CONTENTS

I. Geological Time Scale.

II. Common Symbols for Geological maps.

1. Symbols for main types of Igneous rocks.
2. Symbols for main types of Sedimentary rocks.
3. Symbols for main type of Metamorphic rocks.
4. Symbols for Contacts.
5. Symbols for Faults.
6. Symbols for Folds.
7. Symbols for Planar features.
8. Symbols for Linear features.
9. Symbols for surface openings and exploration used in large-scale maps.
10. Symbols for surface openings and exploration used in small-scale maps.
11. Symbols for Slip planes and Minor Shear Seams.

III. Colour in Geological Maps.

a. Commonly used colour codes for different Lithounits.

IV. Geological / Geotechnical Mapping – Scales.

V. Permeability Tests and Grouting.

1. Water Pressure Test (Bed Rock).
2. Water Pressure Test Record.
3. Determination of permeability in overburden: Constant head method.
4. Determination of permeability in overburden: Falling head method.
5. Interpretation of water pressure in Bed Rock – Houlsby’s Approach.
6. Grouting.
7. Relation of geology to the Grouting.
8. Grouting Methods.
9. Records of Grouting.
10. Methods of Interpretation of Trends of Grouting.
11. Guide for Grouting pressure.
12. In-situ constant head Permeability tests data.

VI. Rock mass Characterization and Classification.

a. List of Abbreviations for rock quality parameters.

b. Q – System of Rock mass classification.

1. Q-parameter ratings.
2. Tunneling quality index Q and estimated support Categories.
3. Reinforcement Categories.
 c. RMR system of Rock mass classification.

1. Geomechanics classification of Jointed Rock Mass.

2. Guide for Excavation and Support in Rock Tunnels.
3. Geological Log of Drift.
4. Data sheets for rock quality parameters.

d. Slope Mass Rating (SMR).

VII. Geophysical Techniques.

1. Seismic Refraction & Reflection Technique.
2. Seismic Tomography Technique.
3. Geo-electrical Resistivity Technique.
4. Crosshole Seismic Survey.

VIII. Construction material.

a. Specification requirement for fine aggregates used in concrete
b. Grading details of fine aggregates for used in concrete
c. Specification requirement for coarse aggregates used in concrete
d. Specification requirement for deleterious materials used in fine and coarse aggregates.
e. Estimation for Requirement of Construction Materials.

IX. Engineering properties of rocks

X. Miscellaneous.
a. Apparent dip chart.
b. Wentworth’s scale for Particle Size.
c. Strength of Rock by Manual Index.
d. Slopes and their respective angles.
e. List of Standard Codes.
f. Seismic Zones of India.
g. Seismic Design parameters for Dam.
h. Conversion Factor.
i. Dry Density and Porosity.
j. 3-D Log Format.
k. Rock quality designation index (RQD).
 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

RELATIVE GEOLOGIC TIME MILLION

ERA PERIOD EPOCH YEARS

Cenozoic Holocene
Quaternary
Pleistocene 2.3
Pliocene
Neogene 12
Miocene
26
Oligocene
Tertiary 37.38
Eocene
53.54
Paleogene Paleocene
65
Mesozoic Late
Cretaceous
Early
136
Late
Jurassic Middle
Early
190.195
Late
Triassic Middle
Early 225
Paleozoic Late
Permian
Early 225
280
Late
Pennsylvanian Middle
Carboniferous Early
Late
Mississippian
Early 345
Late
Devonian Middle
Early
395
Silurian Late
Middle
Early
430.440
Ordovician Late
Middle
Early
500
Cambrian Late
Middle
Early
570
Precambrian 3,600+
 COMMON SYMBOLS FOR GEOLOGICAL MAP

SYMBOLS FOR MAIN TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Granite
Rhyolite

Granodiorite
Dacite

Quartz diorite
Quartz andesite

Syenite
Trachyte

Diorite
Latite

Gabbro
Andesite

Norite
Basalt

Anorthosite Tuff
Unconsolidated tuff

Nepheline syenite
Pegmatite

Ultrabasic Rocks Quartz vein

(IS:7422 (Part-2) 1974)

 SYMBOLS FOR MAIN TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Detritus Mudstone

Gravel Shale

Sand Limestone

Silt Dolomite

Clay Gypsum

Breccia Anhydrite

Conglomerate Silicious rocks

Sandstone Peat

Siltstone

(IS:7422 (Part-3) 1974)

 SYMBOLS FOR MAIN TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Argillite Marble

Slate Dolomitic marble

Phyllite Quartzite

Schist Mylonite

Breccia
Green Schist (metamorphosed)

Quartzitic
Mica Schist standstone

Serpentinite Streaky gneiss

Quartzitic Schist Augen gneiss

Quartziferous
phyllite (Quartzose Charnockite
phyllite)

Flaggy quartzite Amphibolite

Streaky granite Migmatite

Khondalite

(IS:7422 (Part-4) 1974)

 SYMBOLS FOR CONTACTS

Description Symbol

Contact

Contact, showing dip, vertical contact with 45 90

topside known

Overturned contact, showing dip

Approximate contact
——————
Possible contact

(IS:7422 (Part-5) 1992)

SYMBOLS FOR FAULTS

Description Symbol

Fault F
F

Fault, showing dip

F F

Fault, approximately located

F F

Fault, inferred or doubtful F F

Lineament

Normal fault (hachures on downthrown

side)

Reverse fault (R, upthrown side)

Thrust fault (T, Upper Plate)

Thrust fault (sawteeth on upper plate, major

thrust fault)

Fault (shear or mynolite) zone showing dip

Fault breccia

Termination of fault

(IS:7422 (Part-5) 1992)

 SYMBOLS FOR FOLDS

Description Symbol

Anticline, showing crestline

Anticline, showing crestline &

Direction of Plunge

Syncline showing trough line

Syncline showing trough line

& direction of plunge

(IS:7422 (Part-5) 1992)

SYMBOLS FOR PLANAR FEATURES

Description Symbol

Strike and dip

Strike and dip of beds (Top beds

known from sedimentary features,
used only in areas of complex
structure where overturning is also
recognized)
Strike and dip of overturned beds
(Top of beds known)

Strike of vertical beds (Top beds

known)

Strike of vertical beds

Horizontal beds

Strike and dip of beds and plunge

of slicken sides

Strike and dip of foliation

Strike of vertical foliation

(relationship of foliation, or
schistocity, to bedding not shown
in outcrop)

Horizontal foliation

Horizontal foliation and bedding

 Strike and dip of cleavage

(IS:7422 (Part-5) 1992)

SYMBOLS FOR LINEAR FEATURES

Description Symbol

Attitude of overturned beds and

parallel foliation

Strike and dip of joints

Strike of vertical joints

Horizontal joints

Strike and dips of multiple joints

(IS:7422 (Part-5) 1992)

SYMBOLS FOR SURFACE OPENINGS AND EXPLORATION USED
IN LARGE SCALE MAPS

Description Symbol

Portal or slit

Portal or open cut

Trench

Prospect pit or open cut

Drill hole (upto or including 150mm)

Drill hole (no geological data available) DH

Drill hole inclined (showing bearing and

inclination for surface)

(IS:7422 (Part-5) 1992)

SYMBOLS FOR SURFACE OPENINGS AND EXPLORATION USED
IN SMALL SCALE MAPS

Description Symbol

Portal of tunnel or adit

Trench

(IS:7422 (Part-5) 1992)

SYMBOLS FOR SLIP PLANES AND MINOR SHEAR SEAMS

Description Symbol

Joint Plane

Slip Plane

Shear Zone – 1 to 5 cm (Thick

crushed rock)
Shear Zone – 5 to 15 cm (Thick
crushed rock)

Shear zone – thickness defined by

border lines

Open Joint

(IS:7422 (Part-5) 1992)

 COLOURS IN GEOLOGICAL MAPS

In the United States, the USGS set a colour standard for the first national geological map
in 1881. The European Geological Community established their own standards latter on.
The two major colour systems in use for geological maps are tabled below.

System American colour system International colour system

USGS, Geologic Map of 2nd & 3rd Intl. Geological map of
nd
2 Ann.Rept. United States, Geol. Congress France
1881 1974 1881, 1885

Quaternary Gray Gray Undecided Gray

Pale yellow
Tertiary Yellow Light yellow Yellow Light yellow
Pale brown Dark yellow
Pale flesh Orange yellow
Dark yellow
Greenish yellow
Cretaceous Olive green Green Green
Green Yellow green
Cool green
Jurassic Blue green Blue Blue
Triassic Peacock blue Violet Violet & Purple
Permian Cool blue Gray Gray

Blue
Pennsylvanian Gray Dark gray
Mississippian Warm blue
Devonian Blue Brown Brown
Silurian Purple Purple Greenish gray Olive gray
Ordovician Rose and Pink Olive green
Cambrian Red and coral Warm brown
Pre-Cambrian Brown Yellow brown Rose Pale brown
Brown
Bluish gray
Brick red
 COMMONLY USED COLOUR CODES FOR DIFFERENT
LITHOUNITS

Overburden (Unconsolidated sand, clay,

silt, detritus, gravel, breccia, conglomerate
etc.)
Igneous rocks of granite clan/Metamorphic
rocks of granitic composition or texture
(Granite, granodiorite, tonalite, rhyolite,
dacite, gneiss, granitic gneiss etc)
Igneous rocks of syenite clan (Syenite,
monzonite, diorite, nepheline-syenite,
trachyte, andesite etc.
Igneous rocks of basic and ultrabasic clan
(Gabbro, norite, anorthosite, pyroxenite,
peridotite, dunite, dolerite, basalt,
lamprophyre, carbonatite, diabase etc.)
Calcareous hard sedimentaries
(Limestone, dolomite etc.)

Non-calcareous hard sedimentaries

(Sandstone, siltstone, mudstone etc.)

High grade metamorphic rocks

Slate/Phyllite/low grade schist

NOTE:.The colours suggested above are indicative for use in rock clans in a broad sense. Whenever
necessary symbols may be added to differentiate various rock types of one clan.
 GEOLOGICAL/GEOTECHNICAL MAPPING – SCALES

Scale of Contour Reconnaissance or Investigation or Pre-construction stage Construction Stage

mapping intervals or Pre-feasibility stage feasibility stage
topographic
maps
1:50, 000 Satellite imagery/aerial -- -- --
to photographic studies
1:25, 000 a. for selection of dam
sites
b. for choice of tunnel
and hydel channel
alignments
c. for reservoir area
geological & structural
features.
1:50,000 20 m Regional geological -- -- --
to studies of dam sites
1:25, 000 tunnel and hydel
channel alignment
power house sites,
construction material
sites.
1:50,000 -- -- Interpretation of aerial -- --
to photographic studies
1:25,000 would be a useful adjunct
to surface mapping to
collect further
Scale of Contour Reconnaissance or Investigation or Pre-construction stage Construction Stage
mapping intervals or Pre-feasibility stage feasibility stage
topographic
maps
information about surface
conditions around the
probable sites selected.
Will help to locate the
types and characteristics
of construction materials.
1: 15, 000 5m -- Geological mapping of -- --
to channel / tunnel
1:10, 000 alignment, powerhouse
site, dam and appurtenant
structures, construction
materials sites and
reservoir area.
1:5000 5m to 2.5m -- Geological mapping of -- --
to areas of special
1:2000 geological and
economical importance
in the reservoir area for
example, landslides,
mineral deposits.
1:2000 to 2.5m to -- Geological mapping of -- --
1:5000 5.0m quarry sites and borrow
areas.
1:1000 2.5m -- Geological mapping of -- --
to dam site and appurtenant
1:5000 structures, powerhouse
site
Scale of Contour Reconnaissance or Investigation or Pre-construction stage Construction Stage
mapping intervals or Pre-feasibility stage feasibility stage
topographic
maps
1:100 -- Logging of exploratory -- --
drifts, drill holes pits and
trenches
1:1000 to 5m -- -- Update geological --
1:15000 plans of tunnel/channel
& reservoir areas
1:5000 to 5m to 2.5m -- -- Update geological --
1:2000 plans of areas of
special interest in the
reservoir borrow
areas/quarry sites
1:2000 4m -- -- Geological mapping of --
areas of special interest
like access roads, adits
etc. Geological
mapping of borrow
areas/quarry sites
1:1000 2.5m -- -- Update geological --
plans of dam &
ancillary structures,
powerhouse areas.
Geological mapping of
critical areas in open
channel area
1:500 2m -- -- Geological mapping of --
(1:1000) (2m) all tunnel portals
Scale of Contour Reconnaissance or Investigation or Pre-construction stage Construction Stage
mapping intervals or Pre-feasibility stage feasibility stage
topographic
maps
1:100 -- -- Logging/updating of --
exploratory drifts, pilot
tunnels, pits, trenches
& drill holes
1:500 2m -- -- -- Foundation grade
(1:500) (2m) geotechnical mapping of
earth & rock fill dams
1:100 1m for -- -- -- Foundation grade
(1:200 for concrete geotechnical mapping of
tunnels) dam concrete dam blocks,
surface & underground
powerhouse excavations.
Geological logging of
tunnels.
 WATER PRESSURE TEST (BED ROCK)
Following methods are used for water pressure test in bed rock.

1. Single Packer Method

2. Double Packer Method

3. Cyclic Test

Ground surface

Casing

Packer
Test section

Packer

Packer

Perforated rod of pipe

Test section

Bottom of the Hole

Permeability test in single Permeability test in double

packer method packer method
 WATER PRESSURE TEST RECORD

PROJECT: TEST SECTION:

FEATURE: HEIGHT OF WATER SWIVEL:
LOCATION: PACKER TYPE:
BORE HOLE NO.: DIAMETER OF HOLE:
COLLAR ELEVATION: TYPE OF DRILLING:
ANGLE OF THE HOLE: DEPTH OF CASING:
DEPTH OF GROUND WATER: DATE:

Discharge Discharge in Liters Disch Gauge *Actual Permeability Interpre

in Liters -arge Pressure Pressure -tation

After 5 After 10 After 15 First 5 Sec.5 Third 5 Avg. Lt./Min Kg/Cm 2 Kg/Cm 2 Cm/Sec Lugeon
Initial min. min. min. min. min. min.
 DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY IN OVERBURDEN:
CONSTANT HEAD METHOD
The Constant head method is used when the permeability of the strata being tested is very
high.

In this method a hole is drilled or bored up to the level at which the test is to be
performed. The casing is simultaneously driven as the drilling or boring of the hole is in
progress. After the required level is reached the hole is to be cleaned by means of
scooping spoons and bailer. In case of drilling below ground water level, the hole is
cleaned by passing air under pressure by air jetting method.

After the hole is cleaned the test is started by allowing clear water through a metering
system to maintain gravity flow at constant head. The observations of the water level at 5
minutes intervals are to be noted. When three consecutive readings show constant values,
further observations may be stopped and the constant reading should be taken to the
depth of water level.

SATURATED MATERIAL UNSATURATED MATERIAL

GL
Q Q

H1
GWL

H1

10 r Min PERVIOUS STRATUM

2r 2r

GWL

10 r Min
Co-efficient of permeability ‘K’ is given by:

K = C1 x Q/H

K = Co-efficient of permeability in cm/sec

C1 = Varies with the size of casing and rods, the valves are given in the table below
Q = Discharge in l/m
H = Head in meter = H 1 ( Gravity head) – HF ( Head loss due to friction)
HF = HEAD LOSS, m x 10-2

DISCHARGE Litre/min.

2 2

Formula used: Hf = f . l x [ Q / ( d / 4) ]
d 2g
Where Hf = Head loss d = Inside diameter of rod
l = length of rod Q = Discharge
f = Friction Constant g = Acceleration due to gravity
VALUE OF C1

Size of Casing EX AX BX NX HX PX SX

Diameter of Hole (2r) 3.81 4.84 6.03 7.62 10 15 20

in cm
C1 x 10 -3 15.90 12.05 10.0 7.95 6.06 4.04 3.03

IS: 5529 (Part-I)-1985

 DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY IN OVERBURDEN:
FALLING HEAD METHOD
The falling head method is used when the permeability of the strata being tested is low.
The method is more accurate when test conducted below water table.

In this method, a hole is drilled or bored up to the bottom of the test horizon. The hole is
cleared either by means of scooping spoons and bailer or by passing air under pressure by
air jetting method. After cleaning the hole a packer is to be fixed at the desired depth so
as to enable the testing of the full section of the hole below the packer. In conducting
packer tests standard drill rods (see IS: 6926-1973) should be used. The water pipe is
filled with water up to its top and the rate of fall of the water inside the pipe is recorded.
If the hole cannot stand as such then casing pipe with perforated section in the strata to be
tested should be used.
Water level at time to

Intake pipe or
Stand Pipe
GL
Water Level
at time t
h0
ht
Water Table/
Piezometric Head

dp, Diameter of tube

Test Hole

Packer
Test Section

2r
 Co-efficient of Permeability can be calculated as:

K=
(dp ) ⋅ L h0
2
ln
(2r )2 ⋅ t ht
Where,
K = Co-efficient of permeability is measured in cm/sec
dp = Diameter of tube in cm
L = Length of test section in cm
t = Time in Sec
h0 = Initial head in cm
ht = Head after time ‘t’ in cm
2r = Diameter of hole in cm

IS:5529 (Part-I)-1985

Permeability Ranges
Relative permeability cm/sec ft/year Typical Soil

Very permeable Over 1x10-1 1,00000 Coarse gravel

Medium 1x10-1 to 1x10-3 1,00000 to 1000 Sand
Low 1x10-3 to 1x10-5 1000 to 10 Very fine sand,
Silty Sand
Sandstone

Very low 1x10-5 to 1x10-7 <10 to >1 Silts

Highly organic clay
Impervious less than 1x10-7 >1 Clay shales
Intact rocks

Lugeon = 1x 10-5 cm/sec – 10 ft/year

Permeability Values of Some Typical Rocks

Rocks K (cm/s) for Rock with Water (20º C) as Permeant

Lab Field
Sandstone 3x10-3 to 8x10-8 1x10-3 to 3x10-8
Shale 10-9 to 5x10-13 10-8 to 10-11
Limestone 10-5 to 10-13 10-3 to 10-7
Basalt 10-12 10-2 to 10-7
Granite 10 to 10-11
-7
10-4 to 10-9
Schist 10-8 2x10-7
 INTERPRETATION OF WATER PRESSURE IN BEDROCKS - HOULSBY’S
APPROACH
Water pressure tests are usually carried out in bore holes drilled in order to know the sub-surface geology
in the investigation stage. The procedure consists of injecting water into the borehole and measuring the
amount of water that can be forced into the tested section of the hole within a given time and at a given
pressure. Water loss during the test is expressed in terms of lugeons.

Pressures used for the test section are governed either by depth of the stage under test, competency of
foundation to withstand the pressure or maximum equivalent of reservoir head. The relationship between
depth and allowable pressure for normal rock is shown below.

In order to avoid upheaval of the rock foundations test pressures are generally limited to the following:

Rock Type Limit of Test Pressure Applied to the

Test Zone in MPa per m of Rock Load
Unconsolidated or poorly consolidated sedimentary 0.012
formations
Consolidated horizontally bedded sedimentary 0.018
formations
Hard igneous and metamorphic rocks 0.024

Note: These pressures are applicable for testing in exploratory holes for determining the in-situ permeability. For testing to determine the Groutability of the
formation, higher pressures may be needed.

USED IN 3rd INCREMENT

MAXIMUM PRESSURES
MEDIUM PRESSURES
USED IN 2nd AND 4th
INCREMENTS
USED IN 1st AND 5th
LOW PRESSURES

INCREMENTS

46
44
42
40
38
DEPTH TO BOTTOM OF STAGE IN METRES

36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
TEST PRESSURE IN MPa (AT SURFACE)
 INERPRETATION OF WATER PRESSURE TEST DATA
(AFTER HOULSBY, 1976)

Lugeon Pattern Which of the

Test Pressures
Lugeons Calculated for Lugeon values in
Characteristics of
each 10 minute run the pattern should
the pattern &
Relative Magnitudes shown in be used as the
Shown in Relative Magnitude interpretation
generalized patterns actual reported
magnitude can vary widely permeability ?
GROUP A- LAMINAR FLOW

1 ST TEN MINUTE RUN

All 5 Lugeons Use the
2 ND are about average of the
equal. Hence five Lugeons
3 RD laminar flow (To the nearest
whole
4 TH number)
5 TH

GROUP B- TURBULENT FLOW

1 ST TEN MINUTE RUN Lowest Use the

2 ND Lugeon value Lugeon
occurring at value for the
3 RD highest highest
pressure. pressure
4 TH Hence
turbulent flow
5 TH

GROUP C- DILATION

1 ST TEN MINUTE RUN

2 ND Highest Lugeon Use the
occurring at Lugeon value
3 RD highest for the lowest
pressure. Hence (or medium
4 TH dilation pressure)
5 TH

GROUP D- WASH OUT

1 ST TEN MINUTE RUN Use the

Lugeons
2 ND increasing as highest
test proceeds. Lugeon value
3 RD Hence the test unless special
is causing reasons
4 TH changes to the require
otherwise
5 TH foundation
GROUP E- VOID FILLING

1 ST TEN MINUTE RUN

Lugeons Usually use
2 ND decreasing as the final
test proceeds. Lugeon
3 RD Hence the test is value
4 TH gradually filling
extensive voids
5 TH

HOULSBY’S APPROACH AND REPORTING LUGEON VALUE

For each stage length, test is done at different pressures for a particular time. Usually five consecutive
tests are done each of 5 minutes duration so that: -

1. For 5 minutes at low pressure -Pressure “a”

2. For 5 minutes at medium pressure -Pressure “b”
3. For 5 minutes at high pressure -Pressure “c”
4. For 5 minutes at medium pressure -Pressure “b”
5. For 5 minutes at low pressure -Pressure “a”

Generally, the low, medium and high pressures are taken as 50, 100 and 150 psi respectively. Water loss
noted at different pressures in terms of onward and return cycle are mathematically calculated in terms of
lugeon unit at a standard pressure, so that comparison can be made among all five values. The
mathematical relation for calculating the lugeon is given as follows: -

Water taken in test (l/m minutes) × 1.0 MPa

Lugeon value =
Test Pressure (MPa)
Lugeon values calculated at different pressures in onward and return cycle may differ substantially for a
single stage length. The choice of the reporting lugeon value is based on the flow conditions in the sub-
surface openings (Houlsby, 1976).

Houlsby (1976) has identified the following groups of physical conditions, which can be interpreted as: -

Group “A” - Laminar flow

Group “B” - Turbulent flow
Group “C” - Dilation
Group “D” - Wash out of joint filling material
Group “E” - Void filling

The lugeon value at each of the five test pressures is plotted in the form of bar charts for a particular
depth slab and flow conditions are detected. The table overleaf shows how the main groupings and
interpretations are done.
 GROUTING

A. Curtain grouting
1. To safeguard the foundation against erodibility hazard, and/or.
2. To reduce quantity of seepage.

B. Consolidation grouting
1. To reduce the deformability of jointed or shattered rock.

Main purposes of grouting are:

1) To Safeguard the Foundation against erodibility Hazards.
2) To reduce quantity of Seepage.
i) For dams exceeding 30 m height, curtain grouting should be carried out where the water
absorption exceeds 1 lugeon.

ii) For dams under 30 m height, curtain grouting should be carried out where the water absorption
exceeds 3 lugeon.

RELATION OF GEOLOGY TO GROUTING

1) Reliable geological interpretation of the type, distribution, approximate size and direction of
discontinuities, voids, cavities, etc, in the foundation rock is necessary prior to grouting.

2) The sub-surface conditions should be investigated by core drilling a number of holes in the foundation
area. Percolation tests should be conducted in the holes within the open area of the foundation charted for
use in planning the grout treatment. When investigation holes have served their purpose, they should be
completely filled with grout.

3) The depth, spacing and orientation of grout holes should be related to the geological features; for
example, inclined holes should be preferred when the rock permeability is primarily due to closely
spaced vertical/sub-vertical system of joints. It is sometimes necessary to evolve a pattern of holes
consisting of different sets of holes appropriate to each type of discontinuity, such as bedding planes,
system of joints and lava contacts.
GROUTING METHODS
1) Full Depth Grouting:-In the full depth method each hole is drilled to the full desired depth, washed,
pressure tested and grouted in one operation. This method is usually limited to short holes, 5 m or less in
depth, or holes up to 10 m that have only small cracks and joints with no risk of surface leakage.

2) Stage Grouting:-Stage grouting is conducted to permit treatment of various zones individually, by

grouting successively increasing depths, after sealing the upper zones.

Patterns of Holes for Curtain Grouting:

1) Single Line Grout Curtains.
2) Multiple Line Grout Curtains.

RECORDS OF GROUTING
The information of grouting to be recorded daily is as follows:-

1. Result of the pressure test;

2. Grouting feature, for example, curtain and consolidation;
3. Date;
4. Shift;
5. Name of foreman;
6. Grouting method, packer grouting or full depth grouting and stage whether first, second or
third;
7. Hole station number or co-ordinates;
8. Time grouting begun;
9. Time of each change in mix, pressure, or pumping rate;
10. Name of inspector;
11. Time of completion;
12. Total quantity of cement used for each pressure or mix change;
13. Water-cement ratio at the start and each change thereafter;
14. Air pressure;
15. Grout consumption and time required for consumption of each batch;
16. Pressure recorded at 3 min to 15 min intervals and on completion;
17. Rate of injection;
18. Cement washed;
19. Total quantity of cement injected into the hole;
20. Reason for abandoned holes;
21. Number and depth of holes left for redrilling and
22. Remarks.
 METHODS OF INTERPRETATION OF TRENDS OF GROUTING
The categorization should be done as follows by computing the ratio of rate of grout intake and
grouting pressure and examining the trend of variation as the grouting operation continues:

a) Ratio of, Rate of grout intake/Grouting pressure, Decreasing: “A” trend.

b) Ratio of, grout intake/Grouting pressure, Constant: “B” trend.

c) Ratio of, grout intake/Grouting pressure, Increasing: “C” trend

GUIDE FOR GROUTING PRESSURE

45
RULE OF THUMB
DEPTH BELOW THE SURGACE IN METER

40

35
SOUND STRATIFIED ROCK
30
MASSIVE ROCK
25

20

15 SOUND STRATIFIED ROCK GROUTED

ABOVE GIVEN ELEVATION
10

0
0.07 .7 1.75 3.5 5.25 7 10.5 14 21 28 35 42 56

APPROXIMATE PRESSURE IN Kg/cm2AT GIVEN DEPTH

 IN-SITU CONSTANT HEAD PERMEABILITY (WATER PERCOLATION)TESTS DATA

DRILLHOLE.
SHEET NO.

1. PROJECT : 5. COORDINATES : N , E

2. LOCATION/FEATURE : 6. TOTAL DEPTH FROM ESL : m.

3. CLIENT : 7. GROUND LEVEL EL : m.

4. FIRM : 8. COLLAR EL : m.

Depth of Ground
Water Level (m)
Constant Intake
COEFF. OF

Height above
Water Level

Differential
Of Water
PERMEABILITY(k)

Head(H)
(L/min.)
Average

REMAKS
GL(m)
Water Intake (L/5min.) AS PER IS 5529-

(m)
Average Time
Depth of Test

Dia. Of Hole
Section(m)

(PART-1)
Test No.

(min.)
(mm)

5 min.

5 min.

5 min.

5 min.

5 min.

5 min.
2nd

3rd

4th

5th

6th
1st

cm/sec. Lugeon

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
 BASIC DIMENSIONS OF DRILL RODS AND CASINGS

Casing Casing
Drill Rod Casing Tube Coupling Casing Casing Normal Normal
Flush Flush Core Hole
Size OD ID OD ID OD ID
Coupling Jointed size size
Designation (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
RW 27.89 18.2 RX 36.50 30.23 RW 36.50 30.23 18.5 30.0
EW 34.93 25.4 EX 46.02 41.3 EW 46.02 38.10 21.5 38.0
AW 43.64 34.1 AX 57.15 50.8 AW 57.15 48.41 30.0 48.0
BW 53.98 44.4 BX 73.03 65.1 BW 73.03 60.33 42.0 60.0
NW 66.68 57.1 NX 88.90 80.9 NW 88.90 76.20 54.5 76.0
HW 88.9 77.8 HX 114.30 104.8 HW 114.30 101.6 76.0 99.0
PX 140.74 122.30 PW 140.74 123.57 92.0 121.0
SX 169.55 147.70 SW 169.55 151.21 112.5 146.0
UX 195.12 176.20 UW 195.12 175.79 140.0 75.0
ZX 22.073 201.60 ZW 220.73 203.00 165.0 200.0
 ROCK MASS CHARACTERIZATION IN ENGINEERING
GEOLOGICAL MAPPING

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS FOR ROCK QUALITY PARAMETERS

Length and Direction (Persistence)

L/DD L = discontinuity length along dip direction
L/SD L = discontinuity length along strike direction

Type of Termination
x Discontinuities which extend outside the exposure
r Visibly terminate in rock exposure
d Terminate against other discontinuities in exposure

Persistence
Very Low = <1m
Low = 1-3 m
Medium = 3-10 m
High = 10-20 m
Very High = >20 m
IS: 11315 (Part-3) 1987

Spacing
Very closely spaced = < 6 cm
Closely Spaced = 6 cm – 20 cm
Mod. Spaced = 20-60 cm
Widely Spaced = 60-200 cm
Very widely spaced = >200 cm

IS: 11315 (Part-2) 1987

 Aperture
< 0.25 mm Tight
0.25-0.5 mm Partly open “Closed” Feature

0.5-2.5mm Open
2.5 – 10 mm Moderately wide “Gapped” feature
> 10 mm Wide

1-10 cm Very wide

10-100 cm Extremely wide “Open” feature
>1m Cavernous
IS: 11315 (Part-6) 1987

Roughness
a) Small scale (several centimeters) &
b) Intermediate scale (several meters)
i) Rough (or irregular), stepped
ii) Smooth, stepped.
iii) Slickensided stepped.
iv) Rough (or irregular) planar
v) Smooth undulating.
vi) Slickensided, undulating.
vii) Rough (or irregular) planar
viii) Smooth, planar
ix) Slickensided, planar.

IS:11315, (Part-4) 1987

 Type of Filling
SC Swelling clay
IC Inactive Clay
C Chlorite
T Talc
G Graphite
CR Crushed rock fragments of sand-like gouge
PFC Porous of flaky calcite, gypsum.

Strength
Grade Description Field Identification App. UCS
(MPa)
R0 Extremely weak rock. Indented by thumb nail. 0.25-1.0
R1
Very Weak rock Crumbles under firm blow with 1-5
point of geological hammer,
can be pealed by pocketknife.

R2 Weak Rock Can be pealed by a pocketknife 5-25

with difficulty. Shallow
indentation made by firm blow
with point of geological
hammer.

R3 Medium strong rock Cannot be scraped or pealed 25-50

with a pocketknife, specimen
can be fractured with single
firm blow of geological
hammer.

Strong rock Specimen requires more than 50-100

R4
one blow of geological hammer
to fracture it.

Very strong rock Specimen requires many blows 100-250

R5
of geological hammer to
fracture it.

Extremely strong Specimen can only be chipped

R6
rock with geological hammer. >250
 Block Description (Shape)
M Massive Few joints or very wide spacing
B Blocky Approximately equidimensional
T Tabular One dimension considerably smaller than the other two
CO Columnar One dimension considerably larger than the other two
I Irregular Wide variations of block size and shape
Cr. Crushed Heavily jointed or “Sugar cube”

IS:11315 (Part-10) 1987

Block Dimension / Block size

J v (Joints /M3)
Description
Very large blocks <1.0
Large blocks 1-3
Medium sized blocks 3-10
Small blocks 10-30
Very small block >30

IS: 11315 (Part-10) 1987

Geological Structure
M Massive
SJ Slightly jointed
MJ Moderately jointed.
IJ Intensely jointed
SFA Slightly faulted
MFA Moderately faulted.
IFA Intensely faulted.
SFO Slightly folded.
MFO Moderately folded.
IFO Intensely folded.
 Water Inflow
CD Completely Dry- Inflow Nil
DP Damp - < 10 1/min
W Wet - 10-25 1/min
DR Dripping - 25-125 l/min
F Flowing - > 125 1/min

Number of Sets (Degree of Jointing)

i) Massive, occasional random joints.
ii) One joint set
iii) One Joint set plus random
iv) Two Joint set.
v) Two joint sets plus random.
vi) Three joint set.
vii) Three joint set plus random.
viii) Four or more joint sets, random.
ix) Crushed rock, earth like.

IS:11315 (Part-9) 1987

 Degree of Weathering
S Sound or Un- No visible signs of weathering. Rock is fresh,
weathered Rock crystals bright. Few discontinuities may show
slight staining.
SW Slightly Weathered Penetrative weathering developed in open
Rock discontinuity surface but only slight weathering
of rock material. Discontinuities are discolored
and discoloration can extend into rock up to
10mm from discontinuity surface.
MW Moderately Weathered Slight discoloration extends through the greater
rock. part of the rock mass. The rock material is not
friable (except in cases of poorly cemented
sedimentary rock.) Discontinuities are stained
and/or contain a filling comprising altered
material.
HW Highly weathered Weathering extends throughout the Rockmass
rock. and the rock material is partly friable. Rock has
no luster. All material except quartz is
discolored. Rock can be excavated with a
geologist’s pick.
CW Completely Rock is totally discolored and decomposed and in
Weathered Rock. a friable condition with only fragments of the
rock texture and structure preserved. The
external appearance is that of a soil.

ISRM: 1981
 WEATHERING GRADES

Symbol Degree of Weathering Term Description

W0 0 Fresh No visible sign of material
weathering
W1 Less than 25% Slightly Discoloration indicates weathering
of rock on major discontinuity
surfaces
W2 25-50% Moderately Less than half the rock material is
decomposed and or disintegrated to
a soil. Fresh or discolored rock is
present either as a discontinuous
frame work or as core stones
W3 50-75% Highly More than half the rock material is
decomposed and/or disintegrated to
a soil. Fresh or discolored rock is
present either as a discontinuous
framework or as core stones
W4 Over 75% Completely Majority of rock materials
decomposed and or disintegrated to
a soil. The original structure of the
rock mass is still intact
W5 100% Residual All material decomposed. No trace
Soil of rock structure preserved.
 Q-SYSTEM OF ROCKMASS CLASSIFICATION
Barton et.al. (1974) proposed Q-system of rock mass classification. The rock quality Q is
determined by estimating six parameters . The numerical value of Q is computed from the
following relation:
Q = (RQD/ J n ) X (J r / J a ) X (J w / SRF )

RQD = Rock Quality Designation

J n = Joint Set Number
J r = Joint Roughness Number
J a = Joint Alteration Number
J w = Joint Water Pressure

SRF = Stress Reduction Factor

Where,
RQD/Jn = Block Size
Jr/Ja = Inter Block Shear Strength
Jw/SRF = Active Stress

The numerical value Q ranges from 0.001 (for exceptionally poor quality squeezing ground) to
1000 (for exceptionally good quality rock which is practically unjointed). This range of Q-value
is divided into 9 categories of rock quality as given below:

Q-VALUE ROCK QUALITY GROUP

0.001-0.01 Exceptionally poor 3
0.01-0.1 Extremely poor 3
0.1-1 Very poor 2
1-4 Poor 2
4-10 Fair 2
10-40 Good 1
40-100 Very good 1
100-400 Extremely good 1
400-1000 Exceptionally good 1
 Q-PARAMETER RATINGS

1. Rock Quality Designation RQD %

A Very Poor 0 – 25
B Poor 25 – 50
C Fair 50 – 75
D Good 75 – 90
E Excellent 90 – 100
Note : I Where RQD is reported or measured as ≤ 10 (including 0), a nominal value
10 is used to evaluate Q.
II RQD intervals of 5 i.e. 100,95,90 etc. are sufficiently accurate
2. Joint Set Number Jn
A Massive, no or few joints 0.5 – 1.0
B One joint set 2
C One joint set plus random joints 3
D Two joint sets 4
E Two joint sets plus random joints 6
F Three joint sets 9
G Three joint sets plus random joints 12
H Four or more joint set, random, heavily jointed,
15
“Sugar Cube”, etc.
I Crushed rock earthlike 20
Note : (i)For intersections, use (3.0 x J n )
(ii)For portals, use 2.0 x J n

3. Joint roughness number Jr

a) Rock-wall contact, and b) Rock-wall contact before 10cm shear
A Discontinuous Joints 4
B Rough or irregular, undulating 3
C Smooth, undulating 2
D Slickenside, undulating 1.5
E Rough or irregular, planar 1.5
F Smooth, planar 1.0
G Slickenside, planar 0.5
Note: Description refer to small scale features and intermediate scale feature, in the
order
c) No rock wall – contact when sheared
H Zone containing clay minerals thick enough to
1.0
prevent rock-wall contact
J Sandy, gravelly or crushed zone thick enough to
1.0
prevent rock-wall contact
Note:
(i) Add 1.0 if the mean spacing of the relevant joint set is greater than 3m
( ii)J r = 0.5 can be used for planar Slickenside joints having lineation, provided the
lineation are oriented for minimum strength
4. Joint Alteration Number Φa Ja
a) Rock wall contact (No mineral fillings, only coatings)
A Tightly healed, hard, non-softening,
impermeable filling, i.e. quartz or -- 0.75
epidote
B Unaltered joint walls, surface staining
25-350 1.0
only
C Slightly altered joint walls. Non-
softening mineral coatings, sandy
25-300 2.0
particles, clay free disintegrated rock
etc.
D Silty – or Sandy-clay coatings, small
20-250 3.0
clay fraction (non-softening)
E Softening or low friction clay mineral
coatings, i.e. Kaolinite or mica. Also
8-160 4.0
chlorite, talc, gypsum, graphite, etc.
and small quantities of swelling clays.
b) Rock wall contact before 10cm shear (thin mineral fillings)
F Sandy particles, clay-free
25-300 4.0
disintegrated rock, etc.
G Strongly over-consolidated, non-
softening, clay mineral fillings 16-240 6.0
(continuous, but <5mm thickness)
H Medium or low over-consolidation,
softening, clay mineral fillings 12-160 8.0
(continuous, but <5mm thickness)
J Swelling-clay fillings, i.e
montmorillonite (continuous, but
<5mm thickness). Value of J a
6-120 8-12
depends on percent of swelling clay-
size particles, and access to water,
etc.
KLM Zones or bands of disintegrated or
crushed rock and clay (see G, H, J for 6-240 6, 8 or 8-12
description of clay condition)
N Zones or bands of Silty – or bands of
Silty Clay, small clay fraction (non- - 5.0
softening)
OPR Thick, continuous zones or bands of
clay (see G, H, J for description of 6-240 10,13 or 13-20
clay condition)
5. Joint water reduction factor Water pressure
Jw
(kg/cm2)
A Dry excavations or minor inflow, i.e.
<1 1.0
<51/min locally
B Medium inflow or pressure,
1-2.5 0.66
occasional outwash of joint fillings
C Large inflow or high pressure in
2.5-10 0.5
competent rock with unfilled joints
D Large inflow or high pressure,
2.5 -10 0.33
considerable outwash of joint fillings
E Exceptionally high inflow or water
pressure at blasting, decaying with >10 0.2-0.1
time
F Exceptionally high inflow or water
pressure continuing without >10 0.1-0.05
noticeable decay
Note:
(i) Factors C to F are crude estimates. Increase J w if drainage measures are installed.
(ii) Special problems caused by ice formation are not considered
6. Stress Reduction Factor
a) Weakness zones intersecting excavation, which may cause loosening of
SRF
rock mass when tunnel is excavated
A Multiple occurrences of weakness zones containing clay of chemically
10
disintegrated rock very loose surrounding rock (any depth)
B Single weakness zones containing clay or chemically disintegrated rock
5
(depth of excavation < 50 m)
C Single weakness zones containing clay or chemically disintegrated rock
2.5
(depth of excavation > 50 m)
E Single shear zones competent rock (clay-free), loose surrounding rock
5.0
(depth of excavation < 50m)
F Single shear zones competent rock (clay-free) (loose surrounding rock
2.5
(depth of excavation > 50m)
G Loose, open joints, heavily jointed or “sugar cube” etc. (any depth) 5.0
Note: (i) Reduce these values of SRF by 25-50% if the relevant shear zones only influence but do not
intersect the excavation.
b) Competent rock, rock stress problems σ c /σ 1 σ φ /σ c SRF (Old) SRF (New)
H Low stress, near surface, open joints >200 <0.01 2.5 2.5
J Medium stress, favorable stress >200-10 0.01-0.3 1 1
K High stress, very tight structure. Usually favorable
10-5 0.3-0.4 0.5-2 0.5-2.0
to stability, may be unfavorable for wall stability.
L Moderate slabbing after >1 hour in massive rock 5-3 0.5-0.65 5-10 5-50
M Slabbing and rock burst after a few minutes in
3-2 0.65-1 50-200 50-200
massive rock.
N Heavy rock burst (strain-burst) and immediate
dynamic deformation in massive rock.
<2 >1 10-20 200-400

Note: (ii) For strongly anisotropic virgin stress field (if measured): when 5<σ 1 /σ c <10. Reduce σ c to
0.75σ c . When σ 1 /σ 3 >10, reduce σ c to 0.5σ c where σ c = unconfined compression strength, σ 1 and σ 3 are
major & minor principle stresses and σ φ is maximum tangential stress (estimated from elastic theory)
(iii)Few case records available where depth of crown below surface is less than span width. Suggest
SRF increase from 2.5 to 5 for such cases (see H)
c) Squeezing rock: plastic flow of incompetent rock under the
σ φ /σ c SRF
influence of high rock pressure
O Mild squeezing rock pressure 1.5 5-10
P Heavy squeezing rock pressure. >5 10-20
d) Swelling rock: Chemical swelling activity depending on presence of
SRF
water
R Mild squeezing rock pressure 5-10
S Heavy squeezing rock pressure 10-15

TUNNELING QUALITY INDEX, ‘Q’ AND ESTIMATED SUPPORT

CATEGORIES:
Barton et al (1974) defined a parameter called Equivalent Dimension (D e ) of the excavation in
relating the value of the index Q to the stability and support requirements of underground
excavations:

Equivalent Dimension, D e , is obtained by: -

Excavation Span, diameter or height (M)

De = Excavation Support Ratio ESR

The value of ESR is related to the intended use of the excavation and to the degree of security
which is demanded of the support system installed to maintain the stability of the excavation.
Barton et al (1974) suggest the following values:-

Excavation category ESR

A. Temporary mine openings 3–5

B. Vertical shafts:
Circular Section
2.5
Rectangular / Square Section
2.0
C. Permanent mine openings, water tunnels for hydropower
(Excluding high pressure penstock), Pilot tunnels, drifts, and 1.6
heading for large excavations
D. Storage caverns, water treatment plants minor highway and
1.3
railroad tunnels, surge chambers access tunnels
E. Power stations, major highway or railroad tunnels, civil
1.0
defense chambers, portals, intersections.
F. Underground nuclear power stations, railroad stations,
0.8
factories

The equivalent dimension, De, plotted against the value of Q is used to define a number of
support categories. The updated chart (Grimstad and Barton, 1993) of this is reproduced as
under:
 Exceptionally Extremely Very Ext. Exc.
poor poor Very poor Poor Fair Good good good good
100 2.3 m 2.5 m 20

Bolt length in m for ESR=1

ea 2.1 m
50 ted ar1.7 m
hotcre
Span or height in m/ESR

in s
pacin
g 1.5 m 10
Bolt s 1.3 m
1.2 m 7
1.0 m
20 5
(9) (8) (7) (6) (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
4.0 m
10 3.0 m 3
a
2.0 m are
5 reted 2.4
h otc
s
1.5 m n un
gi
c in
2 1.3 m lt sp
a
1.5
Bo
1.0 m
1
0.004
0.001 0.01 0.04 .1 .4 1 4 10 40 100 400 1000
RQD Jr Jw
Rock mass quality Q =
Jn Ja SRF

Fig. Estimated support categories based on the tunneling quality index Q (After Grimstad and Barton
1993)

REINFORCEMENT CATEGORIES
1. Unsupported
2. Spot bolting, sb
3. Systematic bolting, B
4. Systematic bolting with 40-100 mm unreinforced shotcrete, B (+S)
5. Fibre reinforced shotcrete, 50 – 90mm, and bolting, Sfr+B
6. Fibre reinforced shotcrete, 90-120 mm, and bolting, Sfr+B
7. Fibre reinforced shotcrete, 120-150 mm, and bolting, Sfr+B
8. Fibre reinforced shortcrete, > 150 mm, with reinforced ribs of shortcrete and bolting, Sfr,
RRS+B
9. Cast concrete lining, CCA
 RMR SYSTEM OF ROCKMASS CLASSIFICATION

Bieniawski, (1973) proposed the RMR (Rock Mass Rating) system also known as
“Geomechanics classification” for jointed rock masses. The five basic parameters considered
for this classification are (i) strength of rock, (ii) RQD, (iii) spacing of joints/discontinuities (iv)
condition of joints and (v) ground water conditions.

A rating is allocated to each parameter and the overall rating for the rock mass is arrived at by
adding the rating for each parameter. This overall rating is adjusted for accounting the effect of
joints orientations by applying correction to estimate the final RMR value which is related to
five classes of rock mass as described below: -

RMR ROCK CLASS

100-81 Very good
80-61 Good
60-41 Fair
40-21 Poor
<21 Very poor
 GEOMECHANICS CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTED ROCK MASS
A. CLASSIFICATION PARAMETER AND THEIR RATINGS
Parameter Range of values
1 Strength Point load >10Mpa 4-10Mpa 2-4Mpa 1-2Mpa For this low range UCS
of intact strength index test is preferred
rock Uniaxial >250Mpa 100-250Mpa 50-100Mpa 25-50Mpa 5-25 1-5 <1
material compressive Mpa Mpa Mpa
strength
Rating 15 12 7 4 2 1 0
2 RQD 90%-100% 75%-90% 50%-75% 25%-50% <25%
Rating 20 17 13 8 5
3 Spacing of discontinuity >2m 0.6-2m 200-600mm 60-200mm <60mm
Rating 20 15 10 8 5
4 Condition of discontinuities Very rough Slightly rough surfaces Slightly rough surfaces Slickensided Soft gouge>5mm thick or
surfaces Separation<1mm Separation<1mm surfaces or Separation >5mm
Not continuous Slightly weathered walls Highly weathered walls Gouge<5mm thick Continuous
No separation or
Unweathered wall Separation 1-5 mm
rock continuous
Rating 30 25 20 10 0
5 Ground Inflow per None <10 10-25 25-125 >125
water 10m tunnel
length (l/m)
(Joint water 0 <0.1 0.1-0.2 0.2-0.5 >0.5
press)/(Major
principal σ )
General Completely dry Damp Wet Dripping Flowing
condition
Rating 15 10 7 4 0
B.RATING ADJUSTMENT FOR DISCONTINUITY ORIENTATIONS
Strike and dip orientation Very favourable Favourable Fair Unfavourable Very unfavourable
Rating Tunnel and mines 0 -2 -5 -10 -12
Foundations 0 -2 -7 -15 -25
Slopes 0 -5 -25 -50 -60
C. ROCK MASS CLASSES DETERMINED FROM TOTAL RATINGS
Rating 100-81 80-61 60-41 40-21 <21
Class number I II III IV V
Description Very good Good Fair Poor Very poor
D. MEANING OF ROCK CLASSES
Class number I II III IV V
Average stand-up time 20 yrs for 15m 1 yrs for 10m span 1 week for 5m span 10 hrs for 2.5m 30 min for 1m span
span span
Cohesion of rock mass(kPa) >400 300-400 200-300 100-200 <100
Friction angle of rock mass (deg) >45 35-45 25-35 15-25 <15
E. CLASSIFICATION OF DISCONTINUITY
Discontinuity length(Persistence) <1m 1-3m 3-10m 10-20m >20m
Rating 6 4 2 1 0
Separation(Aperture) None <0.1mm 0.1-1.0mm 1-5mm >5mm
Rating 6 5 4 1 0
Roughness Very rough Rough Slightly rough Smooth Slickensided
Rating 6 5 3 1 0

Infilling (gouge) None Hard filling <5mm Hard filling >5mm Soft filling <5mm Soft filling >5mm
Rating 6 4 2 2 0

Weathering Unweathered Slightly weathered Moderately weathered Highly weathered Decomposed

Rating 6 5 3 1 0
F. EFFECT OF DISCONTINUITY STRIKE AND DIP ORIENTATION IN TUNNELING
Strike perpendicular to tunnel axis Strike parallel to tunnel axis
Drive with dip-Dip45º-90º Drive with dip-Dip20º-45º Dip45º-90º Dip20º-45º
Very favourable Favourable Very unfavourable Fair
Drive against dip-Dip45º-90º Drive against dip-Dip20º-45º Dip-0º-20º- Irrespective of strike
Fair Unfavourable Fair
 GUIDE FOR EXCAVATION AND SUPPORT IN ROCK TUNNELS

Geomechanics classification guide for excavation and support in rock tunnels-shape horse shoe,
width 10m; vertical stress below 25MPa;
Construction-Drilling & Blasting
Rock mass Excavation Support
class Rockbolts Shotcrete Steel sets
(20mm dia.
fully bonded)
Very good rock Full face 3m Generally the support required except for occasional spot
I advance bolting .
RMR 81-100
Good Roock Full face 1.0-1.5m Locally bolts in 50mm in crown None
II advance. Complete crown, 3m long where required
RMR 61-80 support 20m from spaced 2.5m
face with occasional
mesh.
Fair rock Top heading and Systematic bolts 50-100mm in None
III bench, 1.5-3m 4m long, spaced crown, 300 mm
RMR 41-60 advance in 1.5-2m in in side walls.
heading. crown and walls
Commence support with mesh in
after each blast. crown.
Complete support
10m from face.
Poor rock Top heading and Systematic bolts 100-150mm in Light ribs spaced 1.5m
IV bench, 1-1.5m 4-5m long, crown, and where required
RMR 21-40 advance in spaced 1-1.5m 100mm in sides
heading. Install in crown and
support walls with wire
concurrently with mesh
excavation 10m
from face.
Very poor rock Multiple drifts. 0.5- Systematic bolts 1500-200mm in Medium to heavy ribs
V 1.5m advance in 5-6m long, crown, 150mm spaced 0.75m with steel
RMR<20 top heading. Install spaced 1-1.5m on sides and lagging and forepoling if
support in crown and 50mm on face. required. Close invert
concurrently with walls with
excavation. wiremesh . Bolt
Shotcrete as soon invert.
as possible after
blasting.
GEOLOGICAL LOG OF HRT
GEOLOGICAL LOG OF DRIFT
 DATASHEET FOR ROCK QUALITY PARAMETERS

PROJECT LOCATION

Outcrop No.
Set Number
Dip Amount
Dip Direction
Length/Direction
Types of Termination
Joint Description

Persistence (m)
Spacing (cm)
Aperture (mm)
Roughness
Alteration
Type of Filling
Rock Type
Strength
Rock Mass Description

No. of Joint sets

Degree of weathering
Geological Structure
Water Inflow
S.R.F
Block Description
Block Dimension
Jv 3
No. of Joints/M
Remarks

Date: GEOLOGIST
 SLOPE MASS RATING (SMR)

The proposed ‘Slope Mass Rating’ (SMR) is obtained from RMR by subtracting a factorial
adjustment factor depending on the joint slope relationship and adding a factor depending on
the method of excavation.

SMR = RMR (basic) + (F 1 .F 2 .F 3 ) + F 4

The RMR (see Table 1) is computed according to Bieniawski’s 1979 proposal, adding
rating values for five parameters:

i. Strength of intact rock.

ii. RQD (measured or estimated).
iii. Spacing of discontinuities.
iv. Condition of discontinuities.
v. Water inflow through discontinuities (estimated in the worst possible conditions).
RMR has a total range of 0-100.

The adjustment rating for joints (see table 1) is the product of three factors as follows:

I. F 1 depends on parallelism between joints and slope face strikes. Its range is from 1.00
(when both are near parallel) to 0.15 (when the angle between them is more than 300
and the failure probability is very 100). These values were established empirically, but
afterwards were found to approximately match the relationship.

F 1 = (1-sin A) 2
Where A denotes the angle between the strikes of the slope face and the joint.

II. F 2 refers to joint dip angle in the planar mode of failure. In a sense it is a measure of the
probability of joint shear strength. Its value varies from 1.00 (for joints dipping more
than 450) to 0.15 (for joints dipping less than 200). Also established empirically, it was
found afterwards to match approximately the relationship.

F 2 = tg2 β j
Where β j denotes the joint dip angle. For the toppling mode of failure F2 remains 1.00.

III. F 3 reflects the relationship between the slope face and joint dip. In the planar mode of
failure F 3 refers to the probability that joints ‘daylight’ in the slope face. Conditions are
fair when slope face and joints are parallel. When the slope dips 100 more than joints,
very unfavorable conditions occur.
 The adjustment factor for the method of excavation has been fixed empirically as
follows:

i. Natural slopes are more stable, because of long time erosion and built-in protection
mechanisms (vegetation, crust desiccation, etc.): F 4 = +15.
ii. Presplitting increases slope stability for half a class:F 4 = ±10.
iii. Smooth blasting, when well done, also increase slope stability: F4 = ±8.
iv. Normal blasting, applied with sound methods, does not change slope stability: F4 = 0.

Table 1: Adjustment Rating for Joints

Case Very Favorable Fair Unfavorable Very

favorable unfavorable
P ‫׀‬α j - α s ‫׀‬ R R R R >300 P 300-200
P P P 200-100
P P P 100-50 P P P 50 P

T ‫( ׀‬α j - α s )1800‫׀‬
R R R R R R P P -- -- -- -- --
P/T F1 R 0.15 0.40 0.70 0.85 1.00
P ‫ ׀‬βj‫׀‬ R R <200 P 200-300
P P P 300-350
P P P 350-450 P P P 450 P

P F2 R 0.15 0.40 0.70 0.85 1.00

T F2 R 1 1 1 1 1
P βj – βs R R R >100 P 100-00
P P P 00 P 0 to 100
0
P P P <-100 P

T βj – βs R R R <110 0
P
0
110 -120
P P
0
P >120 0
P - -
P/T F3 R 0 -6 -25 -50 -60

NOTE: - P- plane failure; T- toppling failure; αj- joint dip direction; α s - slope dip direction; R R R R

β j - joint dip; β s - slope dip

R R R R R

Table 2: Adjustment Rating for Methods of Excavation of Slopes

Method Natural Presplitting Smooth Blasting or Deficient

Slope blasting mechanical blasting

F4 +15 +10 +8 0 -8
 Table 3: Tentative Description of SMR Classes

Class SMR Description Stability Failures Support

I. 81-100 Very good Completely None None
stable
II. 61-80 Good Stable Some blocks Occasional
III. 41-60 Normal Partially stable Some joints or Systematic
many wedges
IV. 21-40 Bad Unstable Planar or big Important/corrective
wedges
V. 0-20 Very bad Completely Big planar or soil - Reexcavation
unstable like
 GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES

SEISMIC REFRACTION & REFLECTION TECHNIQUE:

The technique involves initiation of seismic compression wave on ground by an

energy source and measurement of the propagation time interval, as it is refracted
from the underground and detected at the surface by an array of geophone spread.
Since seismic compressional wave velocity is controlled by the fundamental
parameters of elastic strength and density, it serves as an index of rock quality.

In Seismic reflection method the reflected seismic waves from different layer
boundaries are recorded. The seismic waves are reflected from different boundaries
where the acoustical impedance (Product of density and seismic wave velocity)
changes.
Utility
 Delineating overburden stratification.
 Estimating depth-to-bedrock and generating continuous bedrock profile.
 Identifying zone of weathering and detecting localized features like
faults/shear zone and buried channel.
 Assessing rock quality/condition, rippability and soil compactness and
excavation condition.
 Dynamic elastic parameter computation through compressional and shear
wave propagation study.
 Construction material survey.
 Subsurface study over water covered areas using hydrophones.

Representative Field values of Vp for various materials

Material Vp (m/s)
Air 330
Damp Loam 300-750
Dry Sand 459-900
Clay 900-1800
Fresh, shallow water 1430-1490
Saturated, loose sand 1500
Basal/lodgement till 1700-2300
Weathered igneous and 450-3700
metamorphic rock
Weathered sedimentary rock 600-3000
Shale 800-3700
Sandstone 2200-4000
Metamorphic rock 2400-6000
Unweathered basalt 2600-4300
Dolostone and Limestone 4300-6700
Unweathered granite 4800-6700
Steel 6000
 SEISMIC TOMOGRAPHY TECHNIQUE:
Seismic tomography involves sub-surface scanning in order to develop map of the seismic
velocity distribution. In cross-hole seismic tomography, seismic signals are generated through
an energy source and these are picked up by the 3D accelerometers/pickups placed in hole or
on surface. The data interpretation involving inverse algorithms is carried out to generate
2D/3D illustration of the scanned area, highlighting the irregularities of which affords rock
mass characterization and assessment of strength parameters of the medium.

Utility
 Precise in-situ determination of seismic velocity (both compression and shear
waves) for rock
quality assessment
and computation of
dynamic elastic
parameter and
Rockmass
characterization.

 Demarcating bedrock
configuration.

 Defining subsurface Fig.: Basics of seismic cross-hole tomographic scanning and

geological status and velocity tomogram generated through VIBROVISION

disposition of the
strata.

 Delineating of zones of weakness: like shear zones/seams and

fractures/fissures/cavities.
 Checking concrete structures for detecting weak zones, etc.
 Investigation of underground structure sites and study of effective grouting.
 GEO-ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY TECHNIQUE:
The method relies on measuring subsurface variations of electric current flow. Various
subsurface materials have characteristic resistivity which can be used in assessing lithology.
The resistivity values of some rock types are given in the following chart:-

Rock Type Resistivity (ohm-meters)

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 10 10 10 10 10 10

Clay and marl

Loam
Top-soil
Clayey soils
Sandy soils
Loose sands
River sand and gravel
Moraine
Chalk
Limestones
Sandstones
Basalt
Crystalline rocks

Utility
 Estimating water table and delineating water bodies.
 Ground resistivity measurement, especially depth-wise estimation of resistivity
zonation helpful for adequate earth-mat designing.
 Complimenting seismic studies in mapping lateral and vertical changes in subsurface
material through sounding and profiling demarcating subsurface lithology, bedrock
configuration and zones of weaknesses, etc.
 Ground water study i.e. salinity and water quality assessment.
 CROSSHOLE SEISMIC SURVEY
The general principle of cross-hole seismic survey is to measure horizontally traveling shear
wave (S-wave) and compressional wave (P-wave) velocities of the material under
investigation. The cross-hole seismic test consists of generation of horizontally traveling P
and S waves at a particular level in one borehole (source hole) and recording their arrivals at
same leveling one or two nearby boreholes (receiving holes). The spacing between boreholes
is generally kept from 3m to 6m with mechanical source depending upon the type of
subsurface material. The waves are generated in source hole either by mechanical source and
are recorded in one or two receiver holes by three component triaxial geophone pickups. Two
receiving holes are used for timing accuracy when true zero time could not be measured. In
case of single receiving hole, the initial delay is controlled by using a circuit off triggering
(triggering switch) facility provided with the seismograph and equipment is triggered using
this switch.

The seismic waves detected by three component geophone pickups in receiver holes are
recorded by a signal enhancement digital seismograph. The travel times of P & S waves and
the distance between source and receiver holes are used to calculate P & S wave velocities.
Since the boreholes deviation from vertical affects the calculations of velocities and the
geophone performance, generally, the boreholes used for cross-hole surveys are surveyed for
deviation using Borehole Deviation Survey. The basic data acquisition system consists of the
energy source, receivers and recording system.
 CONSRUCTION MATERIAL

SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS FOR FINE AGGREGATE

USED IN CONCRETE

Sl. Name of the test Specification requirements as per IS: 383-1970

No.
1. Grading and The grading of fine aggregate is classified into grading zones I
Fineness to IV as per Table –4(Clause 4.3) of IS: 383-1970. The
modulus details of grading are given below:

Note: 1 For crushed stone sands, the permissible limit on 159 micron
IS Sieve is increased to 20%. This does not effect the 5%
allowance permitted in 4.3 applying to other sieve sizes.
Note: 2 Fine aggregate complying with the requirements of any
grading zone in this table is suitable for concrete but the
quality of concrete produce will depend upon a number of
factors including proportions.
Note: 3 Where concrete of high strength and good durability is
required, fine aggregate conforming to any one of the four
grading zones may be used but the concrete mix should be
properly designed. As the fine aggregate grading becomes
progressively finer that is from grading zone-I to IV, the ratio
of the fine aggregate to coarse aggregate should be
progressively reduced. The most suitable fine to coarse ration
to be used for any particular mix will, however, depend upon
the actual grading, particle shape and surface texture of both
fine and coarse aggregate.
Note: 4 It is recommended that fine aggregate conforming to grading
zone-IV should not be used in reinforced concrete unless test
have been made to ascertain the suitability of proposed mix
proportions.
2 Silt and clay 3% (materials finer than 75 micron IS: Sieve)
content

3 Organic The sample shall pass the colour test indicating the organic
Impurities contamination either to be absent or not present in an amount
that may be considered deleterious.
4 Soundness loss 12% for concrete liable to frost action.
& age
(5 cycle of
saturated sodium
sulphate
solution)

(IS: 383-1970).
 GRADING DETAILS OF FINE AGGREGATE FOR USED IN CONCRETE

IS Sieve Percentage passing for

Grading Grading Grading Grading
Designation Zone-I Zone-II Zone-III Zone-IV
10 mm 100 100 100 100
4.75 mm 90-100 90-100 90-100 95-100
2.36 mm 60-95 75-100 85-100 95-100
1.18 mm 30-70 55-90 75-100 90-100
600 micron 15-34 35-59 60-79 80-100
300 micron 5-20 8-30 12-40 15-50
150 micron 0-10 0-10 0-10 0-15

(IS: 383-1970)
SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS FOR COARSE AGGREGATES USED IN CONCRETE

Sl. No. Name of the test Specification requirements as per IS:383-1970

1 Aggregate impact value 30% for wearing surfaces
45% for non-wearing surfaces
2 Aggregate crushing value 30% for wearing surfaces
45% for non-wearing surfaces
3 Los Angeles abrasion loss 30% for wearing surfaces
50% for non-wearing surfaces
4 Soundness loss (5 cycles using sodium 12% for concrete surfaces subject to frost action
sulphate solution)

(IS: 383 – 1970)

 SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS FOR DELETERIOUS MATERIALS USED IN FINE & COARSE
AGGREGATES

Coarse aggregate
Sl.No Deleterious substance Method of testing Fine aggregate percentage by percentage by weight
weight max. max.
Uncrushed Crushed Uncrushed Crushed
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
(i) Coal and lignite IS: 2386 (Part II) , 1963 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
(ii) Clay lumps -do- 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
(iii) Materials finer than 75 micron IS: 2386 (Part I), 1963 3.00 15.00 3.00 3.00
IS:Sieve
(iv) Soft fragments IS: 2386 (Part II), 1963 -- -- 3.00 --
(v) Shale -do- 1.00 -- -- --
(vi) Total of percentage of all deleterious -- 5.00 2.00 5.00 5.00
materials (except mica) including SI
No. (i) to (v) for col. 4.6 and 7 and
SL. No. (i) and (ii) for col. 5 only)
(IS: 383-1970)

Note: 1 The presence of mica in fine aggregate has been found to reduce considerably the durability and compressive strength of concrete and
further investigations are underway to determine the extent of the deleterious effect of mica. It is advisable, therefore, to investigate the mica
content of fine aggregate and make suitable allowances for the possible reduction in the strength of concrete or mortar.

Note: 2 The aggregate shall not contain harmful organic impurities (tested in accordance with IS: 2386 (Part II) in sufficient quantities to affect
adversely the strength or durability of concrete. A fine aggregate which fails in the test for organic impurities may be used, provided that, when
tested for the effect of organic impurities on the strength of mortar, the relative strength at 7 and 28 days, reported in accordance with 7 of IS:2386
(Part VI) 1963,is not less than 95 percent.
 ESTIMATION FOR REQUIREMENT OF CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS.

1 Coarse aggregate : 100% of total concrete requirement

2 Fine aggregate : 50% of total concrete requirement
3 Clay : 140% of volume worked out.
4 Rock fill : 130% of volume worked out as design of the
rock fill dam.

The following tests are conducted on samples of various materials to assess their
suitability.

a) Clay (Impervious material):-

1. Grain size analysis.
2. Atterberg’s Limits.
3. Standard Proctor’s test (MDD & OMC).
4. Shrinkage factor.
5. Triaxial shear test.
6. Lab. Permeability test.
7. Consolidation test.

b) Filter material:-
1. Gradation analysis.
2. Specific gravity.
3. Void Ratio.

c) Rock fill material:-

1. Initial void ratio.
2. Co-efficient of compressibility.
3. Permeability.
4. Density.
5. Shear Parameters.
6. Breakage Factor.
7. Co-efficient of Uniformity.
 d) Aggregates:-

Testing programme is planned initially to assess the physical characteristics of

aggregates by conducting following tests:

1) Tests for Coarse Aggregate:

1. Specific gravity.
2. Water absorption.
3. Aggregate impact value.
4. Aggregate crushing value.
5. Los Angele’s Abrasion value.
6. Soundness.
7. Flakiness Index.
8. Elongation Index.
9. Alkali aggregate reactivity test.

2) Tests for Fine Aggregate:

1. Specific gravity.
2. Fineness modulus.
3. Water absorption.
4. Silt and clay content.
5. Organic Impurities.
6. Soundness.
7. Alkali-aggregate reactivity test.

Alkali-Aggregate Reaction Test:

This test is time consuming and is conducted on limited number of samples to assess the
alkali-aggregate reaction potential of the aggregates. The tests conducted are:-

1) Petrography.
2) Mortar bar test at 38°C &60°C regime.
3) Concrete prism test.
4) X-ray diffraction.
5) Scanning electron microscopy.
 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS

Average Engineering Properties

Specific Compressive Shear Tensile Porosity Resistance to Modulus of Elasticity
Sl No. Type Gravity strength Strength Strength Abrasion Percent Kg/Cm2

kg/Cm2 Kg/Cm2 Kg/Cm2 Percent

Class: Igneous Rocks
1. Granite* 2.63 – 2.75 1000 – 2500 140 – 500 70 – 250 0.4-4 43.9-87.9 2x105 – 6x105
2. Granodiorite* 2.8 – 3.0 - - - 0.5 - -
3. Syenite* 2.6 – 2.8 350 – 500 - - 1.38-1.54 - 6x105 – 8x105
4. Diorite* 2.8 – 3.0 1800 – 3000 - 150-300 0.25 - 7x105 – 10x105
5. Gabbro* 2.9-3.2 1800 – 3000 - 150-300 0.1-0.2 - 7x105 – 11x105
6. Basalt 2.6 – 3.0 1500 – 3000 200 – 600 100-300 0.1-1.0 14.86-18.92 6x65 – 10x105
(Deccan
Trap) Δ
7. Dolerite Δ 3.0 – 3.05 2000- 3500 250 – 600 150-350 0.1-0.5 - 8x105 – 11x105
8. Rhyolite Δ 2.40 – 2.60 - - - 4.6 - -
9. Trachyte Δ 2.60 – 2.85 820 - - - 19.5 -
10. Andesite Δ 2.2 – 2.6 1300 - 2500 - - 0.1-11 - -
Class : Sedimentary Rocks
11. Sandstone 1.85 –2.7 200 – 1700 80-400 40-250 5-25 16-29.0 0.5x105 – 8x105
12. Limestone 2.14-2.8 300 – 2500 100-500 50-250 5-20 1.3-24.1 8x105 – 10x105
and Dolomite (Limestone) (Limestone)
2.5-2.8 and
(Dolomite) (Dolomite)
13. Laterite 1.85 19.23 - - - - -
Class : Metamorphic Rocks
1. Charnockite 2.7 – 3.0 - - - - - 7.94x105 – 9.94x105
2. Gneisses 2.5 – 3.0 500 – 2000 - 50-200 0.5-1.5 - 2.01x105 – 4.9x105
3. Quartzite 2.55 – 2.65 1550 – 3000 200-600 100-300 0.2-0.6 - 9.3x105
4. Marble 2.6 – 2.7 1000 – 2500 150-300 70-200 2-4 6.7-41.7 -
5. Khondalite 2.36 – 2.51 - - - - - -
6. Slate 2.6 – 2.7 1000 – 2000 - 70-200 0.1-1.0 - -
7. Phyllite 2.6 – 2.8 - - - - - -
8. Schists 2.31 – 3.04 400 - 950 - - - - 1.8x105 – 3.4x105
(IS 1123, 1975)
*These fall under Granite group
Δ The fall under Basalt group
 MISCELLANEOUS

APPARENT DIP CHART

5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.5 10.0 13.0 18.0 26.0 44.0
10 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.5 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.5 20.0 25.0 32.0 44.0 62.0
Angles between line of section and

15 1.5 3.0 4.0 5.5 7.0 8.5 10.5 12.0 15.0 17.5 20.0 24.0 29.5 35.0 43.0 55.0 70.0
20 1.5 3.5 5.5 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.5 16.0 19.0 22.5 26.0 31.0 36.0 42.5 51.0 62.0 75.0
25 2.0 4.5 6.5 9.0 11.0 13.5 17.0 19.5 22.5 27.0 31.0 36.5 42.0 48.5 57.0 67.0 78.0
30 2.5 5.0 8.0 10.5 13.0 16.0 19.0 23.0 26.0 31.0 35.5 41.0 46.5 53.0 61.0 70.5 80.0
strike of strata

35 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 15.0 18.0 23.0 26.0 29.0 34.5 39.5 45.0 50.5 57.5 65.0 73.0 82.0
40 3.0 6.5 10.0 13.5 16.5 20.5 24.0 28.0 32.0 37.5 43.0 48.0 54.0 61.0 67.0 75.0 83.0
45 3.5 7.0 11.0 14.5 18.0 22.0 26.5 31.0 35.5 40.0 45.5 51.0 56.5 63.0 69.0 76.5 83.5
50 3.5 7.5 11.6 16.0 19.5 24.0 28.0 33.0 37.5 42.5 47.5 53.0 59.0 65.0 71.0 77.5 84.0
55 4.0 8.0 12.0 17.0 21.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 39.5 44.5 49.5 55.0 60.5 66.5 72.0 78.0 84.0
60 4.5 8.0 13.0 18.0 22.0 27.0 31.5 36.5 41.0 46.0 51.0 56.5 61.5 67.5 73.0 79.0 84.0
65 4.5 9.0 13.5 18.5 23.0 28.0 32.5 37.5 42.0 47.0 52.0 57.5 62.5 68.5 73.5 79.5 84.5
70 4.5 9.0 14.0 19.0 23.5 28.5 33.5 38.0 43.0 48.0 53.0 58.5 63.5 69.0 74.0 79.5 85.0
75 5.0 9.5 14.5 19.5 24.0 29.0 34.0 39.0 44.0 49.0 54.0 59.0 64.0 69.5 74.5 80.0 85.0
80 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 24.5 29.5 34.5 39.5 44.5 49.5 54.5 59.5 64.5 69.5 74.5 80.0 85.0
85 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 44.5 49.5 54.5 59.5 64.5 69.5 75.0 80.0 85.0
Degree 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
 WENTWORTH’S SCALE FOR PARTICLE SIZE

Size Range Particle

>256mm Boulder
64-256 mm Cobble
4-64mm Pebble
2-4 mm Granule
1/16-2mm Sand
1/256-1/16mm Silt
<1/256mm Clay

STRENGTH OF ROCK BY MANUAL INDEX

Grade Description Field Identification Approx. range

of UCS (MPa)
S1 Very soft clay Easily penetrated several inched by < 0.025
fist.
S2 Soft clay Easily penetrated several inches by 0.025-0.05
thumb
S3 Firm clay Can be penetrated several inched by 0.05-0.10
thumb with moderate effort
S4 Stiff clay Readily indented by thumb but 0.10-0.25
penetrated only with great effort
S5 Very stiff clay Readily indented by thumb-nail 0.25-0.50
S6 Hard Indented by thumb-nail. >0.50
R0 Extremely weak Indented by thumb-nail. 0.25-1.0
rock
R1 Very weak rock Crumbles under firm blows with 1.0-5.0
point of geological hammer, can be
peeled by pocketknife.
R2 Weak rock Can be peeled by a pocketknife with 5.0-25
difficulty, shallow indentations made
by firm blow with point of geological
hammer.
R3 Medium strong Cannot be scraped or peeled with a 25-50
rock pocketknife, specimen can be
fractures with single firm blow of
geological hammer.
R4 Strong rock Specimen requires many blows of 50-100
geological hammer to fracture it.
R5 Very strong Specimen requires many blows of 100-250
rock geological hammer to fracture it.
R6 Extremely Specimen can only be chipped with >250
strong rock geological hammer.
SLOPES AND THEIR RESPECTIVE ANGLES

SLOPES
Angle in Percentage
Degrees Slope Grade
1° 1 in 57 1.75%
2° 1 in 29 3.48%
3° 1 in 19 5.22%
4° 1in 14 6.95%
5° 1 in 11 9.09%
6° 1 in 9.5 10.51%
7° 1 in 8.1 12.27%
8° 1 in 7.1 14.05%
9° 1 in 6.3 15.838%
10° 1 in 5.7 17.63%
11° 1 in 5.0 20%
14° 1 in 4.0 25%
18° 1 in 3.1 32.2%
27° 1 in 2.0 51%
45° 1 in 1 100%
50° 1in 0.839 119.1%
55° 1 in 0.70 142.81%
60° 1 in 0.577 173.20%
65° 1 in 0.466 214.45%
70° 1 in 0.363 274.74%
75° 1 in 0.267 373.20%
80° 1 in 0.176 567.12%
85° 1 in 0.087 1143.00%
 LIST OF STANDARD CODES

S. No. IS. No./Doc. No. Title

Standard Published
1. IS 4078: 1980 Code of practice for indexing and storage of drill cores (First
revision)
2. IS 4453:1980 Code of practice for exploration of pits, trenches, drifts and
shafts (First revision)
3. IS 4464:1985 Code of practice for presentation of drilling information and
core description in foundation investigation (First revision)
4. IS 5313:1980 Guide for core drilling observations (First revision)
5. IS 5497:1983 Guide for topographical surveys for river valley projects (First
revision)
6. IS 5529 (PT 1): 1985 Code of practice for in-situ permeability test: Part 1 Test in
overburden (First revision)
7. IS 5529 (PT 2): 1985 Code of practice for in-situ permeability test: Part 2 Test in
bedrock (First revision)
8. IS 6065 (PT 1): 1985 Recommendations for the preparation of geological and
geotechnical maps for river valley project : Part 1 Scales (First
revision)
9. IS 6926:1996 Diamond core drilling for site investigation for river valley
projects – Code of practice (First revision)
10. IS 6935:1973 Method for determination of water level in a bore hole
11. IS 6955:1973 Code of practice for subsurface exploration for earth and rock
fill dams

12. IS 7422(PT 1): 1974 Symbols and abbreviations for use in geological maps,
sections and subsurface exploratory logs: Part 1 Abbreviations
13. IS 7422(PT 2): 1974 Symbols and abbreviations for use in geological maps,
sections and subsurface exploratory logs: Part 2 Igneous rocks
14. IS 7422(PT 3): 1974 Symbols and abbreviations for use in geological maps,
sections and subsurface exploratory logs: Part 3 Sedimentary
rocks
15. IS 7422(PT 4): 1985 Symbols and abbreviations for use in geological maps,
sections and subsurface exploratory logs: Part 4 Metamorphic
rocks
16. IS 7422(PT 5): 1992 Symbols and abbreviations for use in geological maps,
sections and subsurface exploratory logs: Part 5 Line symbols
for formation contacts and structural features
17. IS 10060: 1981 Code of practice for subsurface investigation for power house
sites
18. IS 10290:1982 Code of practice for photogeological interpretation and
mapping of river valley project site
19. IS 11385:1985 Code of practice for subsurface exploration for canals and
cross drainage works
20. IS 13216:1991 Code of practice for geological exploration for reservoir sites
21. IS 13578:1992 Subsurface exploration for barrages and weirs-code of
 practice
22. IS 14330:1995 Groundwater investigation for hydraulic structures-Guidelines
23. DOC: RVD 5(142) Recommendations for preparation of geological and
geotechnical maps for river valley projects: Part 2, Format and
method of presentation of geological and geotechnical maps

Landslide Hazard Zonation

24. DOC: CED48 (4950) Outline for classification system of rock mass
Part 3 – Determination of slope mass rating (SMR)
25. DOC: CED56 (5493) Landslide hazard zonation (CED:56) Part 2 – Macro-zonation.

Monitoring

26. IS: 13414 - 1992 Guidelines for monitoring of rock movements using multi-
point borehole.
27. IS: 14395 - 1996 Guidelines for monitoring of rock movements using probe
inclinometer.

Foundations on Rock and Hill Slopes

28. IS: 12070 - 1987 Code of Practice for design and construction of shallow
foundations on rock.
29. IS: 13063 - 1991 Code of Practice for structural safety of buildings on shallow
foundations in rock.
30. IS: 14243 (PT .1) - Guidelines for selection and development of site for building
1995 in hill areas Part 1 – Macro-zonation of urban centers.
31. IS: 14243 (PT .2) - Guidelines for selection and development of site for building
1995 in hill area Part 2 – Selection and development.
32. DOC: CED48 (5189) Code of Practice for reinforcement of rock slope with plane or
wedge failure.
33. DOC: CED48 (5464) Code of Practice on deep foundations.
34. IS: 10270 - 1982 Guidelines for design and construction of pre-stressed rock
anchors.

Tunneling

35. DOC: CED48 (5597) Guidelines for tunneling methods in rock masses.
36. DOC: CED48 (5605) Code of Practice for use in the prediction of subsidence and
associated parameters in coal mines having nearly horizontal
single seam workings.

Rock Dynamics

37. DOC:CED48 (5646) Code of Practice on blast vibration monitoring.

Glossary

38. IS: 11358 - 1987 Glossary of terms and symbols applicable to rock mechanics.
MAP OF INDIA SHOWING SEISMIC ZONES OF INDIA

IS 1893 (Part-I) : 2002

 SEISMIC DESIGN PARAMETERS

For estimation of design seismic parameters detailed investigations are made in accordance with IS:
4967-1968 when such data are not available and in the care of minor work and for preliminary design
of major work following seismic forces shall be considered.

1. Hydro dynamic effects due to Reservoir.

I. Effect of Horizontal Earthquake Acceleration.

II. Effect of Horizontal earthquake Acceleration on the vertical component of Reservoir and
tail water load.

2. Concrete or masonry gravity and Buttress Dams.

I. Concrete or masonry inertia forces due to horizontal earthquake acceleration.

a. Seismic Coefficient method (dams up to 100m height)
b. Response spectrum method dams greater than 100m height)

II. Effect of vertical earthquake acceleration.

a. For Seismic Coefficient method of design.
b. For response spectrum method of design.

III. Effect of earthquake acceleration on uplift forces.

IV. Effect of earthquake acceleration on dead silt loads.

V. Earthquake forces for overview sections.

3. Earth and Rockfill Dams and Embankments

 CONVERSION FACTOR

To convert Into Multiply -

1. LINEAR MEASURE
Inch Millimetre 25.40 0.03937
Inch Centimetres 2.54 0.3937
Inch Metre 0.0254 39.37
Feet Metre 0.3048 3.281
Yard Metre 0.9144 1.0936
Mile Kilometre 1.6093 0.62137
Furlong Metre 201.1678 0.004971
Miles Nautical Miles (Int.) 0.858975 1.15078
2. WEIGHT MEASURE
Ounces Grams 28.3495 0.035274
Pounds Kilograms 0.4536 2.20462
Ton Kilograms 1016.05 0.0009842
U.S.Ton Kilograms 907.18 0.0011
Ton (2240 lb) Metric Ton (Tonne) 1.01605 0.9842
Tola Ounce 0.411429 2.43056
Tola Grams 11.6638 0.087535
3. SQUARE MEASURE
Square inches Square millimetres 645.16 0.00155
Square inches Square centimetres 6.4516 0.155
Square feet Square metre 0.0929 10.764
Square yard Square metre 0.836 1.196
Acre Square metre 4046.9 0.00025
Square mile Square kilometre 2.59 0.3861
Acre (4840 sq. yd.) Hectare (10, 000 sq.m) 0.40468 2.4711
4. CUBIC MEASURE
Cubic inch Cubic centimetre 16.387 0.061
Cubic feet Cubic metre 0.02832 35.315
Cubic yard Cubic metre 0.76455 1.308
Cubic foot Gallon (lmp) 6.2288 0.16054
Cubic foot Litres (1000cc) 28.3161 0.0353156
CubicGallon (lmp) Litres 4.54596 0.219976
Pint (0.124 lmp. Gln) Litres 0.568 1.76
U.S.Gallon Litres 3.78533 0.264178
 DRY DENSITY AND POROSITY

5. PRESSURES AND DENSITIES

Pounds per sq.in. Kg. Per sq.cm. 0.070307 14.2233
Pounds per sq.in. Kg. Per sq. metre. 4.88243 0.204816
Tonnes per sq. ft. Tonnes per sq. metre 10.937 0.091436
Atmospheres Pounds per sq.in. 14.6959 0.06804
Inch of Hg Pounds per sq.in. 0.491154 2.036
Inch of Hg Kg. Per sq.cm. 0.0345316 28.959
Pounds per sq.ft. Mm of Hg. 0.035913 2.78450
Pounds per sq.in. Feet of water 2.30672 0.433516
Feet of water Kg. Per sq.cm. 0.0304792 32.81
Pounds per cu in. Grammes per c.c. 27.6799 0.0361273
Pounds per cft. Kg. Per cu. metre 16.02 0.062422
6.MISCELLANEOUS
Pounds per foot Kg. Per metre 1.48816 0.67197
Miles per hour Feet per second 1.46667 0.68182
Feet per second K.M. per hour 1.09728 0.91134
H.P. (550 ft.lb/sec) Metric H.P. 1.01387 0.98632
To obtain From - Multiply with

Class Dry Density Description Porosity (%) Description

( x 1000 kg/m 3 )
1 < 1.8 Very low > 30 Very High
2 1.8 – 2.2 Low 30 – 15 High
3 2.2 – 2.55 Moderate 15 – 5 Medium
4 2.55 – 2.75 High 5–1 Low
5 > 2.75 Very High <1 Very Low
3D LOG FORMAT
 ROCK QUALITY DESIGNATION INDEX (RQD)

The Rock Quality Designation index (RQD) was developed by Deere to provide a quantitative
estimate of rock mass quality from drill core logs. RQD is defined as the percentage of intact core
pieces longer than 100 mm (4 inches) in the total length of core. The core should be at least NW size
(54.7 mm or 2.15 inches in diameter) and should be drilled with a double-tube core barrel. The correct
procedures for measurement of the length of core pieces and the calculation of RQD are summarized
in figure.

L = 38 cm

L = 17 cm

L = 0 cm
no pieces > 10 cm
Total length of core run = 200 cms

Length of core pieces > 10 cm length

RQD = x 100
Total length of core run

L = 20 cm 38 + 17 + 20 + 35
RQD = x 100
200

L = 35 cm

Drilling break

L = 0 cm
no recovery

Procedure for measurement and calculation of RQD (After Deere, 1989)

Palmstrom (1982) suggested that, when no core is available but discontinuity traces are visible in
surface exposures or exploration adits, the RQD may be estimated form the number of discontinuities
per unit volume. The suggested relationship for clay-free rock masses is:

RQD = 115 – 3.3 J v

where J v is the sum of the number of joints per unit length for all joint (discontinuity) sets known as
the volumetric joint count.

RQD is a directionally dependent parameter and its value may change significantly, depending upon
the borehole orientation. The use of the volumetric joint count can be quite useful in reducing this
directional dependence.

RQD is untended to represent the rock mass quality in-situ. When using diamond drill core, care must
be taken to ensure that fractures, which have been caused been caused by handling or the drilling
process, are identified and ignored when determining the value of RQD. When using Palmstrom’s
relationship for exposure mapping, blast induced fractures should not be included when estimating J v.