C++ Tutorial

C++ tutorial provides basic and advanced concepts of C++. Our C++ tutorial is designed for
beginners and professionals.

C++ is an object-oriented programming language. It is an extension to C programming.

Our C++ tutorial includes all topics of C++ such as first example, control statements, objects
and classes, inheritance, constructor, destructor, this, static, polymorphism, abstraction,
abstract class, interface, namespace, encapsulation, arrays, strings, exception handling, File
IO, etc.

What is C++

C++ is a general purpose, case-sensitive, free-form programming language that supports

object-oriented, procedural and generic programming.

C++ is a middle-level language, as it encapsulates both high and low level language features.

Object-Oriented Programming (OOPs)

C++ supports the object-oriented programming, the four major pillar of object oriented
programming used in C++ are:

1. Inheritance
2. Polymorphism
3. Encapsulation
4. Abstraction

C++ Standard Libraries

Standard C++ programming is divided into three important parts:

o The core library includes the data types, variables and literals, etc.
o The standard library includes the set of functions manipulating strings, files, etc.
o The Standard Template Library (STL) includes the set of methods manipulating a data
structure.

Usage of C++
By the help of C++ programming language, we can develop different types of secured and
robust applications:

o Window application
o Client-Server application
o Device drivers
o Embedded firmware etc

C++ Program

In this tutorial, all C++ programs are given with C++ compiler so that you can easily change
the C++ program code.

File: main.cpp

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
cout << "Hello C++ Programming";
return 0;
}

C vs C++

No. C C++
1) C follows the procedural C++ is multi-paradigm. It supports
style programming. both procedural and object
oriented.
2) Data is less secured in C. In C++, you can use modifiers for
class members to make it
inaccessible for outside users.
3) C follows the top-down C++ follows the bottom-up
approach. approach.
4) C does not support function C++ supports function
overloading. overloading.
5) In C, you can't use functions in In C++, you can use functions in
structure. structure.
6) C does not support reference C++ supports reference variables.
variables.
7) In C, scanf() and printf() are C++ mainly uses stream cin and
mainly used for input/output. cout to perform input and output
operations.
 8) Operator overloading is not Operator overloading is possible in
possible in C. C++.
9) C programs are divided C++ programs are divided
into procedures and modules into functions and classes.
10) C does not provide the feature C++ supports the feature of
of namespace. namespace.
11) Exception handling is not easy C++ provides exception handling
in C. It has to perform using using Try and Catch block.
other functions.

C++ history

History of C++ language is interesting to know. Here we are going to discuss brief history
of C++ language.

C++ programming language was developed in 1980 by Bjarne Stroustrup at bell

laboratories of AT&T (American Telephone & Telegraph), located in U.S.A.

Bjarne Stroustrup is known as the founder of C++ language.

It was develop for adding a feature of OOP (Object Oriented Programming) in C without
significantly changing the C component.

C++ programming is "relative" (called a superset) of C, it means any valid C program is also
a valid C++ program.

Let's see the programming languages that were developed before C++ language.

Language Year Developed By

Algol 1960 International Group
BCPL 1967 Martin Richard
B 1970 Ken Thompson
Traditional C 1972 Dennis Ritchie
K&RC 1978 Kernighan & Dennis Ritchie
C++ 1980 Bjarne Stroustrup

C++ Features

C++ is object oriented programming language. It provides a lot of features that are given
below.
 1. Simple
2. Machine Independent or Portable
3. Mid-level programming language
4. Structured programming language
5. Rich Library
6. Memory Management
7. Fast Speed
8. Pointers
9. Recursion
10. Extensible
11. Object Oriented
12. Compiler based

1) Simple

C++ is a simple language in the sense that it provides structured approach (to break the
problem into parts), rich set of library functions, data types etc.

2) Machine Independent or Portable

Unlike assembly language, c programs can be executed in many machines with little bit or no
change. But it is not platform-independent.

3) Mid-level programming language

C++ is also used to do low level programming. It is used to develop system applications such
as kernel, driver etc. It also supports the feature of high level language. That is why it is
known as mid-level language.

4) Structured programming language

C++ is a structured programming language in the sense that we can break the program into
parts using functions. So, it is easy to understand and modify.

5) Rich Library

C++ provides a lot of inbuilt functions that makes the development fast.

6) Memory Management

It supports the feature of dynamic memory allocation. In C++ language, we can free the
allocated memory at any time by calling the free() function.
 7) Speed

The compilation and execution time of C++ language is fast.

8) Pointer

C++ provides the feature of pointers. We can directly interact with the memory by using the
pointers. We can use pointers for memory, structures, functions, array etc.

9) Recursion

In C++, we can call the function within the function. It provides code reusability for every
function.

10) Extensible

C++ language is extensible because it can easily adopt new features.

11) Object Oriented

C++ is object oriented programming language. OOPs makes development and maintenance
easier where as in Procedure-oriented programming language it is not easy to manage if code
grows as project size grows.

12) Compiler based

C++ is a compiler based programming language, it means without compilation no C++

program can be executed. First we need to compile our program using compiler and then we
can execute our program.

C++ Program

Before starting the abcd of C++ language, you need to learn how to write, compile and run
the first C++ program.

To write the first C++ program, open the C++ console and write the following code:

1. #include <iostream.h>
2. #include<conio.h>
3. void main() {
4. clrscr();
5. cout << "Welcome to C++ Programming.";
6. getch();
7. }

#include<iostream.h> includes the standard input output library functions. It

provides cin and cout methods for reading from input and writing to output respectively.
#include <conio.h> includes the console input output library functions. The getch()
function is defined in conio.h file.

void main() The main() function is the entry point of every program in C++ language.
The void keyword specifies that it returns no value.

cout << "Welcome to C++ Programming." is used to print the data "Welcome to C++
Programming." on the console.

getch() The getch() function asks for a single character. Until you press any key, it blocks
the screen.

C++ Basic Input/Output

C++ I/O operation is using the stream concept. Stream is the sequence of bytes or flow of
data. It makes the performance fast.

If bytes flow from main memory to device like printer, display screen, or a network
connection, etc, this is called as output operation.

If bytes flow from device like printer, display screen, or a network connection, etc to main
memory, this is called as input operation.

I/O Library Header Files

Let us see the common header files used in C++ programming are:

Header Function and Description

File
<iostream> It is used to define the cout, cin and cerr objects, which
correspond to standard output stream, standard input stream
and standard error stream, respectively.
<iomanip> It is used to declare services useful for performing formatted
I/O, such as setprecision and setw.
<fstream> It is used to declare services for user-controlled file
processing.

Standard output stream (cout)

The cout is a predefined object of ostream class. It is connected with the standard output
device, which is usually a display screen. The cout is used in conjunction with stream
insertion operator (<<) to display the output on a console

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main( ) {
char ary[] = "Welcome to C++ tutorial";
cout << "Value of ary is: " << ary << endl;
}

Output:

Value of ary is: Welcome to C++ tutorial

Standard input stream (cin)

The cin is a predefined object of istream class. It is connected with the standard input device,
which is usually a keyboard. The cin is used in conjunction with stream extraction operator
(>>) to read the input from a console.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main( ) {
int age;
cout << "Enter your age: ";
cin >> age;
cout << "Your age is: " << age << endl;
}

Output:

Enter your age: 22

Your age is: 22

Standard end line (endl)

The endl is a predefined object of ostream class. It is used to insert a new line characters and
flushes the stream.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main( ) {
cout << "C++ Tutorial";
cout << " Javatpoint"<<endl;
cout << "End of line"<<endl;
}

Output:

C++ Tutorial Javatpoint

End of line
C++ Variable

A variable is a name of memory location. It is used to store data. Its value can be changed
and it can be reused many times.

It is a way to represent memory location through symbol so that it can be easily identified.

Let's see the syntax to declare a variable:

type variable_list;
The example of declaring variable is given below:
int x;
float y;
char z;

Here, x, y, z are variables and int, float, char are data types.

We can also provide values while declaring the variables as given below:

int x=5,b=10; //declaring 2 variable of integer type

float f=30.8;
char c='A';

Rules for defining variables

A variable can have alphabets, digits and underscore.

A variable name can start with alphabet and underscore only. It can't start with digit.

No white space is allowed within variable name.

A variable name must not be any reserved word or keyword e.g. char, float etc.

Valid variable names:

int a;
int _ab;
int a30;
Invalid variable names:
int 4;
int x y;
int double;

C++ Data Types

A data type specifies the type of data that a variable can store such as integer, floating,

character etc.

There are 4 types of data types in C++ language.

Types Data Types

Basic Data Type int, char, float, double, etc
Derived Data Type array, pointer, etc
Enumeration Data Type enum
User Defined Data Type structure

Basic Data Types

The basic data types are integer-based and floating-point based. C++ language supports both
signed and unsigned literals.

The memory size of basic data types may change according to 32 or 64 bit operating system.

Let's see the basic data types. It size is given according to 32 bit OS.

Data Types Memory Size Range

Char 1 byte -128 to 127
signed char 1 byte -128 to 127
unsigned char 1 byte 0 to 127
Short 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767
signed short 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned short 2 byte 0 to 32,767
Int 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767
signed int 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned int 2 byte 0 to 32,767
short int 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767
signed short int 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned short int 2 byte 0 to 32,767
long int 4 byte
signed long int 4 byte
unsigned long int 4 byte
 Float 4 byte
Double 8 byte
long double 10 byte

C++ Keywords

A keyword is a reserved word. You cannot use it as a variable name, constant name etc. A
list of 32 Keywords in C++ Language which are also available in C language are given
below.

auto Break case char const continue default do

double Else enum extern float for goto if
Int Long register return short signed sizeof static
struct switch typedef union unsigned void volatile while

A list of 30 Keywords in C++ Language which are not available in C language are given
below.

Asm dynamic_cast namespace reinterpret_cast bool

explicit new static_cast false catch
operator template friend private class
This inline public throw const_cast
delete mutable protected true try
typeid typename using virtual wchar_t

C++ Operators

An operator is simply a symbol that is used to perform operations. There can be many types
of operations like arithmetic, logical, bitwise etc.

There are following types of operators to perform different types of operations in C language.

o Arithmetic Operators
o Relational Operators
o Logical Operators
o Bitwise Operators
 o Assignment Operator
o Unary operator
o Ternary or Conditional Operator
o Misc Operator

Precedence of Operators in C++

The precedence of operator species that which operator will be evaluated first and next. The
associativity specifies the operators direction to be evaluated, it may be left to right or right to
left.

Let's understand the precedence by the example given below:

1. int data=5+10*10;

The "data" variable will contain 105 because * (multiplicative operator) is evaluated before +
(additive operator).

The precedence and associativity of C++ operators is given below:

Category Operator Associativity

Postfix () [] -> . ++ - - Left to right
Unary + - ! ~ ++ - - (type)* & sizeof Right to left
Multiplicative */% Left to right
Additive +- Right to left
Shift << >> Left to right
Relational < <= > >= Left to right
Equality == !=/td> Right to left
Bitwise AND & Left to right
Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right
Bitwise OR | Right to left
Logical AND && Left to right
Logical OR || Left to right
Conditional ?: Right to left
Assignment = += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left
Comma , Left to right
 C++ if-else

In C++ programming, if statement is used to test the condition. There are various types of if
statements in C++.

o if statement
o if-else statement
o nested if statement
o if-else-if ladder

C++ IF Statement

The C++ if statement tests the condition. It is executed if condition is true.

1. if(condition){
2. //code to be executed
3. }

C++ If Example

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main () {
int num = 10;
if (num % 2 == 0)
{
cout<<"It is even number";
}
return 0;
}

C++ IF-else Statement

The C++ if-else statement also tests the condition. It executes if block if condition is true
otherwise else block is executed.

if(condition){
//code if condition is true
}else{
//code if condition is false
}
C++ If-else Example

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main () {
int num = 11;
if (num % 2 == 0)
{
cout<<"It is even number";
}
else
{
cout<<"It is odd number";
}
return 0;
}

C++ If-else Example: with input from user

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main () {
int num;
cout<<"Enter a Number: ";
cin>>num;
if (num % 2 == 0)
{
cout<<"It is even number"<<endl;
}
else
{
cout<<"It is odd number"<<endl;
}
return 0;
}

C++ IF-else-if ladder Statement

The C++ if-else-if ladder statement executes one condition from multiple statements.

if(condition1){
//code to be executed if condition1 is true
}else if(condition2){
//code to be executed if condition2 is true
}
else if(condition3){
//code to be executed if condition3 is true
}
...
else{
//code to be executed if all the conditions are false
}

C++ If else-if Example

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main () {
int num;
cout<<"Enter a number to check grade:";
cin>>num;
if (num <0 || num >100)
{
cout<<"wrong number";
}
else if(num >= 0 && num < 50){
cout<<"Fail";
}
else if (num >= 50 && num < 60)
{
cout<<"D Grade";
}
else if (num >= 60 && num < 70)
{
cout<<"C Grade";
}
else if (num >= 70 && num < 80)
{
cout<<"B Grade";
}
else if (num >= 80 && num < 90)
{
cout<<"A Grade";
}
else if (num >= 90 && num <= 100)
{
cout<<"A+ Grade";
}
}
 C++ switch

The C++ switch statement executes one statement from multiple conditions. It is like if-else-
if ladder statement in C++.

switch(expression){
case value1:
//code to be executed;
break;
case value2:
//code to be executed;
break;
......

default:
//code to be executed if all cases are not matched;

C++ Switch Example

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main () {
int num;
cout<<"Enter a number to check grade:";
cin>>num;
switch (num)
{
case 10: cout<<"It is 10"; break;
case 20: cout<<"It is 20"; break;
case 30: cout<<"It is 30"; break;
default: cout<<"Not 10, 20 or 30"; break;
}
}

C++ For Loop

The C++ for loop is used to iterate a part of the program several times. If the number of
iteration is fixed, it is recommended to use for loop than while or do-while loops.

The C++ for loop is same as C/C#. We can initialize variable, check condition and
increment/decrement value.

1. for(initialization; condition; incr/decr){

2. //code to be executed
3. }

C++ For Loop Example

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
for(int i=1;i<=10;i++){
cout<<i <<"\n";
}
}

C++ Nested For Loop

In C++, we can use for loop inside another for loop, it is known as nested for loop. The inner
loop is executed fully when outer loop is executed one time. So if outer loop and inner loop
are executed 4 times, inner loop will be executed 4 times for each outer loop i.e. total 16
times.C++ Nested For Loop Example

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main () {
for(int i=1;i<=4;i++){
for(int j=1;j<=4;j++){
cout<<i<<" "<<j<<"\n";
}
}
1. }

C++ Infinite For Loop

If we use double semicolon in for loop, it will be executed infinite times.

#include <iostream>

1. using namespace std;

2.
3. int main () {
4. for (; ;)
5. {
6. cout<<"Infinitive For Loop";
7. }
8. }
C++ While loop

In C++, while loop is used to iterate a part of the program several times. If the number of
iteration is not fixed, it is recommended to use while loop than for loop.
1. while(condition){
2. //code to be executed
3. }

Flowchart:

C++ While Loop Example

Let's see a simple example of while loop to print table of 1.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main() {
4. int i=1;
5. while(i<=10)
6. {
7. cout<<i <<"\n";
8. i++;
9. }
10. }

Output:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

C++ Nested While Loop Example

In C++, we can use while loop inside another while loop, it is known as nested while loop.
The nested while loop is executed fully when outer loop is executed once.

Let's see a simple example of nested while loop in C++ programming language.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main () {
4. int i=1;
5. while(i<=3)
6. {
7. int j = 1;
8. while (j <= 3)
9. {
10. cout<<i<<" "<<j<<"\n";
11. j++;
12. }
13. i++;
14. }
15. }

Output:

11
12
13
21
22
23
31
32
33

C++ Infinitive While Loop Example:

We can also create infinite while loop by passing true as the test condition.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main () {
4. while(true)
5. {
6. cout<<"Infinitive While Loop";
7. }
8. }

Output:

Infinitive While Loop

Infinitive While Loop
Infinitive While Loop
Infinitive While Loop
Infinitive While Loop
ctrl+c
 C++ Do-While Loop

The C++ do-while loop is used to iterate a part of the program several times. If the number of
iteration is not fixed and you must have to execute the loop at least once, it is recommended
to use do-while loop.

The C++ do-while loop is executed at least once because condition is checked after loop
body.

1. do{
2. //code to be executed
3. }while(condition);

Flowchart:

C++ do-while Loop Example

Let's see a simple example of C++ do-while loop to print the table of 1.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main() {
4. int i = 1;
5. do{
6. cout<<i<<"\n";
7. i++;
8. } while (i <= 10) ;
9. }

Output:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

C++ Nested do-while Loop

 In C++, if you use do-while loop inside another do-while loop, it is known as nested do-while
loop. The nested do-while loop is executed fully for each outer do-while loop.

Let's see a simple example of nested do-while loop in C++.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main() {
4. int i = 1;
5. do{
6. int j = 1;
7. do{
8. cout<<i<<"\n";
9. j++;
10. } while (j <= 3) ;
11. i++;
12. } while (i <= 3) ;
13. }

Output:

11
12
13
21
22
23
31
32
33

C++ Infinitive do-while Loop

In C++, if you pass true in the do-while loop, it will be infinitive do-while loop.

1. do{
2. //code to be executed
3. }while(true);

C++ Infinitive do-while Loop Example

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main() {
4. do{
5. cout<<"Infinitive do-while Loop";
6. } while(true);
7. }

Output:

Infinitive do-while Loop

Infinitive do-while Loop
Infinitive do-while Loop
Infinitive do-while Loop
Infinitive do-while Loop
ctrl+c

C++ Break Statement

The C++ break is used to break loop or switch statement. It breaks the current flow of the
program at the given condition. In case of inner loop, it breaks only inner loop.

1. jump-statement;
2. break;

Flowchart:

C++ Break Statement Example

Let's see a simple example of C++ break statement which is used inside the loop.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main() {
4. for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++)
5. {
6. if (i == 5)
7. {
8. break;
9. }
10. cout<<i<<"\n";
11. }
12. }

Output:

1
2
3
4
 C++ Break Statement with Inner Loop

The C++ break statement breaks inner loop only if you use break statement inside the inner
loop.

Let's see the example code:

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main()
4. {
5. for(int i=1;i<=3;i++){
6. for(int j=1;j<=3;j++){
7. if(i==2&&j==2){
8. break;
9. }
10. cout<<i<<" "<<j<<"\n";
11. }
12. }
13. }

Output:

11
12
13
21
31
32
33

C++ Continue Statement

The C++ continue statement is used to continue loop. It continues the current flow of the
program and skips the remaining code at specified condition. In case of inner loop, it
continues only inner loop.

1. jump-statement;
2. continue;

C++ Continue Statement Example

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main()
4. {
5. for(int i=1;i<=10;i++){
6. if(i==5){
7. continue;
8. }
9. cout<<i<<"\n";
10. }
11. }

Output:

1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10

C++ Continue Statement with Inner Loop

C++ Continue Statement continues inner loop only if you use continue statement inside the
inner loop.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main()
4. {
5. for(int i=1;i<=3;i++){
6. for(int j=1;j<=3;j++){
7. if(i==2&&j==2){
8. continue;
9. }
10. cout<<i<<" "<<j<<"\n";
11. }
12. }
13. }

Output:

11
12
13
21
23
31
32
33
C++ Goto Statement

The C++ goto statement is also known as jump statement. It is used to transfer control to the
other part of the program. It unconditionally jumps to the specified label.

It can be used to transfer control from deeply nested loop or switch case label.

C++ Goto Statement Example

Let's see the simple example of goto statement in C++.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
ineligible:
cout<<"You are not eligible to vote!\n";
cout<<"Enter your age:\n";
int age;
cin>>age;
if (age < 18){
goto ineligible;
}
else
{
cout<<"You are eligible to vote!";
}
}

Output:

You are not eligible to vote!

Enter your age:
16
You are not eligible to vote!
Enter your age:
7
You are not eligible to vote!
Enter your age:
22
You are eligible to vote!
 C++ Comments

The C++ comments are statements that are not executed by the compiler. The comments in
C++ programming can be used to provide explanation of the code, variable, method or class.
By the help of comments, you can hide the program code also.

There are two types of comments in C++.

o Single Line comment

o Multi Line comment

C++ Single Line Comment

The single line comment starts with // (double slash). Let's see an example of single line
comment in C++.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main()
4. {
5. int x = 11; // x is a variable
6. cout<<x<<"\n";
7. }

Output:

11

C++ Multi Line Comment

The C++ multi line comment is used to comment multiple lines of code. It is surrounded by
slash and asterisk (/∗ ..... ∗/). Let's see an example of multi line comment in C++.

1. #include <ostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main()
4. {
5. /* declare and
6. print variable in C++. */
7. int x = 35;
8. cout<<x<<"\n";
9. }

Output:

35
 C++ Arrays

Like other programming languages, array in C++ is a group of similar types of elements that
have contiguous memory location.

In C++ std::array is a container that encapsulates fixed size arrays. In C++, array index
starts from 0. We can store only fixed set of elements in C++ array.

Advantages of C++ Array

o Code Optimization (less code)

o Random Access
o Easy to traverse data
o Easy to manipulate data
o Easy to sort data etc.

Disadvantages of C++ Array

o Fixed size

C++ Array Types

There are 2 types of arrays in C++ programming:

1. Single Dimensional Array

2. Multidimensional Array

C++ Single Dimensional Array

Let's see a simple example of C++ array, where we are going to create, initialize and traverse
array.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main()
4. {
5. int arr[5]={10, 0, 20, 0, 30}; //creating and initializing array
6. //traversing array
7. for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
8. {
9. cout<<arr[i]<<"\n";
10. }
11. }

Output:/p>

10
0
20
0
30

C++ Array Example: Traversal using foreach loop

We can also traverse the array elements using foreach loop. It returns array element one by
one.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main()
4. {
5. int arr[5]={10, 0, 20, 0, 30}; //creating and initializing array
6. //traversing array
7. for (int i: arr)
8. {
9. cout<<i<<"\n";
10. }
11. }

Output:

10
20
30
40
50

C++ Passing Array to Function

In C++, to reuse the array logic, we can create function. To pass array to function in C++, we
need to provide only array name.
1. functionname(arrayname); //passing array to function

C++ Passing Array to Function Example: print array elements

Let's see an example of C++ function which prints the array elements.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. void printArray(int arr[5]);
4. int main()
5. {
6. int arr1[5] = { 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 };
7. int arr2[5] = { 5, 15, 25, 35, 45 };
8. printArray(arr1); //passing array to function
9. printArray(arr2);
10. }
11. void printArray(int arr[5])
12. {
13. cout << "Printing array elements:"<< endl;
14. for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
15. {
16. cout<<arr[i]<<"\n";
17. }
18. }

Output:

Printing array elements:

10
20
30
40
50
Printing array elements:
5
15
25
35
45

C++ Passing Array to Function Example: Print minimum number

Let's see an example of C++ array which prints minimum number in an array using function.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. void printMin(int arr[5]);
4. int main()
5. {
6. int arr1[5] = { 30, 10, 20, 40, 50 };
7. int arr2[5] = { 5, 15, 25, 35, 45 };
8. printMin(arr1);//passing array to function
9. printMin(arr2);
10. }
11. void printMin(int arr[5])
12. {
13. int min = arr[0];
14. for (int i = 0; i > 5; i++)
15. {
16. if (min > arr[i])
17. {
18. min = arr[i];
19. }
20. }
21. cout<< "Minimum element is: "<< min <<"\n";
22. }

Output:

Minimum element is: 10

Minimum element is: 5

C++ Passing Array to Function Example: Print maximum number

Let's see an example of C++ array which prints maximum number in an array using function.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. void printMax(int arr[5]);
4. int main()
5. {
6. int arr1[5] = { 25, 10, 54, 15, 40 };
7. int arr2[5] = { 12, 23, 44, 67, 54 };
8. printMax(arr1); //Passing array to function
9. printMax(arr2);
10. }
11. void printMax(int arr[5])
12. {
13. int max = arr[0];
14. for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
15. {
16. if (max < arr[i])
17. {
18. max = arr[i];
19. }
20. }
21. cout<< "Maximum element is: "<< max <<"\n";
22. }

Output:

Maximum element is: 54

Maximum element is: 67

C++ Multidimensional Arrays

The multidimensional array is also known as rectangular arrays in C++. It can be two
dimensional or three dimensional. The data is stored in tabular form (row ∗ column) which is
also known as matrix.

C++ Multidimensional Array Example

Let's see a simple example of multidimensional array in C++ which declares, initializes and
traverse two dimensional arrays.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main()
4. {
5. int test[3][3]; //declaration of 2D array
6. test[0][0]=5; //initialization
7. test[0][1]=10;
8. test[1][1]=15;
9. test[1][2]=20;
10. test[2][0]=30;
11. test[2][2]=10;
12. //traversal
13. for(int i = 0; i < 3; ++i)
14. {
15. for(int j = 0; j < 3; ++j)
16. {
17. cout<< test[i][j]<<" ";
18. }
19. cout<<"\n"; //new line at each row
20. }
21. return 0;
22. }

Output:

5 10 0
0 15 20
30 0 10
 C++ Multidimensional Array Example: Declaration and initialization at same time

Let's see a simple example of multidimensional array which initializes array at the time of
declaration.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main()
4. {
5. int test[3][3] =
6. {
7. {2, 5, 5},
8. {4, 0, 3},
9. {9, 1, 8} }; //declaration and initialization
10. //traversal
11. for(int i = 0; i < 3; ++i)
12. {
13. for(int j = 0; j < 3; ++j)
14. {
15. cout<< test[i][j]<<" ";
16. }
17. cout<<"\n"; //new line at each row
18. }
19. return 0;
20. }

Output:"

255
403
918

C++ Pointers

The pointer in C++ language is a variable, it is also known as locator or indicator that points
to an address of a value.

Advantage of pointer

1) Pointer reduces the code and improves the performance, it is used to retrieving strings,
trees etc. and used with arrays, structures and functions.

2) We can return multiple values from function using pointer.

3) It makes you able to access any memory location in the computer's memory.
 Usage of pointer

There are many usage of pointers in C++ language.

1) Dynamic memory allocation

In c language, we can dynamically allocate memory using malloc() and calloc() functions
where pointer is used.

2) Arrays, Functions and Structures

Pointers in c language are widely used in arrays, functions and structures. It reduces the code
and improves the performance.

Symbols used in pointer

Symbol Name Description

& (ampersand Address operator Determine the address of a
sign) variable.
∗ (asterisk sign) Indirection Access the value of an address.
operator

Declaring a pointer

The pointer in C++ language can be declared using ∗ (asterisk symbol).

1. int ∗ a; //pointer to int

2. char ∗ c; //pointer to char

Pointer Example

Let's see the simple example of using pointers printing the address and value.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main()
4. {
5. int number=30;
6. int ∗ p;
7. p=&number;//stores the address of number variable
8. cout<<"Address of number variable is:"<<&number<<endl;
9. cout<<"Address of p variable is:"<<p<<endl;
10. cout<<"Value of p variable is:"<<*p<<endl;
11. return 0;
12. }
 Output

Address of number variable is:0x7ffccc8724c4

Address of p variable is:0x7ffccc8724c4
Value of p variable is:30

Pointer Program to swap 2 numbers without using 3rd variable

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main()
4. {
5. int a=20,b=10,∗p1=&a,∗p2=&b;
6. cout<<"Before swap: ∗p1="<<∗p1<<" ∗p2="<<∗p2<<endl;
7. ∗p1=∗p1+∗p2;
8. ∗p2=∗p1-∗p2;
9. ∗p1=∗p1-∗p2;
10. cout<<"After swap: ∗p1="<<∗p1<<" ∗p2="<<∗p2<<endl;
11. return 0;
12. }

Output

Before swap: ∗p1=20 ∗p2=10

After swap: ∗p1=10 ∗p2=20

C++ OOPs Concepts

The major purpose of C++ programming is to introduce the concept of object orientation to
the C programming language.

Object Oriented Programming is a paradigm that provides many concepts such

as inheritance, data binding, polymorphism etc.

The programming paradigm where everything is represented as an object is known as truly

object-oriented programming language. Smalltalk is considered as the first truly object-
oriented programming language.

OOPs (Object Oriented Programming System)

Object means a real word entity such as pen, chair, table etc. Object-Oriented
Programming is a methodology or paradigm to design a program using classes and objects.
It simplifies the software development and maintenance by providing some concepts:
 o Object
o Class
o Inheritance
o Polymorphism
o Abstraction
o Encapsulation

Object

Any entity that has state and behavior is known as an object. For example: chair, pen, table,
keyboard, bike etc. It can be physical and logical.

Class

Collection of objects is called class. It is a logical entity.

Inheritance

When one object acquires all the properties and behaviours of parent object i.e. known
as inheritance. It provides code reusability. It is used to achieve runtime polymorphism.

Polymorphism

When one task is performed by different ways i.e. known as polymorphism. For example:
to convince the customer differently, to draw something e.g. shape or rectangle etc.

In C++, we use Function overloading and Function overriding to achieve polymorphism.

Abstraction

Hiding internal details and showing functionality is known as abstraction. For example:
phone call, we don't know the internal processing.

In C++, we use abstract class and interface to achieve abstraction.

Encapsulation

Binding (or wrapping) code and data together into a single unit is known as
encapsulation. For example: capsule, it is wrapped with different medicines.

Advantage of OOPs over Procedure-oriented programming language

1. OOPs makes development and maintenance easier where as in Procedure-oriented

programming language it is not easy to manage if code grows as project size grows.
2. OOPs provide data hiding whereas in Procedure-oriented programming language a
global data can be accessed from anywhere.
 3. OOPs provide ability to simulate real-world event much more effectively. We can
provide the solution of real word problem if we are using the Object-Oriented
Programming language.

C++ Object and Class

Since C++ is an object-oriented language, program is designed using objects and classes in
C++.

C++ Object

In C++, Object is a real world entity, for example, chair, car, pen, mobile, laptop etc.

In other words, object is an entity that has state and behavior. Here, state means data and
behavior means functionality.

Object is a runtime entity, it is created at runtime.

Object is an instance of a class. All the members of the class can be accessed through object.

Let's see an example to create object of student class using s1 as the reference variable.

1. Student s1; //creating an object of Student

In this example, Student is the type and s1 is the reference variable that refers to the instance
of Student class.

C++ Class

In C++, object is a group of similar objects. It is a template from which objects are created. It
can have fields, methods, constructors etc.

Let's see an example of C++ class that has three fields only.

class Student
{
public:
int id; //field or data member
float salary; //field or data member
String name;//field or data member
}

C++ Object and Class Example

Let's see an example of class that has two fields: id and name. It creates instance of the class,
initializes the object and prints the object value.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Student {
public:
int id;//data member (also instance variable)
string name;//data member(also instance variable)
};
int main() {
Student s1; //creating an object of Student
s1.id = 201;
s1.name = "Sonoo Jaiswal";
cout<<s1.id<<endl;
cout<<s1.name<<endl;
return 0;
}

C++ Class Example: Initialize and Display data through method

Let's see another example of C++ class where we are initializing and displaying object
through method.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Student {
public:
int id;//data member (also instance variable)
string name;//data member(also instance variable)
void insert(int i, string n)
{
id = i;
name = n;
}
void display()
{
cout<<id<<" "<<name<<endl;
}
};
int main() {
Student s1; //creating an object of Student
Student s2; //creating an object of Student
s1.insert(201, "Sonoo");
s2.insert(202, "Nakul");
s1.display();
s2.display();
return 0;
}
 C++ Class Example: Store and Display Employee Information

Let's see another example of C++ class where we are storing and displaying employee
information using method.

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. class Employee {
4. public:
5. int id;//data member (also instance variable)
6. string name;//data member(also instance variable)
7. float salary;
8. void insert(int i, string n, float s)
9. {
10. id = i;
11. name = n;
12. salary = s;
13. }
14. void display()
15. {
16. cout<<id<<" "<<name<<" "<<salary<<endl;
17. }
18. };
19. int main(void) {
20. Employee e1; //creating an object of Employee
21. Employee e2; //creating an object of Employee
22. e1.insert(201, "Sonoo",990000);
23. e2.insert(202, "Nakul", 29000);
24. e1.display();
25. e2.display();
26. return 0;
27. }

C++ Constructor

In C++, constructor is a special method which is invoked automatically at the time of object
creation. It is used to initialize the data members of new object generally. The constructor in
C++ has the same name as class or structure.

There can be two types of constructors in C++.

o Default constructor
o Parameterized constructor
C++ Default Constructor

A constructor which has no argument is known as default constructor. It is invoked at the

time of creating object.

Let's see the simple example of C++ default Constructor.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Employee
{
public:
Employee()
{
cout<<"Default Constructor Invoked"<<endl;
}
};
int main(void)
{
Employee e1; //creating an object of Employee
Employee e2;
return 0;
}

C++ Parameterized Constructor

A constructor which has parameters is called parameterized constructor. It is used to provide

different values to distinct objects.

Let's see the simple example of C++ Parameterized Constructor.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Employee {
public:
int id;//data member (also instance variable)
string name;//data member(also instance variable)
float salary;
Employee(int i, string n, float s)
{
id = i;
name = n;
salary = s;
}
void display()
{
cout<<id<<" "<<name<<" "<<salary<<endl;
}
};
int main(void) {
 Employee e1 =Employee(101, "Sonoo", 890000); //creating an object of Employee
Employee e2=Employee(102, "Nakul", 59000);
e1.display();
e2.display();
return 0;
}

C++ Destructor

A destructor works opposite to constructor; it destructs the objects of classes. It can be

defined only once in a class. Like constructors, it is invoked automatically.

A destructor is defined like constructor. It must have same name as class. But it is prefixed
with a tilde sign (~).

Note: C++ destructor cannot have parameters. Moreover, modifiers can't be applied on
destructors.

C++ Constructor and Destructor Example

Let's see an example of constructor and destructor in C++ which is called automatically.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Employee
{
public:
Employee()
{
cout<<"Constructor Invoked"<<endl;
}
~Employee()
{
cout<<"Destructor Invoked"<<endl;
}
};
int main(void)
{
Employee e1; //creating an object of Employee
Employee e2; //creating an object of Employee
return 0;
}

C++ this Pointer

In C++ programming, this is a keyword that refers to the current instance of the class. There
can be 2 main usage of this keyword in C++.

o It can be used to pass current object as a parameter to another method.

o It can be used to refer current class instance variable.

C++ this Pointer Example

Let's see the example of this keyword in C++ that refers to the fields of current class.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Employee {
public:
int id; //data member (also instance variable)
string name; //data member(also instance variable)
float salary;
Employee(int id, string name, float salary)
{
this->id = id;
this->name = name;
this->salary = salary;
}
void display()
{
cout<<id<<" "<<name<<" "<<salary<<endl;
}
};
int main(void) {
Employee e1 =Employee(101, "Sonoo", 890000); //creating an object of Employee
Employee e2=Employee(102, "Nakul", 59000); //creating an object of Employee
e1.display();
e2.display();
return 0;
}

C++ static
In C++, static is a keyword or modifier that belongs to the type not instance. So instance is
not required to access the static members. In C++, static can be field, method, constructor,
class, properties, operator and event.

Advantage of C++ static keyword

Memory efficient: Now we don't need to create instance for accessing the static members, so
it saves memory. Moreover, it belongs to the type, so it will not get memory each time when
instance is created.

C++ Static Field

A field which is declared as static is called static field. Unlike instance field which gets
memory each time whenever you create object, there is only one copy of static field created
in the memory. It is shared to all the objects.

It is used to refer the common property of all objects such as rateOfInterest in case of
Account, companyName in case of Employee etc.

C++ static field example

Let's see the simple example of static field in C++.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Account {
public:
int accno; //data member (also instance variable)
string name; //data member(also instance variable)
static float rateOfInterest;
Account(int accno, string name)
{
this->accno = accno;
this->name = name;
}
void display()
{
cout<<accno<< "<<name<< " "<<rateOfInterest<<endl;
}
};
float Account::rateOfInterest=6.5;
int main(void) {
Account a1 =Account(201, "Sanjay"); //creating an object of Employee
Account a2=Account(202, "Nakul"); //creating an object of Employee
a1.display();
a2.display();
return 0;
}

C++ static field example: Counting Objects

Let's see another example of static keyword in C++ which counts the objects.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Account {
public:
int accno; //data member (also instance variable)
string name;
static int count;
Account(int accno, string name)
{
this->accno = accno;
this->name = name;
count++;
}
void display()
{
cout<<accno<<" "<<name<<endl;
}
};
int Account::count=0;
int main(void) {
Account a1 =Account(201, "Sanjay"); //creating an object of Account
Account a2=Account(202, "Nakul");
Account a3=Account(203, "Ranjana");
a1.display();
a2.display();
a3.display();
cout<<"Total Objects are: "<<Account::count;
return 0;
}
C++ Structs
In C++, classes and structs are blueprints that are used to create instance of a class. Structs
are used for lightweight objects such as Rectangle, color, Point etc.

Unlike class, structs in C++ are value type than reference type. It is useful if you have data
that is not intended to be modified after creation of struct.

C++ Struct Example

Let's see a simple example of struct Rectangle which has two data members width and height.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
struct Rectangle
{
int width, height;

};
int main(void) {
 struct Rectangle rec;
rec.width=8;
rec.height=5;
cout<<"Area of Rectangle is: "<<(rec.width * rec.height)<<endl;
return 0;
}

C++ Struct Example: Using Constructor and Method

Let's see another example of struct where we are using constructor to initialize data and
method to calculate area of rectangle.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

struct Rectangle
{
int width, height;
Rectangle(int w, int h)
{
width = w;
height = h;
}
void areaOfRectangle() {
cout<<"Area of Rectangle is: "<<(width*height); }
};
int main(void) {
struct Rectangle rec=Rectangle(4,6);
rec.areaOfRectangle();
return 0;
}
C++ Enumeration

Enum in C++ is a data type that contains fixed set of constants.

It can be used for days of the week (SUNDAY, MONDAY, TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY,
THURSDAY, FRIDAY and SATURDAY) , directions (NORTH, SOUTH, EAST and
WEST) etc. The C++ enum constants are static and final implicitly.

C++ Enums can be thought of as classes that have fixed set of constants.

Points to remember for C++ Enum

o enum improves type safety

o enum can be easily used in switch
o enum can be traversed
o enum can have fields, constructors and methods
 o enum may implement many interfaces but cannot extend any class because it
internally extends Enum class

C++ Enumeration Example

Let's see the simple example of enum data type used in C++ program.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
enum week { Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday };
int main()
{
week day;
day = Friday;
cout << "Day: " << day+1<<endl;
return 0;
}
C++ friend function

If a function is defined as a friend function in C++ then the protected and private data of a
class can be accessed using the function.

By using the keyword friend compiler knows the given function is a friend function.

For accessing the data, the declaration of a friend function should be done inside the body of
a class starting with the keyword friend.

Declaration of friend function in C++

class class_name
{
friend data_type function_name(argument/s);
};

C++ friend function Example

Let's see the simple example of C++ friend function used to print the length of a box.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Box
{
private:
int length;
 public:
Box(): length(0) { }
friend int printLength(Box); //friend function
};
int printLength(Box b)
{
b.length += 10;
return b.length;
}
int main()
{
Box b;
cout<<"Length of box: "<< printLength(b)<<endl;
return 0;
}

C++ Inheritance
In C++, inheritance is a process in which one object acquires all the properties and behaviors
of its parent object automatically. In such way, you can reuse, extend or modify the attributes
and behaviors which are defined in other class.

In C++, the class which inherits the members of another class is called base class and the
class whose members are inherited is called derived class. The base class is the specialized
class for the derived class.

Advantage of C++ Inheritance

Code reusability: Now you can reuse the members of your parent class. So, there is no need
to define the member again. So less code is required in the class.

C++ Single Level Inheritance Example: Inheriting Fields

When one class inherits another class, it is known as single level inheritance. Let's see the
example of single level inheritance which inherits the fields only.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 class Account {
public:
float salary = 60000;
};
class Programmer: public Account {
public:
float bonus = 5000;
};
int main(void) {
Programmer p1;
cout<<"Salary: "<<p1.salary<<endl;
cout<<"Bonus: "<<p1.bonus<<endl;
return 0;
}
In the above example, Employee is the base class and Programmer is the derived class.

C++ Single Level Inheritance Example: Inheriting Methods

Let's see another example of inheritance in C++ which inherits methods only.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Animal {
public:
void eat() {
cout<<"Eating..."<<endl;
}
};
class Dog: public Animal
{
public:
void bark(){
cout<<"Barking...";
}
};
int main(void) {
Dog d1;
d1.eat();
d1.bark();
return 0;
}

C++ Multi Level Inheritance Example

When one class inherits another class which is further inherited by another class, it is known
as multi level inheritance in C++. Inheritance is transitive so the last derived class acquires all
the members of all its base classes.

Let's see the example of multi level inheritance in C++.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Animal {
public:
void eat() {
cout<<"Eating..."<<endl;
}
};
class Dog: public Animal
{
public:
void bark(){
cout<<"Barking..."<<endl;
}
};
class BabyDog: public Dog
{
public:
void weep() {
cout<<"Weeping...";
}
};
int main(void) {
BabyDog d1;
d1.eat();
d1.bark();
d1.weep();
return 0;
}

C++ Aggregation (HAS-A Relationship)

In C++, aggregation is a process in which one class defines another class as any entity
reference. It is another way to reuse the class. It is a form of association that represents HAS-
A relationship.

C++ Aggregation Example

Let's see an example of aggregation where Employee class has the reference of Address class
as data member. In such way, it can reuse the members of Address class.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Address {
public:
string addressLine, city, state;
Address(string addressLine, string city, string state)
 {
this->addressLine = addressLine;
this->city = city;
this->state = state;
}
};
class Employee
{
private:
Address* address; //Employee HAS-A Address
public:
int id;
string name;
Employee(int id, string name, Address* address)
{
this->id = id;
this->name = name;
this->address = address;
}
void display()
{
cout<<id <<" "<<name<< " "<<
address->addressLine<< " "<< address->city<< " "<<address->state<<endl;
}
};
int main(void) {
Address a1= Address("C-146, Sec-15","Noida","UP");
Employee e1 = Employee(101,"Nakul",&a1);
e1.display();
return 0;
}

C++ Polymorphism
The term "Polymorphism" is the combination of "poly" + "morphs" which means many
forms. It is a greek word. In object-oriented programming, we use 3 main concepts:
inheritance, encapsulation and polymorphism.

There are two types of polymorphism in C++:

o Compile time polymorphism: It is achieved by function overloading and operator

overloading which is also known as static binding or early binding.
o Runtime polymorphism: It is achieved by method overriding which is also known as
dynamic binding or late binding.
C++ Runtime Polymorphism Example

Let's see a simple example of runtime polymorphism in C++.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Animal {
public:
void eat(){
cout<<"Eating...";
}
};
class Dog: public Animal
{
public:
void eat()
{
cout<<"Eating bread...";
}
};
int main(void) {
Dog d = Dog();
d.eat();
return 0;
}

C++ Runtime Polymorphism Example: By using two derived class

Let's see another example of runtime polymorphism in C++ where we are having two derived
classes.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Shape {
public:
virtual void draw(){
cout<<"drawing..."<<endl;
}
};
class Rectangle: public Shape
{
public:
void draw()
{
cout<<"drawing rectangle..."<<endl;
}
};
class Circle: public Shape
{
public:
 void draw()
{
cout<<"drawing circle..."<<endl;
}
};
int main(void) {
Shape *s;
Shape sh;
Rectangle rec;
Circle cir;
s=&sh;
s->draw();
s=&rec;
s->draw();
s=○
s->draw();
}
Runtime Polymorphism with Data Members

Runtime Polymorphism can be achieved by data members in C++. Let's see an example
where we are accessing the field by reference variable which refers to the instance of derived
class.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Animal {
public:
string color = "Black";
};
class Dog: public Animal
{
public:
string color = "Grey";
};
int main(void) {
Animal d= Dog();
cout<<d.color;
}
C++ Overloading (Function and Operator)

If we create two or more members having same name but different in number or type of
parameter, it is known as C++ overloading. In C++, we can overload:

o methods,
o constructors, and
o indexed properties

It is because these members have parameters only.

Types of overloading in C++ are:

o Function overloading
o Operators overloading

C++ Function Overloading

Having two or more function with same name but different in parameters, is known as
function overloading in C++.

The advantage of Function overloading is that it increases the readability of the program
because you don't need to use different names for same action.

C++ Function Overloading Example

Let's see the simple example of function overloading where we are changing number of
arguments of add() method.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Cal {
public:
static int add(int a,int b){
return a + b;
}
static int add(int a, int b, int c)
{
return a + b + c;
}
};
int main(void) {
Cal C;
cout<<C.add(10, 20)<<endl;
cout<<C.add(12, 20, 23);
return 0;
}

C++ Operators Overloading

Operator overloading is used to overload or redefine most of the operators available in C++.
It is used to perform operation on user define data type.

The advantage of Operators overloading is to perform different operations on the same

operand.

C++ Operators Overloading Example

Let's see the simple example of operator overloading in C++. In this example, void operator
++ () operator function is defined (inside Test class).

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Test
{
private:
int num;
public:
Test(): num(8){}
void operator ++()
{
num = num+2;
}
void Print() {
cout<<"The Count is: "<<num;
}
};
int main()
{
Test tt;
++tt; // calling of a function "void operator ++()"
tt.Print();
return 0;
}

C++ Function Overriding

If derived class defines same function as defined in its base class, it is known as function
overriding in C++. It is used to achieve runtime polymorphism. It enables you to provide
specific implementation of the function which is already provided by its base class.

C++ Function Overriding Example

Let's see a simple example of Function overriding in C++. In this example, we are overriding
the eat() function.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Animal {
public:
void eat(){
cout<<"Eating...";
}
};
class Dog: public Animal
{
public:
 void eat()
{
cout<<"Eating bread...";
}
};
int main(void) {
Dog d = Dog();
d.eat();
return 0;
}

C++ virtual function

C++ virtual function is a member function in base class that you redefine in a derived class. It
is declare using the virtual keyword.

It is used to tell the compiler to perform dynamic linkage or late binding on the function.

Late binding or Dynamic linkage

In late binding function call is resolved during runtime. Therefore compiler determines the
type of object at runtime, and then binds the function call.

C++ virtual function Example

Let's see the simple example of C++ virtual function used to invoked the derived class in a
program.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class A
{
public:
virtual void display()
{
cout << "Base class is invoked"<<endl;
}
};
class B:public A
{
public:
void display()
{
cout << "Derived Class is invoked"<<endl;
 }
};
int main()
{
A* a; //pointer of base class
B b; //object of derived class
a = &b;
a->display(); //Late Binding occurs
}

Interfaces in C++ (Abstract Classes)

Abstract classes are the way to achieve abstraction in C++. Abstraction in C++ is the process
to hide the internal details and showing functionality only. Abstraction can be achieved by
two ways:

1. Abstract class
2. Interface

Abstract class and interface both can have abstract methods which are necessary for
abstraction.

C++ Abstract class

In C++ class is made abstract by declaring at least one of its functions as <>strong>pure
virtual function. A pure virtual function is specified by placing "= 0" in its declaration. Its
implementation must be provided by derived classes.

Let's see an example of abstract class in C++ which has one abstract method draw(). Its
implementation is provided by derived classes: Rectangle and Circle. Both classes have
different implementation.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Shape
{
public:
virtual void draw()=0;
};
class Rectangle : Shape
{
public:
void draw()
{
cout < <"drawing rectangle..." < <endl;
}
};
class Circle : Shape
{
public:
void draw()
{
cout <<"drawing circle..." < <endl;
}
};
int main( ) {
Rectangle rec;
Circle cir;
rec.draw();
cir.draw();
return 0;
}

Data Abstraction in C++

In C++ program if we implement class with private and public members then it is an example
of data abstraction.

Let's see the simple example of data abstraction.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Sum
{
private: int x, y, z;
public:
void add()
{
cout<<"Enter two numbers: ";
cin>>x>>y;
z= x+y;
cout<<"Sum of two number is: "<<z<<endl;
}
};
int main()
{
Sum sm;
sm.add();
return 0;
}

C++ Namespaces
Namespaces in C++ are used to organize too many classes so that it can be easy to handle the
application.

For accessing the class of a namespace, we need to use namespacename::classname. We can

use using keyword so that we don't have to use complete name all the time.

In C++, global namespace is the root namespace. The global::std will always refer to the
namespace "std" of C++ Framework.

C++ namespace Example

Let's see the simple example of namespace which include variable and functions.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
namespace First {
void sayHello() {
cout<<"Hello First Namespace"<<endl;
}
}
namespace Second {
void sayHello() {
cout<<"Hello Second Namespace"<<endl;
}
}
int main()
{
First::sayHello();
Second::sayHello();
return 0;
}

C++ namespace example: by using keyword

Let's see another example of namespace where we are using "using" keyword so that we don't
have to use complete name for accessing a namespace program.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
namespace First
{
void sayHello(){
cout << "Hello First Namespace" << endl;
}
}
namespace Second{
void sayHello(){
cout << "Hello Second Namespace" << endl;
 }
}
using namespace First;
int main () {
sayHello();
return 0;
}
C++ Strings

In C++, string is an object of std::string class that represents sequence of characters. We can
perform many operations on strings such as concatenation, comparison, conversion etc.

C++ String Example

Let's see the simple example of C++ string.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main( ) {
string s1 = "Hello";
char ch[] = { 'C', '+', '+'};
string s2 = string(ch);
cout<<s1<<endl;
cout<<s2<<endl;
}

C++ String Compare Example

Let's see the simple example of string comparison using strcmp() function.

#include <iostream>
#include <cstring>
using namespace std;
int main ()
{
char key[] = "mango";
char buffer[50];
do {
cout<<"What is my favourite fruit? ";
cin>>buffer;
} while (strcmp (key,buffer) != 0);
cout<<"Answer is correct!!"<<endl;
return 0;
}
C++ String Concat Example

Let's see the simple example of string concatenation using strcat() function.

#include <iostream>
#include <cstring>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char key[25], buffer[25];
cout << "Enter the key string: ";
cin.getline(key, 25);
cout << "Enter the buffer string: ";
cin.getline(buffer, 25);
strcat(key, buffer);
cout << "Key = " << key << endl;
cout << "Buffer = " << buffer<<endl;
return 0;
}

C++ String Copy Example

Let's see the simple example of copy the string using strcpy() function.

#include <iostream>
#include <cstring>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char key[25], buffer[25];
cout << "Enter the key string: ";
cin.getline(key, 25);
strcpy(buffer, key);
cout << "Key = "<< key << endl;
cout << "Buffer = "<< buffer<<endl;
return 0;
}

C++ String Length Example

Let's see the simple example of finding the string length using strlen() function.

#include <iostream>
#include <cstring>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char ary[] = "Welcome to C++ Programming";
cout << "Length of String = " << strlen(ary)<<endl;
return 0;
}

C++ String Functions

Function Description
int compare(const string& str) It is used to compare two string objects.
int length() It is used to find the length of the string.
void swap(string& str) It is used to swap the values of two string
objects.
string substr(int pos,int n) It creates a new string object of n
characters.
int size() It returns the length of the string in terms
of bytes.
void resize(int n) It is used to resize the length of the string
up to n characters.
string& replace(int pos,int It replaces portion of the string that
len,string& str) begins at character position pos and spans
len characters.
string& append(const string& It adds new characters at the end of
str) another string object.
char& at(int pos) It is used to access an individual
character at specified position pos.
int find(string& str,int pos,int It is used to find the string specified in
n) the parameter.
int find_first_of(string& str,int It is used to find the first occurrence of
pos,int n) the specified sequence.
int find_first_not_of(string& It is used to search the string for the first
str,int pos,int n ) character that does not match with any of
the characters specified in the string.
int find_last_of(string& str,int It is used to search the string for the last
pos,int n) character of specified sequence.
int find_last_not_of(string& It searches for the last character that does
str,int pos) not match with the specified sequence.
string& insert() It inserts a new character before the
character indicated by the position pos.
int max_size() It finds the maximum length of the string.
void push_back(char ch) It adds a new character ch at the end of
the string.
void pop_back() It removes a last character of the string.
string& assign() It assigns new value to the string.
int copy(string& str) It copies the contents of string into
another.
char& back() It returns the reference of last character.
Iterator begin() It returns the reference of first character.
int capacity() It returns the allocated space for the
string.
const_iterator cbegin() It points to the first element of the string.
const_iterator cend() It points to the last element of the string.
void clear() It removes all the elements from the
string.
const_reverse_iterator It points to the last character of the string.
crbegin()
const_char* data() It copies the characters of string into an
array.
bool empty() It checks whether the string is empty or
not.
string& erase() It removes the characters as specified.
char& front() It returns a reference of the first
character.
string& operator+=() It appends a new character at the end of
the string.
string& operator=() It assigns a new value to the string.
char operator[](pos) It retrieves a character at specified
position pos.
int rfind() It searches for the last occurrence of the
string.
iterator end() It references the last character of the
string.
reverse_iterator rend() It points to the first character of the
string.
void shrink_to_fit() It reduces the capacity and makes it equal
to the size of the string.
char* c_str() It returns pointer to an array that contains
null terminated sequence of characters.
const_reverse_iterator crend() It references the first character of the
string.
 reverse_iterator rbegin() It reference the last character of the
string.
void reserve(inr len) It requests a change in capacity.
allocator_type get_allocator(); It returns the allocated object associated
with the string.

C++ Exception Handling

Exception Handling in C++ is a process to handle runtime errors. We perform exception

handling so the normal flow of the application can be maintained even after runtime errors.

In C++, exception is an event or object which is thrown at runtime. All exceptions are
derived from std::exception class. It is a runtime error which can be handled. If we don't
handle the exception, it prints exception message and terminates the program.

Advantage

It maintains the normal flow of the application. In such case, rest of the code is executed even
after exception.

C++ Exception Classes

In C++ standard exceptions are defined in <exception> class that we can use inside our
programs. The arrangement of parent-child class hierarchy is shown below:

All the exception classes in C++ are derived from std::exception class. Let's see the list of
C++ common exception classes.

Exception Description
std::exception It is an exception and parent class of all standard C++
exceptions.
std::logic_failure It is an exception that can be detected by reading a
code.
std::runtime_error It is an exception that cannot be detected by reading a
code.
std::bad_exception It is used to handle the unexpected exceptions in a
 c++ program.
std::bad_cast This exception is generally be thrown
by dynamic_cast.
std::bad_typeid This exception is generally be thrown by typeid.
std::bad_alloc This exception is generally be thrown by new.

C++ Exception Handling Keywords

In C++, we use 3 keywords to perform exception handling:

o try
o catch, and
o throw

C++ try/catch

In C++ programming, exception handling is performed using try/catch statement. The

C++ try block is used to place the code that may occur exception. The catch block is used to
handle the exception.

C++ example without try/catch

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

float division(int x, int y) {
return (x/y);
}
int main () {
int i = 50;
int j = 0;
float k = 0;
k = division(i, j);
cout << k << endl;
return 0;
}

C++ try/catch example

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
float division(int x, int y) {
if( y == 0 ) {
throw "Attempted to divide by zero!";
 }
return (x/y);
}
int main () {
int i = 25;
int j = 0;
float k = 0;
try {
k = division(i, j);
cout << k << endl;
}catch (const char* e) {
cerr << e << endl;
}
return 0;
}
C++ User-Defined Exceptions

The new exception can be defined by overriding and inheriting exception class functionality.

C++ user-defined exception example

Let's see the simple example of user-defined exception in which std::exception class is used
to define the exception.

#include <iostream>
#include <exception>
using namespace std;
class MyException : public exception{
public:
const char * what() const throw()
{
return "Attempted to divide by zero!\n";
}
};
int main()
{
try
{
int x, y;
cout << "Enter the two numbers : \n";
cin >> x >> y;
if (y == 0)
{
MyException z;
throw z;
}
else
{
cout << "x / y = " << x/y << endl;
}
 }
catch(exception& e)
{
cout << e.what();
}
}

Note: In above example what() is a public method provided by the exception class. It is used
to return the cause of an exception.

C++ Files and Streams

In C++ programming we are using the iostream standard library, it

provides cin and cout methods for reading from input and writing to output respectively.

To read and write from a file we are using the standard C++ library called fstream. Let us see
the data types define in fstream library is:

Data Description
Type
fstream It is used to create files, write information to files, and read
information from files.
ifstream It is used to read information from files.
ofstream It is used to create files and write information to the files.

C++ FileStream example: writing to a file

Let's see the simple example of writing to a text file testout.txt using C++ FileStream
programming.

#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
using namespace std;
int main () {
ofstream filestream("testout.txt");
if (filestream.is_open())
{
filestream << "Welcome to javaTpoint.\n";
filestream << "C++ Tutorial.\n";
filestream.close();
}
else cout <<"File opening is fail.";
return 0;
}
C++ FileStream example: reading from a file

Let's see the simple example of reading from a text file testout.txt using C++ FileStream
programming.

#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
using namespace std;
int main () {
string srg;
ifstream filestream("testout.txt");
if (filestream.is_open())
{
while ( getline (filestream,srg) )
{
cout << srg <<endl;
}
filestream.close();
}
else {
cout << "File opening is fail."<<endl;
}
return 0;
}
Note: Before running the code a text file named as "testout.txt" is need to be created and the
content of a text file is given below:

C++ Read and Write Example

Let's see the simple example of writing the data to a text file testout.txt and then reading the
data from the file using C++ FileStream programming.

#include <fstream>
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main () {
char input[75];
ofstream os;
os.open("testout.txt");
cout <<"Writing to a text file:" << endl;
cout << "Please Enter your name: ";
cin.getline(input, 100);
os << input << endl;
cout << "Please Enter your age: ";
cin >> input;
cin.ignore();
os << input << endl;
 os.close();
ifstream is;
string line;
is.open("testout.txt");
cout << "Reading from a text file:" << endl;
while (getline (is,line))
{
cout << line << endl;
}
is.close();
return 0;
}
C++ Templates

A C++ template is a powerful feature added to C++. It allows you to define the generic
classes and generic functions and thus provides support for generic programming. Generic
programming is a technique where generic types are used as parameters in algorithms so that
they can work for a variety of data types.

Templates can be represented in two ways:

o Function templates
o Class templates

Function Templates:

We can define a template for a function. For example, if we have an add() function, we can
create versions of the add function for adding the int, float or double type values.

Class Template:

We can define a template for a class. For example, a class template can be created for the
array class that can accept the array of various types such as int array, float array or double
array.

Function Template

o Generic functions use the concept of a function template. Generic functions define a
set of operations that can be applied to the various types of data.
o The type of the data that the function will operate on depends on the type of the data
passed as a parameter.
o For example, Quick sorting algorithm is implemented using a generic function, it can
be implemented to an array of integers or array of floats.
o A Generic function is created by using the keyword template. The template defines
what function will do.
Syntax of Function Template
template < class Ttype> ret_type func_name(parameter_list)
{
// body of function.
}
Where Ttype: It is a placeholder name for a data type used by the function. It is used within the fu
nction definition. It is only a placeholder that the compiler will automatically replace this placeholder
with the actual data type.

class: A class keyword is used to specify a generic type in a template declaration.

Let's see a simple example of a function template:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
template<class T> T add(T &a,T &b)
{
T result = a+b;
return result;

}
int main()
{
int i =2;
int j =3;
float m = 2.3;
float n = 1.2;
cout<<"Addition of i and j is :"<<add(i,j);
cout<<'\n';
cout<<"Addition of m and n is :"<<add(m,n);
return 0;
}

In the above example, we create the function template which can perform the addition
operation on any type either it can be integer, float or double.

Function Templates with Multiple Parameters

We can use more than one generic type in the template function by using the comma to
separate the list.

Syntax

template<class T1, class T2,.....>

return_type function_name (arguments of type T1, T2....)
{
// body of function.
}
In the above syntax, we have seen that the template function can accept any number of arguments
of a different type.
 Let's see a simple example:

#include <iostream>
1. using namespace std;
template<class X,class Y> void fun(X a,Y b)
{
std::cout << "Value of a is : " <<a<< std::endl;
std::cout << "Value of b is : " <<b<< std::endl;
}

int main()
{
fun(15,12.3);

return 0;
}

In the above example, we use two generic types in the template function, i.e., X and Y.

Overloading a Function Template

We can overload the generic function means that the overloaded template functions can differ
in the parameter list.

Let's understand this through a simple example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
template<class X> void fun(X a)
{
std::cout << "Value of a is : " <<a<< std::endl;
}
template<class X,class Y> void fun(X b ,Y c)
{
std::cout << "Value of b is : " <<b<< std::endl;
std::cout << "Value of c is : " <<c<< std::endl;
}
int main()
{
fun(10);
fun(20,30.5);
return 0;
}

Restrictions of Generic Functions

Generic functions perform the same operation for all the versions of a function except the
data type differs. Let's see a simple example of an overloaded function which cannot be
replaced by the generic function as both the functions have different functionalities.
Let's understand this through a simple example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
void fun(double a)
{
cout<<"value of a is : "<<a<<'\n';
}

void fun(int b)
{
if(b%2==0)
{
cout<<"Number is even";
}
else
{
cout<<"Number is odd";
}

int main()
{
fun(4.6);
fun(6);
return 0;
}

In the above example, we overload the ordinary functions. We cannot overload the generic
functions as both the functions have different functionalities. First one is displaying the value
and the second one determines whether the number is even or not.

CLASS TEMPLATE

Class Template can also be defined similarly to the Function Template. When a class uses
the concept of Template, then the class is known as generic class.

Syntax

template<class Ttype>
class class_name
{
.
.
}
Ttype is a placeholder name which will be determined when the class is instantiated. We can define
more than one generic data type using a comma-separated list. The Ttype can be used inside the
class body.

Now, we create an instance of a class

class_name<type> ob;

where class_name: It is the name of the class.

type: It is the type of the data that the class is operating on.

ob: It is the name of the object.

Let's see a simple example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
template<class T>
class A
{
public:
T num1 = 5;
T num2 = 6;
void add()
{
std::cout << "Addition of num1 and num2 : " << num1+num2<<std::endl;
}

};

int main()
{
A<int> d;
d.add();
return 0;
}

CLASS TEMPLATE WITH MULTIPLE PARAMETERS

We can use more than one generic data type in a class template, and each generic data type is
separated by the comma.

Syntax

template<class T1, class T2, ......>

class class_name
{
// Body of the class.
}
Let's see a simple example when class template contains two generic data types.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
template<class T1, class T2>
class A
{
T1 a;
T2 b;
public:
A(T1 x,T2 y)
{
a = x;
b = y;
}
void display()
{
std::cout << "Values of a and b are : " << a<<" ,"<<b<<std::endl;
}
};

int main()
{
A<int,float> d(5,6.5);
d.display();
return 0;
}

Nontype Template Arguments

The template can contain multiple arguments, and we can also use the non-type arguments In
addition to the type T argument, we can also use other types of arguments such as strings,
function names, constant expression and built-in types. Let' s see the following example:

template<class T, int size>

class array
{
T arr[size]; // automatic array initialization.
};
In the above case, the nontype template argument is size and therefore, template supplies the size
of the array as an argument.

Arguments are specified when the objects of a class are created:

array<int, 15> t1; // array of 15 integers.

array<float, 10> t2; // array of 10 floats.
array<char, 4> t3; // array of 4 chars.
Let's see a simple example of nontype template arguments.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
template<class T, int size>
class A
{
public:
T arr[size];
void insert()
{
int i =1;
for (int j=0;j<size;j++)
{
arr[j] = i;
i++;
}
}

void display()
{
for(int i=0;i<size;i++)
{
std::cout << arr[i] << " ";
}
}
};
int main()
{
A<int,10> t1;
t1.insert();
t1.display();
return 0;
}

Points to Remember

o C++ supports a powerful feature known as a template to implement the concept of

generic programming.
o A template allows us to create a family of classes or family of functions to handle
different data types.
o Template classes and functions eliminate the code duplication of different data types
and thus makes the development easier and faster.
o Multiple parameters can be used in both class and function template.
o Template functions can also be overloaded.
o We can also use nontype arguments such as built-in or derived data types as template
arguments.

C++ Iterators

Iterators are just like pointers used to access the container elements.

Important Points:
 o Iterators are used to traverse from one element to another element, a process is known
as iterating through the container.
o The main advantage of an iterator is to provide a common interface for all the
containers type.
o Iterators make the algorithm independent of the type of the container used.
o Iterators provide a generic approach to navigate through the elements of a container.

Syntax

<ContainerType> :: iterator;

<ContainerType> :: const_iterator;

Operations Performed on the Iterators:

o Operator (*) : The '*' operator returns the element of the current position pointed by
the iterator.
o Operator (++) : The '++' operator increments the iterator by one. Therefore, an
iterator points to the next element of the container.
o Operator (==) and Operator (!=) : Both these operators determine whether the two
iterators point to the same position or not.
o Operator (=) : The '=' operator assigns the iterator.

Difference b/w Iterators & Pointers

Iterators can be smart pointers which allow to iterate over the complex data structures. A
Container provides its iterator type. Therefore, we can say that the iterators have the common
interface with different container type.

The container classes provide two basic member functions that allow to iterate or move
through the elements of a container:

o begin(): The begin() function returns an iterator pointing to the first element of the
container.
o end(): The end() function returns an iterator pointing to the past-the-last element of
the container.

Let's see a simple example:

#include <iostream>

#include<iterator>

#include<vector>

using namespace std;

 int main()

std::vector<int> v{1,2,3,4,5};

vector<int>::iterator itr;

for(itr=v.begin();itr!=v.end();itr++)

std::cout << *itr <<" ";

return 0;

Iterator Categories

An iterator can be categorized in the following ways:

o Input Iterator
o Output Iterator
o Forward Iterator
o Bidirectional Iterator
o Random Access Iterator

Input Iterator: An input iterator is an iterator used to access the elements from the container,
but it does not modify the value of a container.

Operators used for an input iterator are:

o Increment operator(++)
o Equal operator(==)
o Not equal operator(!=)
o Dereference operator(*)

Output Iterator: An output iterator is an iterator used to modify the value of a container, but
it does not read the value from a container. Therefore, we can say that an output iterator is
a write-only iterator.

Operators used for an output iterator are:

o Increment operator(++)
 o Assignment operator(=)

Forward Iterator: A forward iterator is an iterator used to read and write to a container. It is
a multi-pass iterator.

Operators used for a Forward iterator are:

o Increment operator(++)
o Assignment operator(=)
o Equal operator(=)
o Not equal operator(!=)

Bidirectional iterator: A bidirectional iterator is an iterator supports all the features of a

forward iterator plus it adds one more feature, i.e., decrement operator(--). We can move
backward by decrementing an iterator.

Operators used for a Bidirectional iterator are:

o Increment operator(++)
o Assignment operator(=)
o Equal operator(=)
o Not equal operator(!=)
o Decrement operator(--)

Random Access Iterator: A Random Access iterator is an iterator provides random access
of an element at an arbitrary location. It has all the features of a bidirectional iterator plus it
adds one more feature, i.e., pointer addition and pointer subtraction to provide random access
to an element.

Providers Of Iterators

Iterator categories Provider

Input iterator istream
Output iterator ostream
Forward iterator
Bidirectional iterator List, set, multiset, map, multimap
Random access iterator Vector, deque, array

Iterators and their Characteristics

Iterator Access method Direction of movement I/O capability

Input Linear Forward only Read-only
Output Linear Forward only Write-only
Forward Linear Forward only Read/Write
Bidirectional Linear Forward & backward Read/Write
Random Random Forward & backward Read/Write

Disadvantages of iterator

o If we want to move from one data structure to another at the same time, iterators won't
work.
o If we want to update the structure which is being iterated, an iterator won?t allow us
to do because of the way it stores the position.
o If we want to backtrack while processing through a list, the iterator will not work in
this case.

Advantages of iterator

Following are the advantages of an iterator:

o Ease in programming: It is convenient to use iterators rather than using a subscript

operator[] to access the elements of a container. If we use subscript operator[] to
access the elements, then we need to keep the track of the number of elements added
at the runtime, but this would not happen in the case of an iterator.

Let's see a simple example:

#include <iostream>

#include<vector>

#include<iterator>

using namespace std;

int main()

vector<int> v{1,2,3,4,5};

vector<int>::iterator itr;

for(int i=0;i<5;i++) // Traversal without using an iterator.

cout<<v[i]<<" ";

cout<<'\n';
 for(itr=v.begin();itr!=v.end();itr++) // Traversal by using an iterator.

cout<<*itr<<" ";

v.push_back(10);

cout<<'\n';

for(int i=0;i<6;i++)

cout<<v[i]<<" ";

cout<<'\n';

for(itr=v.begin();itr!=v.end();itr++)

cout<<*itr<<" ";

return 0;

o Code Reusability: A code can be reused if we use iterators. In the above example, if
we replace vector with the list, and then the subscript operator[] would not work to
access the elements as the list does not support the random access. However, we use
iterators to access the elements, then we can also access the list elements.
o Dynamic Processing: C++ iterators provide the facility to add or delete the data
dynamically.

Let's see a simple example:

#include <iostream>

#include<vector>

#include<iterator>

using namespace std;

 int main()

vector<int> v{1,2,3,4,5}; // vector declaration

vector<int>::iterator itr;

v.insert(v.begin()+1,10);

for(itr=v.begin();itr!=v.end();itr++)

cout<<*itr<<" ";

return 0;

Difference b/w Random Access Iterator and Other Iterators

The most important difference between the Random access iterator and other iterators is
that random access iterator requires '1' step to access an element while other iterators
require 'n' steps.

C++ Vector

A vector is a sequence container class that implements dynamic array, means size
automatically changes when appending elements. A vector stores the elements in contiguous
memory locations and allocates the memory as needed at run time.

Difference between vector and array

An array follows static approach, means its size cannot be changed during run time while
vector implements dynamic array means it automatically resizes itself when appending
elements.

Syntax

Consider a vector 'v1'. Syntax would be:

vector<object_type> v1;

Example
Let's see a simple example.

#include<iostream>
#include<vector>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
vector<string> v1;
v1.push_back("javaTpoint ");
v1.push_back("tutorial");
for(vector<string>::iterator itr=v1.begin();itr!=v1.end();++itr)
cout<<*itr;
return 0;
}

C++ Vector Functions

Function Description
at() It provides a reference to an element.
back() It gives a reference to the last element.
front() It gives a reference to the first element.
swap() It exchanges the elements between two vectors.
push_back() It adds a new element at the end.
pop_back() It removes a last element from the vector.
empty() It determines whether the vector is empty or not.
insert() It inserts new element at the specified position.
erase() It deletes the specified element.
resize() It modifies the size of the vector.
clear() It removes all the elements from the vector.
size() It determines a number of elements in the vector.
capacity() It determines the current capacity of the vector.
assign() It assigns new values to the vector.
operator=() It assigns new values to the vector container.
operator[]() It access a specified element.
end() It refers to the past-lats-element in the vector.
emplace() It inserts a new element just before the position pos.
emplace_back() It inserts a new element at the end.
rend() It points the element preceding the first element of the
 vector.
rbegin() It points the last element of the vector.
begin() It points the first element of the vector.
max_size() It determines the maximum size that vector can hold.
cend() It refers to the past-last-element in the vector.
cbegin() It refers to the first element of the vector.
crbegin() It refers to the last character of the vector.
crend() It refers to the element preceding the first element of the
vector.
data() It writes the data of the vector into an array.
shrink_to_fit() It reduces the capacity and makes it equal to the size of
the vector.

C++ Vector at()

It gives a reference to an element.

Syntax

Consider a vector v and k is the position. Syntax would be:

1. vector<object_type> v;
2. v.at(k) ;

Parameter

k: k defines the position of element which is to be returned by at() function.

Return value

It returns the element of specified position.

Example

Let's see a simple example.

#include<iostream>
#include<vector>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
vector<int> v1{1,2,3,4};
for(int i=0;i<v1.size();i++)
cout<<v1.at(i);
return 0;
}

C++ Deque

Deque stands for double ended queue. It generalizes the queue data structure i.e insertion and
deletion can be performed from both the ends either front or back.

Syntax for creating a deque object:

deque<object_type> deque_name;

C++ Deque Functions

Method Description
assign() It assigns new content and replacing the old one.
emplace() It adds a new element at a specified position.
emplace_back() It adds a new element at the end.
emplace_front() It adds a new element in the beginning of a deque.
insert() It adds a new element just before the specified position.
push_back() It adds a new element at the end of the container.
push_front() It adds a new element at the beginning of the container.
pop_back() It deletes the last element from the deque.
pop_front() It deletes the first element from the deque.
swap() It exchanges the contents of two deques.
clear() It removes all the contents of the deque.
empty() It checks whether the container is empty or not.
erase() It removes the elements.
max_size() It determines the maximum size of the deque.
resize() It changes the size of the deque.
shrink_to_fit() It reduces the memory to fit the size of the deque.
size() It returns the number of elements.
at() It access the element at position pos.
operator[]() It access the element at position pos.
operator=() It assigns new contents to the container.
back() It access the last element.
begin() It returns an iterator to the beginning of the deque.
cbegin() It returns a constant iterator to the beginning of the
deque.
end() It returns an iterator to the end.
cend() It returns a constant iterator to the end.
rbegin() It returns a reverse iterator to the beginning.
crbegin() It returns a constant reverse iterator to the beginning.
rend() It returns a reverse iterator to the end.
crend() It returns a constant reverse iterator to the end.
front() It access the last element.