine the relationship
𝑙 𝑟
between the International System of Units (SI) definition of an ampere and Newton’s Third Law of Motion
(ACSPH081, ACSPH106)

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Inquiry question: How are electric and magnetic fields related?

● describe how magnetic flux can change, with reference to the relationship 𝛷 = 𝐵∥ 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴cosθ (ACSPH083,
ACSPH107, ACSPH109)
● analyse qualitatively and quantitatively, with reference to energy transfers and transformations, examples of
𝛥𝛷
Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law 𝜀 = −𝑁 , including but not limited to: (ACSPH081, ACSPH110)
𝛥𝑡
– the generation of an electromotive force (emf) and evidence for Lenz’s Law produced by the relative
movement between a magnet, straight conductors, metal plates and solenoids

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 1 OF 38

 – the generation of an emf produced by the relative movement or changes in current in one solenoid in the
vicinity of another solenoid
● analyse quantitatively the operation of ideal transformers through the application of: (ACSPH110)
𝑉p 𝑁p
– =
𝑉s 𝑁s
– 𝑉p 𝐼p = 𝑉s 𝐼s
● evaluate qualitatively the limitations of the ideal transformer model and the strategies used to improve
transformer efficiency, including but not limited to:
– incomplete flux linkage
– resistive heat production and eddy currents
● analyse applications of step-up and step-down transformers, including but not limited to:
– the distribution of energy using high-voltage transmission lines

APPLICATIONS OF THE MOTOR EFFECT

Inquiry question: How has knowledge about the Motor Effect been applied to technological advances?

● investigate the operation of a simple DC motor to analyse:

– the functions of its components
– production of a torque 𝜏 = 𝑛𝐼𝐴⊥ 𝐵 = 𝑛𝐼𝐴𝐵sin𝜃
– effects of back emf (ACSPH108)
● analyse the operation of simple DC and AC generators and AC induction motors (ACSPH110)
● relate Lenz’s Law to the law of conservation of energy and apply the law of conservation of energy to:
– DC motors and
– magnetic braking

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 2 OF 38

 ELECTRIC FIELDS & FORCES
OUTCOMES
● investigate and quantitatively derive and analyse the interaction between charged particles and uniform electric
fields, including: (ACSPH083)
𝑉
– electric field between parallel charged plates 𝐸 =
𝑑
– acceleration of charged particles by the electric field 𝐹⃗net = 𝑚𝑎⃗, 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝐸
⃗⃗
1
– work done on the charge 𝑊 = 𝑞𝑉, 𝑊 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑, 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
● model qualitatively and quantitatively the trajectories of charged particles in electric fields and compare them
with the trajectories of projectiles in a gravitational field

ELECTRIC FORCE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

FORCE BETWEEN CHARGED OBJECTS

- Charged objects exert a force on each other due to their charge.

o This force is called the electric force.
o This electric force acts at a distance and is mediated by an electric field.

Charge (q) → Electric Field (E) → Force (𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸) → Work (𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑) → Kinetic (∆𝐾 = 𝑊 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑) or
𝑊
Potential (𝑉 = 𝑞
or 𝑊 = 𝑞𝑉)

- A charge will create an electric field around itself.

o Another charge will experience an electric force from the electric field.
o If the other charge moves within the electric field, the electric force will do work on it and change
its energy. (Kinetic or potential)

ELECTRIC FIELD, E (𝑁𝐶 −1 )

The electric field mediates the electric force. It is a region of influence around electric charges in which other
charges experience an electric force.

The strength of an electric field E at a point in space is defined as the electric force F acting on a positive test charge
placed at that point divided by the magnitude of the test charge q.

𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞

Where:

- 𝐸 = external electric field strength (𝑁𝐶 −1 )

- 𝐹 = force on positive test charge (N)
- 𝑞 = amount of charge on positive test charge

If the field is known, the force on any charge in that field can be found:

𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 3 OF 38

REPRESENTATION OF ELECTRIC FIELDS

- Electric fields are represented using field lines

- Electric field lines show two things:
o The direction of the field, which is the direction of force on a small positive test charge.
o The strength of the field indicated by the density of field lines.

FORCE BETWEEN TWO-POINT CHARGES: COULOMB’S LAW

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

Where:

- 𝑞1 𝑞2 are the two charges (C)

- 𝑟 = distance between the two charges (m)
- 𝜀0 = 8.85 × 10−12 is the permittivity of free space. It depends on the material surrounding the charge.

The force is:

- Attractive for opposite charges

- Repulsive for like charges

THE ELECTRIC FIELD BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES

If two conducting parallel plates are connected to a battery, the plates will become charges and an electric field will
form in-between them.

The electric field formed between the plates is uniform and its magnitude is equal to the voltage applied to the
plates divided by the distance between them.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 4 OF 38

 𝑉
𝐸=
𝑑

Where:

- 𝐸 = Electric field strength (N/C or V/m)

- 𝑉 = Potential difference or voltage across parallel plates (V)
- 𝑑 = Distance of separation of the parallel plates (m)

WORK AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

Electrical potential energy (U) is defined as the potential energy of a charge due to its position in an electric field.

- If the electric potential energy of a charge is U, this means the electric field could do an amount of work on
the charge equal to U.
- However, we have the freedom to set where U=0 and so we normally only consider charges in electrical
potential energy as ∆𝑈 as the charge changes position in the field.

The work done by the electric field on a charge is equivalent to the negative of the change in electrical potential
energy of the charge:

𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = −∆𝑈

WORK DONE BY AN ELECTRIC FIELD

How the work is done by the electric field and how energy and velocity changes:

Electric Field is applied (E)

Electric force acts on the charge (𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸)

𝐹
The charge accelerates and increases velocity (𝑎 = 𝑚, 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)

Kinetic energy increases, potential energy decreases

Force & Displacement Work Kinetic Energy Velocity Potential Energy

Same direction Positive work Increases Increases Decreases

Opposite direction Negative work Decreases Decreases Increases

Work being done on an object changes its energy: 𝑊 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑 = ∆𝐾

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 5 OF 38

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (V) [V]

Potential difference or voltage (V) is defined as the work done per unit charge in moving a charge between two
points.

𝑊
𝑉=
𝑞

Where:

- 𝑉 = potential difference (V or 𝐽𝐶 −1 )
- 𝑊 = work done to move charge between two points in a field (J)
- 𝑞 = magnitude of charge (C)

1 joule of work is done on every coulomb of charge that passes between two points.

∆𝐾 = 𝑊 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑 = 𝑞𝑉

MOTION OF CHARGES IN ELECTRIC FIELDS

ACCELERATION OF CHARGES IN ELECTRIC FIELDS

𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎⃗

𝐹 𝑞𝐸
∴𝑎= =
𝑚 𝑚
𝑞
The charge-to-mass (𝑚) ratio describes how much charge a particle has per kilogram of mass, in coulombs per
kilogram (𝐶𝑘𝑔−1 ).

ANALYSING MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

- Perpendicular to the electric field: no acceleration (𝑎⊥ = 0)

𝑞
- Parallel to the electric field: acceleration (𝑎∥ = 𝑚 𝐸)

Perpendicular Direction (⊥) Parallel Direction (∥)

𝒗 ⊥ = 𝒖⊥ 𝑣∥ 2 = 𝑢∥ 2 + 2𝑎∥ ∆𝑠∥
∆𝒔⊥ = 𝒖⊥ 𝒕 1
∆𝑠∥ = 𝑢∥ 𝑡 + 𝑢∥ 2
2
𝑣∥ = 𝑢∥ + 𝑎∥ 𝑡

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 6 OF 38

 MAGNETIC FIELDS & FORCES
OUTCOMES
● analyse the interaction between charged particles and uniform magnetic fields, including: (ACSPH083)
– acceleration, perpendicular to the field, of charged particles
– the force on the charge 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣⊥ 𝐵 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵sin𝜃
● compare the interaction of charged particles moving in magnetic fields to:
– the interaction of charged particles with electric fields
– other examples of uniform circular motion (ACSPH108)

MAGNETIC FIELD (B)

A magnetic field is a model used to explain the region of influence within which a magnetic force may exist.

- Magnetic fields exist around magnets and around moving charges

- The unit of magnetic field strength is the Tesla, T.

Moving charge (current) or permanent magnet → Magnetic Field → Magnetic force (If there are other magnets or
moving charges present)

PLOTTING MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

Magnetic field lines can be plotted using magnetic compasses. The direction of magnetic field is defined as the
direction of force on a north magnetic pole.

- The north pole of a compass needle will hence always point in the same direction as the magnetic field at a
given point.
- Magnetic field lines leave the north pole of the magnet and enter the south pole of the magnet.

Magnetic field lines show two things:

1) The direction of a force on a north magnetic pole, indicated by an arrow on the magnetic field lines.
2) The strength of the magnetic field indicated by the density of magnetic field lines.

LONG STRAIGHT CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES AROUND A LONG STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR

A plane view of the magnetic field of a long, straight current carrying conductor is shown below:

- Arrow head: Coming out of page

- Arrow fletching: Going into the page

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 7 OF 38

DETERMINING THE DIRECTION OF A MAGNETIC FIELD – RIGHT HAND GRIP RULE (RHGP)

“Grasp the wire with the right hand so that the thumb
points in the direction of the (conventional) current. The
curled fingers of the right-hand point in the direction of the
magnetic field around the wire”

- Thumb: Direction of conventional current

- Fingers: Direction of magnetic field lines

CALCULATING THE MAGNITUDE OF A MAGNETIC FIELD

The strength of the magnetic field formed by a current carrying conductor depends on:

- The magnitude of the current. The strength of the magnetic field will increase as the magnitude of the
current increases.
- The distance from the wire. The strength of the magnetic field will decrease as the distance from the wire
increases.

𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟

Where:

- B: magnetic field strength (T)

- 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇𝑚/𝐴 is the magnetic permeability of free space. (Depends on materials around it)
- I: Current through the wire (A)
- r: Distance from the wire (m)

MAGNETIC FIELDS AROUND TWO LONG PARALLEL CONDUCTORS

- Currents flowing in the opposite direction repel.

- Currents flowing in the same direction attract.

When the magnetic fields from two different current

carrying conductors interact with each other, the
resultant magnetic field will change in magnitude and
direction. The total field will be a vector sum of the two
fields.

- If the two magnetic fields are in the same direction, then the resultant magnetic field will increase in
magnitude: 𝐵𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐵1 + 𝐵2
- If the two magnetic fields are in the opposite direction, then the resultant magnetic field will decrease in
magnitude: 𝐵𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐵1 − 𝐵2

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 8 OF 38

COILS OF WIRE

MAGNETIC FIELDS AROUND A CIRCULAR LOOP OF WIRE

- The field around the wire can be determined by using the Right-Hand Grip Rule.
- The field concentrates inside the loop to produce a stronger field with a north pole and a south pole as
pictured. Can be determined through the Right-Hand Coil Rule.

MAGNETIC FIELD OF A SOLENOID

- A solenoid is a coiling of wire in the

shape of a cylinder. It is composed of a
number of ‘turns’ (n or N).
- The magnetic field of a solenoid
resembles that of the long bar magnet,
and behaves as if it has a north pole at
one end and a south pole at the other.
- If the turns are close together and the
solenoid is long relative to its diameter,
then the magnetic field within it is
uniform and parallel to its axis except
near the ends.

𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵=
𝐿

Where:

- B: magnetic field strength (T)

- 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇𝑚/𝐴 is the magnetic permeability of free space. (Depends on materials around it)
- I: Current through the wire (A)
- N: number of turns of the solenoid
- L: length of the solenoid

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 9 OF 38

RIGHT HAND COIL RULE (RHCR)

The direction of the magnetic field in a solenoid or coil is given by the Right-Hand Coil Rule.

“Grasp the loop so that the curled fingers of the right-hand point in the direction of the current. The thumb of the
right-hand points in the direction of the magnetic fields within the loop of wire.”

MAGNETIC FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE

The magnitude of the magnetic force is given by:

𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣⊥ 𝐵 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃

Where:

- q: is the magnitude of the charge (C)

- B: is the magnitude of the external magnetic field (T)
- 𝑣⊥ : is the component of the velocity of the particle perpendicular to the magnetic field. (𝑚𝑠 −1 )
- 𝜃: Angle between velocity vector and magnetic field vector

RIGHT-HAND PALM RULE (RHPR)

The direction of the magnetic force is determined by using the Right-Hand Palm Rule.

- Fingers: Direction of magnetic field

- Thumb: Direction of velocity
- Palm: Direction of force

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 10 OF 38

PATH OF A CHARGED PARTICLE

The path of a charge particle moving perpendicular to its uniform magnetic field is circular.

- A positive charge q, moving with a velocity v at right angles to a uniform magnetic field experiences a force
of magnitude (𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵)
- The direction of the force is determined using the RHPR. The direction of the force F is always perpendicular
to the particle’s velocity.
- In a uniform magnetic field, this causes the path of the particle to curve at a constant rate. The particle
follows uniform circular motion.

Magnetic force = Centripetal Force

𝑚𝑣 2
𝑞𝑣𝐵 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣
∴ 𝑞𝐵 =
𝑟

Hence, the radius of the path of the particle is

𝑚𝑣
𝑟=
𝑞𝐵

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 11 OF 38

 THE MOTOR EFFECT
OUTCOMES

Inquiry question: Under what circumstances is a force produced on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field?

● investigate qualitatively and quantitatively the interaction between a current-carrying conductor and a uniform
magnetic field 𝐹 = 𝑙𝐼⊥ 𝐵 = 𝑙𝐼𝐵sin𝜃 to establish: (ACSPH080, ACSPH081)
– conditions under which the maximum force is produced
– the relationship between the directions of the force, magnetic field strength and current
– conditions under which no force is produced on the conductor
● conduct a quantitative investigation to demonstrate the interaction between two parallel current-carrying wires
𝐹 𝜇 𝐼1 𝐼2
● analyse the interaction between two parallel current-carrying wires = 2𝜋0 and determine the relationship
𝑙 𝑟
between the International System of Units (SI) definition of an ampere and Newton’s Third Law of Motion
(ACSPH081, ACSPH106)

THE MOTOR EFFECT

MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR

A current will experience a force in a magnetic field. This will be the sum of the force on all moving charges that
make up the current.

If you place a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a magnetic force due to the
interaction between the existing magnetic field and magnetic field generated by the current. This is known as the
motor effect.

- The diagram shows a block of charge Q. In the time ∆𝑡 the block of charge travels distance L. Therefore its
𝐿
speed is 𝑣 = .
∆𝑡
𝑞
- Current is defined as the total charge passing a point per time, 𝐼 =
∆𝑡

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 12 OF 38

Force on a charge Q moving with the velocity of v in the magnetic field B has the magnitude 𝐹 = 𝑄𝑣⊥ 𝐵 = 𝑄𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃

Therefore, the force F on a conductor of length L carrying current I at an angle of 𝜃 to the magnetic field B is:

𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼⊥ 𝐿 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿 sin 𝜃

Where:

- F: force on current carrying conductor in a magnetic field

- B: the strength of the magnetic field
- L: the length of the conductor inside the magnetic field
- 𝜃: Angle between the current vector and magnetic field vector

Since the current consists of the flow of positive charges, the direction of the force on a current carrying conductor
can be found by using the RHPR.

FORCE BETWEEN PARALLEL CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTORS

AMPERE’S FORCE LAW

A current produces a magnetic field, and hence a current-carrying conductor experiences a force when its field
interacts with existing magnetic fields. Therefore, parallel current carrying conductors must exert forces on each
other.

Andre Ampere measured the forces between the current carrying wires by an experimental arrangement known as
the current balance. Ampere was able to determine the variation in force between the current carrying wires as
different quantities were changed.

Ampere found that the magnitude of the force was:

- Directly proportional to the products of the currents

- Directly proportional to the common parallel length of the wires
- Inversely proportional to their separation distance

𝐹 𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2
=
𝐿 2𝜋 𝑑

Where:

- F: Force on wires (N)

- L: Length of wires (m)
- 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇𝑚/𝐴 is the magnetic permeability of free space. (Depends on materials around it)
- 𝐼1 𝐼2 : current of wire 1 and wire 2 (A)
- 𝑑: Distance between wires (m)

Newton’s third law: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐹12 = −𝐹⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
21

- The force between conductors with currents travelling in the same direction is attractive.
- The force between conductors with currents travelling in the opposite direction is repulsive.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 13 OF 38

DEFINITION OF THE AMPERE

Ampere’s parallel wire experiment is how the value of the Ampere was defined in 1954.

”The ampere (1A) is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length,
of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart in a vacuum, would produce between these conductors
a force equal to 2 × 10−7 newton per metre of length.”

SECOND-HAND INVESTIGATION: FORCE BETWEEN PARALLEL CONDUCTORS

1) Plot the data on an appropriate graph and draw a line of best fit
2) Calculate the gradient
3) Express the gradient in terms of constants & control variables.
4) Use information in Step 2 and 3 to find the unknown

F VS I

Plotting F vs I would result in a parabolic curve

𝜇0 𝐿
𝐹= × (𝐼2 )
2𝜋𝑟

F VS I 2

0 𝜇 𝐿
Straight line where the gradient represents: 𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑟

F VS D

Plotting F vs d would result in a hyperbola curve.

𝜇0 𝐿𝐼2 1
𝐹= ×
2𝜋 𝑑

F VS D - 1

1 𝜇0 𝐿𝐼 2
Plotting F vs 𝑑 would result in a straight line where the gradient represents: 𝑚 = 2𝜋

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 14 OF 38

 APPLICATIONS OF THE MOTOR EFFECT
OUTCOMES

Inquiry question: How has knowledge about the Motor Effect been applied to technological advances?

● investigate the operation of a simple DC motor to analyse:

– the functions of its components
– production of a torque 𝜏 = 𝑛𝐼𝐴⊥ 𝐵 = 𝑛𝐼𝐴𝐵sin𝜃

TORQUE

Torque is defined as the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis.

𝝉 = 𝒓⊥ 𝑭 = 𝒓𝑭𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

Where:

- 𝜏: Torque
- 𝑟⊥ : Perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation of F

CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM TORQUE

For a given force, the torque produced by the force is maximum when the force is applied perpendicular to the line
joining the force and the pivot point. (When 𝜃 = 90°)

TORQUE ON A CURRENT LOOP

A force is exerted on a current carrying conductor when the conductor is placed in an external magnetic field.
Torque is exerted on a current loop placed in a magnetic field.

Since a force is acting at a distance from an axle, a torque is created as shown in the diagram above.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 15 OF 38

ANALYSIS OF A CURRENT LOOP

- It is fastest when the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field. (C)

- Torque is maximised when the coil is horizontal to the magnetic field (A)
- Torque is minimised (0) when the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field (C) or (D)

DC ELECTRIC MOTOR

MAIN COMPONENTS OF A DC ELECTRIC MOTOR

The main components of a DC electric motor are:

- A pair of permanent magnets or pair of electromagnets

- Armature
- Rotor coils or armature coils
- Split ring commutator
- Brushes
- Axle or shaft

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 16 OF 38

THE MOTOR EFFECT IN DC MOTORS

- DC supplied to the motor

- Commutator reverse direction of current every half turn to provide AC in the coil
- AC passes through a rotor coil in an external magnetic field
- The rotor coil experiences a magnetic field (𝐹 = 𝐿𝐼𝐵)
- A torque is produced (𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
- The rotor coils rotate

ROLE OF MAIN COMPONENTS

Part Description Role of Part

Stator Pair of Two permanent magnets on opposite sides The magnets supply the magnetic field which
permanent of the motor, with opposite poles facing interacts with the current in the rotor coils to
magnets each other. The poles faces are curved to fit produce the motor effect. The shape of the
around the armature pole faces makes the magnetic field almost
uniformly radial where the coil passes

Pairs of Each stator coil is wound on a soft iron core Each opposed pair of stator coils produces a
electromagnetic attached to the causing of the motor. The magnetic field similar to that provided by a pair
coils coils are shaped to fit around the armature of permanent magnets. The iron core
concentrates the field.

Rotor Armature The armature consists of a cylinder of The armature carries the rotor coils. The iron
laminated iron mounted on an axle. Often core greatly concentrates the external
there are longitudinal grooves into the coils magnetic field, increasing the torque on the
are wound armature. The laminations reduce eddy
currents which might otherwise overheat the
armature.

Rotor Coils There may only be one, in a very simple The coils provide torque, as the current passing
motor, or several coils, usually of several through the coils interact with the magnetic
turns of insulated wire, wound onto an field. As the coils are mounted firmly on the
armature. The ends of the coils are rotor, any torque acting on the coils is
connected to bars on the commutator. transferred to the rotor and then to the axle.
Each coil is positioned at right angles to the
field, to maximise torque.

Axle A cylindrical bar of hardened steel passing The axle provides a centre of rotation for
through the centre of the armature and the moving parts of the motor. Useful work can be
commutator. extracted from the motor via a pulley or a cog
mounted on the axle.

Contacts Split-ring The commutator is a broad ring of metal The commutator provides points of contract
commutator mounted on the axle at one end of the between the rotor coils and the external
armature and cut into an even number of electric circuit. It serves to reverse the
separate bars (two in a simple motor). Each direction of current flow in each coil every half-
opposite pair of bars is connected to one revolution. This ensures that the torque on
coil each coil is always in the same direction.

Brushes Compressed carbon blocks, connected to The brushes are fixed position electrical
the external circuit, mounted on opposite contacts between the external circuit and the
sides of the commutator and spring-loaded rotor coils. Their position brings them into
to make close contact with the commutator contract with both ends of each coil
bars simultaneously.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 17 OF 38

MAINTAINING TORQUE IN THE SAME DIRECTION

In order for a DC motor to rotate in one direction continuously, torque produced must be maintained in the same
direction. Maintaining torque direction is achieved by reversing the direction of the current once every half turn
whilst the direction of the magnetic field in the stator stays constant. This is done through a split-ring commutator.

The torque fluctuates between 0 and a maximum value and is always in the same direction. It is a positive sine
curve.

PROBLEMS WITH A SIMPLE BRUSHED DC MOTOR

The main problems with a brushed DC motor are:

- The brushes wear out and need replacement.

- The commutator gets worn, which shortens the life of the motor.
- Sparking at the commutator can also be dangerous if there is flammable gases in the air

TORQUE IN A RECTANGULAR LOOP OF WIRE

The torque acting on n turns of the coil is given by:

𝜏 = 𝑛𝐼𝐴𝐵⊥ 𝐵 = 𝑛𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Where:

- 𝑛: number of loops in the coil

- 𝐵: the magnetic field strength
- 𝐼: current through the coil
- 𝐴: area of the coil
- 𝜃: the angle between the normal of the coil area and the direction of the magnetic field.

Torque is maximum when the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 18 OF 38

METHODS OF IMPROVING TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS

RADIAL MAGNETS

The curved permanent magnets produce a radial magnetic field. This ensures that the plane of the coil is always
perpendicular to the magnetic field, producing the maximum torque at any angle.

A SET OF PERPENDICULAR COILS

A steadier torque can be obtained by using a perpendicular pair of rotor coils.

- When one of the coils produces maximum torque, the other produces 0 torque
- The resultant torque will be steadier and fluctuate less

Coil 1 – Blue

Coil 2 - Green

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 19 OF 38

 FARADAY’S AND LENZ’S LAWS
OUTCOMES
● describe how magnetic flux can change, with reference to the relationship 𝛷 = 𝐵∥ 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴cosθ (ACSPH083,
ACSPH107, ACSPH109)
● analyse qualitatively and quantitatively, with reference to energy transfers and transformations, examples of
𝛥𝛷
Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law 𝜀 = −𝑁 , including but not limited to: (ACSPH081, ACSPH110)
𝛥𝑡
– the generation of an electromotive force (emf) and evidence for Lenz’s Law produced by the relative
movement between a magnet, straight conductors, metal plates and solenoids
– the generation of an emf produced by the relative movement or changes in current in one solenoid in the
vicinity of another solenoid

MAGNETIC FLUX

Magnetic flux is visualised as a measure of the total number of magnetic field lines that pass through a chosen
surface area.

𝜙 = 𝐵∥ 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Where:

- 𝜙: magnetic flux in units of Weber (Wb)

- 𝐵: magnetic field strength in units of Tesla (T) for the component of magnetic field parallel to the area’s
normal vector
- 𝐴: surface area (𝑚 2)

As flux measures the field lines that pass through the area, these field lines must be perpendicular to the area itself,
hence parallel to the normal vector.

The magnetic field strength B can be defined in terms of the magnetic flux density which is the amount of magnetic
flux per unit area:

𝜙
𝐵=
𝐴

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 20 OF 38

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Electromagnetic induction refers to the production of an induced EMF (electro-motive force) and (sometimes) an
induced current by the use of magnetic means only.

- EMF can be thought as a voltage or potential difference, which is induced in a conductor as a result of the
relative motion of a magnetic and a coil

CASE STUDY 1

Assume that the conductor is moving perpendicular to the field:

- The electrons experience a force downwards (by left-hand palm rule) (𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
- The positive charges experience a force upwards (by right-hand palm rule) but protons aren’t free to move
in solids.
- This creates a higher potential (more positive) at the top of the conductor.
o The separation of charges leads to a potential difference (voltage) is established between the ends
of the rod.
- If connected to an external circuit, the induced current (conventional current) would be anticlockwise.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 21 OF 38

CASE STUDY 2:

If there is a closed conducting circuit, current will flow from the higher potential end of the rod to the lower
potential end through the external circuit.

There will thus be a force due to the motor effect on the rod (𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃). The direction of this force relative to
the motion of the rod is the opposite direction of velocity.

When there is movement inducing current, there is a force opposing motion. This ensures that the conversation of
energy in a system is true.

MICHAEL FARADAY

Michael Faraday is considered the father of the electric generator and the developer of the theory that resulted in
the invention of the electric motor. He performed the following experiments:

1) Induction with a magnet. Relative motion between and magnet and a coil produces changing magnetic
fields which in turn produces an electromotive force (EMF)
2) Induction with coils. A non-steady current in a primary coil produces changing magnetic fields which in turn
induces a non-steady current in a secondary coil.

CONCLUSION OF FARADAY’S EXPERIMENTS

An EMF is induced in a circuit when the magnetic flux through the circuit changes with time.

- Change in magnetic flux → EMF Induced → Current Induced (If circuit is closed)

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 22 OF 38

FARADAY’S LAW OF INDUCTION

An EMF is induced whenever a circuit experiences a change of magnetic flux and the EMF induced in a circuit is
directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit.

Δ𝜙
𝜖=−
Δ𝑡

Where:

- Δϕ: is the change in flux through the circuit (e.g. coil)

- Δ𝑡: is the time over which the change occurred

The meaning of the negative sign in the equation is a consequence of Lenz’s law. If the circuit coil contains N loops,
all the same area and with the same flux threading through all the loops, the induced EMF is given by:

𝑁Δ𝜙 𝑁Δ𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜖=− =−
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡

EMF can be induced in the circuit several ways:

- The magnitude of the magnetic field varies with time (magnetic moving closer or further away)
- The area of the circuit can change with time (coil is squashed)
- The angle between magnetic field and the normal to the plane changes with time (coil rotating)

LENZ’S LAW

Lenz’s Law states: The direction of the induced EMF in a circuit is such that it attempts to produce a current that will
create its own magnetic flux to opposite the original change in magnetic flux through the loop.

The induced current tries to prevent the magnetic flux through the circuit changing.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 23 OF 38

 APPLICATIONS OF LENZ’S LAW
OUTCOMES
● investigate the operation of a simple DC motor to analyse:
– effects of back emf (ACSPH108)
● analyse the operation of simple DC and AC generators and AC induction motors (ACSPH110)
● relate Lenz’s Law to the law of conservation of energy and apply the law of conservation of energy to:
– DC motors and
– magnetic braking

EDDY CURRENTS

Eddy currents are circulating induced currents in bulk pieces of metal experiencing a change in magnetic flux.

The bulk piece of metal forms a closed circuit, and allows current to flow when there is an induced EMF.

CASE STUDY: PENDULUM SWINGING IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

A: As the plate enters the field, the changing magnetic flux creates an induced EMF. Eddy currents (circulating free
electrons in metal caused by the induced EMF) are created. According to Lenz’s law, the direction of the eddy
currents must oppose the change that causes them.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 24 OF 38

 - The eddy currents produce effective magnetic poles (like a solenoid) on the plate, which are repelled or
attracted by the poles of the magnet, thus giving rise to a retarding force that opposes the motion of the
pendulum.

B: The slots cut out from the metal plate restrict the flow of eddy current with insulating air. The magnetic poles the
eddy current creates are thereby weakened as are the retarding forces exerted on them by the external field. The
eddy currents formed are more localised and therefore restricted.

PROBLEMS WITH EDDY CURRENTS

Eddy currents are often undesirable as they dissipate energy in the form of heat. To reduce energy loss, the moving
conductor parts are often laminated. A conductor is laminated by slicing it into thin sections and separating each
one with insulating (plastic) layers.

It is effective when the laminations are perpendicular to the plane of the coil.

ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKING

There are two main types of magnetic breaking:

1) Electromagnetic (eddy current) braking used on metal wheels like in trains

2) Regenerative braking used in situations involving electric motors like electric cars

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 25 OF 38

ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKING

Electromagnetic braking refers to the a braking system that uses electromagnetic forces set up by eddy currents in a
rotating metal plate or disc to slow or stop motion.

As the plate rotates, region 1 and region 2 of the plate experience a change in magnetic flux. Region 1 experiences
an increasing magnetic flux and region 2 experiences a decreasing magnetic flux. According to Faradays and Lenz’s
law, an EMF will be induced such that it creates its own magnetic flux that opposes the original motion creating it.

The regions of the wheel entering and leaving the magnetic field experiences changes in magnetic flux which induces
Δ𝜙
EMFs (Faraday’s law: 𝜖 = − Δ𝑡 ) and drive eddy currents in the metal. These eddies opposite the change in magnetic
flux that induced them (Lenz’s law) – they create their own magnetic poles on which the magnet exerts retarding
forces.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 26 OF 38

AC INDUCTION MOTORS

SINGLE PHASE VS THREE PHASE AC POWER SUPPLY

Power stations generate three separate electrical circuits of AC which are out of phase with each other by 120
degrees.

- Most customers receive only a single circuit of AC, called single phase
- However, some industrial customers receive all three AC circuits, receiving three-phase power
- The induction motor is a motor that operates on a three-phase AC power supply.

MAIN FEATURES OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

An induction motor consists of:

1) A stator consisting of multiple coils

2) A rotor consisting of cylinder made metal
3) An axle
4) No slip rings or brushes

PRINCIPLE OF THE AC INDUCTION MOTOR

AC induction motors work quite differently to DC motors:

- The stator consist of multiple electromagnetic coils, whereas the rotor is a cylinder of metal (called a
squirrel cage rotor)
- The stator coils are connected to three-phase AC which produces a rotating magnetic field
- This induces eddy currents in the rotor, causing it to move due to Lenz’s law.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 27 OF 38

ROTATING STATOR MAGNETIC FIELD

The three pairs of stator coils connected to three-phase AC power supply produces an apparent rotating magnetic
field in a clockwise direction. The three phases have different currents at the same time, hence coils they are
attached to produce a magnetic field at different times. The combined effect of the magnetic fields of these coils
over time produces a rotating magnetic field.

SQUIRREL CAGE ROTOR

The rotor consists of cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots (armatures) for carrying thick bars of copper or
aluminium in a physical arrangement known as a squirrel cage.

- The bars are connected at the ends by a ring or disk of copper or aluminium which allows current to flow in
a loop between opposite bars.
- The iron core intensifies the magnetic field of the stator, inducing a larger current in the rotor, resulting in
larger torque.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 28 OF 38

SUMMARY OF AC INDUCTION MOTOR

OPERATION OF THE STATOR

1) Opposing stator coils are connected to one phase of the three-phase current.
2) The AC continually changes the strength of each pair of electromagnetics
3) This creates an apparent rotating magnetic field in the stator.

OPERATION OF THE ROTOR

4) The rotating magnetic field induces currents with opposing magnetic polarities in the bars of the squirrel
cage rotor
5) The eddy currents produce magnetic fields which interact with the rotating field of the stator to exert a
torque on the rotor in the direction of rotation of the stator field
6) The rotor rotates in the same direction as the magnetic field.

An induction motor has a fixed maximum speed. The magnetic field of the stator rotates at the frequency of the AC
power supply. Induction motors spin about 3000 revolutions a minute without a load in Australia (50 Hz x 60
seconds).

BACK EMF IN A DC MOTOR

In an electric motor, when a current is supplied to the coil placed in the magnetic field, the coil experiences torque
and thus turns.

When the electric motor is turning, the coil of the armature is turning with respect to a stationary magnetic
produced by the stator. The magnetic flux through the area of the armature is always constantly changing.

As a result, the induced EMF produced in the electric motor as a result of the change in flux is called back EMF as it
opposes the supply EMF (voltage supplied by battery).

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BACK EMF AND CURRENT

There is no induced current in the coil as a result of the back EMF. Instead, the net EMF and hence the current in
the coil is a result of the difference between the supply EMF and back EMF.

𝐸𝑀𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝐸𝑀𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 − 𝐸𝑀𝐹𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 = 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑅

𝑉 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 − 𝐸𝑀𝐹𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘
𝐼= =
𝑅 𝑅

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 29 OF 38

The variation of the back EMF by motor speed:

- When a DC electric motor is first started, the coil is stationary so the back EMF = 0. The net EMF of the coil is
maximum.
- Once the armature begins to spin, the back EMF opposing the supply EMF is induced. The net EMF on the
coil reduces
- As the coil rotates faster, the back EMF increases and the difference between the constant supply EMF and
back EMF becomes smaller.
o 𝐸𝑀𝐹𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 > 𝐸𝑀𝐹𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 . Torque is required to overcome mechanical resistance of axle.

The effect of back EMF on current and torque:

- When a DC electric motor is first started, the net EMF is high and so current flowing through the coil is high
and equal to supply current
- As the coil rotates faster, the back EMF increases so total current flowing through the motor is reduced once
the motor is in motion
- Due to mechanical resistances in the motor, 𝐸𝑀𝐹𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 > 𝐸𝑀𝐹𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘
- The increase in total current with decrease in speed makes a motor self-regulating to some extent

A motor at start-up has no back EMF. It can draw too much current and overheat and burnout.

- To protect the motor on start-up, an adjustable starting resistor is placed in the circuit.
- The resistor is removed when the motor’s speed increases.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 30 OF 38

 GENERATORS
OUTCOMES
● analyse the operation of simple DC and AC generators and AC induction motors (ACSPH110)

AC ELECTRIC GENERATOR

An AC generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form of alternating current.

The main components of an AC electric generator are:

1) A pair of permanent magnets of pairs of electromagnets

2) Armature
3) Rotor coils
4) Slip rings
5) Brushes
6) Axle or shaft

Slip rings:

- Slip rings consist of two circular rings of metal mounted on the axle of the end of the armature
- Each end the coil is connected to one of the two slip rings on the axle. Brushes press against the slop rings
providing a sliding electrical contact. The slip rings remain in contact with the same brush throughout the
rotation in an AC generator.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 31 OF 38

A handheld generator uses a hand crank to provide external torque to rotate a coil in a magnetic field. The hand
generator is more difficult to rotate when it is connected to a lightbulb compared ton when it is disconnected.

The lightbulb (closes the circuit) connects the coil ends in a closed circuit. The induced EMF therefore drives a
current, which opposes the original change in magnetic flux (Lenz’s law) by creating magnetic poles on which the
external magnetic field exerts retarding force.

FREQUENCY OF AC GENEARTORS

The frequency of rotation of an AC generator affects both the frequency and amplitude of the induced EMF and
current.

- In a generator, a coil rotates in a constant magnetic field

𝑁Δ𝜙
- 𝜖=− Δ𝑡
o With faster rotation, the flux through the coil changes at a faster rate. Therefore induced EMF will
be greater.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 32 OF 38

DC GENERATORS

The main components of a DC generator are:

1) A pair of permanent magnets or pairs of electromagnetic coils

2) An armature
3) Rotor coils
4) A split ring commutator
5) Brushes
6) An axle or shaft

A split ring commutator:

- The commutator is a broad ring of metal mounted on the axle at the end of the armature and cut into an
even number of separate bars. Each opposite pair of bars is connected to one coil.
- The commutator provides points of contact between the rotor coils and the external electric circuit. It serves
to reverse the direction of current flow in the external circuit once every half-turn of the generator. This
ensures that the current is always in the same direction (DC)

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 33 OF 38

REGENERATIVE BREAKING

Regenerative breaking is used in vehicles that contain electric motors. The braking action arises when the motor is
instead used as a generator.

- The generator converts the vehicles kinetic energy into electrical energy
- The vehicle experiences a braking force due to Lenz’s Law.

The following flowchart:

1) Vehicle’s wheel rotates and turn the coil in the motor

2) The coil in the motor experiences a change in flux. There is an induced EMF and current
3) The motor now acts as a generator
4) The coil experiences an opposing force due to Lenz’s law.
5) The force opposes the rotation of the coil and the wheels and provide a braking force.
6) The kinetic energy of the vehicle is converted to electrical energy and stored.

Regenerative braking is similar to eddy current braking as both rely on induction, however there are important
differences:

- In regenerative braking, current is induced in the coil of the motor/generator, not the metal wheel
- In regenerative braking the electrical energy is stored not dissipated as heat.

The purpose of regenerative breaking is to save some of the kinetic energy of the vehicle as electrical energy and
then re-use it to power the vehicle. This makes the vehicle more efficient.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 34 OF 38

 TRANSFORMERS AND TRANSMISSION
OUTCOMES
● analyse quantitatively the operation of ideal transformers through the application of: (ACSPH110)
𝑉p 𝑁p
– =
𝑉s 𝑁s
– 𝑉p 𝐼p = 𝑉s 𝐼s
● evaluate qualitatively the limitations of the ideal transformer model and the strategies used to improve
transformer efficiency, including but not limited to:
– incomplete flux linkage
– resistive heat production and eddy currents
● analyse applications of step-up and step-down transformers, including but not limited to:
– the distribution of energy using high-voltage transmission lines

POWER LOSS DURING TRANSMISSION

Power is lost in the transmission lines due to heating. The amount of power lost is given by:
2
𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼2 𝑅 = 𝐼𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 =
𝑅

When transmitting power, it is economically beneficial to use high voltage and low currents.

THE TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a device that uses electromagnetic induction to transfer energy from one AC system to another. A
transformer can accept energy at one voltage and deliver it at another voltage.

A transformer is used to alter the voltage in AC circuits.

- It consists of two coils of wire around the same laminated soft iron core.
- The primary coil is the input coil of the transformer, the secondary coil is the output coil.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 35 OF 38

OPERATION OF A TRANSFORMER

The operation of a transformer is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. A changing current in one coil
causes an induced EMF in the other coil.

- An alternating current in the primary coil produces an oscillating magnetic flux.

- The secondary coil experiences the changing magnetic flux and hence an EMF and alternating current are
induced in the secondary coil by Faraday’s Law.
- The AC current induced in the secondary coil is out of phase with the AC current in the primary coil, but has
the same frequency as the current in the primary coil.

FEATURES OF A TRANSFORMER

WINDINGS

- The coil which is connected to the input AC voltage source is called the primary winding. (𝑁𝑝 )
- The coil which is connected to a load is called the secondary winding. (𝑁𝑠 )

AC SUPPLY

- An AC supply is connected to the primary coil and provides an alternating current in the primary coil.
- The AC passing through the primary coil produces continuously changing magnetic flux.

COMMON IRON CORE

- The primary purpose of the common iron core is to increase the strength of the magnetic field, and to
provide a medium in which nearly all the magnetic flux produced by the primary coil is trapped and passed
through he secondary coil, minimising the flux leakage and improving the efficiency of the transformer.

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COILS

𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝐼𝑠
= =
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠 𝐼𝑝

- If 𝑁𝑝 > 𝑁𝑠 , then 𝑉𝑝 > 𝑉𝑠 . It is a step down transformer

- If 𝑁𝑝 < 𝑁𝑠 , then 𝑉𝑝 < 𝑉𝑠 . It is a step up transformer

IDEAL TRANSFORMERS

An ideal transformer with a resistive load is one in which energy losses in the transformer windings and core can be
neglected. The power input = power output.

EFFICIENCY OF TRANSOFRMERS

A real transformer is not ideal, and some power is wasted. However, a transformer does not have moving parts so
there is no power loss from friction. A transformer is thus very efficient with an efficiency of 99%.

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 36 OF 38

IMPROVING THE EFFIEINCY OF A TRANSFORMER

Name of Power Loss Detail Mitigation

Flux leakage Not all the magnetic flux links both Use ferromagnetic core, reduce air
the primary and secondary coil, gaps, reduce distance between coils
reducing the efficiency of the
transformer.

Resistance in coils (Joule heating) The wires have finite resistance and Use low resistance wire (increase
so will heat up, further increasing thickness) and use cooling strategies
resistance and power loss

Eddy currents in core Any currents in the core cause Laminate ferromagnetic core to
heating and energy loss due to limit electrical properties while
electrical resistance, and can maintain magnetic properties.
opposite the existing magnetic field
in the core

Hysteresis The ferromagnetic core magnetises Use ‘soft’ magnetic materials which
semi-permanently, so it takes do not consume a lot of energy
energy to reverse the existing when the magnetisation is reversed.
magnetisation energy time the
input AC reverses

ROLE OF TRANSFORMERS

It is more efficient to transmit power over long distances at high voltage and low current, in order to reduce power
loss in transmission lines.

- The role of step-up transformers at an electrical power station is to increase the voltage to reduce power
loss in the transmission lines.
- The role of transformers in electricity substations is to progressively reduce the voltage as it comes closer to
the consumer.

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 37 OF 38

 SUMMARY EQUATION SHEET
CHARGES
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 ∆𝐾 = 𝑊 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑 = 𝑞𝑉
𝑉 𝐹 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐸= = 𝐹=
𝑑 𝑞 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝐹 𝑞𝐸 𝑊
𝑎= = 𝑉=
𝑚 𝑚 𝑞

PROJECTILE MOTION WITH CHARGES

𝑣⊥ = 𝑢⊥ 𝑣∥ 2 = 𝑢∥ 2 + 2𝑎∥ ∆𝑠∥
∆𝑠⊥ = 𝑢⊥ 𝑡 1
∆𝑠∥ = 𝑢∥ 𝑡 + 𝑢∥ 2
2
𝑣∥ = 𝑢∥ + 𝑎∥ 𝑡

MAGNETIC FIELD & FORCES

𝜇0 𝐼 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵= 𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟 𝐿
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣⊥ 𝐵 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃

MOTOR EFFECT
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼⊥ 𝐿 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿 sin 𝜃 𝐹 𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2
=
𝐿 2𝜋 𝑑
𝜏 = 𝑟⊥ 𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
𝜙 = 𝐵∥ 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐸𝑀𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝐸𝑀𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 − 𝐸𝑀𝐹𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 = 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑅
𝑁Δ𝜙 𝑁Δ𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑉 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 − 𝐸𝑀𝐹𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘
𝜖=− =− 𝐼= =
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡 𝑅 𝑅
2
𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼2 𝑅 = 𝐼𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 =
𝑅

PHYSICS MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM PAGE 38 OF 38

PHYSICS MODULE 7
The Nature of Light
 PHYSICS MODULE 7: THE NATURE OF LIGHT
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Inquiry question: What is light?

● investigate Maxwell’s contribution to the classical theory of electromagnetism, including:

– unification of electricity and magnetism
– prediction of electromagnetic waves
– prediction of velocity (ACSPH113)
● describe the production and propagation of electromagnetic waves and relate these processes qualitatively to
the predictions made by Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory (ACSPH112, ACSPH113)
● conduct investigations of historical and contemporary methods used to determine the speed of light and its
current relationship to the measurement of time and distance (ACSPH082)
● conduct an investigation to examine a variety of spectra produced by discharge tubes, reflected sunlight or
incandescent filaments
● investigate how spectroscopy can be used to provide information about:
– the identification of elements
● investigate how the spectra of stars can provide information on:
– surface temperature
– rotational and translational velocity
– density
– chemical composition

LIGHT: WAVE MODEL

Inquiry question: What evidence supports the classical wave model of light and what predictions can be made using
this model?

● conduct investigations to analyse qualitatively the diffraction of light (ACSPH048, ACSPH076)

● conduct investigations to analyse quantitatively the interference of light using double slit apparatus and
diffraction gratings 𝑑sin𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 (ACSPH116, ACSPH117, ACSPH140)
● analyse the experimental evidence that supported the models of light that were proposed by Newton and
Huygens (ACSPH050, ACSPH118, ACSPH123)
● conduct investigations quantitatively using the relationship of Malus’ Law 𝐼 = 𝐼max 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 for plane polarisation
of light, to evaluate the significance of polarisation in developing a model for light (ACSPH050, ACSPH076,
ACSPH120)

LIGHT: QUANTUM MODEL

Inquiry question: What evidence supports the particle model of light and what are the implications of this evidence
for the development of the quantum model of light?

● analyse the experimental evidence gathered about black body radiation, including Wien’s Law related to
Planck's contribution to a changed model of light (ACSPH137)
b
– 𝜆max =
T

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 1 OF 56

● investigate the evidence from photoelectric effect investigations that demonstrated inconsistency with the wave
model for light (ACSPH087, ACSPH123, ACSPH137)
● analyse the photoelectric effect 𝐾max = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙 as it occurs in metallic elements by applying the law of
conservation of energy and the photon model of light, (ACSPH119)

LIGHT AND SPECIAL RELATIVITY

Inquiry question: How does the behaviour of light affect concepts of time, space and matter?

● analyse and evaluate the evidence confirming or denying Einstein’s two postulates:
– the speed of light in a vacuum is an absolute constant
– all inertial frames of reference are equivalent (ACSPH131)
● investigate the evidence, from Einstein’s thought experiments and subsequent experimental validation, for time
𝑡0 𝑣2
dilation 𝑡 = and length contraction 𝑙 = 𝑙0 √(1 − ), and analyse quantitatively situations in which
𝑣2
√(1− 2 ) 𝑐2
𝑐

these are observed, for example:

– observations of cosmic-origin muons at the Earth’s surface
– atomic clocks (Hafele–Keating experiment)
– evidence from particle accelerators
– evidence from cosmological studies
● describe the consequences and applications of relativistic momentum with reference to:
𝑚0 𝑣
– 𝑝𝑣 = 𝑣2
√(1− 2 )
𝑐

– the limitation on the maximum velocity of a particle imposed by special relativity (ACSPH133)
● Use Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence relationship 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 to calculate the energy released by processes in
which mass is converted to energy, for example: (ACSPH134)
– production of energy by the sun
– particle–antiparticle interactions, eg positron–electron annihilation
– combustion of conventional fuel

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 2 OF 56

 HUYGENS WAVE MODEL OF LIGHT
OUTCOMES
● conduct investigations to analyse qualitatively the diffraction of light (ACSPH048, ACSPH076)
● conduct investigations to analyse quantitatively the interference of light using double slit apparatus and
diffraction gratings 𝑑sin𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 (ACSPH116, ACSPH117, ACSPH140)
● analyse the experimental evidence that supported the models of light that were proposed by Newton and
Huygens (ACSPH050, ACSPH118, ACSPH123)
● conduct investigations quantitatively using the relationship of Malus’ Law 𝐼 = 𝐼max 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 for plane polarisation
of light, to evaluate the significance of polarisation in developing a model for light (ACSPH050, ACSPH076,
ACSPH120)

EARLY CLASSICAL MODELS OF LIGHT (HUYGENS AND NEWTON)

The main two classical theories regarding the nature of light were by Christian Huygens and Isaac Newton.

- Huygens proposed that light was a wave

- Newton proposed that light was made out of particles

HUYGENS’ WAVE MODEL

The propagation of a wave can be represented using wavefronts and rays.

- Wavefronts represent places of constant phase. E.g. the crests of the wave. Therefore, the distance
between successive wavefronts is the wavelength 𝝀.
- The ray represents the direction of propagation.
- The ray is perpendicular to wavefronts.

The main features of Huygens’ Model are:

• Huygens proposed that space is filled with small elastic particles (“Ether”)
• Light is a longitudinal wave through these perfectly elastic particles that fill space (This would be similar to
sound travelling in air). No kinetic energy is lost during collisions
• Every part of the wave is a new source of a new wave (called a wavelet). This is called Huygens’ Principle.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 3 OF 56

Huygens proposed that all wavelets superimpose and interfere to produce the wavefront of the propagating wave.

NEWTON’S PARTICLE MODEL

The main features of Newton’s model are:

- Light consists of corpuscles (small particles with mass)

- The corpuscles are lower in mass and elastic
- Corpuscles of different sizes (and different masses) correspond to light of different colours.

Newton attempted to explain the behaviour of light using mechanics: the effect of forces acting on small particles.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 4 OF 56

 INITIAL EVIDENCE FOR EARLY CLASSICAL MODELS
REFLECTION OF LIGHT

Light was known to reflect off a smooth surface (like a mirror) following the law of reflection, where the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection (𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑟 ).

HUYGENS’ EXPLANATION OF REFLECTION

Huygens explained the reflection of light using his Huygens’ Principle – through the formation of wavelets.

- The wavefront hitting a surface would produce wavelets, however these cannot propagate forward as the
surface blocks them.
- The wavelets spread out from the surface and form the reflected wavefront.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 5 OF 56

NEWTON’S EXPLANATION OF REFLECTION

Newton’s explained the reflection of light as the reflection of particles off a surface.

- He proposed that the collision was an elastic collision (no loss of kinetic energy, so the speed of the
corpuscles was the same before and after a collision),
- He considered the force acting on the corpuscles and conservation of energy.

SUMMARY – REFLECTION

Both models predict that a ray will be reflected at an angle equal to its angle of incidence. They are both consistent
with the law of reflection.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Refraction describes a wave bending as it moves from one medium to another. It follows the Principle of Least
Time, where a light ray will take the shortest path of time.

Refraction occurs as the speed of the wave changes when it enters a new medium. Refraction is described by Snell’s
Law, which relates the incidence angle (𝜃1 ) to the refracted angle (𝜃2 ).

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 6 OF 56

 sin 𝜃1 𝑣
sin 𝜃2
= 𝑣1 or 𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
2

- 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are the velocities of the light in medium 1 and 2 respectively.

- 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 are the refractive indices of medium 1 and 2 respectively.
- The angle of incidence and refraction are measured relative to the normal.

The speed of light in different materials was not known at the time of Newton and Huygens.

HUYGENS’ EXPLANATION OF REFRACTION

Huygens explained that refraction in terms of velocity changing. He proposed that the wavefronts slow down when
they enter a denser medium,

- By slowing down, the wavefronts bend towards the interface.

- Hence, the ray bends towards the normal in a denser medium.
- The wavelength must reduce in the denser medium due to the slower wave speed. (Also, the wave equation)

sin 𝜃 𝑣
In 1678 Huygens’ used this model to derive Snell’s Law: sin 𝜃1 = 𝑣1.
2 2

Different colours refract by different amounts (e.g. violet refracts more than red), known as dispersion. Huygens’
model explains this by saying the different colours (different 𝜆) have different speeds in the denser medium.

NEWTON’S EXPLANATION OF REFRACTION

Newton proposed refraction in terms of forces acting on the corpuscles.

- He proposed that corpuscles interact with the material they travel through and experience a force.
- If the corpuscles are in uniform medium (constant density), that force is equal in all directions, making it a
net zero force.
- The denser medium contains more matter and can impart a stronger force on the corpuscles. As the
corpuscles approach the denser medium, there will be a net force towards it.
o The corpuscles will accelerate towards the denser medium (at the surface of the interface)
- The corpuscles’ velocity increases perpendicular to the interface and remains constant parallel to the
interface. Hence the corpuscles changes direction.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 7 OF 56

 𝑉1𝑥
sin 𝜃 𝑣1 𝑣
Newton’s version of Snell’s Law: sin 𝜃1 = 𝑣2𝑥 = 𝑣2. Newton is assuming that light will speed up in a denser
2 𝑣2 1

medium. The light will bend towards the normal in the denser medium. This means that the dispersion of violet
light refracts more than red light. Newton argued that:

- All corpuscles experienced the same force as they moved from one medium to another.
- The red corpuscles were more massive and had more inertia. Hence, they refracted less than the violet
corpuscles which had less inertia.

SUMMARY – REFRACTION

Both Huygens’ and Newton’s model could explain refraction. They both predict that light would bend towards the
normal when it enters a denser medium. However, Newton claimed that the light will speed up in the denser
medium.

More accurate measurements of the speed of light is needed to differentiate between the two different models.
Although the experimental evidence supported Huygens’ wave model, Newton had been an incredibly sucessful and
influential scientist and people continued to support his model because of his reputation for approximately 100
years after his death.

DIFFRACTION

Diffraction is the bending of waves around an obstacle. If a wave encounters a barrier that has an opening of
dimensions similar to its wavelength, the wave will flare out into the region beyond the barrier.

Diffraction is only obvious when the wavelength is comparable to the size of the slit or object that causes the
diffraction.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 8 OF 56

EXPLANATION OF DIFFRACTION USING HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE

The diffraction of light was explained by August-Jean Frensel who said:

- The wavelets away from the barrier interfere and cancel out in all directions other than the forward
direction and produce a straight propagating wavefront.
- The wavelets hitting the barrier are blocked and produced no waves.
- The wavelets near the edge only interact with waves on one side and interfere to produce the straight
wavefront. On the other side, they are free to propagate, and produce curved wavefronts.

Newton did not provide an explanation for diffraction.

INTERFERENCE

Diffraction leads to wave spreading out. If the waves spread out and end up travelling over the same space, the
waves become superimposed. The waves overlap and interfere with each other producing a pattern.

Depending on the relative phase of superimposed waves, waves can undergo constructive and destructive
interference.

- If the waves add in phase, they constructively interfere resulting in a larger amplitude (or brighter region of
light).
- If the waves add out of phase, they destructively interfere resulting in a smaller amplitude (or darker
region of light).

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 9 OF 56

THOMAS YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

Thomas Young devised an experiment in 1801 to demonstrate that light is a wave. He showed that light undergoes
diffraction and interference - both phenomena associated with waves.

He allowed light to pass through a double slit barrier. This resulted in the formation of an interference pattern
consisting of dark and bright fringes on an observation screen.

Each slit diffracts the incident light and emits circular wavefronts that overlap and interfere with those from the
other slit. Where the rays from each slit arrive at the screen in phase, they interfere constructively and produce a
bright spot (fringe). Where the waves are out of phase, they interfere destructively and produce a dark spot.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 10 OF 56

Consider light that travels at an angle of 𝜃 to the horizontal to reach a distance screen as shown in the diagram
below:

- If the screen is far away from the slits it can be assumed that the paths of light from the two slits are parallel
- The path difference is given by 𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 where d is the distance between the slits.
- Hence constructive interreference will occur for angles that satisfy

𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3 …

- If 𝜃 is a small angle (for ℎ ≪ 𝐿) we can assume that:

ℎ
sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 =
𝐿
ℎ
𝑑 ( ) = 𝑚𝜆
𝐿

Using the equations, the wavelength can be calculated if the distance between the slits and the angle to the bright
fringes is measured.

- Apart from inferring that light has wave properties from the fact that it diffracts and interferes, this allows
the wavelength to be measured directly.
- Young’s results showed that light of different wavelengths corresponds to different colours.

DIFFRACTION GRATINGS

A diffraction grating is a very useful device for analysing light sources (e.g. determining wavelength) and consists of
a large number of equally spaced parallel slits, a distance 𝑑 apart.

- A grating can be made by engraving parallel lines on a glass plate. The spaces between each line are
transparent and hence act as separate slits.
- A typical grating consists of several thousand lines per centimetre.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 11 OF 56

 - Light passing through each slit diffracts and interferes and will produce a diffraction pattern of bright spots
on a screen.
- If the screen is far away from the grating, we can assume that the rays converging on a certain point on the
screen are almost parallel.

The condition for a grating is the same as the condition for the double slit experiment. Therefore, the same
equations can be used to calculate wavelength.

POLARISATION AND TRANSVERSE WAVE NATURE

Polarisation refers to the direction in which the electric field oscillates.

- If the electric field oscillates vertically, it is vertically polarised.

- If the electric field oscillates horizontally, it is horizontally polarised.

The electric field (and magnetic field) can oscillate in any direction as long as they remain perpendicular to each
other and to the direction of propagation.

- An electromagnetic wave’s polarisation defines the axis along which the electric field oscillates.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 12 OF 56

An ordinary beam of visible light is unpolarised, meaning the electric field will oscillate along different axes.

- Waves are emitted by a large number of molecules of the light source, with each wave having its own
orientation of electric field oscillation
- All waves mix together at slightly different positions to give an unpolarised beam of light

Representation of a mixture of electric field oscillations (Not net)

However, the oscillations of transverse waves may be restricted to a single plane. In this case, the wave is linearly
polarised. The electric field oscillates along the same axis at all times at a particular point.

POLARISERS

A polariser, polaroid, or polarising filter is a material that allows for only one polarisation of light to be transmitted
(the other is either reflected or absorbed).

- It is typically represented by a circle with a line representing the polarisation that is transmitted.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 13 OF 56

 - If light is polarised perpendicular to the polariser, it will not be transmitted.
- If light is unpolarised, only some light will be transmitted, and the transmitted light will be polarised.

MALUS’S LAW

Malus’s law was discovered by Etienne-Louis Malus in 1809 and quantifies the extent to which a polariser allows a
polarised beam of light to be transmitted. The transmitted light intensity is given by:

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos2 𝜃

Where:

- 𝐼max : incident intensity

- 𝜃: Angle between the incident polarisation and the polariser

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 14 OF 56

 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
OUTCOMES
● investigate Maxwell’s contribution to the classical theory of electromagnetism, including:
– unification of electricity and magnetism
– prediction of electromagnetic waves
– prediction of velocity (ACSPH113)
● describe the production and propagation of electromagnetic waves and relate these processes qualitatively to
the predictions made by Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory (ACSPH112, ACSPH113)
● conduct investigations of historical and contemporary methods used to determine the speed of light and its
current relationship to the measurement of time and distance (ACSPH082)

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

- Gauss’s Law
o Charges produce electric fields that diverge
- Gauss’s Law for magnetism
o Magnetic fields do not diverge, they form closed loops
- Faraday’s Law
o A changing magnetic field produces an EMF that curls around into a circle.
- Ampere’s Law with Maxwell’s addition
o A current and/or a changing electric field produces a magnetic field that curls around into a circle.

The significance of Maxwell’s work on his equations it that they represent the unification of electricity and
magnetism.

- Maxwell showed that electricity and magnetism cannot be expressed using separate equations because of
the way electric and magnetic fields affect each other
- Faraday’s Law of induction shows that electric fields are produced by changing magnetic fields.
- Ampere’s law shows that magnetic fields are produced by currents and by changing magnetic fields
- Hence, electricity and magnetism are two aspects of one phenomenon: electromagnetism.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Maxwell combined his equations describing electromagnetism in different ways to produce another equation called
the wave equation.

- The form of the wave equation was already known to describe other waves.
- Hence, Maxwell proposed that waves of electric and magnetic fields must be possible. He predicted the
existence of electromagnetic waves
o Electromagnetic waves consisted of oscillating electric and magnetic fields.

The wave equation also gives you the speed of the wave. Maxwell showed that the speed of electromagnetic waves
1
was 𝑐 = . This discovery lead Maxwell to propose that visible light is an electromagnetic wave. His proposal
√𝜇0 𝜀0
consisted of two parts:

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 15 OF 56

 1) Electromagnetic waves consist of self-sustaining mutual generation of electric and magnetic fields that
propagate at the speed of light. Electric fields create magnetic fields, and magnetic fields create electric
fields, resulting in a propagating wave.
2) Visible light is an electromagnetic wave or electromagnetic oscillation.

PRODUCTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electromagnetic waves can be generated by accelerating a charge. It changes both its magnetic and electric fields in
the space surrounding it. These changes then travel away from the charge as an electromagnetic wave. The
oscillations of each field, sustain those of the other. (According to Maxwell’s formulation of Faraday’s and Ampere’s
laws).

AC SUPPLY & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

An AC voltage applied to the wires of an antenna forces electric charges in the antenna to oscillate. This is a
common technique for accelerating charged particles and is the source of radio waves emitted by the antenna of a
radio station.

Two metal rods that are connected to an AC generator will produce a sinusoidal output voltage. This voltage causes
charges to oscillate between the two ends of the rods

- The electric field near the antenna oscillates in phase with the charge distribution. The field points down
when the upper rod is positive, and up when the upper rod is negative. The magnitude of the field at any
instant depends on the amount of charge in the rod at that instant.
o The frequency of the electric field oscillations is the same as the AC input, and the amplitude of the
electric field oscillations depends on the amplitude of the AC input.
- As the charges continue to oscillate and accelerate between the rods, the electric field set up by the charges
move away from the antenna at the speed of light
o One cycle of charge oscillations produces one wavelength in the electric field oscillation
o This process creates linearly polarised wave, because the electric field is oscillating along a line.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 16 OF 56

HEINRICH HERTZ

Hertz showed that the nature of reflection, refraction and polarisation of radio waves was the same as those of
visible light and confirmed that the nature of electromagnetic waves was as Maxwell predicted, and that visible light
is an electromagnetic wave.

The emitter antenna is connected to a power supply. When connected, sparks (accelerating charges) form in a gap
at the centre of the antenna which indicate that current flows in the antenna. This generates the radio waves.

Hertz stood some distance away, holding the receiver antenna, which also had a gap in it. Sparks across the gap in
the receiver indicate a current flowing in the antenna. However, since it is not connected to a power supply, this
antenna must be detecting radio waves.

Feature Description Purpose

Induction coil It provides short high voltage surges Short high voltages between the
to the electrodes at the gap of the electrodes ionises air, resulting in
antenna sparks. This allows charges to
accelerate up and down the
antenna as AC flows through the
antenna.

Electrodes Brass knobs capable of carrying a When a large potential difference

large amount of positive and (voltage) between the electrodes is
negative charges created, it allows the charges to be
built up to move across the gap and
make sparks.

Parabolic metal mirrors Reflects the electromagnetic waves To focus the weak radio waves on
produced by the transmitter the receiver

Receiver A loop of wire connected to the To receive and detect the radio
electrodes with its own spark gap waves produced by the transmitter.
The received is tuned to the same
frequency as the transmitter.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 17 OF 56

HERTZ’S INVESTIGATION OF EM WAVES

Hertz calculated the speed of light to be 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠. He also showed that the radiation generated by the sparks
exhibited wave properties and concluded that radio-frequency waves had properties similar to visible light.

REFLECTION & INTERFERENCE

Hertz reflected the generated waves off a metal sheet. He set up standing waves.

A standing wave, also known as a stationary wave, is formed when two identical waves travel in opposite directions
interfere and result in constructive and destructive interference.

SPEED OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

In order to calculate the speed of the waves, the frequency and wavelength of the wave must be known.

- Hertz calculated the frequency of oscillations in the transmitter

- He then formed a standing wave by reflecting the radio waves off a large flat zinc plate. He moved his
receiver coil along this wave. A spark in the gap was produced at antinodes (areas of constructive
interference) but not at the nodes (areas of destructive interference). The distance travelled between two
nodes and antinodes is half wavelength.

- He was able to calculate the wavelength and then the speed of light. His value confirmed Maxwell’s
prediction.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 18 OF 56

POLARISATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

- He discovered that a spark would only be induced in the detecting loop if the gap in the detecting loop was
aligned parallel to the gap in the transmitter loop.
- If the detecting loop was perpendicular to the transmitter loop, no spark could be induced in the detecting
loop.

The reason for the orientation of the detector being important is that:

- The electric field in the transmitter oscillates along one axis. This produces polarised waves in this direction.
- The receiver can only detect waves with an electric field oscillating across the spark gap, so is only sensitive
to radio waves polarised in this direction

TIME OF FLIGHT

Time of flight measurements rely on timing how long it takes for light to travel a path of known length and
𝑠
calculating its speed using 𝑣 = .
𝑡

In 1849, Fizeau reflected a beam of light from a mirror 8 km away such that it returned to a target. He placed a
rotating cogwheel in the path of the light.

- The light had to go through one of the gaps between the cogs and return in the following gap. If it does not
and the returning light hits one of the teeth, no light is observed. The angular spin of the cog is adjusted such
that light can be seen returning.

- Fizeau measured the speed of light as 3.15 × 108 𝑚/𝑠.

USES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 19 OF 56

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 20 OF 56
 QUANTISATION OF ENERGY
OUTCOMES
● analyse the experimental evidence gathered about black body radiation, including Wien’s Law related to Planck's
contribution to a changed model of light (ACSPH137)
b
– 𝜆max =
T

BLACKBODY RADIATION

THERMAL RADIAITON

Light and heat (thermal radiation) is emitted by hot solids and gases. Thermal radiation refers to electromagnetic
radiation emitted by an object due to it temperature. The characteristics of this radiation depend on:

- Temperature
- The properties of the object

At lower temperatures, the wavelengths of the thermal radiation are mainly in the infrared region and hence not
observable to the eyes. As the temperature of an object begins to increase, it eventually begins to glow red. At
sufficiently high temperatures, it appears to be white as in the glow of a hot tungsten filament of a lightbulb.

The light emitted from a source can be analysed using a spectrometer. It measures the intensity of each wavelength
of radiation emitted.

BLACK BODY

The term ‘black body’ was introduced by Gustav Kirchhoff in 1862. A black body is an ideal physical object which
absorbs all electromagnetic radiation incident upon it (from an external source).

- A blackbody is a perfect absorber of electromagnetic radiation over all wavelengths. If the incident radiation
is absorbed, any electromagnetic radiation from the object must be its own (due to temperature).
- Blackbodies are perfect emitters of electromagnetic radiation as it is capable of emitting radiation over all
wavelengths.
- The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a blackbody at a constant temperature is called blackbody
radiation.

The sun is approximately a black body. The light it emits is almost entirely due to its temperature of its surface. The
moon, however, is not a black body. The light we observe from the moon is almost entirely a reflection of the suns. It
does not depend on the moon’s surface temperature.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 21 OF 56

NATURE OF BLACKBODY RADIATION

The intensity and wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a blackbody is directly related to its
temperature.

- Blackbodies below around 700 K produce very little radiation at visible wavelengths and appear black.
- Blackbodies above 700 K begin to produce radiation at visible wavelengths.
- The radiation becomes shorter in wavelengths as the temperature increases.
- At higher temperatures the larger intensity of shorter wavelengths changes the colour of the black body
from red to orange, yellow, white and blue as temperature increases.

The characteristics for the distribution of intensity vs wavelength in black body radiation are:

- At any given temperature of the black body

1) There is a peak in the intensity distribution
2) High frequency radiation are not emitted
- As the temperature of the blackbody increases
1) The intensity at every wavelength increases
2) The total intensity emitted increases
3) The peak of distribution shifts to shorter wavelengths

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 22 OF 56

WEIN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW

Wein’s Displacement Law relates the temperature of a blackbody with its peak wavelength.

𝑏
𝜆max =
𝑇

Where:

- 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 : peak wavelength (m)

- 𝑏: Wein’s displacement constant (𝑏 = 2.898 × 10−3 𝑚. 𝐾)
- 𝑇: temperature (K)

CLASSICAL EXPLANATION OF BLACK BODY RADIATION

An object at some temperature will emit electromagnetic radiation as the particles in a solid vibrate back and forth
and collide with each other exchanging energy. As the particles are vibrating back and forth, they must be
accelerating, and hence produce electromagnetic radiation.

CLASSICAL PREDICTIONS OF THE BLACK BODY SPECTRUM

According to classical theory:

1) All frequencies of oscillation are equally likely

2) Each particle emits radiation at the same frequency at which it oscillates
3) Each particle will emit the same amount of energy on average

Therefore, the intensity of radiation is higher for high frequencies, since there are more high frequencies than low
frequencies.

The distribution of intensity of radiation over wavelengths is predicted to take the shape as shown below for any
black body at any temperature,

The prediction (classical curve) does not match the experimental result. It is close however at long wavelengths.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 23 OF 56

This disagreement was referred to as the ultraviolet catastrophe since the disagreement between classical theory
and experiment occurred at short wavelengths corresponding to UV.

Feature Classical Theory Experimental Result Conclusion

Behaviour at long Gradual decrease in Gradual decrease in Reasonable agreement

wavelengths power at longer power at longer
wavelengths wavelengths

Peak Wavelength Gradual increase in power Peak wavelength depends Disagreement

at short wavelengths. No on temperature according
peak. to Wein’s displacement
law.

Behaviour at short Sharp increase in power at Power emitted is 0 at Disagreement (UV

wavelengths short wavelengths. Power short wavelengths Catastrophe)
approaches infinity

Classical theory could not explain the experimental results of black body spectra and a new theory regarding the
nature of light was required.

PLANCK’S EXPLANATION OF BLACK BODY RADIATION

Planck’s theory was drastically different from classical theory. He said:

1) All frequencies of oscillations are not equally likely.

2) Each particle will not emit the same amount of energy on average.

He instead proposed that the intensity of the radiation would increase by fixed amounts that depend on the
frequency of the radiation. These fixed amounts are thought as discrete packets of energy or quanta (of energy).
This became the foundation for modern Physics and quantum theory.

Hypothesis Consequence

1st part of hypothesis The energy of oscillating atoms that If the energy is discrete, the
emit electromagnetic radiation is changes in energy are also discrete,
discrete or quantised. going from one level to another

We say atoms will occupy discrete When changing energy, the amount
energy levels. of energy that an atom can gain or
lose is discrete or quantised.

2nd part of hypothesis The frequency of radiation emitted The energy released by atoms is in
is proportional to the amount of packets or quanta.
energy released by an atom:
for an atom to emit high
ℎ𝑐 frequencies, it must release a large
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 =
𝜆 amount of energy in a single change
of energy level.

Planck did not understand the full implications of his theory at first. He only considered this as a mathematical trick
that gave him the right equation for the spectrum of a black body, which allowed him to explain Wein’s
displacement law.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 24 OF 56

THE ULTRAVIOLET CATASTROPHE

According to Planck’s postulates, a discrete packet of radiation or a quantum is emitted or absorbed when an atom
undergoes a change in energy level.

Change in energy level → Energy is released or absorbed → Corresponding frequency of radiation

- In order to emit a short wavelength of radiation such as UV, or X-ray atoms need to undergo a large change
in energy that corresponds to the energy of the emitted radiation.
- However, at any given temperature, energy ranges of a certain size do not exist as no single atom has
sufficient energy. Atoms thus cannot emit such short wavelengths (high frequencies) radiation at this
temperature.
o Alternatively, extremely high frequencies of oscillations require extremely high kinetic energies and
are therefore extremely unlikely in a black body of any temperature.

PEAK RADIATION (WEIN’S LAW)

According to Planck’s postulates, the intensity of radiation emitted of some frequency is proportional to the number
of atoms undergoing the change in energy.

- The existence of peak radiation is due to certain changes of quantum states of atoms being more probable
at a given temperature.
- Therefore, the more probable changes of energy results in more intense emission of the corresponding
wavelength of radiation.
- The wavelength associated with this change in energy is referred to as the peak radiation and its wavelength
for a given temperature can be calculated using Wein’s displacement law.

At each temperature there is some frequency of oscillation that is most probable for the particles in a black body.
Most of the time, there will be more particles oscillating at this frequency than at any other. More quanta of light
will therefore be emitted at this frequency (when the particle relax to a lower energy)

EXAMPLE QUESTION 1

Explain how understanding blackbody radiation changed the direction of scientific thinking in the early 20th century.

Classical electromagnetism and thermodynamics would not account for the nature of black body radiation. Physicists
using theories in the late 19th century concluded that black body radiation should almost emit light with an intensity
that increases infinitely with decreasing wavelength. But in reality, each temperature emits a certain wavelength
most intensely – black body spectra have peaks – and extremely short wavelengths should not be emitted at all.

Planck’s used the right equation for the black body spectra by imagining the oscillating particles in a black body emit
light not in continuous waves (as Maxwell’s theory) but in discrete ‘quanta’, each of the energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓. Although
Planck took this quantisation to be merely a mathematical trick, Einstein would later develop it into a particle
(photon) theory of light.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 25 OF 56

ELECTRON VOLT (EV)

The electron volt is a unit of energy defined to be 1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.602 × 10−19 𝐽

The electron volt (eV) is defined as the amount of energy gained (or lost) when a single electron moves across an
electric potential difference of 1 volt.

OUTCOMES
● conduct an investigation to examine a variety of spectra produced by discharge tubes, reflected sunlight or
incandescent filaments

SPECTRA OF DISCHARGE TUBES

A discharge tube is an evacuated glass tube with two metal electrons inside at high voltage. Electrons flow across
the tube.

- The negative electrode is called the cathode

- The positive electrode is called the anode
- The two electrodes act like parallel plates and create an electric field between them which accelerates the
electrons.
- Electrons flow from negative to positive
- The tube must be evacuated (low pressure) to allow the electrons to flow, otherwise the air, which is an
insulator, would prevent the flow of electrons.

LIGHT EMISSION FROM DISCHARGE TUBES

Discharge tubes can be filled with low pressure gas of different elements or compounds. Electrons moving through
the discharge tube will collide with these gas molecules.

A collision between electrons and gas molecules can result in 3 outcomes:

1) Low energy collision. The electron is deflected by the gas molecule

2) High energy collision. Some kind of kinetic energy the electron is absorbed by the gas molecule and then
emitted as light. This process is called fluorescence.
3) Very high energy collision. The electron ionises the atom or molecule, resulting in an ion and extra free
electron.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 26 OF 56

Electrons from the cathode ray collide with the gaseous elements. It excites electrons in the gaseous elements and
they go up energy levels. When the electron relaxes to a lower energy level, it emits a specific frequency of
electromagnetic radiation.

The collisions that result in the emission of light cause the tube to glow a different colour depending on the gas
used.

A spectrum of light emitted by the discharge tube can be obtained.

- The spectrum shows that only specific wavelengths are emitted

- Such spectra are called line spectra since they appear as a collection of lines

The emission of discrete wavelengths confirms that the energy states of gas molecules are discrete (quantised).

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 27 OF 56

 PHOTON MODEL OF LIGHT (EINSTEIN)
OUTCOMES

● investigate the evidence from photoelectric effect investigations that demonstrated inconsistency with the wave
model for light (ACSPH087, ACSPH123, ACSPH137)
● analyse the photoelectric effect 𝐾max = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙 as it occurs in metallic elements by applying the law of
conservation of energy and the photon model of light, (ACSPH119)

THE PHOTOELETRIC EFFECT

The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from a metal when light is shone on the
metal surface. Electrons emitted in this manner are called photoelectrons. This can occur as metals have a sea of
delocalised electrons surrounding its cation lattice.

Maxwell’s theory of light could not predict this, instead predicting that any frequency of light would cause
photoelectrons. This led Einstein to develop the photon model of light. This is when classical physics and
observations do not match up.

- Classical theory says that electromagnetic radiation incident on the surface of a metal will cause electrons to
oscillate.
- More radiation, of any frequency, will cause the electrons to oscillate more
- Putting in more and more energy can cause an electron to oscillate so violently that it breaks free from the
metal. Thus, any frequency could cause photoelectron emission, whenever enough energy has been
absorbed by the electron.
- This prediction disagreed with the experiment

INTRODUCTION AND EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

A device that utilises the photoelectric effect is called a photocell.

- An evacuated transparent tube contains a metal plate

(photoelectrode) connected to one terminal of a variable voltage
source
- Another metal plate is connected to the second terminal of the
voltage source
- A voltmeter measures the voltage from the power source
- An ammeter measures any electrons following from the
photoelectrode to the other metal plate

The following can be changed:

- The frequency of light

- Intensity of light
- Voltage across cathode and anode

Interested in number of photoelectrons per second (current) and largest kinetic energy of photoelectrons.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 28 OF 56

CONCLUSIONS OF THE EXPERIMENT

Property Depends on

Number of photoelectrons per second (current) Intensity of light

Largest kinetic energy of photoelectrons Frequency

Note: Maxwell’s classical theory predicts that largest kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends also on the intensity
of light.

MEASURING MAXIMUM KINETIC ENERGY OF THE PHOTOELECTRONS

To measure the number of photoelectrons that reach the terminal per second: measure the current and divide by
the charge of an electron.

To measure the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons: measure the back voltage at which current is
reduced to 0.

- When A is negatively charged, it is called the stopping electrode. Not all the electrons will make it to the
anode. Only electrons with enough kinetic energy will reach the anode.
- The work the electric field does on the electron is 𝑊 = 𝑞𝑉 = 𝑒𝑉.
o Electrons need 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 > Δ𝐾 = 𝑤 = 𝑞𝑉 to reach the anode on the other side when A is negative
- As the stopping electrode is made more negative, the electrons will be repelled before reaching it
- At some voltage only those electrons with the highest kinetic energy 𝐸𝐾(𝑚𝑎𝑥) will make it. At only slightly
higher voltage, no photoelectrons are received at the stopping electrode, indicated by the current dropping
to 0. This voltage is called the stopping potential 𝑽𝒔
- Since the stopping potential was just enough to stop the fastest photoelectrons, the maximum kinetic
energy of the photoelectrons is 𝐸𝐾(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑞𝑉 = 𝑒𝑉𝑠

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 29 OF 56

CHANGLING THE LIGHT INTENSITY

- When the evacuated glass tube is kept in the dark, the ammeter reads zero, indicating that there is no
current in the circuit.
- When a low intensity of monochromatic (single wavelength) light of high enough frequency is shone on
plate C, a current is detected by the ammeter indicating a flow of charge across the gaps between C and A.
- When intensity is increased, the current increases.
o 1 photon (with a discrete energy) can be absorbed by 1 electron
o This means that electrons undergo a 1:1 interaction with photons to become photoelectrons

CHANGING THE VOLTAGE ACROSS THE PLATE

1) Current reaches a limiting value for any particular monochromatic light intensity. The maximum current
value corresponds to the case where all photoelectrons are collected at A.
2) Increasing the intensity increases the current for any voltage
3) At greater negative voltage, more electrons are stopped and repelled before reaching plate A
4) The stopping voltage depends on frequency but not on intensity. Current is zero beyond the stopping
voltage because no photoelectrons are able to overcome the repulsive electric force

EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION

Einstein was able to explain the photoelectric effect using this equation. The maximum kinetic energy for
photoelectrons are:

𝐸𝐾(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙

Where:

- 𝐸𝐾(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons (J)

- 𝑓 = frequency of the incident light (Hz)
- 𝜙 = the “work function”, a constant dependent on the metal used

If ℎ𝑓0 = 𝜙: electron pops out however is recaptured into the metal lattice unless its affected by the electric field.

The minimum amount of work for an electron to be ejected from a given metal is given by 𝜙. Hence 𝜙 determines
the threshold frequency (𝑓0 ) for electron ejection.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 30 OF 56

If ℎ𝑓 > 𝜙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝐾(𝑚𝑎𝑥) > 0 ∴ electron escapes by overcoming the work function and flies away with some energy
remaining.

If ℎ𝑓 < 𝜙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝐾(𝑚𝑎𝑥) < 0 is undefined since the electron is not ejected.

The work function represents the minimum energy with which an electron is bound in the metal (usually a few
electron volts).

EINSTEIN’S EXPLANATION OF THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

EINSTEIN’S PHOTON THEORY OF LIG HT

Einstein extended Planck’s concept of quantisation to electromagnetic waves in order to explain the observations of
the photoelectric effect. He postulated:

1) Light (or any electromagnetic wave) is a stream of particles called photons, each with energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
2) Energy of the beam of light is localised to each photon, not spread across the wavefront of the light beam
a. Different colours of visible light have different energies.
3) Each photon has energy determined by Planck’s equation: 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓

Using the photon theory of light in the photoelectric experiment:

- Frequency is related to the amount of energy each photon carries

- Intensity is related to the number of photons per second

EINSTEIN’S PHOTON EXPLANATION OF THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Einstein’s simple view of the photoelectric effect was that a single photon gives all of its energy to a single electron
in the metal. The electron uses some of that energy to escape from the metal, and the remainder becomes the
kinetic energy of the electron.

𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 → 𝐸𝑝 + 𝐸𝐾

This one-to-one interaction between photon and electron occurs because the photon is the smallest unit (quantum)
of light and cannot be split up.

1) Light is shone on the metal. Each photon of light carries energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓

2) An electron in the metal absorbs this energy. It requires energy to escape the electrostatic force binding it in
the metal. The electrons bound the weakest in the metal require an energy equal to the ‘work function’ 𝜙
3) Any left over energy becomes kinetic energy of the electron as it exits the metal. The electron bound with
energy 𝜙 have maximum kinetic energy of 𝐸𝐾(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 31 OF 56

WORK FUNCTION

The work function represents the minimum energy with which an electron is bound in the metal (usually a few eV).

- The value of the work function is different for different metals

- The work function can be determined if we know the threshold frequency (x-intercept)

𝐸𝐾(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙

If 𝐸𝐾(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 (ℎ𝑓 = 𝜙) then 𝑓 = 𝑓0 .

It is in the form of 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏.
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙
Where:
- 𝑚 = ℎ (Planck’s constant. All lines should be
parallel to each other)
- 𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑓0 (Threshold frequency – minimum
frequency of photon to eject electron)
- 𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑡 = −𝜙 (Work function – minimum amount
of work to eject an electron)

- All lines are parallel since the gradients are equal to Planck’s constant ‘h’
- The x-intercept (𝑓0 threshold frequency) is different for different metals, and thus the y-intercept (𝜙 work
function) is different for metals

SAMPLE QUESTION 1

Discuss how Einstein’s contributions changed scientific thinking regarding blackbody radiation.

The gradient of the photoelectric result is Planck’s constant, with the relationship 𝐸𝐾(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙. The
experimental evidence for discrete energy levels in matter (𝜙) and quantised light energy (hf) supports Planck’s
hypothesis and his explanation of blackbody radiation. Blackbody radiation become more accepted and thinking
changed from treating light as a wave to treating light as a particle.

SAMPLE QUESTION 2

Outline Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect

Light is a stream of photons (indivisible particles/quanta of light) with energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 per photon. Photons undergo
1:1 interaction with electrons in a metal, wherein the electron absorbs the photon in its entirely. Metals have a work
function 𝜙, a minimum amount of work to escape the metal. If incident photons have energy ℎ𝑓 < 𝜙, electrons are
not ejected. If ℎ𝑓 > 𝜙 electrons are ejected with kinetic energy: 𝐸𝐾(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙. The number of ejected
electrons for 𝑓 ≥ 𝑓0 corresponds to the number of photons, hence photocurrent is directly proportional to intensity.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 32 OF 56

CLASSICAL VS PHOTON THEORY OF LIGHT

EFFECTS OF CHANGING FREQUENCY IN THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Classical theory prediction:

- Below a certain intensity, where the light has little or no effect on the metal, changing the frequency will not
produce a photoelectron
- Electrons should be emitted at any frequency, given the intensity is high enough

Experimental observation:

- No electrons are emitted if the incident light frequency falls below some threshold frequency, 𝑓0 , which is
characteristic of the material being illuminated

Einstein’s explanation:

- If the energy of the incoming photon is not equal to or greater than the work function, 𝜙, the electrons will
never be ejected form the surface, regardless of the intensity of the light

EFFECTS OF CHANGING INTENSITY IN THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Classical theory prediction:

- Increasing intensity increases the rate at which electrons were ejected from the metal surface and so the
photocurrent would increase
- The ejected electrons will also have greater kinetic energy
- If the intensity were reduced dramatically, it would take a long time for electrons to be ejected, but
eventually this will occur

Experimental observation:

- If the light frequency exceeds the threshold frequency, a photoelectric effect is observed, and the number of
photoelectrons emitted is proportional to light intensity
- The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectron is independent of light intensity

Einstein’s explanation:

- If the light intensity is doubled, the number of photons is doubled, which doubles the number of
photoelectrons emitted. However, their kinetic energy depends only on the light frequency and the work
function, not on the light intensity.

EFFECTS ON KINETIC ENERGY OF PHOTON ELECTRONS

Classical theory prediction:

- As the light intensity increases, kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases

Experimental observation:

- The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectron increases with increasing light frequency
- The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectron is independent of light intensity

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 33 OF 56

Einstein’s explanation:

- The energy absorbed by the weakest bound electron is 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓. This is used to overcome the work function
and the remainder becomes kinetic energy. Greater photon energy means a greater 𝐸𝐾(𝑚𝑎𝑥) . An electron
can only absorb 1 photon at a time

EFFECTS ON EMISSION TIME OF PHOTOELECTRONS

Classical theory prediction:

- The electrons require some time to absorb the incident radiation before they acquire enough kinetic energy
to escape from the metal
- For low intensity light, the time for the electrons to be emitted would be long, in the order of minutes

Experimental observation:

- Electrons are emitted from the surface almost instantaneously if the frequency of incident light is > 𝑓0 even
at low light intensities.
- Electrons don’t require a gradual build-up of energy

Einstein’s explanation:

- There is one to one interaction between photons and electrons. When an electron absorbs one photon of
energy, it is instantly ejected.

DUALITY OF LIGHT

Quantum mechanics describes light as having both wave and particle characteristics depending on the situation.
Hence it has dual wave-particle nature.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 34 OF 56

 SPECTROSCOPY
OUTCOMES
● investigate how spectroscopy can be used to provide information about:
– the identification of elements
● investigate how the spectra of stars can provide information on:
– surface temperature
– rotational and translational velocity
– density
– chemical composition

ATOMIC SPECTRA

Atomic spectra refer to the spectrum of light absorbed or emitted by specific elements. There are two types of
atomic spectra, absorption and emission.

The wavelength at which light is absorbed and at which light is emitted are exactly the same for a given element.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA

Absorption spectra involves passing light with a wide wavelength range (white light) through a sample, and
recording the spectrum of light that is transmitted.

- The wavelengths not absorbed will pass through and appear in the spectrum.
- The wavelengths that are absorbed will be missing in the spectrum and will appear as dark lines.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 35 OF 56

EMISSION SPECTRA

Emission spectra are the spectra of light emitted by a sample after the sample has been given energy in some form.

- A sample will absorb energy (e.g. from heat or from passing a current through it in a discharge tube)
- The sample will release the energy by emitting light. Only specific wavelengths of light are emitted.

EXPLAINING ATOMIC SPECTRA USING BOHR’S MODEL

In 1913, Niels Bohr developed a model of the atom that explained the interactions between electrons in atoms and
light.

- Bohr postulated that electrons within an atom existed in specific, quantised energy levels. This is basied on
Planck’s theory of quantisation of energy.
- He also postulated that the only way for an electron to move between these levels was via the emission or
absorption of a photon. This relies on Einstein’s photon theory light.
- The energy of the photon absorbed or emitted is identical to the energy difference between the electron
energy levels.

EMISSION SPECTRA

An emission spectrum is produced when excited electrons in an atom return to a lower energy level and emit
photons of characteristic wavelength.

An element in an excited state possess energy 𝐸𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 , greater than when its at a lower state 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 .

- When the element returns, or relaxes to a lower energy state, the excess energy must be released. The
excess energy is equal to the difference between the two energy levels Δ𝐸
- That energy is released when a single photon with energy Δ𝐸, and hence at a specific wavelength.
- The wavelength of an emitted photon is detected as a thin line of colour

ℎ𝑐
Δ𝐸 = 𝐸𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 − 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = ℎ𝑓 =
𝜆

ABSORPITON SPECTRA

An absorption spectrum is produced when electrons in atoms absorb photons of certain wavelengths and become
excited from lower to higher energy levels.

- An absorption only occurs when the photon’s energy matches the difference in energy, Δ𝐸, between two
energy levels
- The intensity of the photons passing through a sample containing the element is attenuated (i.e. decreased)
because of absorption.
- The absorption spectrum will appear as black lines against a continuous spectrum (containing all
wavelengths of visible light).

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 36 OF 56

SPECTROSCOPY

ABSORPTION SPECTRUM

- Light from a source (a lamp) is passed through a prism or grating to disperse it (separate it out into different
wavelengths)
- A monochromator slit is used to select one wavelength.
- This wavelength is passed through a sample and a detector measures how much light passes through. This is
compared to how much light passes without the sample to calculate the fraction absorbed.
- The wavelength is changed and the measurements is repeated for different wavelengths.

Part Function

Lamp Produces a wide, continuous spectrum (e.g. black body

spectrum)

Slit Creates a thin beam of light

Prism Disperses the light to form. The rainbow can be moved

by rotating the prism

Monochromator slit Positioned so as for a specific wavelength to pass

through it. Select a different wavelength by moving the
slit, or rotating the prism.

Sample Sample to be tested. Will absorb some wavelengths of

light.

Detector Measures the intensity of light

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 37 OF 56

EMISSION SPECTRUM

SPECTROSCOPY OF DISCHARGE TUBES

Discharge tubes can emit light via excitation of the gas particles within the tube. The atoms absorb energy via
collision with the electrons and then re-emit energy at specific wavelengths – this process of absorption and re-
emission is known as fluorescence.

- This means that the emitted light of a discharge tube depends on the emission spectra of the gases
contained within.

Discharge tubes can be further coated to absorb this light produced by the gas in the tube and re-emit it as different
colours. This is how fluorescent lights operate.

- The coatings are called phosphors

- Using different phosphor coatings, approximations can be made to white light, warm sunlight and a variety
of other spectra.

IDENTIFICATION OF ELEMENTS USING SPECTROSCOPY

All elements have characteristic absorption and emission spectra. This uniqueness of each element’s atomic
spectrum means that atomic spectra can be used to identify the presence of particular elements. The use of spectra
to identify the contents of sample is spectroscopy.

SPECTROSCOPY OF INCANDESCENT FILAMENTS

An incandescent light bulb functions by heating a metal filament, which then emits light and heat. These bulbs emit
light via black body radiation, not by excitation of particular elements. This mean that the light spectrum is

- Smooth and continuous

- Covering a broad range of wavelengths
- Dependent on the temperature of the filament

Incandescent filaments require high temperatures in order to emit visible light.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 38 OF 56

 - Most lightbulb filaments operate at temperatures 2000 – 3000 K
- In order to withstand this temperature, the filament is made mostly out of tungsten which has a high
melting point.
o 10% efficiency. Incandescent bulbs emit more infrared than visible light.

SPECTROSCOPY OF REFLECTED SUNLIGHT

By measuring the spectra of reflected sunlight from an object in space and comparing it to known spectrum of the
Sun reveals the absorption spectrum of that object.

- Whatever light is missing from the reflection must have been absorbed by the object.
- If the absorption spectra of certain elements or compounds are known, they can be identified.

This absorption can be seen in the Earth’s atmosphere.

- The light that reaches Earth’s surface has specific wavelength ranges missing due to the presence of H 2O, O2
and CO2 in the atmosphere which absorb those wavelengths

Fraunhofer lines are a set of spectra lines. The lines were originally observed as dark features in the absorption
spectrum.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 39 OF 56

STELLAR SPECTROMETRY

Astronomy is the study of celestial objects such as stars, planets, comets and galaxies.

SURFACE TEMPERATURE

Stars are excellent approximations of blackbody radiators. Consequently, the peak wavelength of a stellar spectrum
allows the surface temperature of a star to be accurately determined.

𝑏
𝜆max =
𝑇

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STARS

Any star can be considered to consist of a hot core surrounded by a cooler atmosphere.

- Various ions, atoms and molecules in the cooler atmosphere absorb characteristic wavelengths of light as
they pass through it.
- This results in an absorption spectrum whose underlying continuum is that of a blackbody.

The chemical composition of stellar atmosphere is determined by comparing the observed absorption lines with
known spectra to identify the atoms and molecules present.

The absence or presence of certain spectral features, and their strengths, are used to classify stars. Since what
spectral lines appear also depend strongly on temperature, the current stellar classification system exhibits strong
correlation with colour.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 40 OF 56

TRANSLATIONAL VELOCITY – DOPPLER SHIFT

The rotational and translation velocity of a star can be determined by examining the results of the Doppler Effect on
stellar spectra.

- The doppler effect refers to an apparent change in frequency of a wave due to relative motion between the
source and the observer
- This effect applies to light – a frequency shift will occur if the source (star) and the observer (Earth) are
moving with respect to each other
- The observed frequency of light 𝑓 ′ will differ from the emitted frequency 𝑓 depending on whether the star
and Earth move towards or away from each other and their relative speed.

𝑣𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑣𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟
𝑓′ = 𝑓
𝑣𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒

- If an object is moving away from the Earth the spectral lines would appear at lower frequency (longer
wavelength = redder). Thus those spectral lines would appear to be shifted towards the red end of the
spectrum. This is called redshift.
- If the object is moving towards the Earth the spectral lines would appear at higher frequencies (shorter
wavelengths = bluer). Thus those spectral lines will appear to be shifted towards the blue end of the
spectrum. This is called blueshift.

ROTATIONAL VELOCITY – DOPPLER BROADENING

Rotational broadening occurs for any rotating star.

- As the star rotates, one side of the star will be moving away from the Earth and the opposite side will be
moving towards Earth.
- The edge (limb) of the star that is moving away from the Earth causes red-shifting of spectral lines
- The centre of the star is moving perpendicularly to the line of sight, so causes no doppler shifting of spectral
lines
- All points between the centre and edges of the star causes varying degrees of red-shift/blue-shift. The
magnitude of the shifting increases towards the edges.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 41 OF 56

The degree if broadening in the star’s spectrum reveals the rate of rotation. The faster a star rotates, the wider the
absorption bands will appear in the spectrum.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 42 OF 56

DENSITY – PRESSURE BROADENING

Pressure broadening is due to collisions between particles, and results in the broadening of the “wings” of a spectral
line, not the whole line. The wings of a spectral line are the parts near the continuum. Thus, pressure broadening
does not affect the width of the peak of the line.

The pressure of a stellar atmosphere is primarily determined by its temperature and volume. A larger volume results
in lower pressure gas, for a given temperature.

The density of a gas is directly related to pressure. Density determines the rate of collisions between particles.

- Lower pressure means lower density and lower collision rate

- Collisions between particles transfer momentum and energy. This allows the particles with highest/lowest
kinetic energy to gain/lose a bit more energy. This increases the upper and lower limits of the distribution of
random particle velocities. Hence, wings are broadened but peaks are not.

At low pressure:

- Low pressure occurs at large volumes, such as large stars

- The density is slow low the collision rate is low; hence pressure broadening is minimal and lines remain
relatively narrow.

At high pressure:

- High pressure occurs at small volumes, such as compact stars

- The density is high, so the collision rate is high, hence pressure broadening is significant, and the wings of
lines are broadened.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 43 OF 56

SPECTRA OF STARS

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 44 OF 56

 SPECIAL RELATIVITY
OUTCOMES
● analyse and evaluate the evidence confirming or denying Einstein’s two postulates:
– the speed of light in a vacuum is an absolute constant
– all inertial frames of reference are equivalent (ACSPH131)
● investigate the evidence, from Einstein’s thought experiments and subsequent experimental validation, for time
𝑡0 𝑣2
dilation 𝑡 = and length contraction 𝑙 = 𝑙0 √(1 − ), and analyse quantitatively situations in which
𝑣2
√(1− 2 ) 𝑐2
𝑐

these are observed, for example:

– observations of cosmic-origin muons at the Earth’s surface
– atomic clocks (Hafele–Keating experiment)
– evidence from particle accelerators
– evidence from cosmological studies

FRAMES OF REFERENCE

A frame of reference is a set of coordinate axes relative to which position and motion can be measured. There are 2
types of frame of references: inertial and non-inertial.

- A inertial frame of reference is a non-accelerating frame of reference (can be in constant motion).

- A non-inertial frame of reference is an accelerating frame of reference (net force is non-zero)

DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN FRAME OF REFERENCES

A pendulum can be used as an accelerometer. It can be used to deduce the acceleration of a frame from the
direction in which the pendulum hangs.

The acceleration of the frame appears to the observer inside the frame as a fictitious force to the opposite
direction of acceleration.

- Gravitational force and this fictious force vector add to give a net force in the same direction that the
pendulum is hanging.
- The direction of the apparent net force results in acceleration which determines the motion of projectiles
inside the non-inertial frame. The fictitious force does not obey Newton’s 3rd Law of motion.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 45 OF 56

GALILEO’S PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY

The Galilean Principle of Relativity proposed in 1632 states “The mechanical laws of physics are the same for every
observer moving uniformly with constant speed in a straight line” (i.e. for every observer in an inertial frame of
reference).

The principle of relativity states that there is no physical way to differentiate between a body moving at constant
speed and at rest. It can be concluded that the principle of relativity holds true for any frame of reference that is not
accelerating.

- The laws of physics will not be able to tell you whether you are moving or not. Any experiment will give the
same result as if at rest.
- This means that motion at constant velocity cannot be detected unless there is a second frame of reference
to compare it to.
- Any detected motion of an object is thus relative to some frame.

SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

THE SPEED OF LIGHT

In the 19th century, scientists began to consider the properties that a medium for the propagation of light would
require. They called this hypothetical medium the luminiferous aether.

- It was proposed that aether formed an absolute frame of reference in which the universe and light waves
have a fixed velocity relative to the aether.
- Hence, light would travel at 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 relative to the aether, in the aether reference frame.

This aether theory had certain problems:

- There was no experimental evidence that that supported that the aether existed.
- The Earth’s motion around the Sun would imply that the Earth moved relative to the aether. This would
require the speed of light relative to the Earth to change, which was not detected.

Einstein found a solution to these problems in his Special Theory of Relativity, in which he proposed that light does
not require a medium to propagate.

EINSTEIN’S FIRST THOUGHT EXPERIMENT

“Suppose I am sitting in a train travelling at the speed of light. If I hold a mirror in front of me, will I see my
reflection?”

- Answer: No
o If the train is travelling at the speed of light, light from his face would not reach the mirror in order
to be reflected back.
o Since he cannot see his own reflection in the mirror, he would know that the train was travelling at
the speed of light without having to refer to an external point (violates the Galilean Principle of
Relativity), as the observer is able to detect their motion despite being in an inertial frame of
reference.
- Answer: Yes

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 46 OF 56

 o This means that the light would travel at its normal speed relative to the train. This does not violate
the principle of relativity.
o However, based on the addition on velocities, it means that the light inside the train should be
travelling at twice the speed of light relative to a stationary observer outside the train.
- Einstein concluded that the principle of relativity can never be violated, therefore the true answer is yes, he
would see his reflection.
o He resolved the issue of the speed of light for the two observers by stating that the speed of light is
constant for any observer. Therefore, the stationary observer and the moving observer must
perceive distance and time differently (spacetime). He upheld this as a basic law of physics.
o Einstein believed in the uniformity of physics. (That a law should be true for all cases, no matter
what)

PRINCIPLES OF EINSTEIN’S SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity states that:

1) The laws of Physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference. (Galilean principle of relativity).
2) The speed of light in vacuum has the same value for all observers, regardless of their state of motion or the
state of motion of the source. (Only applies in inertial frames).

The speed of light in vacuum is the same value 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 in all inertial frames of reference.

This was based on the principle that there was no motion of absolute motion (hence no absolute reference frame),
combined with the experimental evidence that the speed of light was always the same, and light appeared not to
need aether to travel through.

EVIDENCE OF A CONSTANT SPEED OF LIGHT

MICHELSON-MORLEY EXPERIMENT

The aim of the experiment was to measure differences in the speed of light relative to Earth due to Earth’s motion
relative to the aether, called aether wind (which [aether] acted as an absolute frame of reference)

- The results of the experiment failed to measure any differences in the speed of light. It was able to support
Einstein’s theory that the speed of light was constant in all inertial frames of reference.

In their experiment, they directed light at an angle of 45 degrees to half-silvered, half transparent mirror, known as a
beam splitter. It splits the beam by allowing half of it through and reflecting the other half.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 47 OF 56

The experimental tool used is the Michelson interferometer:

- Suppose one of the arms of the interferometer is aligned along the direction of motion of the Earth through
space (i.e. through the aether)
- The motion of the Earth is the opposite direction to the aether wind.

The experiment was set up such that the beams interfered. When the two beams are reflected from mirror 1 and 2,
they would recombine and interfere.

The interferometer is rotated by 90 degrees and the interference pattern is monitored during the rotation.

- The rotation would cause the speed of light in each arm to change due to the direction of velocity with
respect to the aether wind.
- The speed of light changing would mean the two beams arrived at the detector at different times to before.
Hence, their relative phase would be different.
- This would cause the interference pattern to change during the rotation.

However, the result of the Michelson-Morley experiment was that no change in the interference pattern was
measured. This meant that the speed of light in each arm was not affected by the orientation or motion of the Earth.

CONSEQUENCES OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY

In classical physics space and time are absolute (same for all observers) and motion is defined by them.

In Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity, it is the speed of light that is absolute and space and time (spacetime)
change to accommodate this.

- Time and space must change in order to keep the speed of any beam of light same in all inertial frames of
reference.
- The length of an object and time taken to do something depends on the motion of the observer. Different
observers measure different lengths for the same object, or a different time taken to do something.

TIME DILATION

According to a stationary observer, a moving clock runs slower than an identical stationary clock. This effect is
known as time dilation. Observers in different inertial frames will measure different time intervals between a pair of
events.

TIME DIALATION THOUGHT EXPERIMENT

A light beam seen by an observer on a train

- Consider a train moving to the right with the speed ‘v’

o A mirror is fixed to the ceiling of the vehicle and Jane at O at rest in this system holds a laser at a
distance ‘d’ below the mirror.
o At some instant the laser emits a pulse of light directed towards the mirror, and at some time after
reflecting from the mirror, the pulse arrives back at the laser.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 48 OF 56

 o Jane carries a clock which she uses to measure the time interval ‘t0’ between these two events.
Because the light pulse has a speed of ‘c’, the time takes the pulse to travel from Jane to the mirror
and back can be found from the definition of speed:

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝑑
𝑡0 = =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑐

The time interval ‘t0’ measured by Jane who is at rest in the moving vehicle requires only a single clock located at the
same place in the frame.

A light beam seen by an observer outside the train

- Now consider the same pair of events viewed by David at O in a stationary frame as the figure below:

- According to David, the mirror and laser are moving to right with speed 𝑣

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 49 OF 56

 𝑣𝑡𝑣
- By the time the light pulse reaches the mirror, the mirror moves a distance 2
where 𝑡𝑣 is the time it takes
the light to travel from O’ to the mirror and back to O’’ as measured by David.

Results:

- The light must travel further for David than it does for Jane. According to the second postulate of Special
Relativity, the speed of light must be 𝑐 as measured by both observers.
- Since the light travels a further distance for David, it follows that the time interval 𝑡𝑣 measured by David in
the stationary frame is longer than the time interval 𝑡0 measured by Jane in the moving frame.
- Hence, according to David, Jane’s clock (the moving clock compared to David) runs slow.

Time dilation equation:

𝑡0
𝑡𝑣 =
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐

𝑡0 is called proper time. It is the time interval between two events as measured by an observer who see the invent
occur at the same place. Jane measured proper time.

ANALYSING TIME DILATION QUESTIONS

1) Identify which observer measures proper time and which observer measures dilated time
2) Identify the data provided in the question as the proper time or the dilated time.
3) Use the time dilation equation to solve for any unknowns

EXAMPLE QUESTION 1

Sandra is travelling on a train and observes the second hand of her watch sweep through 15.0s. Jason is outside the
train and also observes Sandra’s watch as the train moves past him.

Sandra measured proper time as she is in the same frame of reference as her watch. Jason measures dilated time
since he is moving relative to Sandra’s watch. The 15.0s measured by Sandra is proper time.

𝑡0 15
𝑡𝑣 = = = 17.35𝑠
2 ( )2
√1 − 𝑣 2 √1 − 0.5𝑐
2
𝑐 𝑐

LENGTH CONTRACTIO

The length of an object measured in a reference frame in which the object is moving is always less than the proper
length. This effect is known as length contraction.

WHAT IS PROPER LENGTH

The proper length of an object is defined as the length of the object measured in the reference frame in which the
object is at rest. For example, to measure the proper length of a moving object, you would need to be in the same
reference frame as the moving object.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 50 OF 56

INTERPRETATION OF THE LENGTH CONTRACTION E QUATION

𝑣2
𝐿𝑣 = 𝐿0 √1 −
𝑐2

- It relates the proper length 𝐿0 of an object as measured within its rest frame to the contracted length 𝐿𝑣 as
measured from a different frame of reference with a velocity 𝑣 relative to the rest frame.
- 𝐿𝑣 < 𝐿0

The length contraction takes place only along the direction of motion. It is a symmetrical effect.

EVIDENCE OF TIME DILATION AND LENGTH CONTRACTION

MUONS

Muons are unstable elementary particles, which have a charge equal to that of an electron and a mass 207 times
greater. Muons can be produced by the absorption of cosmic radiation in the atmosphere.

- These unstable particles have a lifetime of 2.0 microseconds when measured in a reference frame at rest
with them. After this time, they decay to produce energy and other particles.
- If we take 2.0 microseconds as the average lifetime of a muon and assume that their speed is close to the
speed of light (𝑣 = 0.998 𝑐) we would find that these particles could only travel a distance of only about
600m before they decay into something else.
- Hence, they cannot reach the Earth from the upper atmosphere where they are produced. However,
experiments show that a large number of muons do reach the Earth. The phenomenon of time dilation
explains this effect.

Frame of Reference Time taken for the muon to fall Length of fall

Muon Proper Time Contracted length

Observer on Earth Dilated time Proper length

- In the muon’s reference frame, there is no time dilation, but the distance travelled is observed to be shorter
when measured in this frame.
- Likewise, in the Earth observer’s reference frame, there is time dilation, but the distance of travel is
measured to be the proper height of the mountain.
- In one frame the distance is shorter (length contraction) but the time is also shorter (proper time). In the
other frame the distance is longer (proper length), but the time is also longer (dilated time)
- Proper length and proper time do not need to be measured by the same observer.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 51 OF 56

HAFELE-KEATING EXPEIRMENT

The Hafele-Keating involved flying atomic clocks on aeroplanes to directly measure time dilation.

3 atomic clocks were used. They all started at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington DC.

1) One clock was left on the ground

2) One clock was flown around the world eastward
3) One clock was flown around the world westward.

Once all the clocks returned to the same place, the time shown on each clock was compared:

- The times on each clock were different as each clock represented a different amount of time dilation.
- Atomic clocks have high precision so can measure small differences in time.

The experiment is best explained in the Earth’s axis reference frame:

- The eastward clock has to move faster around the Earth’s axis compared to the ground clock. Hence it
experiences more time dilation.
- The eastward clock will record a shorter time than the clock on the ground (i.e. time dilated) because it is
moving faster relative to the Earth’s axis.
- The westward moving clock has to move slower around the Earth’s axis compared to the ground clock.
Hence it experiences less time dilation. It will record a longer time as it is moving slower.

None of the 3 atomic clocks measure proper time. This is because proper time is measured in the frame of reference
of the Earth’s axis. All three are moving in that frame. (But each clock measures proper time in its own frame of
reference).

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 52 OF 56

EVIDENCE FROM PARTICLE ACCELERATORS

Particle accelerators use electric and magnetic fields to accelerate charged particles like protons, electrons and the
nuclei of atoms to very high speeds approaching the speed of light. They can also produce particles that are
otherwise unstable, which then go on to decay.

Evidence for Special Relativity can be seen in the increased lifetime of short-lived particles in particle accelerators.

- Unstable particles (like muons) are produced travelling at high speeds.

- Due to the high speed of the particles, their lifetime is observed to be longer in the Earth’s reference frame,
since an observer in the Earth’s frame would measure dilated time.
- This is the same as the muon phenomena.

Evidence for length contraction is harder to observed due to the small size of the particles being accelerated.
However, indirect evidence of length contraction can be observed in particle accelerators.

- The exact details of how particles behave in an accelerator at high speeds can only be explained if we
assume they undergo length contraction – increasing their density and changing their shape of their electric
field.
- The success of Special Relativity in explaining these results are evidence for length contraction in particle
accelerators.

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 53 OF 56

 RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM AND MASS DILATION
OUTCOMES
● describe the consequences and applications of relativistic momentum with reference to:
𝑚0 𝑣
– 𝑝𝑣 = 𝑣2
√(1− 2 )
𝑐

– the limitation on the maximum velocity of a particle imposed by special relativity (ACSPH133)
● Use Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence relationship 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 to calculate the energy released by processes in
which mass is converted to energy, for example: (ACSPH134)
– production of energy by the sun
– particle–antiparticle interactions, eg positron–electron annihilation
– combustion of conventional fuel

RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM

Relativistic momentum can be derived from Newton’s Second Law: 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎.

Δ𝑣
- Using the definition of acceleration, 𝑎 = Δ𝑡
, it can be expressed in terms of momentum:

Δ𝑣 Δ𝑚𝑎 Δ𝑝
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 ( )= =
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡

- Newton’s Second Law must be the same in all inertial frames (Einstein’s 1st postulate and Galilean relativity)

All observers must agree on the meaning of force, and hence Newton’s Second Law.

Δ𝑝
- This requires the ratio to be constant for all observers
Δ𝑡
- Since the definition of force in terms of momentum relies on time, we must take time dilation into account
when changing reference frames.
𝑝 𝑚0 𝑣
𝐹𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = =
𝑡0 𝑡0

𝑣2
𝑝𝑣 𝑝𝑣 √1 −
𝑐2
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 = =
𝑡𝑣 𝑡0

√ 𝑣2
𝑚0 𝑣 𝑝𝑣 1 − 𝑐 2 𝑚0 𝑣
∴ = => 𝑝𝑣 =
𝑡0 𝑡0 2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐

Relativistic momentum is always: 𝑝𝑣 > 𝑝0

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 54 OF 56

MASS DILATION

An object in motion will have a greater mass than when it is stationary

- This phenomenon is known as mass dilation

- This means that mass is also a relative quantity
- Mass dilation is a consequence of relativistic momentum

An observer that is stationary compared to the object will measure the rest mass 𝒎𝟎. Hence the momentum they
measure will be 𝑝0 = 𝑚0 𝑣

The observer moving at speed 𝑣 compared to the object will measure relativistic momentum
𝑚0
𝑝𝑣 = ×𝑣
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐

𝑝𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣 × 𝑣

- If we treat momentum as (mass x velocity) then we conclude that the moving observer measures a different
mass. This mass is called dilated mass or relativistic mass 𝒎𝒗
𝑚0
𝑚𝑣 =
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐

- 𝑣 is the relative velocity of the object and the observer, so has the same value for both
- Relativistic momentum increases with velocity because mass increases with velocity
- Mass is a measure of inertia – hence inertia increases with velocity.

LIMITING VELOICTY

The limiting speed of any object with rest mass is the speed of light. This is because as its speed approaches that of
light, its mass dilates infinitely. It would therefore require an infinite amount of work to overcome this infinite
inertia.

If an object is travelling near the speed of light, doing work on it will not increase its speed, but will instead increase
its mass. This means that mass is a form of energy.

ENERGY

CONSERVATION OF MASS AND ENERGY

The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but only transformed from
one type to another.

Since rest mass is a type of energy, we can also transform it:

- Mass can be converted into other types of energy (mass reduces)

- Other types of energy can be converted into mass (mass increases)

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 55 OF 56

Since mass is a type of energy and can be transformed to other forms of energy, rest mass is no longer required to
be conserved. Conservation of Energy includes rest mass, since it is a type of energy. So it can be considered as the
Conservation of Mass and Energy together, referred to as mass-energy.

Total relativistic mass of a particle is proportional to its total energy.

1
𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 = (𝑚 𝑐 2 + 𝐾 + 𝑈)
𝑐2 𝑜

PHYSICS MODULE 7 – THE NATURE OF LIGHT PAGE 56 OF 56

 TIMELINE (APPROX)
- 1632: Galileo’s proposed his Principle of Relativity
- 1650: Otto von Guericke invented a vacuum pump that allowed low air pressure to be achieved.
- 1675: Ole Romer and Christiaan Huygens. Speed of light by observing the motion of Io.
- 1678: Huygens’ Wavelet Principle of Light
- 1692: Newton’s Particle Model of Light
- 1801: Thomas Young’s double slit experiment
- 1809: Etienne-Louis Malus quantifies the Malus’s Law
- 1822: Augustin-Jean Fresnel presented a modified version of Huygens’ model in which he proposed that light
is a transverse wave
- 1849: Hippolyte Fizeau time of flight experiment
- 1855: Swiss school teacher Johann Jacob Balmer found an empirical formula that correctly predicted the
wavelengths of four visible emission lines of hydrogen.
- 1862: Gustav Kirchhoff introduces black body
- 1869: Johann Hittorf found cathode rays
- 1869: Maltese cross experiment by Julius Plücker
- 1879: Paddle wheel experiment and deflection by magnetic fields experiment by William Crookes
- 1879: Thomson’s charge-to-mass experiment
- 1873: James Clerk Maxwell proposed his equations
- 1887: Hertz wave experiment
- 1887: Michelson-Morley experiment
- 1850: Leon Foucault speed of light in water experiment
- 1897: Electron discovered by Thomson
- 1899: Alpha particle discovered by Rutherford
- 1901: Max Planck discovered a formula for blackbody radiation
- 1909: Robert A. Millikan and Harvey Fletcher attempted to measure the charge of an electron. (Millikan’s Oil
Drop Experiment)
- 1911: Thomson’s plum pudding model of the atom
- 1911: Geiger-Marsden “Gold Foil experiment”
- 1913: Niels Bohr’s quantum & classical model of the atom
- 1917: Rutherford conducted an experiment that proved hydrogen nuclei were present in heavier nuclei
- 1920: Rutherford named the ‘fundamental particle’ proton
- 1923: De Broglie’s matter wave hypothesis
- 1926: Schrodinger’s equation
- 1927: Davisson-Germer experiment
- 1932: James Chadwick was able to prove the existence of the neutron
- 1932: Positron discovered by Anderson
- 1932: De Sitter double-star experiment
- 1937: Muon discovered by Neddermeyer
- 1956: Electron antineutrino discovered by Reines and Cowan
- 1971: Hafele-Keating experiment

PHYSICS MODULE 7 & 8 PAGE 0 OF 2

Model of the Atom

- Dalton
- Thomson
- Rutherford
- James Chadwick
- Bohr
- De Broglie

PHYSICS MODULE 7 & 8 PAGE 1 OF 2

PHYSICS MODULE 8
From the Universe to the Atom
 PHYSICS MODULE 8: FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM
ORIGINS OF THE ELEMENTS

Inquiry question: What evidence is there for the origins of the elements?

● investigate the processes that led to the transformation of radiation into matter that followed the ‘Big Bang’

● investigate the evidence that led to the discovery of the expansion of the Universe by Hubble (ACSPH138)
● analyse and apply Einstein’s description of the equivalence of energy and mass and relate this to the nuclear
reactions that occur in stars (ACSPH031)
● account for the production of emission and absorption spectra and compare these with a continuous black body
spectrum (ACSPH137)
● investigate the key features of stellar spectra and describe how these are used to classify stars
● investigate the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram and how it can be used to determine the following about a star:

– characteristics and evolutionary stage

– surface temperature
– colour
– luminosity
● investigate the types of nucleosynthesis reactions involved in Main Sequence and Post-Main Sequence stars,
including but not limited to:
– proton–proton chain
– CNO (carbon-nitrogen-oxygen) cycle

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Inquiry question: How is it known that atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons?

● investigate, assess and model the experimental evidence supporting the existence and properties of the
electron, including:
– early experiments examining the nature of cathode rays
– Thomson’s charge-to-mass experiment
– Millikan's oil drop experiment (ACSPH026)
● investigate, assess and model the experimental evidence supporting the nuclear model of the atom, including:

– the Geiger-Marsden experiment

– Rutherford’s atomic model
– Chadwick’s discovery of the neutron (ACSPH026)

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 1 OF 61

QUANTUM MECHANICAL NATURE OF THE ATOM

Inquiry question: How is it known that classical physics cannot explain the properties of the atom?

● assess the limitations of the Rutherford and Bohr atomic models

● investigate the line emission spectra to examine the Balmer series in hydrogen (ACSPH138)
● relate qualitatively and quantitatively the quantised energy levels of the hydrogen atom and the law of
conservation of energy to the line emission spectrum of hydrogen using:
– 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
ℎ𝑐
– 𝐸= 𝜆
1 1 1
– = 𝑅[ − ] (ACSPH136)
𝜆 𝑛𝑓2 𝑛𝑖2
● investigate de Broglie’s matter waves, and the experimental evidence that developed the following formula:
ℎ
– 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣 (ACSPH140)
● analyse the contribution of Schrödinger to the current model of the atom

PROPERTIES OF THE NUCLEUS

Inquiry question: How can the energy of the atomic nucleus be harnessed?

● analyse the spontaneous decay of unstable nuclei, and the properties of the alpha, beta and gamma radiation
emitted (ACSPH028, ACSPH030)
● examine the model of half-life in radioactive decay and make quantitative predictions about the activity or
amount of a radioactive sample using the following relationships:
– 𝑁t = 𝑁o 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑙𝑛2
– 𝜆=𝑡
1/2

where 𝑁t = number of particles at time 𝑡, 𝑁0 = number of particles present at 𝑡 = 0, 𝜆 = decay constant,

𝑡1/2 = time for half the radioactive amount to decay (ACSPH029)
● model and explain the process of nuclear fission, including the concepts of controlled and uncontrolled chain
reactions, and account for the release of energy in the process (ACSPH033, ACSPH034)
● analyse relationships that represent conservation of mass-energy in spontaneous and artificial nuclear
transmutations, including alpha decay, beta decay, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion (ACSPH032)
● account for the release of energy in the process of nuclear fusion (ACSPH035, ACSPH036)
● predict quantitatively the energy released in nuclear decays or transmutations, including nuclear fission and
nuclear fusion, by applying: (ACSPH031, ACSPH035, ACSPH036)
– the law of conservation of energy
– mass defect
– binding energy
– Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence relationship 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 2 OF 61

DEEP INSIDE THE ATOM

Inquiry question: How is it known that human understanding of matter is still incomplete?

● analyse the evidence that suggests:

– that protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles
– the existence of subatomic particles other than protons, neutrons and electrons
● investigate the Standard Model of matter, including:
– quarks, and the quark composition hadrons
– leptons
– fundamental forces (ACSPH141, ACSPH142)
● investigate the operation and role of particle accelerators in obtaining evidence that tests and/or validates
aspects of theories, including the Standard Model of matter (ACSPH120, ACSPH121, ACSPH122, ACSPH146)

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 3 OF 61

 DISCHARGE TUBES AND CATHODE RAYS
OUTCOMES
● investigate, assess and model the experimental evidence supporting the existence and properties of the
electron, including:
– early experiments examining the nature of cathode rays
– Thomson’s charge-to-mass experiment
– Millikan's oil drop experiment (ACSPH026)

DISCHARGE TUBE

By the early 1700s, physicists were experimenting with electricity inside sealed glass tubes with low air pressure.
They placed metal electrodes inside the discharge tubes and connected them to a voltage.

- The positive electrode was called the anode

- The negative electrode was called the cathode

Johann Hittorf in 1869 found that when high voltage was applied across the very low air pressure, rays of light
appeared to travel from the cathode to anode. The ray was named cathode rays because they radiated from the
cathode.

PRODUCTION OF CATHODE RAYS

Cathode rays are streams of electron flowing from the cathode towards the anode in a discharge tube. The
discharge tubes are cold vacuum tubes.

The production of cathode rays in cold discharge tubes is outlined below:

- A small trace of ions and free electrons are present in the residual gas. There must be some pressure (gas).
- A high voltage is applied between the cathode and the anode, creating a strong electric field in the tube.
- The strong electric field accelerates the ions towards the cathode and electrons towards the anode
- As the ions and electrons accelerate through the tube, they collide with other molecules and ionise them,
releasing more free electrons.
- As the electrons accelerate through the discharge tube, they collide with the air molecules and as a result
light is released.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 4 OF 61

Low air pressure is required for cathode rays to be produced.

- As air is an insulator, it would prevent the flow of electrons between cathode to anode.
- To allow cathode rays to be produced, the air must be pumped out of the tube. Low pressure air will allow
cathode rays to be produced
- The electrons can travel through low pressure air and collide with any air molecules along the way

When electrons collide with atoms or molecules:

1) Low energy collision: Electron is deflected due to the gas being too close to each other. The accelerated
electron does not have enough space between collisions to reach a kinetic energy that would emit visible
light.
2) High energy collision: Some of the kinetic energy the electron acquired as a result to the high potential
difference is converted into light energy, which makes the cathode ray visible.
3) Very high energy collisions: the electron ionises the atom or molecule, resulting in an ion and extra free
electron

THE NATURE OF CATHODE RAYS

MALTESE CROSS BY JULIUS PLUCKER

When the tube was turned on, it cast a sharp cross-shaped shadow
on the fluorescence on the back face of the tube. It could be
concluded that cathode rays travel from the cathode to the
anode in straight lines.

PADDLE WHEEL BY WILLIAM CROOKES

- Crooks concluded that the time that this showed that cathode rays possess momentum and therefore mass
since they cause a wheel placed in their path to turn.
- This suggested that cathode rays were made out of particles.
- However, it was later concluded that the paddle wheel turned due to the radiometric effect

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 5 OF 61

DEFLECTION BY MAGNETIC FIELDS BY WILLIAM CROOKES

It could be observed that cathode rays consists of negatively charged particles and therefore are deflected in a
magnetic field according to the LHPR (𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵).

- Cathode rays are charged and undergo deflection perpendicular to an applied magnetic field.
- Cathode rays are negatively charged. The direction of the force acting on a negatively charged particle is
opposite to the direction of the force acting on a positively charged particle.

SUMMARY

Year Experiment Scientist Conclusion

1869 Maltese Cross Julius Plücker Travels in straight lines. Wave?

1879 Paddle wheel William Crookes Have momentum and hence mass

1879 Deflection by magnetic fields William Crookes Must be charged

1895 Cathode rays carry negative charge Jean-Baptiste Perrin Negatively charged

THOMSON’S CHARGE-TO-MASS EXPERIMENT

J. J. Thomson showed that cathode rays consisted of negatively charged particles by calculating the charge to mass
ratio of cathode rays. He is credited with:

- Discovery and identification of the electron

- Discovery of the first subatomic particle, showing that atoms are not indivisible

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 6 OF 61

His experiment involved 3 main steps:

1) Acceleration of electrons
2) Deflection of electrons by magnetic fields
3) Deflection of electrons by both magnetic and electric fields

DEFLECTION OF ELECTRONS BY MAGNETIC FIELDS

The cathode ray was deflected with a magnetic field and the position of deflected ray with only the magnetic field
acting was recorded. This allowed the radius of the curvature of the path of deflection due to the magnetic field to
be determined.

𝐹𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐

𝑚𝑣 2
= 𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝑟
𝑞 𝑣
=
𝑚 𝐵𝑟

DEFLECTION OF ELECTRON BY BOTH MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS

By varying magnetic field and electric fields until their opposing forces cancel each other out, leaving the cathode
rays undeflected. By equating the magnetic field and electric force equations, he was able to determine the velocity
of the cathode-ray particles (electrons).

𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐

𝑞𝑒 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵

𝐸
𝑣=
𝐵
𝑞 𝐸
∴ = 2
𝑚 𝐵 𝑟

MILLIKAN’S OIL DROP EXPERIMENT

Robert A. Millikan and Harvey Fletcher attempted to measure the charge of an electron, by measuring the charge of
small, ionised droplets of oil.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 7 OF 61

 1) Drops of oil are sprayed into a region above a pair of parallel plates
2) The drops become ionised either through friction with the nozzle of the spray, or by illuminating them with
X-rays.
3) Drops can fall into the region between the plates. This region contains an electric field set up by a voltage
across plates.
4) Once between the plates the drops can be viewed through a microscope. The drops can be accelerated up or
down by adjusting the voltage on the places, and hence the electric field.
5) The voltage was adjusted such that some of the drops were suspended.

𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙

𝑞𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑔
𝑞=
𝐸

Millikan and Fletcher determined the terminal velocity of the oil droplets and made careful measurements of their
diameters.

- This allowed them to determine the mass of their oil drops.

- Knowing the mass, the charge could be found as well

THOMSON’S MODEL OF THE ATOM

- Thomson had shown that particles smaller than atoms existed

- He concluded that electrons must exist inside atoms and that atoms must therefore be divisible into smaller
parts
- Thomson then had to incorporate electrons into the structure of the atom.

In 1911, Thomson proposed the Plum Pudding Model of the Atom.

He suggested that an atom is sphere of positively charged in which electrons are embedded like raisins in a plum
pudding.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 8 OF 61

OUTCOMES
● investigate, assess and model the experimental evidence supporting the nuclear model of the atom, including:

– the Geiger-Marsden experiment

– Rutherford’s atomic model
– Chadwick’s discovery of the neutron (ACSPH026)

RUTHERFORD’S ALPHA PARTICLES

Rutherford’s work was the identification of alpha particles which where given off by some radioactive elements.

An alpha particle is a helium ion 42𝐻𝑒. Alpha particles are emitted from radioactive elements with very high speeds
(0.1c). Rutherford recognised the value of alpha particles in probing the structure of atoms.

GEIGER-MARSDEN “GOLD FOIL EXPERIMENT”

The aim was to investigate the plum pudding model by using alpha particle scattering.

- Alpha particles were fired through a piece of gold foil and used a ZnS detector to detect the scatter of alpha
particles and their location
- Gold was used as it is malleable and could be beaten into a film comprising of 400 atoms.

THEORETICAL PREDICTION

Rutherford expected that the gold atoms would not affect the positive alpha particles for the following reasons:

- The positive charge of the gold atoms was uniformly distributed over a large volume
- The negative electrons were too light to deflect the alpha particles.

Hence there would be no concentration of charge or mass large enough to deflect the alpha particles

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 9 OF 61

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

- 1 in 1800 alpha particles were deflected by a minor (10 degrees) from their path
- 1 in 8000 alpha particles deflected greater than 90 degrees

CONCLUSION

Rutherford concluded that there must be a small, massive, positively charged core in the atoms that causes the
alpha particles to deflect.

RUTHERFORD’S PLANETARY MODEL OF THE ATOM

Rutherford proposed that each atom has a dense central core, which he called the nucleus.

- The nucleus is a central region that is very small relative to the total size of the atom
- The nucleus contains virtually all the mass (99.9%) and all the positive charge of the atom
- The positive charge of the nucleus is to be balanced by the negative charge of the electrons outside the
nucleus to maintain electrical neutrality.
- The electrons orbit around the nucleus in uniform circular motion.

Rutherford’s new model assumed that electrons orbited the nucleus. This idea presented some problems that
collided with already established Physics:

1) The electrons in orbits are constantly accelerating (circular motion) and should be giving off EMR
2) The electrons should be losing energy and spiral into the nucleus causing the atoms to collapse
3) It could not explain the emission line spectrum for hydrogen or any other element

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 10 OF 61

PROTONS AND NEUTRONS

Rutherford conducted an experiment that proved hydrogen nuclei were present in heavier nuclei.

- Rutherford observed that hydrogen nuclei were produced when alpha particles were fired at nitrogen.
- From this, he concluded that the nitrogen nuclei (and hence all nuclei) contained hydrogen nuclei within
them
14
7𝑁 + 42𝐻𝑒 → 17
8𝑂 + 11𝐻

Rutherford proposed that the nucleus of hydrogen consisted of a fundamental building block which made up all
other nuclei.

- He named this particle the proton in 1920, meaning ‘first’ in Greek.

PROBLEMS WITH CALCULATING THE MASS OF NUCLEI

In alpha particle scattering experiments, there was a problem when the experimental data were used to calculate
the masses of the nuclei.

The mass and charge of the proton were already known, and it was believed that heavier nuclei contained more
protons. However, the results of the scattering experiment showed that:

- The charge of a nuclei was equal to the charge of the protons contained, as expected
- However, the mass of the nucleus was roughly double the mass of the protons contained

In 1920, Rutherford proposed that the nucleus might contain a second uncharged particle with a mass close to that
of a proton.

JAMES CHADWICK’S DISCOVERY OF NEUTRONS

- Polonium was used as an alpha source, and the emitted alpha particles were directed at a piece of beryllium
- When struck, the beryllium emitted the mysterious “neutral rays” which where highly penetrating
- Paraffin wax (really long hydrocarbon chain) was placed in the path of the mysterious radiation. When the
rays hit the paraffin wax, they knocked hydrogens (protons) out of it.
- Due to their charge, the protons were able to be defected by a Geiger counter and their energy and speed
could be calculated

Chadwick conducted similar experiments where the radiation was fired at different atoms with different masses

- He measured the speed of the atoms that were ejected

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 - He analysed the collisions between the radiation and these different atoms, considering the conservation of
energy and momentum
- In 1932, Chadwick was able to prove the existence of a neutral particle with a mass close to that of a
hydrogen atom.

EXPLANATION OF CHADWICK’S EXPERIMENT

The following reaction was taking place between alpha particles and the beryllium:

9 4 12 1
𝐵𝑒 + 𝐻𝑒 → 𝐶 + 𝑛
4 2 6 0

The neutrons travelled at high speeds and collided with the nuclei in the target

- The nuclei could be easily detected as they were charged (protons). Their mass was known and their speed
could be measured
- This allowed their energy and momentum to be determined.
o This was necessary as neutrons have no electric charge and therefore don’t readily ionise atoms.
This makes it extremely difficult to detect, but if they were made to collide with small nuclei, the
energy and momentum can be measured and used to calculate the mass of the neutron.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 12 OF 61

 BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL OF THE ATOM
OUTCOMES
● assess the limitations of the Rutherford and Bohr atomic models
● investigate the line emission spectra to examine the Balmer series in hydrogen (ACSPH138)
● relate qualitatively and quantitatively the quantised energy levels of the hydrogen atom and the law of
conservation of energy to the line emission spectrum of hydrogen using:
– 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
ℎ𝑐
– 𝐸= 𝜆
1 1 1
– = 𝑅 [𝑛2 − 𝑛2] (ACSPH136)
𝜆 𝑓 𝑖

PROBLEMS WITH RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL

There are two basic difficulties with Rutherford’s planetary model of the atom.

- It cannot explain why atoms are stable

o According to Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism, the accelerating electrons should emit
electromagnetic waves. This means that the electrons should be losing energy. The atom should
collapse as the electron plunges into the nucleus.
- It cannot explain the emission and absorption spectra of atoms.
o Hydrogen absorb only specific wavelengths, and emit light only at the wavelengths they absorb.
These are called line spectra.
▪ Rutherford’s model had no structure for the electrons, they were free to orbit at any radius,
hence they should be able to absorb and emit radiation at any wavelength

The problems with Rutherford’s model arise due to its classical nature. It treats the motion of electrons using
Newton’s Laws and makes predictions based on Maxwell’s theories, both of which are classical physics principles.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 13 OF 61

THE BOHR ATOMIC MODEL

BOHR’S POSTULATES

Postulates Explanation

Only certain electron orbits are stable These stable orbits are ones in which the electron does
not radiate. Hence the energy is fixed, and classical
physics does not hold.

Radiation is absorbed or emitted when electrons This transition cannot be visualised or treated
transition from one stable orbit to another classically. The electrons cannot exist between two
stable orbits – it will exist in one orbit and then
instantaneously transition to another

The difference in energy between the two stable

orbits must be absorbed or emitted as a single photon,
following Planck’s and Einstein’s theories:

ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 = ℎ𝑓 =
𝜆
Where 𝐸𝑖 is the energy of the initial state, 𝐸𝑓 is the
energy f the final state. (ℎ𝑓 < 0 indicates absorption,
ℎ𝑓 > 0 indicates emission)

The stable electron orbits have quantised angular The size of the allowed electron orbits is determined by
momentum. a quantisation condition imposed on the electron’s
orbital angular momentum.

The allowed orbits are those for which the electron’s

orbital angular momentum about the nucleus is an
ℎ
integral number of 2𝜋

𝑛ℎ
𝐿𝑛 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋
For 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, ….

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 14 OF 61

 - Each stable orbit is represented by a circle
- Each stable orbit is uniquely labelled with the integer n that determines the orbital angular momentum
𝑛ℎ
(𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = )
2𝜋
ℎ
- The integer n is called the quantum number, since it counts how many quanta (packets of 2𝜋) of angular
momentum each orbit has.

Bohr calculated the energy an electron must have in each stable orbit of a hydrogen atom.

- The energy of each stable orbit according to Bohr’s model is given by:

13.6𝑒𝑉
𝐸𝑛 = −
𝑛2

- The energy is negative due to the large negative potential energy

- The lowest energy level is 𝑛 = 1, and is knowna s the ground state. It is the closest to the nucleus and hence
has the lowest potential energy
- Higher levels of n are known as excited states
- To remove an electron (ionise) it takes 13.6 eV

EMISSION SPECTRUM

The emission spectrum for any gaseous element at its ground state can be produced by:

- Heating substances until they glow

- Applying a high voltage to gases in glass tubes causing the gas to glow
- Burning salts in gas flames causing the salt to produce a bright flash of light

BOHR’S EXPLANATION

- The electron moves in a circular orbit around the nucleus

- The force keeping the electron in uniform circular motion is the electrostatic force of attraction
- A number of allowable orbits of different radii (stationary states) where electrons can orbit
- The electrons will occupy the lowest energy orbit available
- An electron can jump to higher energy levels by absorbing photons (excitation). The energy absorbed is
equal to the difference between the final and initial energy levels (∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸𝑖 = ℎ𝑓)
- EMR is emitted when an excited electron relaxes and falls from a higher energy level to a lower energy level.

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 ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 =
𝜆

Where:

- 𝐸: Energy of the photon (j)

- ℎ: Planck’s constant
- 𝑓: frequency
- 𝜆: wavelength
- 𝑐: speed of light

BOHR AND THE EMISSION SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN

The hydrogen atoms gain energy from heating or an electrical current. This excites electrons to jump into a higher
energy level. It will then relax and drop from the higher energy level to one of the lower levels. During this process, it
will emit a photon with energy that is equal to the difference in energy between the two levels. The given off
photons can be plotted on an emission spectrum.

Bohr noticed that:

1) The absorption spectrum of hydrogen showed it was capable of absorbing a small number of frequencies of
light. Therefore, the energies of light absorbed must be quantised.
2) The emission spectrum of hydrogen showed that hydrogen atoms could only emit quanta (energy) with the
exact same energy values it was able to absorb.
3) Hydrogen have an ionisation energy of 13.6 eV. This is the energy needed to remove an electron from the
hydrogen.
4) Photons of light with all energies above the ionisation value are continually absorbed.

If the energy of a photon is greater than the energy of ionisation, the excess energy becomes excess kinetic energy
for the released electron. Only incident photons carrying just the right amount of energy can raise an electron to an
allowed level.

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EXAMPLE QUESTION 1

Describe Niels Bohr’s model of the atom and outline the impacts it had on the development of the atom.

Rutherford’s model of the atom pictured electrons in circular orbits at different distances from the nucleus. But this
model could not account for the stability of the orbits. (A centripetally accelerating electron should, according to
Maxwell’s equations, continually radiate EMR, lose energy and spiral into the nucleus) or the discrete nature of
atomic emission and absorption spectrum.

Bohr’s model addressed these short comings. Bohr proposed that an electron can orbit a nucleus only at certain
𝑛ℎ 13.6𝑒𝑉
allowed angular momentum and energies (His 3rd postulate: 𝐿𝑛 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 2𝜋 (𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … ) 𝐸 = − 𝑛2
for
hydrogen) and that these orbits are somehow exempt from the requirement of Maxwell’s equations that
accelerating charges continually emit EMR.

When an electron relaxes from a higher to lower energy level, it emits a single photon (His 2nd postulate)

𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑓 = −Δ𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛

Because only certain transitions (Δ𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 ) are possible, only certain frequencies of light are emitted (or absorbed,
|Δ𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 |
when the electron is excited to higher allowed energy): 𝑓 =
ℎ

THE BALMER SERIES

Johann Jacob Balmer found an empirical formula that correctly predicted the wavelengths of four visible emission
lines of hydrogen.

(Typically, the other way around)

1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 − 2 )
𝜆 2 𝑛

Where:

- 𝑅𝐻 is the Rydberg constant, (1.097 × 107 𝑚 −1 )

- 𝑛 = 3, 4, 5, 6, …

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The Blamer series for the hydrogen atom corresponds to electronic transitions that terminate in the state of
quantum number n=2.

Colour of the emission line Name of the emission line Electron transition Wavelength

Red 𝐻𝛼 𝑛 = 3 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 = 2 656.3 𝑛𝑚

Green 𝐻𝛽 𝑛 = 4 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 = 2 486.1 𝑛𝑚

Blue 𝐻𝛾 𝑛 = 5 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 = 2 434.1 𝑛𝑚

Violet 𝐻𝛿 𝑛 = 6 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 = 2 410.2 𝑛𝑚

RYDBERG’S EQUATION

Johannes Rydberg showed that all the emission series could be predicted using a generalised version of Balmer’s
equation:

1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 − 2 )
𝜆 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

Where:

- 𝑅: Rydberg constant (1.097 × 107 𝑚 −1 )

- 𝑛𝑖 and 𝑛𝑓 are integers where 𝑛𝑖 > 𝑛𝑓

BOHR’S DERIVATION

From Bohr’s first postulate:

𝑛ℎ
𝐿𝑛 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋

The energy of each stable orbit is quantised and given by:

13.6𝑒𝑉
𝐸𝑛 = − 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, …
𝑛2
1 1
∴ 𝐸𝑖 = 2 × 13.6𝑒𝑉 & 𝐸𝑓 = 2 × 13.6𝑒𝑉
𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑓

From Bohr’s second postulate:

1 1
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 = −13.6𝑒𝑉 ( 2 − 2 )
𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

From Einstein’s photon theory:

ℎ𝑐 1 𝐸
𝐸= => =
𝜆 𝜆 ℎ𝑐

1 13.6𝑒𝑉 1 1 1 1 1
= ( 2 − 2 ) => = 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 − 2 )
𝜆 ℎ𝑐 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖 𝜆 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 18 OF 61

LIMITATIONS OF BOHR’S MODEL OF THE ATOM

The underlying reason why Bohr’s model has limitations is that it is oversimplified.

- It uses one quantum number n, to describe the stable orbits. The correct quantum model requires 4
quantum numbers.
- Since it was a simple model, it could only explain the simplest atom: hydrogen.

THE SPECTRA OF LARGER ATOMS

Bohr’s analysis worked well for single electron atoms or ions. It could not explain the spectra of larger atoms which
are more complex. A complex atom has more than one electron and these electrons will interact. Orbital electrons
experiences forces from other electrons (due to their closeness in the atom). Bohr’s model does not account for the
additional forces.

His quantisation of angular momentum worked for a single electron. Bohr did not know how to adjust his model for
several electrons.

ZEEMAN EFFECT

When spectral lines were recorded with a discharge tube placed in a magnetic field, the recorded spectral lines were
split into several finely separated lines.

This implies that energy levels are split. This is not consistent with stable energy levels in Bohr’s model.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 19 OF 61

The magnetic field can create new allowed energy levels for an electron in an atom. Because Bohr didn’t initially
understand why his quantisation of angular momentum was accurate, he did not know how to adjust the model to
account for an external magnetic field.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 20 OF 61

 QUANTUM MODEL OF THE ATOM
OUTCOMES
● investigate de Broglie’s matter waves, and the experimental evidence that developed the following formula:
ℎ
– 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣 (ACSPH140)
● analyse the contribution of Schrödinger to the current model of the atom

DE BROGLIE’S MATTER WAVE

Louis Victor de Broglie in 1923 postulated that because photons have wave and particle characteristics, all forms of
matter have wave as well as particle properties. According to his hypothesis:

- Electrons have dual particle/wave nature

- In analogy with photons having a wavelength, he proposed that the wavelength of a particle is related to
momentum by:

ℎ ℎ
𝜆𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 = =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣

Where:

- 𝑚: mass of particle (kg)

- 𝑣: velocity of particle (m/s)
- ℎ: Planck’s constant
- 𝜆: wavelength (m)

EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE OF MATTER WAVES

De Broglie’s proposal that any kind of particle exhibits both wave and particle properties was first regarded as pure
speculation.

- Diffraction is a wave property whereby waves are able to bend around an obstacle and spread out. This
often results in the superposition of waves.
- Interference is a wave characteristic and results from the superposition of two or more waves, giving rise to
a new wave pattern. There are two types of interference, constructive and destructive.

If particles such as electrons had wave-like properties, then under the correct conditions they should exhibit
interference phenomena.

DAVISSON-GERMER EXPERIMENT

The experiment confirmed De Broglie’s hypothesis that a particle of momentum 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 will like a wave with
ℎ
wavelength 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣.

Davisson and Germer were investigating the scattering of low energy electrons from nickel target in a vacuum.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 21 OF 61

 - Electrons from heated filament are accelerated by an adjustable potential difference. The resultant beam,
made up of electrons whose kinetic energy is 54 eV, travels to a nickel crystal.
- The beam ‘reflected’ from the crystal surface enters the detector and is recorded as a current.

Experiments showed that the scattered electrons exhibited intensity of maxima and minima at specific angles. The
electron was being scattered by different layers within the crystal lattice of the target and were undergoing
interference. When they calculated the diffraction pattern of 0.14nm which was consistent to De Borglie’s
hypothesis

ELECTRON WAVES IN THE ATOM

DE BROGLIE’S EXPLANATION OF THE STABLE ELECTRON ORBITS

Bohr’s model had many shortcomings and problems such as:

- No justification for why the stable orbits were stable (not continually radiating light and spiralling into the
nucleus)
- No justification for the quantisation of angular momentum

De Broglie used wave theories of matter to resolve problems with the stability of electron orbits in the Bohr atom.
De Broglie used interference to resolve the problem, postulating that stable orbits are standing waves.

- An electron can orbit an atomic nucleus only if the circumference of the orbit is a whole number of electron
wavelengths, so that it forms a standing wave. This way the electron is not accelerating.
- An orbit of radius r will be required to satisfy the condition: 𝑛𝜆 = 2𝜋𝑟

If the electron wave travels around the circular orbit, it will return to the same place and superimpose with itself,
leading to interference.

- If it ravels a whole number of wavelengths around the circumference, it will be in phase with itself at every
position, hence it will constructively interfere. This is what forms the standing wave.
- If it does not travel a whole number of wavelengths around the circumference it will eventually be out of
phase with itself. This would lead to destructive interference and will not form a standing wave.

All of the allowed states (stable orbits) of the electron are standing waves states on a circumference, each with its
own wavelength, speed and energy.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 22 OF 61

DE BROGLIE’S HYPOTHESIS AND QUANTISATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

The condition for the stability of an electron orbit is given by: 𝑛𝜆 = 2𝜋𝑟

ℎ 𝑛ℎ
Substituting de Broglie wavelength expression: 𝑛 (𝑚𝑣) = 2𝜋𝑟 => 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 2𝜋

TOMSON’S DIFFRACTION EXPERIMENT

Thomson produced a diffraction pattern by passing a beam of electrons through a tiny crystal. He then repeated the
experiment using X-rays of the wavelength in place of the electron. The diffraction pattern was almost identical to
the electron’s pattern. He therefore concluded that electrons and X-rays have a similar wavelength (but not speed).

SCHRODINGER’S EQUIATION

In 1926, Erwin Schrodinger published his equation to describe wave mechanics. The Schrodinger equation for a
hydrogen atom can be solved to find the allowed states for the electron.

- These solutions are discrete and correspond to standing waves

- However, these are now three-dimensional standing waves which reflect the fact that electrons are free to
move in three dimensions.

HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

The uncertainty principle relates to the ability to make measures with a certain precision.

In classical mechanics:

- There is no fundamental barrier to an ultimate refinements of apparatus and/or experimental procedures.

- It would be possible, in principle, to make any measurement with arbitrarily small uncertainty.

Quantum theory predicts that:

- It is fundamentally impossible to make simultaneous measurements of a particle’s position and velocity

with infinite accuracy
- If you were to measure the position and velocity of a particle at any time, you will always be faced with
uncertainties in your measurements.

ℎ
∆𝑥 ∆𝑝 ≥
4𝜋
ℎ
∆𝐸 ∆𝑡 ≥
4𝜋

- ∆𝑥: uncertainty in position

- ∆𝑝: uncertainty in momentum
- ∆𝐸: uncertainty in energy

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 23 OF 61

QUANTUM MODEL OF THE ATOM

- Electrons have a wave nature as proposed by De Broglie. Their wave nature is described by Schrodinger’s
equation.
- Electrons in an atom occupy discrete quantum states that are described using 4 quantum numbers.
- Electrons form three-dimensional standing waves around the nucleus. These are the solutions to
Schrodinger’s equation and are described by three quantum numbers
- Electrons have spin, which is quantised as up or down, described by the 4th quantum number
- Each quantum state holds at most one electron due to the Exclusion Principle. Hence one electron fills each
quantum state, starting from the lowest energy
- The electron can be found anywhere within the orbital. We cannot know the exact position of the electron
due to the uncertainty principle.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 24 OF 61

 NUCLEAR PHYSICS
OUTCOMES
● analyse the spontaneous decay of unstable nuclei, and the properties of the alpha, beta and gamma radiation
emitted (ACSPH028, ACSPH030)
● examine the model of half-life in radioactive decay and make quantitative predictions about the activity or
amount of a radioactive sample using the following relationships:
– 𝑁t = 𝑁o 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑙𝑛2
– 𝜆=𝑡
1/2

where 𝑁t = number of particles at time 𝑡, 𝑁0 = number of particles present at 𝑡 = 0, 𝜆 = decay constant,

𝑡1/2 = time for half the radioactive amount to decay (ACSPH029)

PROPERTIES OF NUCLEI

A nucleon is the central part of an atom, the nucleus, that consists of protons and neutrons.

Isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties such as density and volume. E.g:
1
- 1𝐻 : Hydrogen
2
- 1𝐻 : Deuterium
3
- 1𝐻 : Tritium

CHARGE AND MASS

Particle Charge (C) Charge relative to Mass (kg) Mass (u)

Electron

Proton 1.602 × 10−19 1 1.673 × 10−27 1.007

Neutron 0 0 1.675 × 10−27 1.0084

Electron −1.602 × 10−19 −1 9.109 × 10−31 0.000548

The unified mass unit (also called atomic mass unit) is used to expressed atomic masses instead of kilograms:

- The unified mass unit is defined such that the mass of a 126𝐶 atom is exactly 12𝑢
- 1 𝑢 = 1.661 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔

NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Nuclei can undergo nuclear reactions that will redistribute the protons and neutrons in the nuclei involved and will
result in the release or absorption of energy.
238 234
92U → 90Th + 42He

Two rules must be obeyed when writing nuclear reactions:

- Conversation of charge
- Conversation of mass number

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 25 OF 61

RADIOACTIVE DECAY

NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATION

Nuclear transmutation is the process of one element changing into another element through nuclear reactions.

Natural transmutation is when radioactive isotopes spontaneously decay over a period of time and transform into
other more stable isotopes. An example of the decay of uranium is:
238 234
92U → 90Th + 42He

Artificial transmutation occurs when a nuclear reaction is triggered by one of the reactants. For example:
9 4 12 1
4𝐵𝑒 + 2𝐻𝑒 → 6𝐶 + 0𝑛

RADIOACTIVITY

The spontaneous breakdown of an isotope into a new isotope by the emission of alpha, beta and/or gamma
radiation is known as natural radioactivity. An isotope that is radioactive is called a radioisotope.

Type of Radiation Alpha Beta-plus & Beta-minus Gamma

Particle Emitted Helium Nuclei 42𝐻𝑒 0

+1𝛽 𝑜𝑟 −10𝛽 0
0γ photon

Charge +2 +1 or -1 No charge

Penetration Stopped by 5cm of air or 0.5 Stopped by 0.5cm of Intensity halved by

mm of paper aluminium 10cm of lead

Energy (Typical) 10 𝑀𝑒𝑉 0.03 − 3 𝑀𝑒𝑉 1 𝑀𝑒𝑉

Ionisation Effect High Medium Low

Deflected by magnetic Yes Yes No

(B) field

Mass Heavy Light None

Speed in Vacuum (c) 10% 90% 100%

ALPHA DECAY

Alpha decay involves the emission of an alpha particle ( 42𝐻𝑒).

A A−4 4
ZX → Z−2Y + 2α

238 234
92U → 90Th + 42α

Uranium-238 → Thorium-234 + Alpha Particle

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 26 OF 61

ETA-MINUS DECAY

Occurs when an electron is emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive atom. It can be written as −10𝛽. This typically
occurs when there are too many neutrons in a nucleus. A neutron spontaneously changes into a proton releasing a
beta-minus particle (electron) and an uncharged massless antimatter particle called antineutrino 𝒗 ̅.
14 14
6𝐶 → 7𝑁 + −10𝛽 + 00𝑣̅
1
0𝑛 → 11𝑝 + −10𝛽 + 00𝑣̅

BETA-POSITIVE DECAY

Similar to beta minus decay, it occurs when the nucleus has too many protons. The proton spontaneously changes
into a neutron and emits a neutrino and beta-positive particle.
1
1𝑝 → 10𝑛 + +10𝛽 + 00𝑣

GAMMA DECAY

After a radioisotope has emitted alpha or beta particles, the daughter nucleus usually has excess energy. The
protons and neutrons rearrange slightly and offload this excess energy by releasing a gamma ray 00γ.
A ∗ A 0
ZX → ZY + 0γ

HALF-LIFE AND ACTIVITY

HALF-LIFE

Radioisotopes decay by emitting ionising nuclear radiation. Therefore, the quantity of a radioactive sample will
decrease over time.

𝑁𝑡 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

Where:

- 𝑁0 : Initial undecayed nuclei sample

- 𝜆: Decay constant (𝑠 −1 )
- 𝑁𝑡 : Number of remaining nuclei at time t

1 𝑛
𝑁𝑡 = 𝑁0 ( )
2

1 𝑛
𝐴 = 𝐴0 ( )
2

𝐴 = 𝜆𝑛

- n: Number of half-life elapsed

- A: activity

ln(2)
𝜆=
𝑡1/2

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 27 OF 61

ACTIVITY

The activity is the number of decays per second that occurs in a sample of radioactive material.

- It is measured in becquerel (Bq) where 1 Bq = 1 decay per second

A decay series is when a radionuclide decays and its daughter nuclei is unstable and undergoes further decay and so
on until it becomes a stable nucleus.

THE STRONG NUCLEAR FORCE

The nucleus contains positive protons and neutral neutrons, collectively referred to as nucleons. There must be a
force of repulsion between the positively charged proton. Therefore, some additional force must be present to
balance the proton’s electrostatic repulsion.

STRONG NUCLEAR FORCE: THE NUCLEAR BINDING FORCE

There is an additional force acting between nucleons called the strong nuclear force.

- It is responsible for the stability of the nuclei

- This force represents the “glue” that holds the nuclear constituents (nucleons) together and overcomes the
electrostatic repulsion.

For separations of about 10−15 𝑚 (1 femtometer), the strong nuclear force is orders of magnitude stronger than the
electromagnetic force. This holds the nucleons together in the nucleus. The strong nuclear force diminishes rapidly
with increasing separation and is negligible for separations greater than about 10−14 𝑚.

NUCLEAR STABILITY & RATIO OF NEUTRONS TO PROTONS

There are two main forces acting on the nucleons in the nucleus:

- The electrostatic force repels all protons

- The strong nuclear force that affects all nucleons depending on their separation.
- The interplay between these forces determines the stability of a nucleus.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 28 OF 61

Nuclear composition determines whether an isotope is
radioactive of stable. A nucleus is unstable if:

- It falls outside the zone of stability (unstable

neutron-to-proton ratio).
- The number of protons in the nucleus exceeds 82.
Also, unstable if it has 126+ neutrons.
- There are no stable nuclei with Z > 82 (atomic
number).

- For small atoms, stable nuclei have neutron-to-

proton ratios near 1:1.
- For large atoms, stable nuclei have neutron-to-
proton ratios near 1.5:1. This is because a larger
number of neutrons is needed to stabilise the
strong repulsion amongst the positively charged
protons.
- Stability is favoured by even numbers of protons
and even numbers of neutrons.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 29 OF 61

 ENERGY IN NUCLEAR REACTIONS
OUTCOMES
● model and explain the process of nuclear fission, including the concepts of controlled and uncontrolled chain
reactions, and account for the release of energy in the process (ACSPH033, ACSPH034)
● analyse relationships that represent conservation of mass-energy in spontaneous and artificial nuclear
transmutations, including alpha decay, beta decay, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion (ACSPH032)
● account for the release of energy in the process of nuclear fusion (ACSPH035, ACSPH036)
● predict quantitatively the energy released in nuclear decays or transmutations, including nuclear fission and
nuclear fusion, by applying: (ACSPH031, ACSPH035, ACSPH036)
– the law of conservation of energy
– mass defect
– binding energy
– Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence relationship 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

ENERGY-MASS EQUIVALENCE

According to the Special Theory of Relativity mass is a form of energy, as expressed by: 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

Rest mass is not conserved in nuclear reactions

- If energy is released in the reaction, the total energy of the products will decrease and therefore so its mass
- If energy is absorbed in the reaction, the total energy of the products will increase and therefore so its mass

MEGA ELECTRONVOLTS (MEV)

- 1 𝑢 = 1.661 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 = 935.1 𝑀𝑒𝑉/𝑐 2

- 1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.602 × 10−19 𝐽

TOTAL RELATIVISTIC MASS

The total relativistic mass of a particle is proportional to its total energy

𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑚=
𝑐2
1
𝑚= (𝑚 𝑐 2 + 𝐾 + 𝑈)
𝑐2 𝑜

MASS DEFECT IN A NUCLEUS

The mass of the atom is less than the sum of the masses of its components (protons, neutrons, electrons).

The mass of the nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of its components (protons, neutrons)

The difference in mass is called the mass defect or mass deficit.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 30 OF 61

BINDING ENERGY

Binding energy is defined as the energy needed to separate the atom into its constituent parts.

- The mass defect is associated with the nucleus of the atom where the nucleons are packed into a small
volume.
- Energy is released before a stable packing state is reached
- Binding energy corresponds to the measured mass defect by Einstein equation.

BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON

The binding energy per nucleon is related to the stability of the nucleus.

- The binding energy is released when nucleons combine to form the nucleus. By losing energy, a more stable
state is obtained.
- A more useful measure for comparing stability is to look at the binding energy per nucleon.
- The binding energy per nucleon can be found by dividing the total binding energy by the number of nucleons
in the nucleus.

𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑁𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠

The average binding energy per nucleon indicates the stability of a nucleus, with larger values indicating higher
stability.

Atoms whose mass numbers are close to 60 are most stable because they have the highest binding energy per
nucleon.

- Two of the most stable isotopes are 56 62

26𝐹𝑒 and 28𝑁𝑖 with binding energy of 8.8 MeV/nucleon
- This suggests that the stability of the nucleus decreases as more nucleons are packed into the nucleus.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 31 OF 61

In general, a mass number:

- < 60 will release energy by disintegrating through fission reactions

- > 60 will release energy by combining through fusion reactions

ENERGY IN NUCLEAR REACTIONS

1) Consider each nucleus to be a unique entity with its own rest mass. If the products have less rest mass than
the reactants, then some rest mass has been converted into other forms of energy (kinetic and light)
2) Consider each nucleus to be a unique arrangement of protons and neutrons, which have constant rest mass,
but different nuclear potential energies in different nuclei. When nucleons drop to lower nuclear potential
energies (i.e. greater stability in a nuclear reaction, the lost potential energy is converted into other forms of
energy).

ENERGY RELEASED IN A NUCLEAR REACTION

In all nuclear reactions, rest mass is not conserved as it can be converted into energy. Also, some energy can be
converted to mass.

If rest mass is converted to energy, energy will be released as the kinetic energy of the products.
238 234
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 42𝐻𝑒

If energy is converted to rest mass, energy must be supplied in order for the reaction to proceed.
4
2𝐻𝑒 + 42𝐻𝑒 → 84𝐵𝑒

In any nuclear reaction, the total rest mass of the product is different to that of the reactants. The difference is
called mass defect.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 − 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠

1 unified mass unit (u) = 1.661 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔

- Mass of the proton 𝑚𝑝 = 1.007276 𝑢 = 1.673 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔

- Mass of the neutron 𝑚𝑛 = 1.008665 𝑢 = 1.675 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
- Mass of the electron 𝑚𝑒 = 0.000549 𝑢 = 9.110 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔

1 unified mass unit converted into energy is 𝐸 = 1.661 × 10−27 × (3 × 108 )2 = 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉

NUCLEAR FISSION REACTIONS

Binding energy per nucleon decreases for nuclei with a mass greater than 60.

- This means large nuclei with masses over 60 can release energy if they are broken into smaller pieces
- This is called a fission reaction. Fission is the process by which a nucleus splits into two lighter (daughter)
nuclei.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 32 OF 61

MECHANISMS FOR NUCLEAR FISSION REACTIONS

Nuclear fission can occur spontaneously in unstable nuclei as an uncommon form of decay or can be triggered by a
bombarding particle.

The fission of 235

92𝑈 by slow, low energy neutrons is an example of a fission reaction. The process of nuclear fission of
the uranium nucleus proceeds as follows:

1) The 235
92𝑈 nucleus captures a low energy neutron
2) The capture results in the formation of 236 ∗
92𝑈 , and the excess energy of the nucleus causes it to undergo
violent oscillations.
3) The 236 ∗
92𝑈 nucleus becomes highly distorted and the force of repulsion between protons in the two halves of
the dumbbell shape tends to increase the distortion. The strong force weakens due to the increasing
distance.
4) The nucleus splits into two fragments, emitting several neutrons in the process, as well as energy.

In the fission of uranium-235, there are about 90 different daughter nuclei that can be formed as fission fragments:

- The process also results in the production of several neutrons; typically, 2 or 3

- An example reaction for uranium-235 is
235 1 142 91 1
92𝑈 + 0𝑛 → 58𝐵𝑎 + 38𝐾𝑟 + 3 0𝑛

FISSION CHAIN REACTIONS

A chain reaction refers to a situation where a reaction is triggered by a previous reaction. A nuclear fission chain
reaction occurs when a fission reaction is triggered by a neutron, and then releases more neutrons. The released
neutrons can be absorbed by other nuclei, triggering more fission reactions.

- If only one neutron per event is allowed to cause another fission, the reaction is controlled and self-
sustaining
- If multiple neutrons are allowed to cause further fission, the reaction is uncontrolled and can result in an
explosion.

NUCLEAR FISSION REACTORS

A nuclear reactor is a system designed to maintain a controlled self-sustained chain reaction and to release nuclear
energy at a controlled rate.

- Self-sustained chain reactions do not require continual energy input from external sources so allow for the
easy continual production of energy

Nuclear reactors are classified as:

- Thermal reactors: the neutrons producing the fission have energies comparable to gas particles at room
temperature. Most commercial reactors are thermal reactors.
- Fast reactors: The neutrons producing the fission have high energies

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 33 OF 61

REACTOR COMPONENTS

The essential components of a thermal fission reaction are;

1) A core of fuel
2) A neutron moderator
3) A coolant
4) Control rods
5) Radiation shielding

FUEL

The fuel must contain fissionable material. Natural uranium is composed of three isotopes:

- U-238 (99.283%)
- U-235 (0.711%)
- U-234 (0.006%)

MODERATORS

The moderators have the job of slowing down the neutrons to make them available for reaction with U-235 and to
decrease their chances of being captured U-238.

The moderator can be made of graphite or water, and surrounds each fuel rod. Most modern reactors use water as
the moderator.

The neutrons released in fission events are very energetic, with kinetic energies of about 1-2 MeV.

U-235 absorbs neutrons best when they are slow, or thermal, with energies of around 0.04 eV. When U-235 absorbs
a neutron, it undergoes fission, releasing neutrons.

U-239 absorbs fast neutrons better than U-235. When it absorbs a neutron, it is mostly likely to capture it and
undergo beta decay, not releasing neutrons.

In order to understand how neutrons are slowed, consider a collision between a light object and a very massive one:

- In such an event, the light object rebounds from the collisions with most of its original kinetic energy.
- However, if the collision is between objects whose masses are nearly the same, the incoming projectile will
transfer a large percentage of its kinetic energy to the target.
- During an elastic collision between two particles, the maximum kinetic energy is transferred from one
particle to the other when they have the same mass.
- The neutron can undergo multiple collisions until it reaches thermal energies.

The way a neutron interacts with the above process depends on the nature of the material with which the neutron
interacts.

- In moderators, elastic collisions are dominant. Moderators thus slow down (or moderate) the originally
energetic neutrons very effectively without absorbing them.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 34 OF 61

COOLANT

The kinetic energy of neutrons is converted to heat during collisions with the moderator and coolant.

- The coolant transfers heat away from the reactor core to where it can do useful work
- The coolant may be air, helium, heavy water, liquid sodium or some organic compound.
- Since the coolant has been inside the reactor core, it may be radioactive and cannot be allowed to escape.

CONTROL RODS

The fission chain reaction depends upon the number of neutrons available for absorption.

The chain reaction can eb controlled by inserting control rods into the reactor core. It controls the power level by
absorbing neutrons (without emitting any) since the fission chain reaction depends upon the number of neutrons
available.

The rods are usually made of steel containing boron or cadmium.

RADIATION SHIELD

Enormous amounts of gamma radiation are released within the reactor core. To ensure the safety of workers, two
type of shielding are used.

- A shield of graphite and lead protects the walls from radiation damage and to reflect escaping neutrons
back into the core.
- A biological shield made of high density concrete many centimetres thick absorbs radiation as much as
possible.

NUCLEAR FUSION REACTIONS

Binding energy per nucleon decreases as mass number decreases for nuclei with a mass number lower than 60.

- This means small nuclei with masses below 60 can release energy if they are joined together to form larger
nuclei.
- This is called a fusion reaction. Fusion is the process by which lighter nuclei are joined together to form a
larger nucleus.

It is extremely difficult to maintain a nuclear fusion reaction on earth as the nuclei are positively charged and will
exert electrostatic forces causing them to be repelled from one another. The nuclei must be travelling towards each
other at high enough speeds such that the kinetic energy can overcome the repulsive forces. In order for the nuclei
to overcome the energy barrier, the nuclei must be in an environment that is hundreds of millions of degrees. This
enormous amount of energy enables it to overcome the energy barrier and fuse together. Currently, there is no way
to sustain such a higher temperature reaction on Earth.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 35 OF 61

 STANDARD MODEL OF MATTER
OUTCOMES
● analyse the evidence that suggests:
– that protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles
– the existence of subatomic particles other than protons, neutrons and electrons
● investigate the Standard Model of matter, including:
– quarks, and the quark composition hadrons
– leptons
– fundamental forces (ACSPH141, ACSPH142)
● investigate the operation and role of particle accelerators in obtaining evidence that tests and/or validates
aspects of theories, including the Standard Model of matter (ACSPH120, ACSPH121, ACSPH122, ACSPH146)

STANDARD MODEL OF MATTER

Physicists have developed a theory known as the Standard Model that explains our current understanding of the
nature of matter:

- What are the components of matter?

- How do the components of matter interact with each other?

According to the Standard Model, all the particles in the universe can be grouped into just three “families” of
elementary particles:

- 6 quarks, which combine to form nucleons and other particles

- 6 leptons, including the electron and neutrinos
- 5 force carrier particles, including the photon
- Their anti-particles

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 36 OF 61

All the discovered matter particles are leptons or composites of quarks and they interact by exchanging force
carrier particles.

ANTIMATTER

For each kind of matter particle, there is a corresponding antimatter particle.

- Each quark and lepton have a corresponding antiquark and antilepton.

- The photon, Z, gluons and Higgs bosons are their own antiparticles
- The W+ and W- bosons are each other’s antiparticles

Antiparticles look and behave just like their corresponding matter particles, they have the same mass but they have
the opposite charge.

When a matter particle and its corresponding antiparticle meet, they annihilate into pure energy.

- An electron and positron will annihilate to produce two photons (gamma rays) of the same energy. This is
called pair annihilation. All the mass of the two particles is converted into energy according to 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 .

FERMIONS

Fermions are a fundamental particle. It is divided into 2 groups called quarks and leptons.

QUARKS

Protons and neutrons are not fundamental – they are made up of even smaller particles called quarks. Quarks are
usually found in combinations, in composite particles like protons and neutrons.

Quarks experience all 4 fundamental forces.

2
Quarks have fractional electric charges. The up, charm, and top have a charge of + 3 𝑒, and the down, strange, and
1
bottom have a charge of − 3 𝑒.

For each of these quarks, there is a corresponding antiquark, which has the same mass but opposite charge.

Baryon are particles that have a baryon number of 1 for normal matter or -1 for antimatter. They include protons
and neutrons which consist of 3 quarks.]

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 37 OF 61

HADRONS, BARYONS AND MESONS

Quarks exist in groups with other quarks. They combine to form composite particles called hadrons which are held
together by the strong force.

- The fractional electric charges of quarks always combine such that the hadron has a net integer electric
charge.

There are two common classes of hadrons:

- Baryons are any hadrons which are made out of three quarks or three antiquarks.
- Mesons are any hadrons which are made of one quark and one antiquark.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 38 OF 61

LEPTONS

Leptons are the other type of matter particles.

Leptons do not experience the strong force, so they cannot be held in a nucleus. There are 6 leptons, three of
which have electrical charges and three do not. They appear to be point-like particles without internal structure
(fundamental).

Leptons are divided into 3 lepton pairs:

- The electron and its neutrino

- The muon and its neutrino
- The tau and its neutrino

The best-known lepton is the electron.

- The other two charge leptons are muon and the tau, which are like charged like electrons but have a lot
more mass. They are unstable.
- There are three types of neutrinos. They have no electrical charge, very little mass and are extremely hard to
detect.

MESONS

All mesons consist of a quark and an antiquark (matter and antimatter) and therefore all decay quickly.

There are many different mesons arising from combination of quarks and antiquarks. There are two families of
mesons: pions and kaons.

Mesons Symbol Quark Composition Electric Charge Representation

Kaons (up and 𝐾+ Up & Anti-Strange 2 1 𝑢 − 𝑠̅

+ =1
strange) 3 3
𝐾− Anti-Up & Strange 2 1 𝑢̅ − 𝑠
− + =1
3 3
Pions (up and down) 𝜋+ Up & Anti-Down 2 1 𝑢 − 𝑑̅
+ =1
3 3
𝜋0 Down & Anti-Down 0 𝑑 − 𝑑̅ 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 − 𝑢̅
or up & Anti-Up

𝜋− Down & Anti-Up 1 2 𝑑 − 𝑢̅

− − = −1
3 3

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 39 OF 61

FORCE CARRIER PARTICLES

There are several kinds of forces that particles can exert on one another. These forces
can cause one particle to attract or repel another particle, and can even cause a
particle to transform into a different type of particle.

All interactions between particles can be explained in terms of four fundamental

forces.

- Electromagnetic force (photon)

- Strong nuclear force (gluon)
- Weak nuclear force (W and Z bosons)
- Gravitational force (not explained by the standard model of matter)

The exchange of bosons results in the forces. Bosons are often called force-carrying,
force-mediating or exchange particles. Analogies for the exchange of bosons are:

- Two inline skaters stand stationary and then began passing footballs back and
forth to each other. As they do this, they will begin to move away from each
other. This is due to the conversation of momentum each time they throw and
catch the ball. This situation could be likened to two particles experiencing a repulsive force.
- Two inline skaters now exchange the footballs by trying to grab them out of each others’ hands. They will
exert a force of attraction on each other. This would cause them to move together and can be likened to two
particles experiencing an attractive force.

ELECTROMAGNETISM: PHOTONS

All electromagnetism is due to (virtual) photons being transferred between charged particles.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 40 OF 61

STRONG FORCE: GLUONS

The strong nuclear force is a force between quarks carried by particles called gluons.

- This force glues quarks together to form hadrons and mesons

Gluons can only have an effect over a very short range. Although the strong forces interacts between quarks in the
same nucleon, it can also interact between different nucleons, so it can hold together the nucleus.

WEAK FORCE: W AND Z BOSONS

The weak force has three bosons associated with it: 𝑊 + , 𝑊 − and 𝑍 0 . All these bosons are relatively heavy, so they
decay quickly and thus the weak force has short range.

The weak force is the only force that can change the flavour (type) of a quark or lepton. It allows quarks and leptons
to interact. The weak force is the only force that can change the charge of a particle, because 𝑊 + , 𝑊 −are the only
charged force carriers.

The most common example of a weak interaction is beta decay. Beta-minus decay is due to the weak force turning a
down quark into an up quark, hence a neutron into a proton.

- The 𝑊 − boson carries away the −𝑒 of charge from the down quark and the down quark turns into an up
quark.
- The 𝑊 − then decays into an electron and electron antineutrino which are the radiation emitted by beta-
minus decay

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 41 OF 61

SUMMARY OF FORCES

Force Force Carrier Properties

Electromagnetic Photons - Range of effect is infinite since it has no rest mass

- Experience by everything with charge (quarks, leptons, 𝑊 ±)
- Holds atoms and molecules together through the attraction
between the nucleus and the electrons, and the attraction
between atoms in a molecule.

Strong Gluons - Short range (1fm)

- Experience by quarks and gluons
- Holds hadrons together, and holds the nucleus together

Weak 𝑊 +, 𝑊 −, 𝑍0 - Short range

- Experience by quarks and leptons
- Can change the charge of particles
- Responsible for beta decay and other decay reactions

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 42 OF 61

SUMMARY OF THE STANDARD MODEL OF MATTER

Quarks experience all forces

- A Baryon is a composite particle made up of 3 quarks

- A meson is a quark-antiquark pair
- Protons and neutrons are made up of down and up quarks

Leptons, including electrons and neutrinos, do not experience the strong nuclear force, but experience the weak
nuclear force.

- Electrons are the only lepton that exist in ordinary matter

Force carrier bosons carry electromagnetic, weak and strong forces.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 43 OF 61

PARTICLE ACCELEARTORS

Most of the Standard model was verified using particle accelerators.

- Particles are accelerated to near the speed of light, giving them much higher energy than they would
ordinarily have.
- The high-energy particles are made to collide
- The kinetic energy is converted to rest mass, creating new particles that can be studied

Particle accelerators are essential probes in discovering the structure of matter, collecting evidence leading to the
Standard model, and then experimentally supporting it.

LINEAR ACCELEARTORS

The largest linear accelerator is the Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC). Experiments conducted first discovered that
protons are not fundamental particles. This was a turning point for our understanding of matter and the Standard
Model.

The experiment that proved protons are not fundamental particles is called deep inelastic scattering.

- Electrons and protons are fired at each other at high speed

- At lower energies, the electron and proton elastically scatter
- At high energies, the proton absorb some energy from the electron which makes the collision inelastic. The
proton is then able to emit a quark.
- If the proton is able to absorb energy and emit a particle, it cannot be a fundamental particle.

THE LAWRENCE CYCLOTRON

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 44 OF 61

 - A small tube leads a stream of hydrogen gas to the centre of the box where a spark strips away the electron
form each atom.
- An alternating electric field between the gap accelerates the proton when passing across the gap.
- The magnetic field steers the proton into a circular trajectory. The magnetic field direction is perpendicular
to the plane of the circle.
- As the protons accelerate in a circular trajectory, they pass cross the gap between the two copper ‘D’s.
- As the protons gain energy, the radius of their orbit increases and they gradually spiral out to the limit of the
magnetic poles area. Air is removed from the entire region so that collisions with air molecules do not
interfere with the accelerator.

SYNCHROTRON

The synchrotron accelerator developed from the cyclotron.

- Like the cyclotron, it uses a magnetic field to store the charges for multiple passes through an accelerating
potential difference.
- However, in a synchrotron, the particles travel in a circular loop rather than a spiral. This means that the
synchrotron can just be a ring instead of an entire disc.
- The magnetic field can be concentrated on just the position of the particle, rather than the whole area, and
it is easier to make a larger ring than a large disc.

In a synchrotron, the path travelled is a circle, however the frequency of the electric field and strength of the
magnetic field has to change depending on the velocity of the particle.

- The electric and magnetic fields have to be synchronised to the position and velocity of the particles
- This means the synchrotron needs much more advance control than the cyclotron, and is computer
controlled.

LINEAR ACCELEARTORS

The largest linear accelerator is the Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC). Experiments conducted at SLAC in 1969 first
discovered that protons are not fundamental particles. This was the turning point in the understanding of the
Standard Model of Matter.

The experiment that proved protons are not fundamental particles is called deep inelastic scattering

- Electrons and protons are fired at each other at high speeds.

- At lower energies, the electron and protons elastically scatter.
- At high energies, the proton absorbs some energy from the electron which makes the collision inelastic.
The proton is then able to emit a quark.
- Scattered if as they were 3 dense positive charges in a proton. It was not like billard
balls.
- f the proton is able to absorb energy and emit a particle, it cannot be a fundamental particle,
leading to the discovery of quarks.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 45 OF 61

LARGE HADRON COLLIDER

The Large Hadron Collider is an enormous collider. It uses a linear accelerator to initially accelerate the particles,
then a series of synchrotrons to accelerate the particles in stages.

It was built after previous results from accelerators hinted at the existence of the Higgs boson, the particle that is
hypothesized to give particles their mass. In 2012, the LHC detected a particle that behaved like a Higgs boson.

The Large Hadron Collider offers cosmologist an insight into some of the detail of the conditions present shortly after
the Big Band, and the opportunity to study the behaviour and interactions of the various matter and anti-matter
particles.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 46 OF 61

 THE BIG BANG THEORY
OUTCOMES
● investigate the processes that led to the transformation of radiation into matter that followed the ‘Big Bang’

● investigate the evidence that led to the discovery of the expansion of the Universe by Hubble (ACSPH138)

EDWIN HUBBLE

The discovery that the universe is expanding was made in 1929 by Edwin Hubble. He proved that the universe was
indeed not static and dynamic.

He proved that the universe is expanding by showing that galaxies moved away from the Earth at a velocity that
was proportional to their distance.

In 1929, Hubble used Slipher’s red shift measurements and combined them with distance measures made using
Cepheid variables.

- He showed that the further away a galaxy was relative to the Earth, the greater the velocity of the galaxy.
- This could only be explained if the universe was expanding

Hubble’s law is the speed of recession is proportional to the distance away.

𝑣 = 𝐻0 𝑑

Where:

- 𝑣: The speed of recession km/s

- 𝐻0 : Hubble’s constant
- 𝑑: distance away (mega parsecs, Mpc)

COSMIC REDSHIFT

Cosmic redshift refers to the redshift of the observed wavelength of radiation due to the expansion of space.

- Light emitted by a faraway object like a distance galaxy will take a long time to reach Earth.
- Over that time, space will expand.
- The wavelength of light will be stretched by the expansion of space. Thus the observed wavelength will be
longer when it reaches Earth, due to cosmic redshift.

There are differences between the cosmic redshift and the Doppler Effect.

- The Doppler Effect depends on the relative velocity of the source and observer at the time the light is
emitted, and requires the source or observer or both to be moving in space.
- The cosmic redshift occurs after the light has been emitted due to the expansion of space. It does not
require the source or observer to be moving in space.

However, Doppler Effect and cosmic redshift will be used interchangeably since the expansion of space results in
relative velocity.

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LUMINOSITY

The luminosity L is the power emitted by a star and is measured in watts.

Stars are assumed to be black bodies. The amount of power radiated by a black body is given by the Stefan-
Boltzmann law:

𝐿 = 𝜎AT 4

Where:

- 𝐿: Luminosity (J/s or watts)

- 𝜎: Boltzmann constant
- 𝐴: Surface area of the star
- 𝑇: Temperature of the star

BRIGHTNESS

The brightness of a star refers to how bright it appears from Earth. It is a measure of intensity and has the units
watts per meter squared.

𝐿
𝐵=
4𝜋𝑟 2

READY STATE THEORY

- The universe is infinite. The outer stars would never reach infinity and would move away from us forever.
- Matter is constantly being created to keep the density of the universe constant.

BIG BANG THEORY

The main idea in the Big Bang Theory is that everything was created from 1 infinitely dense point called a singularity.

OVERVIEW OF THE BIG BANG THEORY

At the Big Bang, 13.7 billion years ago, a singularity expanded, creating space, time, energy and matter. The Big
Bang is the birth of the universe at the beginning of time.

The first phase of evolution was driven by expansion and cooling

- Expansion led to cooling as the energy of the universe was spread over an increasingly larger volume.
- Expansion and cooling allowed energy to be converted into matter, in the form of quarks, leptons and force
carrier particles. Eventually these decayed to form protons, neutrons, electrons and photons, then natural
gas (mostly hydrogen and helium)
- Expansion and cooling dominated the evolution of the universe for the first 380,000 years.

The second phase of evolution was driven by gravity

- Gravity led to the gas in the universe collapsing into giant clouds and eventually forming the stars and
galaxies we see today.
- The first stars and galaxies formed 200-400 million years after the Big Bang.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 48 OF 61

 Process/State of the Universe Time Temp (K)

The Big Bang: the singularity corresponds to very small, hot, dense 0 ∞
universe where all energy is confined to a small volume

Inflation: The universe expand rapidly and cools as energy is spread 10−32 𝑠 > 1027
over a larger volume. Energy is converted into matter forming
unstable fundamental particles.

Post Inflation: The universe expands and cools at a slower rate. The 10−6 𝑠 > 1013
unstable fundamental particles interact and decay eventually resulting
in only stable particles: protons, neutrons and photons

Nucleosynthesis: Further cooling allows protons and neutrons to 0.01 𝑠 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 > 108
react and form helium and small amounts of lighter elements.

Recombination: Further cooling allows nuclei and electrons to form 380,000 𝑦𝑟 4000
neutral atoms. Decoupling between matter and radiation occurs at
this time, as the universe changes from being ionised and opaque to
neutral and transparent.

Reionisation: After a long period of accretion the first stars and 400 × 106 𝑡𝑜 1 60 − 20
galaxies form. × 109 𝑦𝑟

Present day: The universe is filled with galaxies and stars at large 13.7 × 109 𝑦𝑟 2.73
distances from one another

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EVIDENCE FOR THE BIG BANG

There are three main pieces of evidence to support the Big Bang Theory:

1) The expansion of the universe

2) The abundance of light elements in the universe
3) The Cosmic Microwave Background radiation

ABUNDANCE OF LIGHT ELEMENTS

According to the Big Bang Theory, energy was converted into matter eventually forming protons, neutrons and
electrons.

- Hydrogen in the universe was formed at this stage

- At high temperatures, hydrogen can undergo fusion reactions to form helium, and other lighter elements
- The formation of some light elements took place during the period of nucleosynthesis in the first 3 minutes
after the Big Bang.

The Big Bang Theory predicts the amount of each element that should have been created, given how the
temperature changed after the Big Bang due to expansion and cooling.

THE COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RADIATION

In its first 380,000 years the universe was filled with charged particles.

- First it was filled with quarks, leptons and force carrier particles.
- After cooling down further, it became filled with free protons, electrons and photons.

Charged particles can absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation, meaning that during this time radiation (photons)
was coupled to matter.

- Photons were being constantly absorbed and emitted by different particles and were not able to travel
through space. Hence the universe was opaque.
- Radiation and matter were in equilibrium: the radiation was the black body radiation emitted by matter.

After 380,000 years after the Big Bang recombination occurred, meaning that radiation recoupled from matter:

- Protons and heavier nuclei combined with electrons to form neutral gas
- Neutral gas does not interact with radiation strongly.
- Hence the universe became transparent
- Radiation was not interacting with matter (not being absorbed or emitted) and would just travel through
space forever.

In 1948, conclusions about Big Bang Theory model were made:

- There should be an ‘afterglow’ of the Big Bang: the radiation that existed at recombination which was free
to travel through space should still be travelling through space now and surround us everywhere.
- The wavelength of the radiation should be longer due to the expansion of space. They estimated that the
wavelength should be in the microwave spectrum and called it the cosmic microwave background radiation.
- It was discovered in 1963 the blackbody temperature of the cosmic microwave background radiation is 2.7 K

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 50 OF 61

ACCRETION OF GALAXIES AND STARS

ROLE OF GRAVITY

After recombination the universe was filled with neutral gas.

- Further expansion and cooling did not change the contents of the universe: it simply resulted in colder gas.
- As the gas cooled the kinetic energy (and speed) of the particles reduced.
- Once the gas particles were moving slowly enough, gravitational forces between them (although every
weak) become important

In order to have a net gravitational force in this stage of the universe when it was filled with gas, an uneven
distribution of matter is required.

ACCRETION

Accretion is the process by which denser objects attract nearby matter due to their gravity. Accretion is responsible
for the formation of some structures in the universe, including stars and galaxies from the gravitational collapse of
giant gas clouds.

1) Uneven distribution of matter

2) Variations in gravitational force strength
3) Gathering of mass: mass is attracted to denser regions by stronger gravity
4) Formation of giant gas clouds
5) Uneven distribution of matter inside the gas clouds
6) Fragmentation into smaller denser clusters
7) Gravitational collapse into denser clumps
8) Temperature increases
9) Stars are formed

The increased temperature in stars led to hydrogen gas in stars becoming ionised, hence the formation of first stars
is referred to as reionisation.

An uneven cloud has areas of higher density that will result in a greater gravitational force. This leads to increasing
density of these regions and results in the gathering of more matter.

Accretion led to the universe that we see today:

- Collapse of the gas from recombination into giant clouds formed galaxies
- The collapse of a gas within the giant clouds formed stars
- There is little material in between galaxies and in between stars

Accretion was a very slow process due to the weak nature of gravity and to the small differences in density, which
resulted in a weak gravitational force.

- The time between recombination and reionisation was around 350 million to billion years. This period is
called the “dark ages” as the cosmic background had red-shifted to the infrared, and stars had not yet
formed, meaning there was no visible light in the universe.

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 ASTROPHYSICS
OUTCOMES
● analyse and apply Einstein’s description of the equivalence of energy and mass and relate this to the nuclear
reactions that occur in stars (ACSPH031)
● account for the production of emission and absorption spectra and compare these with a continuous black body
spectrum (ACSPH137)
● investigate the key features of stellar spectra and describe how these are used to classify stars
● investigate the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram and how it can be used to determine the following about a star:

– characteristics and evolutionary stage

– surface temperature
– colour
– luminosity
● investigate the types of nucleosynthesis reactions involved in Main Sequence and Post-Main Sequence stars,
including but not limited to:
– proton–proton chain
– CNO (carbon-nitrogen-oxygen) cycle

SPECTAL CLASSES

When scientists studied the spectra of stars, they found similarities between them that allowed them to group stars
into categories called spectral classes.

- “Oh be a fine girl kiss me” OBAFGKM

- Each spectral class also corresponds to a range of surface temperatures (and colours).

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THE HERTZSRPUNG-RUSSEL DIAGRAM

A H-R diagram has:

- Luminosity on the y-axis using a log scale, or absolute magnitude (going from high to low)
- Temperature (going from high to low) or spectral classes (going from O to M) or colour index (effectively
going from blue to red) on the x-axis

STELLAR EVOLUTION

A star has only one primary property: its mass. All stars begin life on the Main Sequence

- Their mass will determine their position on the Main Sequence, their evolution, the processes that occur
inside the star, its lifespan and death.

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STAR FORMATION

Stars form from giant molecular clouds (GMC) which are relatively dense clouds of gas.

- If GMCs contain enough material at a low enough temperature gravitational collapse and accretion can take
place.
- As the GMC collapses, the potential energy of the molecules is converted to kinetic energy and temperature
rises. The cloud heads up and begins radiating (emitting black body radiation). It is now a protostar.
- Due to their size, protostars can have high luminosities.
- Further collapse leads to further increases in temperature and a reduction in size.
- Once a sufficiently high temperature is reached in the core of the protostar, protons have sufficient kinetic
energy to overcome their electrostatic repulsion and fusion reactions commence.
- Once fusion commences, the protostar “switches on” and becomes a star.

The new star will now be under the influence of two forces:

- Gravity will cause the star to continue to collapse

- Radiation pressure, resulting from the energy released by fusion will attempt to make the star expand.

The star will initially continue to collapse as gravity will be stronger than the radiation pressure.

- Further collapse will increase temperature, which will increase the rate of fusion and hence will increase
radiation pressure
- Eventually the radiation pressure and gravity will be balanced, and the star will achieve hydrostatic
equilibrium.
- The star is now a main sequence star.

SUMMARY

1) Cold giant molecular cloud (GMC)

2) Gravitational collapse and accretion
3) Potential energy converted to kinetic energy
4) Temperature increases and radiation begins to be emitted
5) Protostar
6) Further collapse leads to higher temperature
7) Core temperature increases following hydrogen fusion
8) Star (not on main sequence yet)
9) Collapse continues. Fusion releases energy resulting in radiation pressure
10) Radiation pressure increases and balances out gravitational forces
11) Hydrostatic equilibrium reached
12) Main sequence star

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MAIN SEQUENCE STARS

Main sequence stars are defined by hydrostatic equilibrium between inward gravitational collapse due to mass, and
outward radiation pressure due to fusion.

The mass of the star determines where the on the main sequence the star sits:

- High mass stars will be larger and will achieve higher temperatures as they collapse, meaning the rate of
fusion is higher, leading to higher luminosity.
- Low mass stars will be smaller, and will achieve lower temperatures, meaning the rate of fusion is slower,
leading to lower luminosity.

Two possible nucleosynthesis processes occur in main sequence stars, depending on their mass, both fuse hydrogen
into helium:

- The proton-proton chain

- The CNO cycle

THE PROTON-PROTON CHAIN

This fusion process occurs in main sequence stars of mass up to 1.3 solar masses.

1) Proton fusion
2) Deuterium formation
3) Deuterium-proton fusion
4) Helium-3 fusion
5) Helium-4 formation

The net result of the fusion reactions occurring in the proton-proton chain is to fuse 4 protons into a helium-4
nucleus, releasing energy and other particles in the process. Beta and gamma decay occurs as well during he
process.

THE CNO CYCLE

This fusion process occurs in main sequence stars with mass of 1.3 solar masses and above.

- CNO stands for carbon, nitrogen and oxygen. Various isotopes of these nuclei are involved in this cyclical
process.

In the CNO cycle C-12 nuclei acts as a nuclear catalyst. They facilitate the reaction but are not changed by it.

The net result of the CNO cycle is the same as the proton-proton chain: four hydrogen nuclei are progressively
fused into a single helium-4 nucleus, with gamma and beta decay occurring in the process.

The triple alpha particle in red super giants/giants form carbon.

The CNO cycle dominates in higher mass main sequence stars as more massive stars have hotter cores and can
therefore fuse with larger nuclei despite their stronger electrostatic repulsion.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 55 OF 61

POST MAIN SEQUENCE

Once a main sequence star runs out of hydrogen in its core, hydrogen fusion will cease.

- Fusion ceasing reduces radiation pressure

- Radiation pressure no longer balances gravity, causing the star to lose hydrostatic equilibrium.
- The star becomes unbalanced and will change.

The amount of time it takes for a star to burn through its hydrogen in their core depends on their mass.

- Small stars achieve lower temperatures and burn hydrogen at a slow rate, meaning they will stay on the
main sequence longer.
- Large stars achieve higher temperatures and burn hydrogen at a faster rate, meaning they will stay on the
main sequence for a shorter time.

POST MAIN SEQUENCE (1-3 SOLAR MASSES)

- 1-3 solar masses stars will become red giants

- When the hydrogen fusion creases, outward radiation decreases. Consequently, layers around the core
collapse inwards. The core begins to collapse.
o The collapse of the helium core releases gravitational potential energy as heat. This raises the
temperature of the core again.
o Hydrogen shell fusion commences. The helium core is not performing fusion.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 56 OF 61

 - Hydrogen shell fusion (shell-burning) continues to produce helium. This helium is deposited into the core,
since heavier atoms will sink toward the core (similar to density of objects).

- Expansion of the outer layer causes cooling. Thus, the surface temperature of the star decreases and the
spectral class changes. The star becomes redder.
o Expansion creases once hydrostatic equilibrium is re-established. The star is now a red-giant
- Hydrogen shell fusion will continue to dump helium into the helium-rich core, causing it to grow and
increase in temperature.

Eventually the temperature of the core will be sufficiently high enough to ignite helium fusion. This process
produces carbon. The carbon is dumped into the core.

- Helium fusion requires a higher temperature than hydrogen fusion due to significantly higher electric
repulsion but releases more energy than hydrogen fusion.
- The core expands, decreasing the rate of hydrogen fusion.
- Consequently, the increased energy output from helium fusion is somewhat balanced by the decrease
output from hydrogen shell burning.
- The outer layers of the star remain relatively unchanged, by the star continues to be a red giant, but
produces carbon in the core.

After the majority of the helium core has been fused into carbon, fusion will cease overall. The star is not massive
enough to ignite carbon fusion. The core will collapse into a white dwarf and the outer layers will expand into a
planetary nebula.

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WHITE DWARF

White dwarf are the remains of stars cores that used to be red giant.

- They are small because they consist of only the collapsed core.
- They are hot because the red giant’s core temperature was initially very high.
- Small size results in low luminosity, despite the higher temperature. (Stefan-Boltzmann law 𝐿 = 𝜎𝐴𝑇 4 )
- White dwarves eventually fade into black dwarves

POST MAIN SEQUENCE (3-10 SOLAR MASSES)

Slightly more massive stars will evolve in a similar way like the Sun with two key differences:

- They can achieve a higher temperature in their core and can fuse heavier elements
- This will result in higher radiation pressure. And as a result, the star will be larger and more luminous.
1) Hydrogen fusion in the core produces helium. Hydrogen runs out and core collapses and heats up.
2) Hydrogen shell burning, followed by helium fusion in the core producing carbon. Helium runs out, core
collapses and heats up.
3) Hydrogen & helium shell burning. Carbon fusion in the core producing oxygen. Carbon runs out, core
collapse and heats up.
4) Hydrogen, helium & carbon shell burning. Oxygen fusion in the core producing neon, sodium and
magnesium.

POST-MAIN SEQUENCE (>10 SOLAR MASSES)

More massive stars will become supergiants. There are two main fusion mechanisms that can occur in larger stars:

1) Nuclei can simply fuse to form a larger nucleus. For example, oxygen fuses to form silicon.
2) Fusion involving photodisintegration. Once the core temperature reaches 109 𝐾, gamma radiation in the
core can lead to fission.
a. A gamma photon is absorbed by a silicon nucleus causing it to photodisintegrate into helium and
magnesium
28 24
14𝑆𝑖 +𝛾 → 12𝑀𝑔 + 42𝐻𝑒

b. Helium produced from photodisintegration can fuse with silicon to sulfur

4
2𝐻𝑒 + 28
14𝑆𝑖 →
32
16𝑆

The core will run out of fuel, collapse and increase in temperature.

- Higher temperatures will fuse even heavier elements, releasing more energy
- Higher temperatures will result in higher rates of fusion
- Lighter elements will fuse in shells around the core.

The main fusion steps for a supergiant are as follows:

𝐻 → 𝐻𝑒 → 𝐶 → 𝑁𝑒 → 𝑂 → 𝑆𝑖 → 𝐹𝑒

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 58 OF 61

Core fusion will stop when iron is formed as fusion produce nuclei with less binding energy per nucleon. This process
absorbs energy and therefore cannot generate any outward pressure to prevent the star’s gravitational collapse.

Iron also has the most stable nucleus. As such, the iron cannot undergo fusion without absorbing energy. When too
much iron is produced in the core, core fusion ceases and can never restart.

STAR DEATH

When fusion in the core creases, the star dies.

- The core of the star collapses

- The outer layers of the star are ejected

For lower mass stars, the core collapses to a white dwarf and the outer layers form a planetary nebula. The
planetary nebula forms as residual radiation pressure causes the outer layers to keep expanding.

Stars with mass around 8 solar masses or lower will die this way, resulting in white dwarfs between 0.6 to 1.4 solar
masses.

Larger stars will explode as a supernova. The outer layers are ejected as a supernova remnant and the core
collapses to form a neutron star or a black hole. Core collapse once fusion creases is very rapid, resulting in a
shockwave and a huge explosion.

- The outer layers continue expanding uncontrollably into the surrounding space forming the supernova
remnant.

Supernovae are extremely energetic events and allow the fusion of heavier elements to occur, forming elements
heavier than iron. Massive stars exert large enough gravitational forces on their cores during a supernova to bring
iron nuclei close enough to fuse. (I.e. they can convert enough gravitational energy to kinetic energy to fuse the iron
nuclei).

The core of star collapses into one of two options:

- 8-25 solar masses: neutron stars

- >25 solar masses: black holes

NEUTRON STARS

Neutron stars have extremely high densities. High pressure causes nuclear reactions where electrons and protons
combine to form neutrons.

- Neutron stars are almost entirely composed of neutrons with a density similar to that of atomic nuclei.
- The neutron star will be around 1.4-3.2 solar masses
- Their radius will be relatively small, around 30km
- Their temperature will be million of degrees, hence they emit radiation in the x-ray part of the spectrum and
virtually no visible light.

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BLACK HOLES

Black holes form when the mass of stars is so high that the collapsing core forms a singularity and the escape
velocity of the collapsing core exceeds the speed of light.

Black holes do not have a solid boundary. The point of no return around the singularity is the position in space where
the escape velocity reaches the speed of light, and is called the event horizon.

Black holes slowly radiate away its mass as light in a quantum event horizon effect called Hawking Radiation.

SUMMARY

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SUMMARY: NUCLEOSYNTEHSIS

Atomic Number/Element Origin Process

1 Hydrogen Everywhere Formed when energy was converted

to matter after the Big Bang,
eventually forming protons

2 Helium Everywhere, and inside all stars Formed during the period of
nucleosynthesis after the Big Bang
where protons and neutrons could
fuse to form helium

Formed inside all stars as a result of

hydrogen fusion

3-6 Lithium to Carbon Inside Red Giants and Supergiants Formed by fusion reactions of
helium and heavier elements

(Small amounts of lighter elements

also formed after the Big Bang
during the period of
nucleosynthesis)

7-26 Nitrogen to Iron Inside Supergiants Formed by fusion reactions of

heavier elements. Can involve
photodisintegration reactions

>26 In Supernovae Formed by fusion reactions of

heavier elements that absorb
energy and hence are only possible
in environments where huge
amounts of energy are released.

PHYSICS MODULE 8 – FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM PAGE 61 OF 61

 PHYSICS
Working Scientifically
 RELIABILITY, VALIDITY AND ACCURACY
RELIABILITY

WHAT IS IT?

Reliability is the extent to which the experiment yields the same result each time.

- A set of results can be reliable but inaccurate if the same incorrect result is obtained in every trail.
- Note that simply repeating an experiment will not improve reliability, but it can allow the experimenter to
determine if it is reliable.
- Random errors caused by unknown and unpredictable changes in the experiment reduces reliability.

HOW TO IMPROVE RELIABILITY

A measurement is reliable if you repeat it and get the same or similar answer over and over again, and an
experiment is reliable if it gives the same result when you repeat the entire experiment.

HOW DO YOU TEST RELIABILITY?

Reliability can be tested through repetition. The more similar repeated measurements are, the more reliable the
results. However repetition alone doesn’t make measurements reliable, it allows you to check whether or not they
are reliable.

Improving reliability is a different matter to testing it. The reliability of single measurements is not improved
through repetition, but through the design of the experiment. Implementing a method that reduces random errors
will improve reliability. However, the entire result of the experiment can be improved through repetition and
analysis, as this may reduce the effect of random errors.

For example, in an experiment to determine the change in temperature when ammonium nitrate (NH4)(NO3) is
dissolved in water:

- Using a fairly large mass of ammonium nitrate ensures that weighing errors are minimised and that a large
change in temperature is observed (also minimising error).
- Repeating the same experiment multiple times, removing outliers and averaging the results will improve
reliability.

If the data are close to the correct trend line, it can be determined that the results are reliable.

PHYSICS: WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY PAGE 1 OF 7

VALIDITY

Validity is the extent to which the experiment tests the hypothesis or addresses the aim.

- In other words, are you actually measuring what you’re trying to measure?
- Validity depends on how appropriate the experiment procedure is e.g. whether a suitable control was used.

Several aspects of the experiment can contribute to validity: the equipment, the experimental method, and the
analysis of the results.

- The equipment must be suitable for carrying out the experiment and taking necessary measurements.
- Control variables.
- Independent (x), dependent (y)

HOW TO IMRPOVE RELIABILITY

The method (including the analysis) may contain some assumptions that need to be satisfied. The experimental
method must ensure that all assumptions are satisfied, otherwise, you end up using a method or analysis that is
inappropriate and the result will be invalid.

Techniques used to improve reliability of results in the ammonium nitrate dissolution experiment described above
depends on the hypothesis.

- If the hypothesis is: “Ammonium nitrate produces temperature changes when dissolved in water”, and there
is a recorded temperature change, the experiment is valid.
- If the hypothesis is: “The heat dissolution of ammonium nitrate is +2567 kJ/mol” and your experiment has
significant heat loss, the experiment is invalid.

PHYSICS: WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY PAGE 2 OF 7

ACCURACY

Accuracy is the extent to which the calculate value differs from the true, accepted value.

HOW TO IMPROVE ACCURACY

The accuracy can be improved through the experimental method if each single measurement is made more
accurate, eg through the choice of equipment. Implementing a method that reduces systematic errors improves
accuracy.

Techniques used to improve the accuracy of results in determining the heat of dissolution of ammonium nitrate
experiment are:

- Ensure the equipment is capable of determining the heat of solution i.e. Adequate thermal insulation,
appropriate quantity of salt, etc.

HOW TO TEST ACCURACY

- Comparing measurements to value expected from theory for single measurement

- Comparing final experimental result to accepted value for entire experiment’s result

PHYSICS: WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY PAGE 3 OF 7

 TYPES OF ERROR
Error is a complementary concept. A measurement with high accuracy will have low error. A measurement with
large error is inaccurate.

MISTAKES

Mistakes are avoidable errors. A measurement that involves a mistake must be rejected and not included in any
calculations or averaged with other measurements of the same quantity.

SYSTEMATIC ERROR

Systematic errors are errors that are consistent and will occur again if the investigation is repeated in the same way.
They are usually a result of instruments that are not calibrated correctly or methods that are flawed.

Systematic errors will shift measurements from their true value, by the same amount or fraction in the same
direction all the time. This usually arises from problematic or incorrectly used equipment eg. Poor calibration.

RANDOM ERRORS

Random errors occur in an unpredictable manner and are generally small.

Random errors will shift each measurement from its true value by a random amount in a random direction.

TYPES OF ERRORS

Error Description Systematic or Random Error

Scale Error If a piece of equipment is not calibrated Systematic error

correctly, all measurements will be
offset by the same fraction.

Zero Error If a piece of equipment has an offset Systematic error

that is not zero when there is nothing
on it, all measurements will be offset by
the same amount.

Parallax error If you make a measurement by Systematic error if you always view it
comparing an indicator against a scale, from the same angle. Random error if
the angle at which you view it will affect you view it from a random angle at
the reading. each time.

Errors arising from the environment Ideally, the control variables are kept Changes to the control variables result
constant, but some are beyond your in both systematic and random errors.
control. One consistent change will give a
systematic error. Random changes will
give random errors.

Measurement error from insufficient If you’re measuring something that falls Random error
precision between two markings on a scale, you
cannot measure its precise value and
will need to round up or down.

PHYSICS: WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY PAGE 4 OF 7

 UNCERTAINTY
UNCERTAINTY

When there is a range of measurements of a particular value, the mean must be accompanied by the uncertainty for
your results to be presented as a mean in an accurate way.

Uncertainty is calculated by:

Uncertainty = ±(maximum difference from the mean)

ABSOLUTE UNCERTAINTY

The absolute uncertainty is related to the precision of the instrument being used. Absolute uncertainty is equal to
half the smallest unit of measurement.

1
Absolute Uncertainty = × precision
2

PERCENTAGE UNCERTAINTY

Percentage uncertainty, also known as relative uncertainty, is another way of stating how precise a measurement is.

absolute uncertainty
Percentage Uncertainty = × 100
measured value

UNCERTAINTIES

ABSOULTE UNCERTAINTY

- The limit of reading is the smallest unit into which a measuring scale is made. When a measurement is
made, any claim for a precision better than the limit of reading is an estimate only.
- Absolute uncertainty (absolute error) is the range above and below the quoted value of the measurement,
within which we would expect repeated measurements to be found.
o Absolute error is often written as ∆𝑥 if the measurement is 𝑥
1
o Absolute Uncertainty = × limit of reading
2
- For analogue scales (such as clock face or a ruler), the AE is often quoted as being half the limit of reading.
Thus, on a typical school ruler this AE would be 0.5 mm.
- For digital scales, the AE is often quoted as being equal to the limit of reading (ie. we take a more
conservative approach).
- Relative error (fractional error): is a measure of how important the error is. For example, being out by
±1 𝑐𝑚 is a big issue if measuring the thickness of a book, but not so important if measuring the distance
from home to school. Relative error can be converted to a percentage:
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 ∆𝑥
o Fractional uncertainty is found by using: 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑥
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
o Percentage uncertainty is found by using: 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 100
∆𝑥
▪ ∆% 𝑥 = 𝑥
× 100

PHYSICS: WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY PAGE 5 OF 7

ERRORS IN REPLICATE MEASUREMENTS

There are several accepted conventions used in the physics community.

Suppose a series of time measurements are taken for a vibrating spring:

𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
- The error in the average time will be 2
- Pearson Textbook however uses maximum difference between the mean and any one piece of data used in
the calculation. (‘Residual’ technique where the error in the mean time is taken to be the largest deviation
from the mean of any one of the measurements)
- Uncertainty = ±(maximum difference from the mean)

UNCERTAINTIES IN ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

If 𝑦 = 𝑎 ± 𝑏, then ∆𝑦 = ∆𝑎 + ∆𝑏 (Add the error)

ERRORS WHEN MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING

Add individual fraction or percentage errors.

𝑎𝑏 ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
If 𝑦 = 𝑐
, then 𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐

𝐿1 = 10.25 ± 0.05𝑐𝑚, 𝐿2 = 15.45 ± 0.05𝑐𝑚. 𝐿1 × 𝐿2

0.05
𝐿1 = 10.25 ± 0.05𝑐𝑚 %𝑢𝑛𝑐 = × 100 = 0.5%
10.25
0.05
𝐿2 = 15.45 ± 0.05𝑐𝑚 %𝑢𝑛𝑐 = × 100 = 0.3%
15.45

𝐿1 × 𝐿2 = 158.36 %𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 = 0.5 + 0.3 = 0.8%

RAISED TO THE POWER OF

∆𝑦 ∆𝑎
If 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛 , then 𝑦
= |𝑛 ( 𝑎 )|

PHYSICS: WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY PAGE 6 OF 7

UNCERTAINTIES IN GRAPH

Error bars are used for each plotted graph. However if the error is negligible then it may be justified in ignoring it and
just plotting the error bar for one of the two variables.

Any legitimate line of best fit will pass through the error bar range. (Excel or Logger Pro can be used)

When calculating a gradient from a graph, it is important to estimate the magnitude of uncertainty in it. This can be
done by drawing onto the graph two lines of “worst fit” (AKA lines of minimum and maximum gradient)

These are down by imagining a square drawn around the error bars of the two extreme data points.

𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛
∆𝑥 =
2
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛
∆𝑚 =
2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
∆𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 =
2

PHYSICS: WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY PAGE 7 OF 7