4.

INTRODUCING ALGEBRA

DIRECTED NUMBERS Conversely, we can rewrite any subtraction sentence

as an addition sentence, provided that the sign of the
A directed number is one which has a positive (+) or subtrahend changes. In the examples below the
negative (–) sign attached to it, in order to show its subtrahend is positive and so its inverse is negative.
direction. When we speak of direction, it is necessary
to establish a reference point or origin, from which
+
5 - +2 = +5 + -2
direction is fixed. On a horizontal number line, for
example, numbers to the right of zero are assigned
+
8 - +3 = +8 + -3
positive directions, while numbers to the left of zero
are assigned negative directions. -
2 - +4 = -2 + -4

m
If a number has a positive direction, then the positive
sign is not usually displayed before the numeral. When the subtrahend is negative, its inverse is
positive.

co
However, when a number has a negative direction, a
negative sign must be displayed just before the
+
5 - -2 = +5 + +2
numeral. Usually, the position of the negative sign is
slightly raised. For example, negative 5 is written as
+
8 - -3 = +8 + +3

.
hs
-
5 instead of -5; the latter meaning to take away or
subtract 5.
-
2 - -4 = -2 + +4

Addition and Subtraction

at Subtracting a number is equivalent to adding its
additive inverse. In general,
m
1. When adding two numbers whose directions 𝑎 − (𝑏) = 𝑎 + (−𝑏)
are the same, the result is the sum of the two 𝑎 − (−𝑏) = 𝑎 + (𝑏)
numbers and the direction is maintained.
s
as

+
3 + +5 = + 8
-
6 + - 1 = -7 Multiplication and Division
sp

When multiplying or dividing two numbers whose

2. When adding two numbers whose directions directions are the same, the result is a positive
are different, the result is the difference number.
between the numbers and the direction is the
.fa

same as that of the larger number.

4 ´ 3 = 12 -
4 ´ -3 = 12
- 8÷4=2 -
8 ÷ -4 = +2
7 + +5 = -2
w

+
6 + -4 = +2
When multiplying or dividing two numbers whose
w

directions are different, the result is a negative

number.
Relationship between Addition and Subtraction
w

4 ´ -3 = - 12 -
4 ´ 3 = -12
Recall that subtraction is the inverse of addition. -
8÷4=-2 8 ÷ -4 = -2
From the above example, we know that
+
6 + -4 = +2

Using the inverse property, this could have been When we multiply (or divide) two terms with same
written as a subtraction of positive 4. signs, the result is positive.
+
6 - +4 = +2
When we multiply (or divide) two terms with
Any addition sentence can be written as a subtraction different signs the result is negative.
sentence provided that we change the sign of the
number to be subtracted (subtrahend).

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ALGEBRAIC SYMBOLS Example 1

The rules that apply to arithmetic are the same as Assuming Adam is a years old.
those that apply to algebra. However, in arithmetic, Write down the ages of his friends and relatives given
we perform operations on numbers to obtain a that:
numerical value, whereas, in algebra we perform (i) His cousin, Raveed is twice his age.
operations on symbols, as well as numbers, to obtain (ii) His friend, Avinash is 5 years older than he is.
our final result. (iii) His sister Anah is 4 years more than half his age.
(iv) His father, Naim is 10 years less than three times
An algebraic symbol represents an unknown number. his age.
We usually use letters of the alphabet to represent (v) If he adds 6 years to his age and multiplies the
symbols. Symbols can take any value, unlike answer by five, the result is his grandmother’s
numbers whose values are known. age.

m
A quantity that is fixed is called a constant.
A quantity that varies is called a variable or an Solution
unknown quantity. (i) Raveed’s age: 2 ´ a = 2a

co
(ii) Avinash’s age: a + 5
Formulating algebraic expressions 1 1
(iii) Anah’s age: (a ) + 4 = a + 4

.
2 2

hs
An algebraic expression may comprise both variables (iv) Naim’s age: (3 ´ a ) - 10 = 3a - 10
and numbers. When formulating algebraic
expressions, we actually translate from words or (v) Grandmother’s age: 5 ´ (a+6)= 5(a+6)
verbal phrases to algebraic symbols.

Addition and subtraction at

m
Simplifying algebraic expressions
The sum of a and b is written a + b
s
a added to b is written b + a An algebraic expression consists of a set of terms. A
term can be a number, a variable or the product of a
a subtracted from b is written b - a
as

number and a variable (or variables). Addition or

The difference between a and b may be a - b or b - a subtraction signs separate terms in an expression.
Three more than p is written p + 3
sp

Sometimes we may wish to rewrite a complex

Three less than p is written p - 3
algebraic expression in a simpler form. This process
is called simplification. In simplifying an algebraic
Multiplication and division
.fa

expression, we express or write it in the most

compact or efficient manner, without changing the
Three times p is written 3 ´ p = 3 p value of the expression. To do so, we need to be able
The product of a and b is written a ´ b = ab to differentiate between like and unlike terms.
w

a
a divided b is written The following is an algebraic expression:
w

b
1 1 3a + 5ab + 2c
One-third of a is written as ´ a = a
w

3 3 This expression has three terms, all three terms have

variables but all variables have different symbols or
It is important to point out that the multiplication sign combination of symbols, hence, there are no like
is omitted and division is written using the fractional terms.
notation. Like terms are terms with the same variable or
product of variables. In the expression above, the
5 × (𝑥 + 3) is written as 5(𝑥 + 3) symbol, a, can represent a value that is quite distinct
4 from the values represented by the symbols b and c.
4 ÷ (𝑥 − 5) is written as
𝑥−5 All three terms are unlike terms.
(𝑥 − 1) × (𝑥 + 3) is written as (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)
(𝑥 + 6)
(𝑥 + 6) ÷ (𝑥 − 5) is written as
𝑥−5

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Addition and subtraction of algebraic terms Variables with exponents

Consider the following algebraic expression: Sometimes variables are expressed in exponents,
such as 3x 2 + 5 x 2 + 7 xy 2 + 9 x 2 y .
5a + 6ac + 8a - 4ab
Note that
This expression has four terms in which two of them xy2 (x ´ y ´ y) is NOT the same as x2y (x ´ x ´ y).
are like terms. The terms 5a and 8a are multiples of Unlike terms such as these are left alone.
the same variable, a, and therefore it is possible to
combine these two terms to obtain one term as 3x 2 + 5x 2 + 7 xy 2 + 9 x 2 y = 8 x 2 + 7 xy 2 + 9 x 2 y
follows:

5a + 8a = (5 + 8)a = 13a 2a + a + a 2 + a 3 + 3a 2 = 3a + 4a 2 + a 3

m
The expression can be simplified to obtain: Sometimes, we need to recall the commutative
property in determining if terms are like terms. For

co
5a + 6ac + 8a - 4ab = 13a + 6ac - 4ab example, ab and ba are like terms. So that,

2𝑎𝑏 + 5𝑏𝑎 = 2𝑎𝑏 + 5𝑎𝑏 = 7𝑎𝑏

.
This expression cannot be simplified any further

hs
since there are no more like terms. Note that even
though the term 6ac has a as part of it; it is different Consider this property in simplifying the following:
to the terms with only a, that is 5a and 8a.
ab3 + 7b3a - 6ab2 + 10 = 8ab3 - 6ab2 + 10
The following expression has four terms separated by
addition signs. at Simplifying expressions with brackets
m
3a + bc + 4a + 5bc
When an expression has brackets (also called
s
To simplify this expression, we must first identify parentheses), we use the distributive law to remove
like terms, then combine them using addition or the brackets before combining like terms.
as

subtraction. We may wish to rewrite the expression,

placing like terms next to each other, before 3x + 2(x + 4) = 3x + 2x + 8= 5x + 8
collecting the like terms.
sp

When a negative sign is in front of a bracket, it is

3a + bc + 4a + 5bc = 3a + 4a + bc + 5bc = 7a + 6bc implied that the factor to be multiplied is –1.
.fa

In the above example, we add 3a to 4a to obtain 7a. 3x – (5 – x) = 3x + (–1)[5 + (–x)]

Then we add bc to 5bc to obtain 6bc. The simplified = 3x + (–1)(5) + (–1)(–x)
expression has only two terms, 7a + 6bc. = 3x – 5 + x
= 4x – 5
w

We may combine any number of like terms by adding

Multiplication and division of algebraic terms
w

or subtracting their coefficients. However, only like

terms can be added or subtracted. When combining
like terms, the sign of the coefficients must be Recall that in algebra, we can omit the multiplication
w

considered, and it is always positioned on the sign between two symbols or between a symbol and a
immediate left of the coefficient. This is illustrated in number. The division sign is also omitted and
the examples below. replaced by fractional form.

5a + 3a - 7a + 6a = (5 + 3 - 7 + 6) a = 7a Multiplication
7 x + 3x + 4 x = (7 + 3 + 4) x = 14 x Unlike addition and subtraction, to perform
6b + 3b - 2b = (6 + 3 - 2)b = 7b multiplication, we do not need to have like
4 x + 5 y + 3x + 7 y terms. Instead, we simply omit the sign of the
operation. Numerals are always placed first, for
= 7 x + 12 y example, p ´ 3 is written as 3p.

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 b2 × b3 = (b × b) × (b × b × b)
x ´ y = xy
b2 × b3 = b5
a ´ b ´ c = abc
b2 × b3 = b2+3
2 x ´ 3 y = 6 xy
-4a ´ 3b = -12ab p5 × p = ( p × p × p × p × p) × p
3x ´ 2 y ´ -4 z = -24 xyz
p5 × p = p 6
p5 × p = p5+1
Division m+n
Law1: a ´ a = a , for all values of m and n.
m n

In performing a division, we convert to fractional

form, simplifying if possible.

m
2. Subtraction law of indices
5𝑎
5𝑎 ÷ 𝑏 =

co
𝑏 Let us examine what happens when we divide
12𝑚 2𝑚 algebraic terms with the same base.
12𝑚 ÷ 6𝑛 = =
6𝑛 𝑛

.
y´ y´ y´ y´ y´ y
y6 ÷ y2 =

hs
y´ y
Multiplication and division involving indices
y6 ÷ y2 = y × y × y × y
We know from arithmetic, that certain numbers can
be expressed as the product of a set of repeated
factors, for example,
at y6 ÷ y2 = y4
y 6 ÷ y 2 = y 6−2
m
10000 = 10 ´ 10 ´ 10 ´ 10 = 104 r×r×r×r×r×r
r6 ÷ r3 =
s
r×r×r
32 = 2 ´ 2 ´ 2 ´ 2 ´ 2 = 2 5
as

r6 ÷ r3 = r × r × r
The same principle applies to algebra, where a r6 ÷ r3 = r3
symbol is used to replace a number, for example,
r 6 ÷ r 3 = r 6−3
sp

a ´ a ´ a ´ a = a4
Law 2: a m ÷ a n = a m - n , for all values of m and n.
b ´ b ´ b ´ b ´ b = b5
.fa

In general, if m is a positive integer, then

3. Multiplication law of indices
a m = a ´ a ´ a ´ … ´ a (m times)
w

This law applies to the simplifying expressions

By definition, 𝑎= means a multiplied by itself m
of the form such as, ( k 5 )3 .
w

times
where a is called the base and m is the index. To simplify these expressions, we expand to
w

remove the brackets and then apply the addition

law as shown below.
Laws of Indices ( p5 ) 2 = p 5 ´ p 5 = p10
We will now examine the laws that relate to ( p5 ) 2 = p 5´2
performing operations on algebraic terms in which
( q4 )3 = q4 ´ q4 ´ q4 = q12
there are indices.
( q4 )3 = q4´3
1. Addition law of indices

( )
n
Let us examine what happens when we multiply Law 3: a m = a m ´ n , for all values of m and n.
algebraic terms with the same base.

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4. The zero index Summary of the laws of indices (integral indices)

This law illustrates the meaning of an index of 1. am ´ an = am + n "m, n

zero. We will illustrate this law by simplifying 2. a ÷a = a
m n m-n
"m, n
a 3 ÷ a 3 using two methods.
3. (a ) m n
= am ´ n "m, n
We may choose to write this as a fraction and 4. a =10
"a
expand the numerator and denominator as shown 1
below. 5. am = "m
a- m
a×a×a
a3 ÷ a3 = =1
a×a×a There are two more laws of indices that you may
encounter later on and they relate to fractional

m
Alternatively, we can apply the second law of indices.
indices. 6. The nth root of a number can be expressed as
>
the number raised to the power of ,

co
a 3 ÷ a 3 = a 3−3 = a 0 ?
1

Hence, we can conclude that a 3 ÷ a 3 = a 0 = 1

n
a =a n

.
hs
Law 4: a 0 = 1 for any value of a. 1 1
y = y2 3
a = a3
1
4 16 y = 2 y 4
3
y6 = y2
5. Negative indices

This law illustrates the meaning of negative at A term raised to the power ? is the nth root of the
=
m
indices. Assume we wish to simplify a 3 ÷ a 5 . term raised to the power of m, and this can be done in
We may choose to write this as a fraction and any order.
s
m
expand the numerator and denominator as shown
( a)
m
a n = n a m or n
as

below. 7.
a 3
a×a×a
( 8) = 4
2
a 3 ÷ a5 = = (8) 3 = 3 (8)
2
or 3
2

a a×a×a×a×a
5
sp

1
or ( 81 ) = 27
3 3
(81) 4 = 4 (81)
3
a 3 ÷ a5 = 2 4

a
.fa

Alternatively, we can apply the second law of

indices.
Simplifying algebraic terms with indices
a3
a 3 ÷ a5 = 5 = a 3−5
w

a To simplify an expression like:

a ÷ a = a −2
3 5
2ab2 ´ 3a 2 b3
w

Since both results are the same we can conclude

We first rewrite this expression, inserting the
that 12 = a -2 .
w

a
multiplication signs where they were supposed to be.
If the negative is in the denominator of the
2 ´ a ´ b2 ´ 3 ´ a 2 ´ b3
fraction, we can still apply the rule.
Then we place all the same variables together, with
1 1 a3 1 the constants at the front:
= = 1 ´ = a 3 , So -3 = a 3
a -3 1 1 a
a3 = 2 ´ 3 ´ a ´ a 2 ´ b 2 ´ b3
= 6 ´ a 3 ´ b5
Law 5: 1m = a - m or 1
= am = 6a 3b 5
a a -m

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Alternatively, we may choose to apply the laws of When substituting values in expressions involving a
indices directly, as shown below. set of terms, we must simplify each term
separately, then combine the terms using addition
and/or subtraction In the example below, there are
2 x2 ´ 3 y = 6x2 y
(a )
2 3
÷ a4 = a2 ´ 3 ÷ a4 three terms, the terms are separated by addition and
= a6 ÷ a4 subtraction signs. In order to simplify the expression,
-a ´ 2b2 ´ c = -2ab2 c we should treat each term separately, as shown
𝑚@ 𝑛A = a6 - 4 below.
= 𝑚C 𝑛D
𝑚B 𝑛C = a2
When p = 2, q = 4 and r = 1
5 p + 3q - 6r = 5(2) + 3(4) - 6(1)
Example 2
5(2) + 3(4) - 6(1) = 10 + 12 - 6 = 16
Simplify 8c5d 3 ÷ 2c 2 d

m
If the expression has brackets, then we compute that
which is inside the brackets first. For example, using

co
Solution the same values of p, q, and r, we can evaluate the
8c5d 3 following expression:
2c 2 d ( pq) 2 + ( p - r )

.
8 c5 d 3 = [2 ´ (4)]2 + (2 - 1)

hs
= ´ 2´
2 c d = (8) 2 + 1
= 4´c ´d2
3
= 64 + 1
= 4c 3d 2
at = 65
m
Example 3 Example 4
Simplify 4𝑥 C 𝑦 ÷ 2𝑥𝑦 C Find the value of 5m - 3n + 2 , when m = 4 and
s
n =6.
as

Solution Solution
4𝑥 C 𝑦 4 × 𝑥 × 𝑥 × 𝑦 2𝑥 5m - 3n + 2 = 5 ( 4 ) - 3 ( 6 ) + 2
= =
2𝑥𝑦 C 2 × 𝑥 × 𝑦 × 𝑦 𝑦
sp

= 20 - 18 + 2
=4
SUBSTITUTION
.fa

Example 5
This process of replacing variables by known values x + 3y
Evaluate when, x = 4 and y = 1 .
is called substitution. This replacement allows us to x - 2y
w

obtain a numerical value for our algebraic expression.

In the expression, 2𝑙 + 2𝑏, both l and b are the Solution
w

variables. This expression may represent the

perimeter of a rectangle, whose length is l and x + 3 y 4 + 3 (1)
=
x - 2 y 4 - 2 (1)
w

breadth is b.
4+3
Using this expression, we can calculate the perimeter =
of a rectangle whose length, l is 10 cm and breadth, b 4-2
is 6 cm. We substitute these values and so obtain a 7 1
= =3
value of 32 cm for the perimeter. 2 2

2(10) + 2(6) = 32
In substitution, when we replace a symbol by a
number, it is necessary to introduce brackets strictly
for the avoidance of costly numerical errors.

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Example 6 Example 7
If 𝒑 ∗ 𝒒 = 𝒑𝟐 − 𝒒 evaluate
If a = 1 and b = 2 , evaluate
(i) 5 ∗ 4 (ii) 4 ∗ 5
(i) ab2
(iii) (3 ∗ 7) ∗ 1 (iv) 4 ∗ (3 ∗ 6)
(ii) a 2 b

Solution Solution
(i) ab2 is actually a ´ b2. (i) 5 ∗ 4 = 5C − 4 = 21
The brackets remind us to square only b. (ii) 4 ∗ 5 = 4C − 5 = 11
(iii) (3 ∗ 7) ∗ 1 = (3C − 7) ∗ 1
ab2 = 1 ´ ( 2 ) = 1 ´ 4 = 4
2
= 2 ∗ 1 = 2C − 1 = 3
(ii) 𝑎C 𝑏 is actually 𝑎 C × 𝑏. (iv) 4 ∗ (3 ∗ 6) = 4 ∗ (3C − 6)

m
Square a first and then multiply the result by 2.
= 4 ∗ 3 = 4C − 3 = 13
a 2b = (1) ´ ( 2 ) = 1 ´ 2 = 2
2

co
Example 8
If m • n = 2mn - 5

.
hs
BINARY OPERATIONS Evaluate:
(i) 7 • 3 (ii) (5 • 3) • (1 • 4)
A binary operation is simply a rule for combining
two numbers to obtain another number. Since an
operation is performed between two variables or at
m
numbers, we refer to the operation as a binary Solution
7 • 3 = 2(7)(3) - 5 = 42 − 5 = 37
operation. For example, each of the four arithmetical (i)
operations of +, =, ´ and ÷, are examples of binary
s
operations.
(ii) (5 • 3) • (1 • 4) = [2(5)(3) - 5]• [2(1)(4) - 5]
as

We can use symbols to replace operations in algebra. = (30 - 5) • (8 - 5)

However, when we do so we must define the = 25 • 3
operation precisely so that it is possible to evaluate
sp

the expression. = 2(25 )(3) - 5

Assuming we use the symbol * to represent an = 150 - 5
algebraic operation, we may choose to define * as
.fa

= 145
say,

𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2𝑎 + 𝑏
w

Using this definition of ∗, we can evaluate

w

expressions involving this binary operation by simply

substituting for 𝑎 and 𝑏 as follows:
w

𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2𝑎 + 𝑏

5 ∗ 4 = 2(5)+4 = 14

7 ∗ 3 = 2(7)+3 = 17

−8 ∗ 20 = 2(−8)+20 = 4

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