Similarities and dissimilarities between P.

B Shelley and John Keats as second

generation Romantic poets

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Table of Content Page number

1-Intorduction………………………………………………… 3-6
2-Second generation Romantic poets………………………… 6-7

3- Percy Bysshe Shelley life…………………………………….7

P. B. Shelley’s view on nature …………………………………………8-9
As poets of Imagination…………………………………………………9-10
Shelley’s philosophy …………………………………………………10-11
As a poet of Classical…………………………………………………. 11
As a poets of Melancholy……………………………………………….11-12

4- John Keats life ……………………………………………..12-13

John Keats' Ideas - The Keatsian Theology……………………………13-18

5- P. B. Shelley and John Keats as the second generation romantic poets...18-20

6- John Keats and P.B.Shelley’s treatment of nature………………………..20-23

7- Similarities and dissimilarities between P.B Shelley and John Keats…...24-26

8-Conclusion ………………………………………………………27

9-Reference ……………………………………………………….28

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Introduction:

ENGLISH ROMANTICISM
Romanticism is not a single coherent aesthetic theory, but rather a general term
used to describe a number of attitudes, and ideas, not all of them connected with
one another.
The Oxford Companion to English Literature- Paul Harvey describes Romanticism
as: "a word for which, in connection with literature, there is no generally accepted
definition. François Jost supports Harvey: "The multiple meanings of the word
romantic are one of the main sources of difficulty in defining the Romantic
Movement."
Jihan Ratuf confirms the fact that attempts at a definition of Romanticism are a
waste of time:"All critics agree that definition of Romanticism is a kind of
nonsense because of the multiplicity of its aspects and tendencies. Some try to
define Romanticism by comparing it to Classicism, which precedes it, and others
define it by comparing it to Realism, which follows it. There are wide definitions
as well as narrow ones, yet none of them help the subject of literary criticism very
much.- The various definitions can be grouped under two general headings, one of
which identifies Romanticism as a universal tendency of the human mind, the other
of which insists on defining Romanticism as a historical movement.

A HUMAN TENDENCY
Some English critics treat Romanticism as a human tendency, which exists in all
periods and in all cultures. In Romanticism, Lilian Furst lists various definitions of
Romanticism by many writers. We will choose those which focuses on
Romanticism as a human tendency:
1) Phelps: "Sentimental melancholy·, "vague aspiration-, "subjectivity, the love of
the picture and a reactionary spirit.
2) George Sand: Emotion rather than reason; the heart opposed to the head.·
3) Herford: Extraordinary development of the imaginative sensibility...

A HISTORICAL MOVEMENT
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Historically, the Romantic Movement is essentially a European phenomenon,
nurtured in European literature as the result of a series of ideological and technical
developments and inspired by a reaction against the neoclassical movement. Those
Developments had prepared for the triumph of Romanticism. The Romantic
Movement first became a self-conscious literary program in Germany in 1790s-
1830s. Thereafter, it spread slowly from one European country to another. It did
not reach France until the third decade of the 19th century, when it can be seen in
the lyric poetry of Lamartine, Hugo and Vigny in the years between 1822 and
1826. (14) England received Romanticism at the end of the 18th C. and the
beginning of the 19th C. and in England the Romantic period may be said to have
ended with the deaths of Keats in 1821, Shelley in 1822 and Byron in 1824.
In The Oxford Companion to English Literature, Harvey gives an approximate date
for the movement: It began in the late 18th cent. (Though there are earlier isolated
examples of the romantic spirit) and lasted into the 19th century. In literature and
art. The classical, intellectual attitude gave way to a wider outlook, which
recognized the claims of passion and reason.
Margaret Sherwood describes the Romantic Movement as a period of fundamental
upheaval in every department of life, political, social, and in the world of thought
This was the time of the birth of our modern world; of changing thought, political,
social, philosophic; of changing forms of government; the depth and energy of the
Revolutionary movement springing from fresh apprehension of the rights, the
powers, the possibilities of man, can hardly be overestimated.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGLISH ROMANTICISM

English Romanticism is a literary school which has a theory, based on various
fundamental concepts that had great influence on 19th Century English society. It
changed rigid traditional concepts and attitudes to more liberal ones. The Romantic
Movement began in England in 1798 with Wordsworth's and Coleridge's work The
Lyrical Ballads. It was words worth’s preface to The Lyrical Ballads that turned it
into a revolutionary poetic manifesto:

1) Poetry is described as the spontaneous overflow of emotions.

2) The poet is a teacher and must strive to reveal truth, not through scientific
analysis and abstraction, but through an imaginative awareness of persons and
things.
3) The poet may broaden and enrich human sympathies and enjoyment of nature in
this way.
4) The poet should communicate his ideas and emotions through a powerful re
creation of the original experience.

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5) A poem should stimulate past emotion in the reader and promote learning by
using pleasure as a vehicle.
The second most influential Romantic manifesto was the Shelley's A Defence of
Poetry, which was written in 1821, but not published until 1840; the most
significant elements in this book.
1) Poetry is the expression of the imagination.
2) Imagination is superior to reason.
3) Poets are those the creative activity of whose imagination causes the purest and
most intense pleasure to others.
4) Poetry exists in the infancy of society.
5) Translation of poetry is impossible, since its music can never be reproduced.
6) Poetry is superior to history.
The third influential English Romantic manifesto was Coleridge's Bibliograpia
Literaria.

English Romanticism is based on four fundamentals:

1) Individualism, 2) Nature, 3) Imagination,4) Emotion.

(1) INDIVIDUALISM: Individualism is one of the major characteristics of

English Romantic theory. Romanticism calls strictly for the individual,
independent spirit, and the personal view that gushes out from the poet's
character. This is fitting for us, because we want the poet to be free of his
long-lasting burden of dependence on the attitude of his society or family.
The more the poet is personal, the better for our present-day society,
because we need to increase the creative spirit that possesses individual
thought.
(2) NATURE: Second generation English Romantics believe in the union of
man with nature. Nature has an intimate relation to man; its conditions
affect man's mood to a great extent; its beauty makes his temper as delicate
as the breeze. The delight in nature in Romantic poetry is the result of
western influence and particularly the influence of English poetry. Amongst
English Romantics it is Wordsworth who insists most forcibly on the
relationship between nature and poetry. In Lines written above Tintern
Abbey [1. 107-112], according to him, nature teaches men moral values and
may help mould their character to some degree:
both what they half-create,
And what perceive; well pleased to recognize
In nature and the language of the sense,
The anchor of my purest thoughts, the nurse,
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 The guide, the guardian of my heart, and soul
Of all my moral being.

(3) IMAGINATION: For the second generation English Romantics,

imagination is fundamental because, as they believe, poetry without it is
impossible. Coleridge is the supreme theoretician of the imagination. In
“Biographia Literaria” Coleridge divides imagination into two kinds-the
primary and the secondary: he considers the primary imagination as: "the
living power and prime agent of all human perception, and a repetition in
the finite mind of the eternal act of creation in the infinite I AM. ft (35) and
the secondary imagination as the power by which man and women echo of
the former, co-existing with conscious will, yet still as identified with the
primary in the kind of its agency and differing only in degree, and in the
mode of its operation. It dissolves, diffuses, and dissipates, in order to
recreate; or where this process is rendered impossible, yet still, at all events,
it struggles to idealize and to unify.

(4) EMOTION: The second generation Romantics follows the preference for
feeling over reason. Feeling, they believe, is the mainspring of Romantic art.
Wordsworth defines poetry as -the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings. (39)
The spontaneity, and the overflow of emotion are frequently emphasized by the
second generation Romantic poets. Wordworth's defines poetry as; poetry should
express truthfully the excitement of passions and Romanticism glorifies all kinds
of rich passions. But when we study passion in second generation Romantics, we
find it is almost synonymous with humanity.

The Second Generation of Romantic Poet

The poets of the second generation, Gorge Gordon Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley
and John Keats, all had intense but short lives. They lived through the
disillusionment of the post revolutionary period, the savage violence of the terror
and the threatening rise of the Napoleonic Empire. George Gordon Byron was the
prototype of the Romantic poet. He was heavily involved with contemporary social
issues and like the hearers of his long narrative poems, Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage
and Don Juan, was a melancholy and solitary figure whose action often defied
social conventions. Like Shelley, he left England and lives on the continent. He
pursued adventure in Italy and Greece.
Percy Bysshe Shelley was the most revolutionary and non-conformist of the
Romantic poets. He was an individualist and idealist who rejected the institutions
of family, church, marriage and the Christian faith and rebelled against all forms of

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tyranny. Shelley’s ideas were anarchic and he was considered dangerous by the
conservative society of his time. Many of his poems address social and political
issues. John Keats had a really brief life. The main theme of his poetry is the
conflict between the real world of suffering, death and decay and the ideal world of
beauty, imagination and eternal youth.

Percy Bysshey Shelley: was the most revolutionary and non-conformist of the
Romantic poets. He was an individualist and idealist who rejected the institutions
of family, church, marriage and the Christian faith and rebelled against all forms of
tyranny. Shelley’s ideas were anarchic and he was considered dangerous by the
conservative society of his time. Many of his poems address social and political
issues.
John Keats: Had a really brief life. The main theme of his poetry is the conflict
between the real world of suffering, death and decay and the ideal world of beauty,
imagination and eternal youth.

Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822)

Along with Lord Byron and John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley is among the most
respected and admired of the second generation of English Romantic poets. Best
known for his extended visionary poems, such as “Queen Mab” and the “Triumph
of Life” and his short verse poems (including “Ozymandias” and “Ode to the West
Wind”), Shelley is also famous for his once controversial and radical political
ideals and his often-proclaimed social idealism. He is perhaps best known, though,
as the husband of the novelist Mary Shelley (author of Frankenstein, a novel which
Percy Shelley is himself now credited with coauthoring). While Shelley’s
childhood was decidedly happy and rustic, his atheism and radical politics led to
his expulsion from college and estrangement from family at an early age. His
personal life was considered rather radical and controversial for his time,
especially given his pronounced leftist political ideals and the abandonment of his
first wife in favor of a woman named Mary Goodwin, who would become his
second wife. Though he began composing and publishing poetry at a young age,
Shelley’s career as poet did not truly get underway until he met the English poet
Lord Byron in 1816. This meeting resulted in a life-long friendship between the
two that served to inspire and influence some of Shelley’s finest poetry, including

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his great poems “Hymn to Intellectual Beauty” and “Mont Blanc.” Shelley was
also a friend of the poet John Keats, for whom he wrote the elegy poem “Adonis.”
Shelley drowned a month before his 30th birthday in a supposed boating accident
that many, today, consider to be a possible murder by his political rivals. Today,
Shelley is considered by critics and readers to be among the greatest of the second
generation of English Romantic poets. Unlike Lord Byron, though, Shelley did not
receive full critical and popular recognition until after his death. Several
generations of later poets and intellectuals—including, most notably, Karl Marx,
George Bernard Shaw, and William Butler Yeats—were inspired by Shelley’s
political and social idealism and radicalism. Shelley is also much admired for his
lyrical and psychologically powerful poetry, which offers a striking, visceral style
as well as strong messages on behalf of social justice, liberty, and non-violence.

P. B. Shelley’s view on nature

Percy Bysshe Shelley is a lover of nature. Love for nature is one of the key-notes
of his poetry. His poetry abounds in Nature imagery. Shelley believes that Nature
exercises a healing influence on man's personality. He finds solace and comfort in
nature and feels soothing influence on his heart. He treats poetry as a tool for
pouring his thoughts to the world. He presents the changing and indefinite moods
of Nature e.g. clouds, wind, lightening ,rocks and caves the fury of the storms,
waves dancing fast and bright etc.Shelley makes a request to the west wind to
make humans beings happy.In his Ode to the West Wind, He appeals:
Drive my dead thoughts over the universe,
Like withered leaves to quicken a new birth!(63-64)
He appeals to the west wind, the most forceful agent in nature to drive away his
dead thoughts (old memories) from him like shrunken leaves in order to start a new
life ,the life of happiness. These words are not only for Shelley to remain happy
but for all men and women in the world to be happy.The finest of Shelley’s poems,
are his lyrics, ‘The Skylark’, and ‘The Cloud’ are among the most unique and
dazzling of all the outbursts of poetic genius. ‘On Love’ Shelley reflects colorful
Nature imagery and glorification of nature. He shows fruition and fulfillment in his
poem and we find his poem related with Nature in which we find a profusion of
Nature.
Shelly in his poetry, appears as a Pantheist also. Shelley loved the indefinite and
the changeful in Nature. He presents the changing and indefinite moods of Nature

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in his poetry, like Clouds, Wind, Lightening, etc,.  ‘Adonis’ reflects the most
striking examples of Shelley’s pantheist. At an occasion, he thinks that Keats is
made one with Nature for the power, morning in Nature. Nature’s spirit is eternal.
The one remains, many change and pass: He argues that there is some intelligence
controlling Nature. In fact, he fuses the Platonic Philosophy of love with
pantheism.
In this Shelley uses the West Wind to symbolize the power of nature and of the
imagination inspired by nature. However the west wind is active and dynamic in
poems. Such as “Ode to the West wind”.  Even as it destroys, the wind encourages
new life on earth and social progress among humanity.
 Shelley finds Nature alive, capable of feeling and thinking like a human organism.
In “Ode to the West wind”, he hopes for the best and is confident that “If winter
comes, can spring be far behind?” His nature treatment is multidimensional;
scientific, philosophic, intellectual, mythical and of course human. This poem
“Ode to the West wind” reflects this particular trend of Shelley, in this poem he
shows that the west wind driving the dead leaves, scattering the living seeds,
awakening the Mediterranean and making the sea-plants feel its force. . His poetry
lacks pictorial definiteness and, often, his Nature description is clothed in mist.
As we seen that Shelley was pantheistic towards nature, he conceive every object
of Nature as possessing a distinct  individuality of its own, too, though he believes
that the spirit of love unites the whole universe, including Nature, yet he treats all
the natural objects as distinguishable entities. The sun, the moon, the stars, the
rainbow – all have been treated as separate beings of nature. This capacity of
individualizing the separate forces for Nature is termed as Shelley’s myth making
power which is best illustrated in “Ode to the West wind”. He gives the West
Wind, the ocean an independent life and personalities. He presents the
Mediterranean sleeping and then being awakened by the West Wind, just like a
human body.
Shelley refers to this unifying natural force in many of the poems, describing it as
the “Spirit of Beauty” in “Hymn to Intellectual Beauty” and identifying it with
Mont Blanc and the Arve River in “Mont Blanc”. This force is the cause of all
human joy, faith, Goodness and pleasure, and it is also the source of poetic
inspiration and divine truth. So all this natural forces inspired to poet to write the
poem.

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 As poets of Imagination
Shelley defended poetry as the expression of imagination and understood as
revolutionary creativity, which seriously meant to change the reality of an
increasingly material world. However, Shelley’s reality shows itself to be stronger
than the ideal and desire, and his world refuses to change. The poet is bound to
suffer and isolates himself from the rest of the world, projecting himself into a
better future.If the West Wind was Shelley's first convincing attempt to articulate
an aesthetic philosophy through metaphors of nature, the skylark is his greatest
natural metaphor for pure poetic expression, the "harmonious madness" of pure
inspiration. The skylark's song issues from a state of purified existence, a
Wordsworthian notion of complete unity with Heaven through nature; its song is
motivated by the joy of that uncomplicated purity of being, and is unmixed with
any hint of melancholy or of the bittersweet, as human joy so often is. The
skylark's unimpeded song rains down upon the world, surpassing every other
beauty, inspiring metaphor and making the speaker believe that the bird is not a
mortal bird at all, but a "Spirit," a "sprite," a "poet hidden / In the light of thought."
In that sense, the skylark is almost an exact twin of the bird in Keats's "Ode to a
Nightingale"; both represent pure expression through their songs, and like the
skylark, the nightingale "was not born for death." But while the nightingale is a
bird of darkness, invisible in the shadowy forest glades, the skylark is a bird of
daylight, invisible in the deep bright blue of the sky. The nightingale inspires Keats
to feel "a drowsy numbness" of happiness that is also like pain, and that makes him
think of death; the skylark inspires Shelley to feel a frantic, rapturous joy that has
no part of pain. To Keats, human joy and sadness are inextricably linked, as he
explains at length in the final stanza of the "Ode on Melancholy." But the skylark
sings free of all human error and complexity, and while listening to his song, the
poet feels free of those things, too.
Structurally and linguistically, this poem is almost unique among Shelley's works;
its strange form of stanza, with four compact lines and one very long line, and its
lilting, songlike diction ("profuse strains of unpremeditated art") work to create the
effect of spontaneous poetic expression flowing musically and naturally from the
poet's mind. Structurally, each stanza tends to make a single, quick point about the
skylark, or to look at it in a sudden, brief new light; still, the poem does flow, and
gradually advances the mini-narrative of the speaker watching the skylark flying
higher and higher into the sky, and envying its untrammeled inspiration--which, if
he were to capture it in words, would cause the world to listen.

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 Shelley’s Philosophy
P. B. Shelley: Shelley's Platonic leanings are well known. Plato thought that the
supreme power in the universe was the Spirit of beauty. Shelley borrowed this
conception from Plato and developed it in his metaphysical poem: Hymn to
Intellectual Beauty. Intellectual Beauty is omnipotent and man must worship it.
The favorite Greek conceit of pre-existence in many earlier lives may frequently be
found in other poems besides the "Prometheus Unbound" quoted in part II of our
series. The last stanza of ""The Cloud," is Shelly's Platonic symbol of human life.
P. B. Shelley: The wispy, fluid terza Rima of "Ode to the West Wind" finds
Shelley taking a long thematic leap beyond the scope of "Hymn to Intellectual
Beauty," and incorporating his own art into his meditation on beauty and the
natural world. Shelley invokes the wind magically, describing its power and its
role as both "destroyer and preserver," and asks the wind to sweep him out of his
torpor "as a wave, a leaf, a cloud!" In the fifth section, the poet then takes a
remarkable turn, transforming the wind into a metaphor for his own art, the
expressive capacity that drives "dead thoughts" like "withered leaves" over the
universe, to "quicken a new birth"--that is, to quicken the coming of the spring
As a poet of Classical
The classic writers have created myths by providing nature with the power to do
the same deeds and actions that human beings and animals do. Therefore, Shelley
does not rely on others‟ creativity totally, but he transcends to create his own
myths by following the same procedures of creating their stories. According to
him, myth is a fictitious narrative incarnating an idea on natural phenomena. In
mythology, the primitives believe that the sun god rides the chariot of the sun from
the morning until night. The movement of the sun follows the tracks of dawn and
night that vanish after each position the light of the sun reaches. Seasons appear as
powerful beings that overcome each other regularly in the year. On this basis,
Shelley moves forward to mythologize the components of nature by creating new
myths out of the natural forces. He ignores the belief that the nature as one being
and he alternatively believes that each natural phenomena is a detached being has
its own life and power. Thus, he mythologizes the cloud, the night, the west wind
and the moon. B. Shelley: Shelley expresses love as one of the godlike phenomena
in human life and beauty is the intellectual beauty to him. We find the clear idea of
Shelley’s love and beauty through Hymn to the Intellectual Beauty. The poem's
process is doubly figurative or associative, in that, once the poet abstracts the
metaphor of the Spirit from the particulars of natural beauty, he then explains the

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workings of this Spirit by comparing it back to the very particulars of natural
beauty from which it was abstracted in the first place.
As a poets of Melancholy
P. B. Shelley: He is one of the greatest, successful Melancholic in his age. It is this
unsatisfied desire, this almost painful yearning with its recurring disappointment
and disillusionment, which is at the root of Shelley’s melancholy. His most famous
and powerful lines, reveals the melancholy, are in Ode to the West Wind:
Oh, lift me as a wave, a leaf, a cloud!
I fall upon the thorns of life! I bleed
A heavy weight of hours has chained and bowed
One too like thee: timeless, and swift, and proud.
His melancholy is thus vital to his poetry. It may be said that his music is the
product of his genius and his melancholy. His melancholy is what the world seems
to like best as:
“Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thoughts.”
John Keats life and works (1795-1821

John Keats is the last important poet of English Romanticism, but differently from
Byron and Shelley, he does not express rebellious or utopian ideas, and differently
from Wordsworth his poetry contains no moral and social message. He thinks, in
fact, the poet's task lies in search of beauty both in man and in nature, since beauty
is the only lasting value. Beauty is perceived through the senses, which are the
instrument by which man can escape from the ugliness of reality. The central
theme of his poetry is the romantic conflict between the ideal and real, between the
desire for eternity and the awareness of passing of time. He turns for inspiration to
Greek mythology, as we can see in his "Ode on a Grecian Urn", and to medieval
ballads.

Beauty for Keats can be physical (women, nature, paintings) or spiritual

(friendship, love, poetry). The former is subject to time and decay, the latter is
eternal and immoral. So the artist will die but the beauty he has created will
continue to live. This is the reason for which Keats can be considered the
forerunner of the English Aesthetic movement, whose best representative is Oscar
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Wilde. For Keats imagination, as he wrote in his letter to a friend, is that to
recognize beauty in existing things, but also to create beauty.
In this poem Keats reflects on the “lure” of art: for him poetry creates consolation
but also deception, because it is different from reality. In fact, poetry represents an
eternal beauty, which in reality is mortal and transitory. However there is a price to
pay for eternity: the immobility and the lack of vitality of the eternal figures, which
are “cold” because they are “frozen” in a state of pure beauty. So Keats’ idea of art
is ambivalent because, though it is eternal, it also means death and silence. This
ambiguity of art, which is at the same time superior and inferior to life, is an
example of Keats’ notion of “negative capability”: it means the ability of the poet
to escape from or to negate his own personality and so to open himself fully to the
complex reality around him; “negative capability” also means the ability of the
poet to live in a state of permanent doubt, which is for example expressed in the
closing lines of the poem: “Beauty is truth, truth beauty”.

John Keats' Ideas - The Keatsian Theology

Pursuit of Beauty

With a pure poet, the pursuit of beauty overcomes every other consideration. The
poetry of Keats is an unending pursuit of beauty. He pursued truth indeed, but truth
for him was beauty. He never intellectualized his poetry. He was gifted with
extraordinary sensibility and had an ardent passion for the beauty of the visible
world. He therefore cried, “O for a life of sensation rather than of thought” (It may
be mentioned here that Keats uses the word ‘thought’ in the sense of abstract
reasoning or speculation.) His entire being was thrilled by the beauty of the world;
nothing gave him greater delight than the excitement of his sense, produced by ‘a
thing of beauty’.

All his poetry is full of the sensuous appeal of beautiful things. To Wordsworth
nature is a living being with power to influence the human mind, and carrying a
spiritual message. Shelley, though not a moralist, is an idealist—”The poet of the
sky and the sea and the cloud—the gold of dawn and the gloom of earthquake and
eclipse.” The world that he depicts and makes symbolic of human passions—is
rarely the world that we know, but it is a world that he has intensely imagined. His
grand description, of the effects of the west wind, is a great poetry.

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O Wild West Wind, thou breathe of autumn’s being.

But the beauty and grandeur of the west wind goes beyond our actual experience.
When we turn to Keats’s “Ode to autumn’’ we are brought into imaginative contact
with beauty that we know. Autumn is represented by Keats by its familiar
qualities: “mist and mellow fruitfulness”. Realism and truth inform every detail of
the poem. Keats neither attributes moral life to nature, nor attempts to pass beyond
her familiar manifestations. He, the pure poet that he is, sees and presents nature as
she is, and his presentation has that magic quality with which his imagination has
supremely endowed him.

Spontaneity and concentration of thought and feeling

Keats was a pure poet in the sense that in his poetry he was a poet and nothing else
—not a teacher, not a preacher, not a conscious carrier of any humanitarian or
spiritual message. His ambition was to become a poet, pure and simple and his
ambition was fulfilled. Poetry came naturally to him, as leaves come to a tree; it
was the spontaneous utterance of his powerful feeling. The poetry of Keats x was
based on his actual experience of life, and therefore it is marked by spontaneity and
intensity. What he experienced and felt upon his pulse he expressed. He actually
listened to the song of a nightingale, and the music of the song actually transported
him to the world of imagination. He attained the realization of eternity and truth in
the beauty of the song, and he wrote the famous line, “Thou wast not born for
death, immortal bird”. Much has been written about the logical fallacy of the line,
but what did the poet in Keats care? What he felt he wrote. Keats genuinely felt the
thought that a beautiful thing also pleases, and so he wrote, ‘A thing of beauty is a
joy for ever9. And because he felt the truth of what he wrote, it carries an instant
conviction and is in itself a joy forever. In fact, the power of Keats’s poetry is due
to intense concentration of thought and feelings.

Submission to the truth of life and experience

Keats possessed what Bradley calls “the Shakespeare on strain”, and submitted to
the truth of life. He knew that the cold wind and the hot sun were as essential as the
fresh blown rose. The poetry of Shakespeare reveals the beauty of life; truth is
beauty, it says. It accepts the world of men and women and accepts them as they
are. This is also true of Keats. He accepted life as it is, joy and sorrow, happiness

14
and melancholy—both exist side by side; if there is discord in life, it has its music
too. A pure poet always submits to life, so that life is glorified through him. “Keats
submitted himself” says Middleton Murray, “Steadily, persistently, unflinchingly
to life” and had “the capacity to see and to feel what life is.”

A pure poet feels and expresses his joy in beauty, but when he feels this joy, he
realizes also a new aspect of beauty, which is truth. In this identity of Beauty and
Truth lies the secret harmony of the universe. Keats realizes this harmony when he
emphatically says,

Beauty is Truth, Truth Beauty,—that is all

Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.

Beauty transcends individuals, time and space. For Keats, Beauty is truth. He
arrived at this truth through ‘negative capability’ and through realization of the
necessity of pain and sorrow. A pure poet like Keats loves foul and fair, joy and
sorrow, mean and elevated alike. He turns unflinchingly to life and human
experiences, and by an act of imagination transmutes the bitterest human
experience into beauty which is truth.

Pursuit of truth

But Keats’s aestheticism was not only sensuous—it had an intellectual element. He
was constantly endeavoring to reach truth through beauty; he had a conviction that
“for his progress towards truth, thought, knowledge and philosophy were indispen-
sable. But he felt also that “a poet will never be able to rest in thoughts and
reasoning’s, which do not also satisfy imagination and give a truth which is also
beauty”. But in so far as they fail to do this, in so far as they are thoughts and
reasoning’s, they are no more than a means to an end, which end is beauty—that
beauty which is also truth. This alone is the poet’s end and therefore his law.”
(Bradley). Keats was led to this conviction by the poetic instinct in him. He was
more than Wordsworth or Coleridge or Shelley, a poet pure and simple.

Negative capability

“Stephen Hebron explores Keats’s understanding of negative capability, a concept

which prizes intuition and uncertainty above reason and knowledge.”

15
Keats has an impulse to interest himself in anything he saw or heard. He accepted
it and identified himself with it “If a sparrow comes before my window,” say
Keats, “I take part in its existence and pick about the gravel.” A poet, he says, has
no identity. He is continually in, for and filling some other body. “Of the poetic
character,” Keats says, “it has no self; it is everything and nothing. It enjoys light
and shade; it lives in gusto, be it foul or fair, high or low, rich or poor, mean or
elevated. It has as much delight in conceiving an Imago or Imogene.

What shocks the virtuous philosopher delights the chamelion poet. This is the spirit
of Shakespeare. Though Keats did not fully achieve this ideal, he was growing
towards it. For Keats, the necessary quality of poetry is a submission to things as
they are, without any effort to intellectualize them into something else. Keats and
the nightingale are merged into one—it is his soul that sings in the bird. He was
wholly in the place and in the time and with the things of which he wrote. He could
be absorbed wholly in the loveliness of the hour and the joy of the moment. (He is
fully thrilled by the beauty of autumn. He does not complain.

Where are the songs of spring? Ay, where are they?

Think not of them, thou hast thy music too.

This joy in the present, this absorption in the beauty of the hour-is one of the chief
marks of his genius as a pure poet.

No moral teaching or didacticism

Keats often says that the poet must not live for himself, but must feel for others,
and must do good but he must do so by being a poet—not by being a teacher or
moralist. He must have a purpose of doing good by his poetry, but he must not
obtrude it in his poetry—that is, he must not show that he has palpable design upon
us. Keats says: “We hate poetry that has a palpable design upon us. Poetry should
be great and unobtrusive— a thing which enters into one’s soul and does not startle
it”. To make beauty, says Bradley, is his (poet’s) philanthropy. He must be
unselfish; by refusing, that is, to be diverted from his poetic way of helping by his
desire to help in another way. Hence there is no didacticism in Keats as there is in
Wordsworth. There is no moralizing in The Eve of St. Agnes as there is none in
King Lear; in both, the poets leave their works to speak for themselves.

16
 Focus on Familiar Things

Unlike some of his contemporary Romantic poets, Keats focused on common and
familiar things in his poetic attempts to understand beauty. While Percy Bysshe
Shelley wrote about intangible things, Keats focused on more immediate and
identifiable things such as the cool dew of an autumn day. Keats once wrote, “If a
sparrow comes before my window, I take part in its existence and pick about the
gravel.” This suggests that Keats was always on the lookout for beautiful things
wherever they occurred. Keats seemed to believe it’s easy to see beauty in a
majestic mountain or a stunning sunset, but the activities of a common bird
pecking at a window contain just as much beauty.

Removal of Self

In his poetry, Keats attempted to identify and explore the beauty of common things
by stripping himself of any personality traits that would potentially dictate his
exploration. In this pursuit, he aligned himself with writers such as William
Shakespeare, whom he saw as being able to discover the beauty in mundane things
because he did not express preferences. This attempt to remove his personality
from his pursuit of and description of beauty is a reaction to earlier Romantic
poets, such as William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, whom Keats
saw as having a sort of poetic obsession with beauty as it exists in the natural
world.

Odal Hymns

The most famous set of Keats’ poems include six odes he wrote to physical things,
such as an urn, a nightingale and an autumn day, and mental things, such as
indolence, melancholy and psyche. These odes fall within the poetic tradition of
English odes in that they are lyrical stanzas that are dedicated to praising
something. These poems perfectly represent Keats’ poetic obsession with
identifying and describing beauty in everyday objects. They are essentially
expanded descriptions, mixed with imagined narratives about the object on which
they focus. Through this interplay of description and narration, Keats reveals each
object's or concept’s beauty.

Keat’s poetical achievement

17
Keats’s influence has been very strong from Tennyson to the present time. His
emphasis upon craftsmanship has had excellent following. Many a poet has been
led through the example of Keats to perfect verse that might otherwise have been
carelessly written. Keats also turned attention to richness of verse, unlike the
simplicity of Wordsworth. Again, he taught a new use of the classics. Instead of
finding in the classics models for restraint he found a highly colored romanticism.
Restraint of form he did emphasize, but for his material he chose the legends of
Endymion and Lamia rather than the tales of Greeks and Romans of inspiring
deeds. Keats’s greatest achievement, however, is in his presentation of pure beauty.
Beauty itself was his interest, not beauty to point a moral or to carry a message.
Keats had no lesson to teach. He did not want to call his readers’ attentions to
social wrongs as Shelley did; to the corrupt state of society as Byron did, to nature
as a great moral teacher as Wordsworth did. Because of this lack of bias, his poems
have an objective beauty which is especially attractive to young people. But to
readers of all ages Keats sings enduring music.

The underlying principle of all Keats’s poetic thought is this: “Beauty is Truth,
Truth Beauty”. In one of his letters he says: “I have loved the principle of beauty in
all things”. But his “passion for the beautiful” was not that of the sensuous or senti-
mental man, it was an intellectual and spiritual passion. There was a deep
melancholy about him, too; pain and beauty were the two in tensest experiences of
his mind. “Do you not see”, he writes, “how necessary a world of pains and
troubles is to school are intelligence and make it a soul?” Keats studied the
Elizabethans, mid “caught their turn of thought, and really saw things with their
sovereign eye. He rediscovered the delight and wonder that lay enchanted in a
dictionary” (Lowell). “There is something of the innermost soul of poetry in almost
everything he wrote”. (Tennyson).

P.B. Shelley and John Keats as the second generation romantic poets

The poets of the second generation shared their predecessors’ passion for liberty
and were in a position to learn from their experiments. Percy Bysshe Shelley in
particular was deeply interested in politics, coming early under the spell of the
anarchist views of William Godwin, who’s Enquiry Concerning Political Justice
had appeared in 1793. Shelley’s revolutionary ardor caused him to claim in his
critical essay “A Defence of Poetry” (1821, published 1840) that “the most

18
unfailing herald, companion, and follower of the awakening of a great people to
work a beneficial change in opinion or institution, is poetry,” and that poets are
“the unacknowledged legislators of the world.” This fervor burns throughout the
early Queen Mab (1813), the long Loan and Cythna (retiled The Revolt of Islam,
1818), and the lyrical drama Prometheus Unbound (1820). Shelley saw himself at
once as poet and prophet, as the fine “Ode to the West Wind” (1819) makes clear.
Despite his grasp of practical politics, however, it is a mistake to look for
concreteness in his poetry, where his concern is with subtleties of perception and
with the underlying forces of nature: his most characteristic images are of sky and
weather, of lights and fires. His poetic stance invites the reader to respond with
similar outgoing aspiration. It adheres to the Rousseauistic belief in an underlying
spirit in individuals, one truer to human nature itself than the behavior evinced and
approved by society. In that sense his material is transcendental and cosmic and his
expression thoroughly appropriate. Possessed of great technical brilliance, he is, at
his best, a poet of excitement and power.

John Keats, by contrast, was a poet so sensuous and physically specific that his
early work, such as Endymion (1818), could produce an over-luxuriant, cloying
effect. As the program set out in his early poem “Sleep and Poetry” shows,
however, Keats was determined to discipline himself: even before February 1820,
when he first began to cough blood, he may have known that he had not long to
live, and he devoted himself to the expression of his vision with feverish intensity.
He experimented with many kinds of poems: “Isabella” (published 1820), an
adaptation of a tale by Giovanni Boccaccio, is a tour de force of craftsmanship in
its attempt to reproduce a medieval atmosphere and at the same time a poem
involved in contemporary politics. His epic fragment Hyperion (begun in 1818 and
abandoned, published 1820; later begun again and published posthumously as The
Fall of Hyperion in 1856) has a new sparseness of imagery, but Keats soon found
the style too Miltonic and decided to give himself up to what he called “other
sensations.” Some of these “other sensations” are found in the poems of 1819,
Keats’s annus mirabilis: “The Eve of St. Agnes” and the great odes “To a
Nightingale,” “On a Grecian Urn,” and “To Autumn.” These, with the Hyperion
poems, represent the summit of Keats’s achievement, showing what has been
called “the disciplining of sensation into symbolic meaning,” the complex themes
being handled with a concrete richness of detail. His superb letters show the full

19
range of the intelligence at work in his poetry. His two longest poems, Childe
Harold’s Pilgrimage (1812–18) and Don Juan (1819–24), his masterpiece,
provided alternative personae for himself, the one a bitter and melancholy exile
among the historic sites of Europe, the other a picaresque adventurer enjoying a
series of amorous adventures. The gloomy and misanthropic vein was further
mined in dramatic poems such as Manfred (1817) and Cain (1821), which helped
to secure his reputation in Europe, but he is now remembered best for witty, ironic,
and less portentous writings, such as Beppo (1818), in which he first used the
ottava rima form. The easy, nonchalant, biting style developed there became a
formidable device in Don Juan and in his satire on Southey, The Vision of
Judgment (1822).

John Keats and P.B.Shelley’s treatment of nature

The poetry of the English Romantic Period contains many descriptions and ideas
of nature. All these authors discuss in varying degrees, the role of nature in
acquiring meaningful insight into the human condition. These writers all make
appeal to nature as if it some kind of living entity calls made for nature to rescue
the struggling and carry his ideas to the world. Romantic poets love nature and
celebrate in its various dimensions. They wrote about the beauty of green
meadows, thick forests, thin flowers, high hill, river banks, rural scenes, wild wind,
fresh air, sun rises and sets etc. Almost all the romantic poets touched every scene
of natural beauty. This paper tries to focus few works of second generation
romantic poet Keats and Shelley and role of nature in their poetry.

John Keats', "To Autumn", and Percy Shelley's, "Ode to the West Wind", are both
poems that use the Romantic element of nature to describe human feelings. They
use the seasons to portray their views of life. Though both use seasons as their
metaphor, both apply it with different terms.

Keats poem uses autumn to portray the mind and life of man. Life is viewed as the
process of aging, decay, and death. The first stanza there is a sense of ripeness as
fall is beginning to approach, and summer is ending. Under the "maturing sun"
indicates nature at its full bloom. Keats sees summer as his climactic time of life.
By the second stanza, Keats has reached his "last oozing," or his last moments of
summer, which he views as the climactic time of his life. Autumn is beginning to

20
arrive and winter, or death, is approaching soon after. The last stanza asks, "Where
are the songs of spring? Ay, where are they"" Or, where are Keats' carefree
younger days? He says, "Barred clouds bloom the soft-dying day," he is resisting
the death he sees approaching. The poem is relates nature to the closure of the
season, while it is the closure of the author's life.

Keats is one of the greatest lover and admirer of nature. He expresses the beauty
of both real and artistic forms of nature. Everything in nature for him is full of
wonder and mystery-the rising sun, the moving cloud, the growing bud and the
swimming fish. His love for nature is purely sensuous and he loves the beautiful
sights and scenes of nature for their own sake. He believes that "A thing of beauty
is a joy for ever'. He looks with child-like delight at the objects of nature. In his
poem ode to a Nightingale, he writes:

My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains

My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk

Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains

Keats is astonished to see happiness of the Nightinagle.Before the hearing of song

of the bird, he tried many ways of forgetting worries Keats believed he has either
been poisoned or is influenced by drug. But Keats felt a tranquil and continual joy
in the song of Nightingale and makes him completely happy. It indicates to unite
with nature gives eternal happiness for the mankind. Nature woks as a source of
generating happiness and is a best guide for human beings to live a happy life.
Another poem of Keats, he praises the artistic beauty of nature. He yearns for
eternal beauty: He portrays the artistic beauty of nature in his poem Ode on a
Grecian urn. He addresses the Grecian Urn as"unravished bride of quietness and a
foster-child of silence and slow time". He also calls the Grecian urn a "Sylvan
historian "because of the rural and forest scenes carved on its surface. Keats also
goes on to say that music which is imagined is much sweeter than music which is
actually heard.

Ah happy, happy boughs! That cannot shed leaves,

Nor ever bid the spring adieu;

21
 And, happy melodist, unwearied,

Forever piping songs forever new;

PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY: Percy Bysshe Shelley is a lover of nature. Love for
nature is one of the key-notes of his poetry. His poetry abounds in Nature imagery.
Shelley believes that Nature exercises a healing influence on man's personality. He
finds solace and comfort in nature and feels soothing influence on his heart. He
treats poetry as a tool for pouring his thoughts to the world. He presents the
changing and indefinite moods of Nature e.g. clouds, wind, lightening ,rocks and
caves the fury of the storms, waves dancing fast and bright etc.Shelley makes a
request to the west wind to make humans beings happy.In his Ode to the West
Wind, He appeals:

Drive my dead thoughts over the universe,

Like withered leaves to quicken a new birth!(63-64)

He appeals to the west wind, the most forceful agent in nature to drive away his
dead thoughts (old memories) from him like shrunken leaves in order to start a new
life ,the life of happiness. These words are not only for Shelley to remain happy
but for all men and women in the world to be happy. Another poem of Shelley to a
Skylark. He describes skylark as a "blithe Spirit "rather than a bird, for its songs
comes from Heaven, and from its full heart pours "profuse strains of
unpremeditated art". He brings the attention of bird and teaches us to enjoy natural
attitude of it. Skylark sings like a poet hidden in the glow of his thoughts and
influencing the whole world. He says no song that man sings can ever match the
raptures of the birds. Shelley urges human beings to get bliss with nature through
this bird. He considers the Skylark the source of its happiness:

What objects are the fountains

Of thy happy strain?

What fields, or waves, or mountains?

What shape of sky or pain (71-74)

22
 Shelley accepts that natural (fountains, fields, waves, mountains etc) things are the
source of happiness. He feels human beings are beyond the happiness of this bird.
If they give up hate, pride, fear and sorrow they will reach the steeps of joy like
Skylark. He writes:

Yet if we could scorn

Hate, and pride, and fear;

If we were things born

Not to shed a tear (86-89)

Shelley points out another fear of mankind are fear of death which is completely
ignored by the bird while flying high on the sky. The bird rises higher and higher
from the earth a continues singing as it soars up. This poem teaches that man
should not have fear of death and do enjoy the present moment like the Skylark
which goes higher and higher without any fear of death. Man should also have to
enjoy the present movement.

Shelley uses the wind in his poem as a spirit, and concentrates on the aspect that
the wind causes death or darkness. In the first two stanzas of the poem, there are
comparisons of "dead leaves" to "ghosts" and "winged seeds" to dead bodies that
"lie cold and low... within its grave." The author comes to associate the season of
autumn with these dismal, violent thoughts. He sees the autumn season of a time of
aging, and of a "dying year." As the poem progresses, Shelley starts describing
images of peace and serenity. He talks about the "blue Mediterranean" and
"summer dreams." By the final stanzas of the poem, Shelley, wants to use the
winds evil power to create a new beginning. "Drive my dead thoughts over the
universe like withered leaves to quicken a new rebirth!" He feels that good can
come through evil, therefore, respects the wind changing him.

Percy Bysshe Shelley and John Keats are priest of nature, true lover of nature,
lover and admirer of nature. They state nature has bestowed, unwearied joy to
mankind. Nature works as source of inspirations. Nature woks as a source of
generating happiness and is a best guide for human beings to live a happy life.
Percy Bysshe Shelley's and John Keats believed that nature has answer for all
unanswered questions. They celebrate the beauty of nature in its various

23
dimensions. To conclude nature is our best guide, source of inspiration to lead a
happy and prosperous life.

Similarities and dissimilarities between P.B Shelley and John Keats

Comparing the Romantic poets generates a wide and varied spectrum, with each
widely varying in their individual views of poetry, including ideals, definition of
heroes, and evil (Renee'), One of the most distinct attributes of the Romantic
writers Percy Bysshe Shelley and John Keats is their gift of using both opulent and
tactile words within their poetry. Both men were great lovers of nature, and an
abundance of their poetry is filled with nature and the mysterious magnificence it
holds. Though P. B. Shelley and John Keats were mutual friends, but they have
haunted the diversified qualities in their vision. These two are the great
contributors of English Literature, though their lifecycle were very short. Their
comparison is also diminutive with each other, while each are very much similar in
thoughts, imagination, creation and also in their lifetime.

P.B Shelley‘s “Ode to the west wind’’ and Keats “To Autumn”

One of the most distinct attributes of the Romantic writers Percy Bysshe

Shelley and John Keats is their gift of using both lush and tactile words within their
poetry. Both men were great lovers of nature, and an abundance of their poetry is
filled with nature and the mysterious magnificence it holds. Both writers happened
to compose poems concerning autumn in the year of 1819, and although the two
pieces contain similar traits of the Romantic period, they differ from each other in
several ways as well. Keats' poem "To Autumn" and Shelley's poem "Ode to the
West Wind" both contain potent and vivacious words about the season and both
include similar metaphors involving autumn. However, the feelings each writer
express in their pieces vary greatly from each other, and Keats and Shelley address
nature in their poems with different intentions as well.

Shelley and Keats exhibit their genius for rich energized word use within these two
poems wonderfully. Also, interesting similarities between the two pieces are some
of the metaphors the poets implement. Hair is a subject both writers explored as
a metaphor for nature. Shelley, in "Ode to the West Wind," claims the wind is "like
the bright hair uplifted from the head/ Of some fierce Maenad," while Keats views
24
autumn as "sitting careless on a granary floor,/ Thy hair soft-lifted by the
winnowing wind." Hair, often used in poetry metaphorically, tends to symbolize
feminine beauty and strength; in this case, both poets make use of the subject of
hair when describing certain aspects of nature. The speakers in these two poems
also express their thoughts on the portent of the coming spring. In the final couplet
of Shelley's poem, the speaker asks, "Oh wind,/ if Winter comes, can Spring be far
behind?" The speaker in Keats' poem inquires, "Where are the songs of spring? Ay,
where are they?" Both poets look upon autumn as an indication of the coming
season which is opposite of autumn. The subjects of seeds and budding plants are
also touched upon within the two pieces. Autumn is when, as Shelley writes, "the
winged seeds" are placed in their "dark wintry bed" and "lie cold and low." And
Keats writes that autumn is the time when the hazel shells are "plump with a
sweet kernel; to set budding more." These similarities between the two pieces are
interesting; however there are many differences in the poems as well.

Keats and Shelley express different emotions about the fall season. Shelley looks at
autumn as being wild and fierce while Keats has a more gentle view of the season.
Shelley perceives autumn as an annual death, calling it "Thou dirge/of the dying
year," and he uses words such as "corpse" and sepulchre" in the poem. He also
employs words such as "hectic" and "timeless", and looks upon the autumn horizon
as being "the locks of the approaching storm." Also, he claims the autumn winds
are where "black rain and fire and hail will burst." Lines such as this reveal the
speaker's attitude that autumn is a ferocious and reckless season
bearing morbid portend of the coming winter. On the other hand, Keats fills his
poem with lighter words such as "mellow," "sweet," "patient," and "soft." The
speaker of this poem looks out upon the landscape and hears the "full-grown lambs
loud bleat from hilly bourn," and listens as the "gathering swallows twitter in the
skies." These lines indicate a much softer and more amiable emotion felt by the
speaker; sentiments quite opposite to those felt in "Ode to the West Wind."

Another great difference in these poems are the intentions of the poets themselves.
Shelley, in his thirst for being known, wants to attain power like the wind has. He
asks of the wind, "Be thou, Spirit fierce, / my spirit! Be thou me, impetuous one!"
He pleads for it to move his thoughts "over the universe/ Like withered leaves to
quicken a new birth," and to "scatter, as from an unextinguished hearth/ Ashes and
sparks, my words among mankind."
25
Shelley's more ambitious approach to the weather differs from Keats, who merely
enjoys the season for what it holds and asks nothing from it. Keats thoroughly
enjoys the "stubble-plains with rosy hue," and listening as "the red-breast whistles
from a garden-croft." Although both writers examine the autumn season, each
express different intentions in the poems they have written.

Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" and Keats' "To Autumn" have striking
similarities when it comes to their rich metaphors; however, the poems differ in
almost every other sense. Shelley holds a much more savage notion about the
season, while Keats looks upon autumn as being soft and gentle. Shelley's
ambitions are expressed in his piece, while Keats only reflects the beauty of what
he sees. Both writers display their own unique talent as poets, deserving their titles
as being two of the greatest Romantic writers of the period.

26
Conclusion

Importance and contributions of these two second generation Romantic poets is not
legible for the events in 19 century England and Europe in general. Rejected by the
English society, all of them, as poetes mauditis, helped and encouraged each other
despite different attitudes when poetry was concerned.

To sum up, in comparing the ideas of Keats and Shelley I use Shelley's "Ode to the
West Wind" and Keats' "To Autumn” to show how do they differ from each other .
Both these poems have striking similarities when it comes to their rich metaphors;
however, the poems differ in almost every other sense. Shelley holds a much more
savage notion about the season, while Keats looks upon autumn as being soft and
gentle. Shelley's ambitions are expressed in his piece, while Keats only reflects the
beauty of what he sees. Both writers display their own unique talent as poets,
deserving their titles as being two of the greatest Romantic writers of the period.
The two autumnal odes by Shelley and Keats are two diverse points of view on the
same subject. This subject is our human understanding that everything in our lives
is transitive and that nothing lasts forever. The two Romantic poets deeply
penetrate the mood of something going and dying. They both see in the aging of a
year their own aging and fear it, however, they represent two different human
relations with the things they see. Shelley represents the optimistic humanity which
is able to expect a better future even in the casual present perplexities and the
humanity continues living with his hopes for the changes. At the same time, Keats
is a representative of that part of us which is not able to withstand his pessimistic
thoughts and he lives by what he has today and silently leaves the world for
tranquility in nonexistence. So the poets in their own poems show their readers the
two possible ways of existence which are given to each one of us for selection.
Generally speaking, Shelley and Keats were free thinkers when theology and
morals were concerned.

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