MODULE 6

MATRICES AND SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS

Matrices - rectangular array of elements arranged in rows and columns.

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

𝐴 = [𝑎21
⋮
𝑎22 𝑎23 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 ]
⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑚3 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛

The A matrix has m rows and n columns (m x n matrix)

size and shape of matrix
In compact form,
𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] ; 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑚 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠
𝑗 = 1,2, … , 𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠

or 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚𝑥𝑛

1 x n matrix - called a row matrix or row vector

𝐴 = [𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 ]

m x 1 matrix – called a column matrix or column vector

𝑏11
𝑏21
𝐴=
⋮
[𝑏𝑚1 ]

Square matrix

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

𝐶=[ ⋮ ] where m = n
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 n x n matrix

Square Matrices

1. Null or Zero Matrix a square matrix where all elements are zero.
𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]
when all elements in a matrix is zero (be it a square or rectangular) it is
called a null matrix.
𝐴+0=0+𝐴=𝐴 properties

2. Diagonal Matrix all

 2 0 0
[0 1 0] main diagonal
0 0 3
1 0 0
𝐼 = [0 1 0] identity matrix
special cases
0 0 1
2 0 0 Scalar matrix- all
𝐴 = [0 2 0] elements of main
diagonal are the
0 0 2 same 0 & 1

I3 – means an identity matrix with 3 x 3 rows and columns.

1 0 0
𝐼 = [0 1 0]
0 0 1
𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐴 hence, identity matrix
conforms with 1

3. Lower Triangular aij = 0 for i < j

1 0 0 aij = 0 for i < j

[2 3 0]
3 2 2

4. Upper Triangular aij = 0 for i > j

1 2 3
[0 2 1]
0 0 3
aij = 0 for i > j

5. Symmetrical Matrix aij = aji

1 2 −3 4 a11 = a11
2 3 −1 5 a21 = a12
a31 = a13
−3 −1 2 2
[4 5 2 3]
 6. Skew Matrix aij = -aji

1 2 −3 a11 = -(a11)
a21 = -(a12)
[−2 3 −1] ⋮
3 1 3 an1

Transpose of a Matrix
Transpose of 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑇
- matrix obtained from the original matrix A by writing the element of rows in
columns

Example:
1 2 3 row
row 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝐴=[ ] [ ]
4 5 6 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23

1 4 𝑎11 𝑎21
𝐴𝑇 = [2 5] [𝑎12 𝑎22 ]
3 6 𝑎13 𝑎23

column

Laws of Transpose of Matrices

1. The transpose of the sum of two matrices is equal to their respective transposes added
together.
[𝐴 + 𝐵]𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵𝑇

2. The transpose of the transpose of a matrix is equal to the original matrix

[𝐴𝑇 ]𝑇 = 𝐴

3. The transpose of a matrix multiplied by a scalar k is equal to the product of the scalar
k and the transpose of the matrix
[𝑘𝐴]𝑇 = 𝑘𝐴𝑇

Example:
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑘𝑎11 𝑘𝑎12 𝑘𝑎13
𝐾𝐴 = 𝑘 = [ ]=[ ]
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑘𝑎21 𝑘𝑎22 𝑘𝑎23
 4. The transpose of a product of two matrices is equal to the product of their transpose
but in the reverse order

(𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇
(𝐴𝐵𝐶 )𝑇 = 𝐶 𝑇 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇

Adjoint of a Matrix

Adj. A - adjoint of a matrix A

Steps:
1) A B
Element of is the signed minor of element of A

Example:
1 2 3 𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13
𝐴 = [4 5 6] [𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 ]
7 8 9 𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33

𝑎22 𝑎23
𝑏11 = 𝐴11 = (−1)1+𝑎11 | |
𝑎32 𝑎33
5 6
= (−1)1+1 | | = −12 |(5𝑥9) − (8𝑥6)|
8 9
𝑏11 = 1(−3) = −3

4 6
𝑏12 = 𝐴12 = (−1)1+𝑎12 | |
7 9
4 5
𝑏13 = 𝐴13 = (−1)1+3 | |
7 8

2) Adj. 𝐴 = 𝐵𝑇

Inverse of a Matrix
A-1 - inverse of matrix A or reciprocal of matrix A
A-1 A = A A-1 = I
A matrix must be a square matrix
Adj. A Adj.of A
A-1 = |A|
‖
(determinants of A)

1 2 3
Adj. 𝐴 = (𝐶𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝐴)𝑇
𝐴 = [1 3 5] 11 −7 2
1 5 12 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = (−9 9 3)
1 −2 1
det 𝐴 = 3
 11 −7 2
𝐶𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴 = (−9 9 3)
1 −2 1
11 −7 2
1
𝐴−1 = 3 (−9 9 3)
1 −2 1

Properties:
1. A-1 cannot be defined if det A = 0
2. Only exist if A is square and det A ≠ 0
If det A = 0 A is singular
If det A ≠ 0 A is non-singular
3. Inverse of symmetric matrix is squatic.
4. The inverse of a diagonal matrix with elements 𝑎11 , 𝑎12 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 is a diagonal matrix
with diagonal elements 𝑎11 −1 , 𝑎12 −1 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 −1 .
5. The inverse of an upper triangular matrix is an upper triangular and vice versa.
6. The inverse of a transpose is equal to the transpose of its inverse.
7. Form 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐴−1 𝐴 = 𝐼
det 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴−1 ) = 1 hence, det(𝐴−1) = (det 𝐴)−1
8. For any position power P
𝐴𝑃 (𝐴−1)𝑃 = 𝐴𝑃−1 𝐴𝐴−1 (𝐴−1 )𝑃−1 = 𝐴𝑃−1 (𝐴−1)𝑃−1 = 𝐼

Hence (𝐴−1 )𝑃 = (𝐴𝑝 )−1 it follows then that

𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑞 = 𝐴𝑃+𝑞 applies to both + and – powers of p and q

9. Inverse of a product
𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 when A, B are both n x n square non-singular matrix
det 𝐴𝐵 = det 𝐴 𝑥 det 𝐵 it follows that 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 is non-singular

Multiplying by A-1 both sides

𝐴−1 𝐶 = 𝐴−1𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐵
Multiply both sides by 𝐵−1
𝐵−1 𝐴−1 𝐶 = 𝐵−1 𝐵 = 𝐼
And by 𝐶 −1
𝐵−1 𝐴−1 𝐶 −1 𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 −1 = 𝐶 −1
then 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵
 (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1

Operations with Matrices

1) Addition/ Subtraction of Matrices
Requirement:
a) Matrices to be added/ subtracted should be at the same shape (i.e., same number of
rows and columns)

A±B=C

𝐶𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ± 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ; 𝑖 = 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑚

𝑗 = 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑚

−1 2 3
Example: 𝐴=[ ]
2 −2 1

−3 −4 1
𝐵=[ ]
2 −3 2

−4 −2 4 −4 −2 4
𝐴 = 𝐵 = 𝐶[ ]=[ ]
(2 + 2) (−2 + −3) (1 + 2) 4 −5 3

Laws in Addition/ Subtraction of Matrices

Assume A, B, and C have the same size
1. Associative Law

(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

2. Commutative Law

A + B = B + A

3. Identity Under Addition

A+ 0 = 0 + A = A

4. Distributive Law with respect to Scalar

(α + β) A = αA + βA where α, β are scalars

 5. Distributive Law with respect to Matrices multiplied by a Scalar

(A + B)α = αA + αB ; α is a scalar
2) Multiplication of Matrices

Requirement:
a) Two matrices must be conformable in the order they are multiplied (i.e., the number
of columns of 1st matrix is equal to the number of rows of the 2nd matrix)

AB = C

𝑏11 𝑏12 … . .
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
[ ] [ 𝑏21 𝑏22 … . . ] = [𝐶𝑖𝑗 ]
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23
𝑎31 𝑎32 … . .
𝐶11 = 𝑎11 𝑏11 + 𝑎12 𝑏21 + 𝑎13 𝑏31
𝐶12 = 𝑎11 𝑏21 + 𝑎12 𝑏22 + 𝑎13 𝑏23

A2 X 3 x B3 X 3 = C2 X 3

Equal column and row

Generally, multiplications of matrices are non-commutative

Laws:
1. Distributive
2. Associative
3. Non-commutative
4. k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB)

Multiplication of Matrices

B3x4

A3x3
∎ ∎ ∎ ∎
∎ ∎ ∎ ∎ A3x3 B3x4 = C3x4
∎ ∎ ∎ ∎
Products by Partitioning

Given: Am x p ; Bp x n

Cm x n 𝑀 𝑥𝑃 𝑀1 𝑥 𝑃2 𝑀1 𝑥 𝑃3
𝐴=[ 1 1 ]
𝑀2 𝑥 𝑃1 𝑀2 𝑥 𝑃2 𝑀2 𝑥 𝑃3

𝐴 𝐴12 𝐴13
𝐴 = [ 11 ]
𝐴22 𝐴22 𝐴22 2𝑥3

𝑃1 𝑥 𝑛1 𝑃1 𝑥 𝑛2 𝐵11 𝐵12
𝐵 = [𝑃2 𝑥 𝑛1 𝑃2 𝑥 𝑛2 ] = [𝐵21 𝐵22 ]
𝑃3 𝑥 𝑛1 𝑃3 𝑥 𝑛2 𝐵31 𝐵32 3𝑥2

A2x3 B3x2 = C2x2

𝐵11 𝐵12 i.e.,

[𝐵21 𝐵22 ] C11 = A11B11 + A12B21 + A13B31
𝐵31 𝐵32 C12 = A11B12 + A12B22 + A13B32

𝐴11 𝐴12 𝐴13 𝐶11 𝐶12

[ ] [ ]
𝐴21 𝐴22 𝐴23 𝐶21 𝐶22

Example:

2 1 ⋮ 0 2 1 ⋮ 0
3
𝐴 = [⋯ 2 ⋮ 0] & 3 2 ⋮
𝐵 = [⋯ 0
… … … …]
1 0 ⋮ 1 3𝑥3 1 0 ⋮ 1 3𝑥4

A3x3 B3x4 = C3x4

𝐴11 𝐴12 𝐵11 𝐵12

[ ] [ ]
𝐴21 𝐴22 𝐵21 𝐵22

2 1 0
𝐴11 = [ ]; 𝐴12 [ ]
3 2 0

𝐴21 = [1 0] ; 𝐴22 [1]

1 1 1 0
𝐵11 = [ ] ; 𝐵12 = [ ]
2 1 1 0

𝐵21 = [2 3] ; 𝐵21 = [1 2]
1 1 ⋮ 1 0
𝐵 𝐵12 2 1 ⋮ 1 0
[ 11 ] [⋯ … … …]
𝐵21 𝐵22
2 3 ⋮ 1 2
 2 1 ⋮ 0
𝐴 𝐴12 𝐶 𝐶12 3 2 ⋮ 0 𝐶11 𝐶12
[ 11 ] [ 11 ] = [⋯ … …] [ ]
𝐴21 𝐴22 𝐶21 𝐶22 𝐶21 𝐶22
1 0 ⋮ 1

1 1
𝐶11 = 𝐴11 𝐵11 + 𝐴22 𝐵21 [ ]
2 1
2 1 1 1 0 2 1 (2𝑥1 + 1𝑥2) (2𝑥1 + 1𝑥1) 0 0
=[ ][ ] + [ ] [2 3] = [ ]=[ ]+[ ] [ ]
3 2 2 1 0 3 2 (3𝑥1 + 2𝑥2) (3𝑥1 + 2𝑥1) 0 0

4 3 0 0 𝟒 𝟑
=[ ]+ [ ]=[ ]
7 5 0 0 𝟕 𝟓

𝐶12 = 𝐴11 𝐵12 + 𝐴12 𝐵22

2 1 1 0 0 3 0 0 0 𝟑 𝟎
=[ ][ ] + [ ] [1 2] = [ ]+[ ]= [ ]
3 2 1 0 0 5 0 0 0 𝟓 𝟎

𝐶21 = 𝐴21 𝐵11 + 𝐴22 𝐵22

1 1
= [1 0] [ ] + [1] [2 3] = [(1𝑥1 + 0𝑥2) (1𝑥1 + 0𝑥1)] + [(1𝑥2)]
2 1
= [1 1] + [2 3] = [𝟑 𝟒]

𝐶22 = 𝐴21 𝐵12 + 𝐴22 𝐵22

1 0
= [1 0] [ ] + [1] [1 2] = [1 0] + [1 2]
1 0
= [𝟐 𝟐 ]

Hence,
4 3 ⋮ 3 0
𝐶 𝐶12 7 5 ⋮ 5 0
𝐶 = [ 11 ] = [⋯ … … …]
𝐶21 𝐶22
3 4 ⋮ 2 2

Rule:

1. In Partitioning; the sub matrices must be conformable

Determinant of a Square Matrix

𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎 𝑎22 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴 = [ 21 … ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑥𝑛

𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎 𝑎22 𝑎2𝑛
|𝐴| = det 𝐴 = | 21 … | a determinant of the nth order. (i.e., order
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛
= n)
 Example:
1 0 2 1 0
2 1 0 1 2
𝐴= 1 2 1 2 1
2 0 2 0 1
[1 1 0 2 2]5𝑥5

*If we delete rows and column, this results to a submatrix e.g., delete row 2 & 5;
column 2 & 3. This results to
1 1 0
[1 2 1 ]
2 0 1

* |𝐴|  is a function,since determinant in a function, it has a domain and range.

Domain = collection of square matrix

Range = real number system (if elements are real number)

𝑎11 𝑎12
If 𝐴 = |𝑎 𝑎22 |
21

𝑎 𝑎12
|𝐴| = |𝑎11 𝑎22 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎21 𝑎12
21

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12

If 𝐴 = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | 𝑎21 𝑎22
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32
- - - + + +

|𝐴| = 𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎33 + 𝑎12 𝑎23 𝑎31 + 𝑎13 𝑎21 𝑎32
−𝑎31 𝑎22 𝑎13 − 𝑎32 𝑎23 𝑎11 − 𝑎33 𝑎21 𝑎12

If n ˃ 3 Use Expansion of determinant and minors

Expansion of a Determinant by minors (Special Case of Laplace Expansion)

The minor (M11) of element a11 is the determinant of a11, i.e.,

𝑎22 𝑎23
Minor M11 of a11 = |𝑎 |
32 𝑎33
i+j
Cofactor 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = (-1) Mij
Cofactor of a11 = (-1)1+1 M11 = signed minor of a11

*In evaluating the determinant

a) Choose a particular row or column
b) The determinant is the products of that row or column by their respective
cofactors.

Given: Anxn
|𝐴| = det 𝐴
 (1) Choose the ith row
|𝐴𝑖 | = det 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖1 𝑥 𝐴𝑖1 ) + (𝑎𝑖2 𝑥 𝐴𝑖2 ) + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝐴𝑖𝑛 )
𝑛

∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝐴𝑖𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑖 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛

𝑘=1

(2) Selecting the jth column

|𝐴| = det 𝐴 = 𝑎1𝑗 𝐴1𝑗 + 𝑎2𝑗 𝐴2𝑗 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑗 𝐴𝑛𝑗

∑ 𝑎𝑘𝑗 𝐴𝑘𝑗 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑗 (1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛)

𝑘=1

* If matrix is very large (e.g., 5 x 5 matrix). The minor is 4 x4 matrix, hence it could
not be determine unless get again the signed minor.

Use Properties of Matrix

(1) For a large matrix, where all elements of a row or column are all zero, the
determinant of that matrix is zero.
(2) If any 2 rows or columns are interchanged, the sign of the determinant is changed
(i.e.) |𝐴| → − |𝐴|.
(3) If the corresponding elements of any 2 rows or columns are equal or have a constant
ratio, the determinant is zero.
(4) If all elements of any row or column are multiplied by a scalar, k, then the remaining
determinant is k|𝐴|
(5) If all elements of any row or column are multiplied by a non-zero scalar k and added
to any row or column, the determinant of resulting matrix remains unchanged.
Row ----- Hij (k) ← jth row x k added to ith row
Column ----- Kij (R) ← jth column x R added to ith column

e.g., H21 (-2) → means all elements of 1st row is multiplied by -2 and added to the
element of 2nd row.

Example:
1 2 3
𝐴 = [4 5 6 ]
7 8 9

a) Using the long hand method

1 2 3 1 2
|𝐴| = |4 5 6| 4 5
7 8 9 7 8
- - - + + +

= (1𝑥5𝑥9 + 2𝑥6𝑥7 + 3𝑥4𝑥8) − (7𝑥5𝑥3) − (8𝑥6𝑥1) − (9𝑥4𝑥2)

= 45 + 84 + 96 − 105 − 48 − 72
|𝐴 | = 0

b) Evaluating the determinant using minors:

 (1) Select 1st row:
|𝐴| = 1(−1)1+1 |5 6| + 2(−1)1+2 |4 6| + 3(−1)1+3 |4 5|
8 9 7 9 7 8
= 1 (1)2 (5𝑥9 − 8𝑥6) + 2(−1)3 (4𝑥9 − 7𝑥6) + 3(−1)4 (4𝑥7 − 7𝑥5)
= 1(45 − 48) + 2(−1) (36 − 42) + 3(32 − 35)
= −3 + 12 − 9
|𝐴 | = 0

(2) Using the 1st column

1 2 3
|𝐴 | = [ 4 5 6 ]
7 8 9
|𝐴| = 1(−1)1+1 |5 6| + 4(−1)1+2 |2 3| + 7(−1)1+3 |2 3|
8 9 8 9 5 6
= 1(45 − 48) − 4(18 − 24) + 7(12 − 15)
|𝐴 | = 0

c) Using the Property of Matrices (Elementary Row Equation)

1 2 3 𝐻21(−4) 1 2 3
|𝐴| = |4 5 6| ≈.𝐻31(−7) |0 −3 −6 |
7 8 9 0 −6 −12

Using column 1

|𝐴| = 1(−1)1+1 |−3 −6 | + 0(−1)1+2 | 2 3

|
−6 −12 −6 −12
2 3
+ 0(−1)1+3 | |
−3 −6
= 1(36 − 36) = 0
|𝐴 | = 0

LAPLACE EXPANSION

→ can choose several number of rows and columns and then expand it according
to minors of those rows and columns

Given: n x n matrix
i1, i2, … im ------ be m of the n rows ( in order of magnitude)
j1, j2, … jm ------ be m of the n columns

→ This results to 2 submatrices

𝑗1 𝑗2 … 𝑗𝑛 𝑗 𝑗 … 𝑗𝑛
|𝐴 | |𝐴 𝑚+1 𝑚+2 |
𝑖1 𝑖2 … 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑥𝑚 𝑖𝑚+1 𝑖𝑚+ 2 … 𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥𝑛

No. of minors that can be selected:

 𝑛 (𝑛−1)… (𝑛−𝑚+1)
= |𝐴 |
1∙2⋯𝑚

Laplace expansion in evaluating determinants of higher order (n ˃ 3)

Example:
1 2 3
𝐴 = [4 5 6 ] : |𝐴 | = ?
7 8 9

(1) Using the minors of the 1st 2 rows

Column 1
1 2 3
(−1)1+2+1+2 |𝐴 | |𝐴 | Column 2
1 2 3
|𝐴| = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 (−1)1+3+1+2 1 3 2 1 2
|𝐴 | |𝐴 | where: A
1 2 3 1 2
2+3+1+2 2 3 1
[(−1) |𝐴 | |𝐴 |] Row 2
1 2 3 Row 1

1 2
(−1)6 | | |9|
4 5
1 3 | |
= 𝑆𝑢𝑚 (−1)7 | | 8
4 6
8 2 3 | |
[(−1) | | 7]
5 6

= 1(5 – 8) (9) + (−1) (b – 12) (8) + 1 (12 − 15)(7)

= −27 + 48 − 21 = 0

|𝐴 | = 0

2. Expansion using the minors of the 1st 2 columns

1 2 3
(−1)1+2+1+2 |𝐴 | . |𝐴 |
1 2 3
| 1 2 3|
|𝐴| = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 (−1)1+2+1+3 |𝐴 | . |𝐴 |
| 1 2 2|
1 2 3
(−1)1+2+2+3 |𝐴 | . |𝐴 |
1 2 1
1 2 | |
(−1)6 | | 9
4 5
| 1 2 | ||
= 𝑆𝑢𝑚 (−1)7 | | 8
| 7 8 |
|4 5| | |
(−1)8 3
7 8
= −27 + 36 − 9
|𝐴 | = 0
 𝑛(𝑛 − 𝑚 + 1)
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑠 =
𝑚!

Example: 4x4 matrix using m=2

4(4 − 2 + 1) 4(3)
ℓ= = =6
2! 2

Example 2
2 3 −2 4
|𝐴| = |3 −2 1 2|
𝑛(𝑛−𝑚+1) 4(4−2+1)
ℓ= = = 10
3 2 3 4 2! 1.2
−2 4 0 5
Solution:
Steps Exp. according to minors of 1st 2rows
1 2 3 4 2 3 3 4
(−1)6 |𝐴 | . |𝐴 | = 1| |.| | = 1(−4 − 9). (15 − 0) = −195
1 2 3 4 3 −2 0 5

1 3 2 4 2 2 2 4 −1 (
(−1)7 |𝐴 | . |𝐴 | = −1 | |.| |= 2 − 6)(10 − 16) = −24
1 2 3 4 3 1 4 5
1 4 2 3 2 4 2 3
(−1)8 |𝐴 | ∙ |𝐴 | = 1| |∙| | = 1(4 − 12)(0 − 12) = 96
1 2 3 4 3 2 4 0
2 3 1 4 3 −2 3 4
(−1)8 |𝐴 | ∙ |𝐴 | = 1| |∙| | = 1(3 − 4). (15 − (−8)) = −23
1 2 3 4 −2 1 −2 5
2 4 1 3 3 4 3 3
(−1)9 |𝐴 | ∙ |𝐴 | = −1 | |∙| | = −1(6 − (−8))(0 − 6)
1 2 3 4 −2 2 −2 0
= 84
3 4 1 2 −2 4 3 2
(−1)10 |𝐴 | ∙ |𝐴 | = 1| |∙| | = 1(−4 − 4)(12 − (−4)) = 144
1 2 3 4 1 2 −2 4

Determinant used in Linear Systems

A system with n unknowns
𝑎11 𝑋1 + 𝑎12 𝑋2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑋𝑛 = 𝑏1
⋮ } Can be represented by
𝑎𝑛1 𝑋1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑋2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑋𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛 Ax=B

Column Vector of unknown

Ax = B Column Vector of Constant

Coefficient
 Matrix
𝑥1 𝑏1
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑥
[ ⋮ . . . ] [ 2 ] = [𝑏2 ]
⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝑥𝑛 𝑏𝑛

Cramer’s Rule:
Requirements:
1. No. of equation = no. of unknowns
2. Det A = |𝐴| ≠ 0 (This means that coefficient matrix MUST BE NON-SINGULAR)

Kth Column
Solution by Cramer’s Rules

1 𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑘−1 𝑏1 𝑎1𝑘+1 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

𝑥𝑘 = | ⋮ . . . . . . . |
|𝐴 |
𝑎
𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑘−1 𝑏𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑘+1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛

Column of Xk

Example:
3𝑋1 − 2𝑋2 + 4𝑋3 = 5
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 3𝑋3 = 2
−𝑋1 + 2𝑋2 −𝑋3 = 1

3 −2 4 𝑋1 5
[1 1 3 ] [ 𝑋2 ] = [ 2]
−1 2 −1 𝑋3 1

3 −2 4 1 1 3
𝐻
Step 1: det. The |𝐴| = | 1 1 3| ≈ 12 | 3 −2 4 |
.
−1 2 −1 −1 2 −1

Multiply Row 1 by (-3)

& add to Row 2 𝐻21(−3) 1 1 3
≈ − |0 −5 −5|
𝐻31(1)
0 3 2
Multiple Row 1 by 1 &
add to row 3
−5 −5
≈ (−1)(−1)2 | | = −(−10 + 15)
3 2
|𝐴| = −5 ≠ 0 Solve by Cramer’s Rule

1 5 −2 4 33
𝑥1 = |2 1 3|=
−5 5
1 2 −1
 1 3 5 4 13
𝑥2 = | 1 2 3 |=
−5 5
−1 1 −1
1 3 −2 5 −12
𝑥3 = |1 1 2| =
−5 5
1 2 1
Rank of Matrix
-largest 2x2 submatrix that can be obtained for the original matrix which is non-
singular
Steps is obtaining the rank of the matrix
1. Transform the original matrix
a. Elementary Transformation – process of obtaining a matrix from the original
by getting the:
a.1) Elementary row operation
b.1) Elementary Column operation

Elementary row Elementary

operation Column operation
1. Interchanging
- 2 rows Hij

- 2 columns Kij

2. Multiplying by non-zero scalar, k all element of a

- rows Hij(K)

- columns Kij(K)

3. Multiplying by a non-zero scalar all elements and adding to corresponding

elements
- Row to row Hij(K)

- Column to Kij(K)
column

* Any transformation done in a matrix will not alter the rank of a given matrix.

Example:

4 0 0 0
[1 0 3 0]- by inspection Rank = 2xL
2 0 0 0
4 0
e.g., | |≠0
1 3
 If 3𝑥3

4 0 0
𝐴 = |1 0 3|- All zeros (…) ranks |𝐴| = 0 so not possible
2 0 0

Example:
Find the rank of A:
−2 −3 −1 1 0
Interchanged 𝐻13
𝐴=| 0 1 7 1 −4|
1 2 4 0 −2
−2 −2 6 2 −4
1 2 4 0 −2
≈ 𝐻13 | 0 1 7 1 −4 |
−2 −3 −1 1 0
−2 −2 6 2 −4
𝐻31(2) 1 2 4 0 −2
≈ 𝐻41(2)
|0 1 7 1 −4 |
0 1 7 1 −2
0 2 14 2 −8

𝐻32 (−1)
1 2 4 0 −2
≈ 𝐻42 (−2) |0 1 7 1 −4| ≈ 𝐴1
0 1 0 0 0
0 2 0 0 0
By inspection the rank of 𝐴1 = 2
r 𝐴1 = 2
∴r𝐴=2

Since Row 3 & Row 4 have all zero elements (this case an element in Row 3 is not
zero then r (A)=3)

In a 𝐴𝑚𝑥𝑚 matrix the largest possible rank obtainable is whichever is smaller from m
or n
e.g. 𝐴3𝑥4 ‖ largest possible 𝑟(𝐴) = 3. This should be counted for non-singular (i.e.)
|𝐴| ≠ 𝑐.

Non-homogenous System
𝑎11 𝑋1 + 𝑎12 𝑋2 + 𝑎13 𝑋3 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑋𝑛 = 𝑏1
⋮ ⋮ } m equations in
𝑎𝑚1 𝑋1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑋2 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑋3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑋𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚 n unknowns
𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
Coefficient of
matrix 𝑎11 𝑎1𝑛 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝐴=[ ⋮ . . . ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑚𝑥𝑛
 𝑋1
𝑋=[ ⋮ ] → 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝑋𝑛 𝑛𝑥1

𝑏1
𝐵=[ ⋮ ] → 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑏𝑚 𝑚𝑥1

The augmented matrix, Ab.

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏1

𝑏
𝐴 =[ ⋮ . . . ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑏𝑚 𝑚𝑥(𝑛+1)

To find out if a system has a solution or not.

1. Apply elementary row transformation

Example 1
2𝑋1 + 𝑋2 = 7
5𝑋1 − 2𝑋2 = 4
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 = 2

2 1 7 1 1 2 1 1 2
𝑏 𝐻 𝐻21(−5)
𝐴 = [5 −2 4] ≈ 13 [ 5 −2 4] ≈ [0 −7 −6]
1 1 2 −2 1 7 2 1 7
1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2
𝐻31(−2) 𝐻 𝐻32(−7)
≈ [0 −7 −6] ≈ 23 [0 −1 3 ] ≈ [0 −1 3 ]
0 −1 3 2 −7 −6 0 0 27

Means: 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 = 2
does not satisfy
−𝑋2 = 3
hence, no solution
0 = −27

By Inspecting the Ranks of the matrix:

r (A) = 2
r (𝐴𝑏 ) = 3
Since r (A) ≠ r (𝐴𝑏 ) = no solution

Example 2:
2𝑋1 + 𝑋2 = 7
5𝑋1 − 2𝑋2 = 4
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 = 5

2 1 7 1 1 2 𝐻 21(−5) 1 1 5
𝑏 𝐻
𝐴 = [5 −2 4] ≈ 13 [ 5 −2 4] ≈ 𝐻31(−2) [0 −7 −21]
1 1 2 −2 1 7 0 −1 −3
 1 1 −5 1 1 5
𝐻23 𝐻32(−7)
≈ [0 −1 −3 ] ≈ [0 −1 −3]
0 −7 −21 0 0 0

𝑋1 + 𝑋2 = 5 𝑋 = 3
2
−𝑋2 = −2 ‖𝑋 = 2
0= 0 1
𝑟 (𝐴 ) = 2
} Since, 𝑟(𝐴) = 𝑟(𝐴𝑏 ), has a solution
𝑟 (𝐴 𝑏 ) = 2

Thus, if 𝑟(𝐴) = 𝑟(𝐴𝑏 ), the system has a solution.

CRITERION:

1. A system of m equations in n unknowns consistent (has a solution) if and only if, the
rank of the coefficient matrix (𝑟(𝐴)) equals the rank of the augmented matrix (𝑟(𝐴)) i.
e.,

𝑟 ( 𝐴 ) = 𝑟 ( 𝐴𝑏 )

2. If the rank (r) is equal to the number of unknown, n the solution is UNIQUE.
i.e.,
𝑟 = 𝑛 , has a unique solution

3. If the rank(r) is less than the number of unknowns, the solution is INFINITE.
i.e.,
𝑟 < 𝑛 , solution is infinite

If the rank 𝑟 < 𝑛, then we can solve for r of these unknowns in terms of the remaining
n-r unknown.

Example 3:
X1 + 2X2 − 2X3 + 3X4 − 4X5 = −3
2X1 + 4X2 − 5X3 + 6X4 − 5X5 = −1
−X1 − 2X2 − 3X4 + 11X5 = 15

1 2 −2 3 −4
[
𝐴= 2 4 −5 6 −5]
−1 −2 0 −3 11

𝑟 (𝐴 ) = 3

1 2 −2 3 −4 −3 𝐻21(−1) 1 2 −2 3 −4 −3
𝑏
𝐴 =[2 4 −5 6 −5 −1] ≈ 𝐻31(1) [0 0 −1 0 3 5]
−1 −2 0 −3 11 15 0 0 −2 0 7 12
 1 2 −2 3 −4 −3
𝐻32(−2)
≈ [0 0 −1 0 3 5]
0 0 0 0 1 2

𝑟(𝐴𝑏 ) = 3‖since 𝑟(𝐴) = 𝑟(𝐴𝑏 ) = 3 ⟹ has a solution

Since, 𝑟 < 𝑛 ⟹ has infinite number of solution

Solution:
X5 = 2
−X3 + 3(2) = 5
X3 = 1
X1 = 7 − 2X2 − 3X4 ⟹ has infinite number of solutions.

HOMOGENOUS SYSTEMS

𝐴𝑥 = 0
⟹These systems are always consistent (has a solution)
If X = 0 ⟹ Trivial solution
⟹For a homogenous system to have a solution other than a trivial solution, i.e., X = 0
𝑟 ( 𝐴 ) = 𝑟 ( 𝐴𝑏 ) > 𝑛
⟹For homogenous system with m equation in n unknown to have a solution other than a
trivial solution, the coefficient matrix should be SINGULAR, i.e., det |𝐴| = 0

Example:

X1 + 2X2 = 0
2X 2 + 4X2 = 0

1 2
𝐴=[ ]
2 2

|𝐴| = |1 2| = 4 − 4 = 0 ⟹ infinite number of solution

2 2
Homogenous System

𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 To have a solution other than the

⟩ trivial solution (𝑋 = 0), we
𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠
require that |𝐴| = 0

if |A| ≠ 0 :
0 ∙
1 0
𝑋1 = |𝐴|
[0 ∙] = |𝐴|
=0
0 ∙
⋮
∙ 0
1 0
𝑋𝑛 = |𝐴|
[∙ 0] = |𝐴|
=0
∙ 0
 Non – homogenous system which is inconsistent then the complete solution in
any particular solution of the system and the complete solution of the associated
homogenous system.

Example:

X1 − 2X2 + 3X3 = 4
X1 + X2 + 2X3 = 5

1 −2 3 4 𝐻21(−1) 1 −2 3 4
𝐴𝑏 = [ ]≈ [ ]
1 1 2 5 0 3 −1 1

𝑟(𝐴) = 𝑟(𝐴𝑏 ) = 2 ∴ The system is consistent

3X2 − X3 = 1
X3 = 3X2 − 1

X1 − 2X2 + 3X3 = 4
X1 = 4 + 2X2 + 3X3

Let X1 = 0
4 + 2X2 − 3[3X2 − 1] = 0
7X2 = −7
X2 = 1
∴ X3 = 3(1) − 1 = 2

Xp (particular solution) = [0 , 1, 2]

Associated Homogenous System

X1 − 2X2 + 3X3 = 0
X1 + X2 + 2X3 = 0

1 −2 3 0 𝐻21(−1) 1 −2 3 0
[ ]≈ [ ]
1 1 2 0 0 3 −1 0

3X2 − X3 = 0
3X2 = X3

Let X2 = a (arbitrary)
X3 = 3 a
∴ X1 = 2X2 − 3X3 = 2a − 9a = −7a

∴ The complete solution of the given non- homogenous system is

𝑋 = [−7𝑎, 1 + 𝑎, 2 + 3𝑎]; a is arbitrary

XH = [−7a, a, 3a]
associated homogeneous system

𝐴𝑥 = 𝐵
 Where:
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
A =[ ⋮ . . . ]
𝑎𝑛1 𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑚

𝑋1
x=[ ⋮ ]
𝑋𝑛

𝑏1
B= [ ⋮ ]
𝑏𝑛

𝐴−1 𝐴𝑛 = 𝐴−1 B
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐴 −1 𝐵
𝑋 = 𝐴 −1

To get 𝐴 −1 :
1
𝐴 −1 = |𝐴| adj A

Where |𝐴| ≠ 0 or matrix should not be a singular

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13

A= [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] [𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 ]
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33
𝑎22 𝑎23
𝑏11 = 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎11 = 𝐴11 = (−1)1+1 |𝑎 𝑎33 |
32

Adj 𝐴 = B T

Another Method of getting 𝐴−1 :

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑅𝑜𝑤
[𝐴|𝐼 ] [𝐼 |𝐴−1]
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example: Compute the inverse

1 2 3
𝐴 = [1 3 4]
1 4 3
1 2 3 1 0 0 𝐻21(−1)
[𝐴|𝐼3 ] = [1 3 𝐻31(−1)
4 |0 1 0] ≈
1 4 3 0 0 1

1 2 3 1 0 0
𝐻32(−2)
= [0 1 1 |−1 0 0] ≈
0 2 0 −1 0 1
 1 2 3 1 0 0 𝐻 1
3(− )
= [0 1 1 |−1 1 0] ≈ 2

0 0 −2 1 −2 1

1 2 3 1 0 0 𝐻23(−1)
= [0 1 1 |−11 1 0 ]≈
1
𝐻13(−3)

0 0 1 −2 −2 −
2

5 3
−1 − 2
1 2 0 2
1 1
= [0 1 0 || − 2 0 2
≈ 𝐻12 (−2)
0 0 1 1 1
−2 1 2 ]
7 1
−3
2 2
1 0 0| 1 1
= [0 1 0 − 0 = [𝐼 |𝐴−1 ]
0 0 1| 2 2
1 1
1 − ]
2 2

Check if A−1 = I
7 −6 1 1 2 3 1 0 0
−1 1
A A=I= [−1 0 1 ] [1 3 4] = [0 1 0]
2
−1 2 −1 1 4 3 0 0 1
7 −6 1
−1 1
∴A = [−1 0 1]
2
−1 2 −1

Solve using the Inverse of the Coefficient Matrix

X1 + X 2 + X 3 + X 4 = 0
X1 + X 2 + X 3 − X 4 = 4
−X1 + X2 − X3 + X4 = −4
X1 − X 2 + X 3 + X 4 = 0

Solution:
A 𝐼4
𝐻21(−1)
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 𝐻31(−3)
1 1 1 −1 | 0 0 0 0] ~ 𝐻41(−1)
1 1 −1 1 0 0 1 0
[1 −1 1 1 0 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
[0 0 0 −2 | −1 1 0 0] ~ 𝐻24
0 0 −2 0 −1 0 1 0
0 −2 0 0 −1 0 0 1
 𝐻 1
2(− )
2
𝐻 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 3(− )
2
𝐻
0 −2 1 0 | −1 0 0 1] ~ 1
41(− )
2
0 0 −1 0 −1 0 1 0
0 0 1 −2 −1 1 0 0
[

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0| −1/2 0 0 −1/2 𝐻24
[ ] ~
0 0 1 0 1/2 0 −1/2 0
0 0 0 1 1/2 −1/2 0 0

1 1 1 0 1/2 0 0 0
[0 1 0 0 | 1/2 0 0 −1/2
] ~ 𝐻13(−1)
0 0 1 0 1/2 0 −1/2 0
0 0 0 1 1/2 −1/2 0 0

1 1 1 0 0 1/2 1/2 0
[0 1 0 0 | 1/2 0 0 −1/2
] ~ 𝐻12(−1)
0 0 1 0 1/2 0 −1/2 0
0 0 0 1 1/2 −1/2 0 0

1 0 0 0 −1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2

[0 1 0 0 | 1/2 0 0 −1/2 [ | −1 ]
0 0 1 0 1/2 0 −1/2 0 ] = 𝐼4 𝐴
0 0 0 1 1/2 −1/2 0 0

−1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 −1]
∴ A−1 = [
2 1 0 −1 0
1 −1 0 0
−1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 −1] [ 1 1 1 −1] = [ 0 1 0 0]
AA−1 = [
2 1 0 −1 0 1 1 −1 1 0 0 1 0
1 −1 0 0 1 −1 1 1 0 0 0 1

A−1 B
−1 1 1 1 0 1
𝐴 = 2[ 1 0 0 −1] [ 4 ] = [−1]
1
1 0 −1 0 −4 2
1 −1 0 0 2 −2

X1 = 1
X2 = −1
X3 = 2
X4 = −2
GAUSS ELIMINATION WITH PIVOTAL CONDENSATION

Solve:
2𝑋1 + 3𝑋2 − 𝑋3 = 5
4𝑋1 + 4𝑋2 − 3𝑋3 = 3
2𝑋1 − 3𝑋2 + 𝑋3 = 5
Transform the coefficient matrix into upper triangular matrix.

Solution:

2 3 −1 5 𝐻21(−2)
𝐴 = [4 4 −3 | 3 ] ~𝐻31(−1)
𝑏

2 −3 1 −1
2 3 −1 5
= [0 −2 −1 | −7 ] ~𝐻32(−3)
0 −6 2 −6
2 3 −1 5
= [0 −2 −1 | −7 ]
0 0 5 15
Starting from the bottom:

5𝑋3 = 15 ∥ 𝑋3 = 3
−2𝑋2 − 𝑋3 = −7 ∥ 𝑋2 = 2
2𝑋1 + 3𝑋2 − 𝑋3 = 5 ∥ 𝑋1 = 1

Linear Simultaneous Eq. with Unknowns Ax = B

Homogeneous, B = 0 Non Homogeneous, B ≠ 0

Consistent Inconsistent Constant

r(A) = r(Ab) = r r(A)< (Ab) r(A) = r (Ab ) = r

No solution

Trivial Solution Infinite number of Infinite number of

solution solution
X= 0
r<n
r(A) = r(Ab) = n (n – r) arbitrary r <n (n - r) arbitrary

Note:
A necessary and sufficient condition that a system of n homogeneous linear equations
is r unknowns has a solution other than the trivial solution is when |𝐴| = 0|.