VEHICLE SAFETY

Abstract— Car accident is one of the major causes of death in many countries.
Many researchers have attempted to design and develop techniques to increase car
safety in the past recent years.
In spite of all the efforts, it is still challenging to design a system adaptive to the
driver rather than the automotive characteristics. In this paper, the adaptive car
safety system is explained which attempts to find a balance.

Vehicle safety is the study and practice of vehicle design, construction, and
equipment to minimize the occurrence and consequences of automobile accidents.

Active and passive safety

The terms "active" and "passive" are simple but important terms in the world of
automotive safety. "Active safety" is used to refer to technology assisting in the
prevention of a crash and "passive safety" to components of the vehicle (primarily
airbags, seatbelts and the physical structure of the vehicle) that help to protect
occupants during a crash

Crash avoidance

Crash avoidance systems and devices help the driver — and, increasingly, help the
vehicle itself — to avoid a collision. This category includes:

 The vehicle's headlamps, reflectors, and other lights and signals

 The vehicle's mirrors
 The vehicle's brakes, steering, and suspension systems

Driver assistance
A subset of crash avoidance is driver assistance systems, which help the driver to
detect ordinarily-hidden obstacles and to control the vehicle. Driver assistance
systems include:
  Automatic Braking systems to prevent or reduce the severity of collision.
 Infrared night vision systems to increase seeing distance beyond headlamp
range
 Adaptive highbeam which automatically and continuously adapts the
headlamp range to the distance of vehicles ahead or which are oncoming
 Adaptive headlamps swivels headlamps around corners
 Reverse backup sensors, which alert drivers to difficult-to-see objects in
their path when reversing
 Backup camera
 Adaptive cruise control which maintains a safe distance from the vehicle in
front
 Lane departure warning systems to alert the driver of an unintended
departure from the intended lane of travel
 Tire pressure monitoring systems or Deflation Detection Systems
 Traction control systems which restore traction if driven wheels begin to
spin
 Electronic Stability Control, which intervenes to avert an impending loss of
control
 Anti-lock braking systems
 Electronic brakeforce distribution systems
 Emergency brake assist systems
 Cornering Brake Control systems
 Precrash system
 Automated parking system

Crashworthiness

Crashworthy systems and devices prevent or reduce the severity of injuries when a
crash is imminent or actually happening. Much research is carried out using
anthropomorphic crash test dummies.

 Seatbelts limit the forward motion of an occupant, stretch to slow down the
occupant's deceleration in a crash, and prevent occupants being ejected from
the vehicle.
 Airbags inflate to cushion the impact of a vehicle occupant with various
parts of the vehicle's interior.
  Laminated windshields remain in one piece when impacted, preventing
penetration of unbelted occupants' heads and maintaining a minimal but
adequate transparency for control of the car immediately following a
collision. Tempered glass side and rear windows break into granules with
minimally sharp edges, rather than splintering into jagged fragments as
ordinary glass does.
 Crumple zones absorb and dissipate the force of a collision, displacing and
diverting it away from the passenger compartment and reducing the impact
force on the vehicle occupants. Vehicles will include a front, rear and maybe
side crumple zones (like Volvo SIPS) too.
 Side impact protection beams.
 Collapsible universally jointed steering columns, (with the steering system
mounted behind the front axle - not in the front crumple zone), reduce the
risk and severity of driver impalement on the column in a frontal crash.
 Pedestrian protection systems.
 Padding of the instrument panel and other interior parts of the vehicle likely
to be struck by the occupants during a crash.

Post-crash survivability

Post-crash survivability is the chance that you can survive a crash after it occurs,
these devices are often miscellaneous, and are not heavily produced as it is very
difficult for them to function.

Since at least the early 1970s, attention has also been given to vehicle design
regarding the safety of pedestrians in car-pedestrian collisions. Proposals in Europe
would require cars sold there to have a minimum/maximum hood (bonnet) height.
From 2006 the use of "bull bars", a fashion on 4x4s and SUVs, became illegal.

Conspicuity

A Swedish study found that pink cars are involved in the fewest accidents, with
black cars being most often involved in crashes (Land transport NZ 2005).
In Auckland New Zealand, a study found that there was a significantly lower rate
of serious injury in silver cars; with higher rates in brown, black, and green cars.
(Furness et al., 2003)

The Vehicle Color Study, conducted by Monash University Accident Research

Centre (MUARC) and published in 2007, analysed 855,258 accidents occurring
between 1987 and 2004 in the Australian states of Victoria and Western Australia
that resulted in injury or in a vehicle being towed away.[6] The study analysed risk
by light condition. It found that in daylight black cars were 12% more likely than
white to be involved in an accident, followed by grey cars at 11%, silver cars at
10%, and red and blue cars at 7%, with no other colors found to be significantly
more or less risky than white. At dawn or dusk the risk ratio for black cars jumped
to 47% more likely than white, and that for silver cars to 15%. In the hours of
darkness only red and silver cars were found to be significantly more risky than
white, by 10% and 8% respectively.

Daytime running lamp that have been standard on Swedish cars since the 1970s,
are soon to be mandatory across the entire EU.

Pre-Crash Safety
Pre-Crash Safety is a technology to anticipate and prepare a vehicle for a collision
before it actually occurs in order to help minimize damage. The Pre-Crash Safety
System makes up for a delay in the driver’s recognition of the situation or decision,
and help mitigate damage caused by a collision even if an accident is unavoidable
through such measures as alerting the driver of the danger, promptly activating the
safety equipment and reducing the vehicle speed at the time of collision by
automatic braking. The Pre-Crash Safety System is regarded as an effective
technology that helps to reduce traffic accidents and casualties

About 70 percent of all accidents resulting in death or serious injury are caused by
a delay in the driver’s recognition of the situation, including a failure by the driver
to look ahead carefully or to confirm that conditions are safe. A delay in the
driver’s recognition that a collision may occur causes a delay in the driver’s
decision and actions for avoiding a collision, possibly increasing the chance of an
accident occurring or the amount of damage in the event of accident.
Toyota's Pre-Crash Safety system recognizes the possibility of a collision of which
the driver is unaware and alerts the driver, thereby prompting action for avoid the
 collision. Moreover, the system determines in advance whether a collision is
unavoidable and mitigates damage to the driver and passengers.

The pre-crash safety system

Pre-Crash Safety system working in combination with a sensor with

excellent object-recognition capability
Toyota's unique pre-crash sensor with excellent object-recognition capability
achieved by employing a millimeter wave radar allows detection of a vehicle or an
obstacle ahead, and the collision-determining computer determines the possibility of
a collision based on the position, speed, path, and other characteristics of the object
and unavoidableness of a collision as well in advance.

Alerting
Display and buzzer
If the system determines that a collision is likely to occur, it alerts the driver
with a display and buzzer to prompt the driver to take actions to avoid that
collision.

Mitigation of damage to driver and passengers

Pre-crash brake assist

The system applies additional brake pressure to generate an even greater

braking force than normal in accordance with the force applied on the brake
pedal by the driver.

Pre-crash seatbelt

If the system determines that a collision is unavoidable, it retracts the front

seatbelts before the collision to enhance the effect of the pretensioner
mechanism activated at the time of a collision. In addition, when the driver
brakes hard suddenly, the system retracts the front seatbelts if it determines
that the vehicle is likely to be rendered uncontrollable.

Pre-crash brake

If the system decides that a collision is unavoidable, it automatically applies

the brake to reduce the vehicle's speed.
A precrash system is a automobile safety system designed to reduce the severity
of an accident

The innovative Pre-Crash Safety (PCS) system, featuring world-first radar

technology, can help assist you in emergency situations and help reduce injury and
collision damage where impact is unavoidable.

A millimetre-wave radar can detect certain obstacles ahead of the IS and determine
the risk of impact. If a high-risk is calculated, PCS provides an audible/visual
warning and engages Pre-Crash Brake Assist to help improve the driver’s ability to
avoid impact.

If a collision is deemed unavoidable, PCS engages additional safety systems to

help reduce impact force and help reduce the risk of injury. Pre-Crash Brake can
automatically apply the brakes prior to impact, whilst Pre-Crash Seatbelt
technology can automatically tighten the front seatbelts.

Pre-crash sensing system

The pre-crash sensing system uses radar to minimize injury and damage in the
event of a collision. It is the world’s first collision-warning and injury-reduction
system.
Operating at 77 GHz, the millimeter-wave radar and ECU combination is effective
at relative velocities up to 200 km/h, over distances up to 150
meters. DENSO’s unit also covers a 20°arc, wider than that of competing systems,
giving it a greater range for detecting potential obstacles.
Millimeter-wave radar determines an object’s position, distance, and speed; this
information goes into a pre-crash safety computer which also takes into account
relative velocities, distance, and other factors to determine whether or not a
collision can be avoided. If not, it notifies the seatbelt control computer, which
tightens up any slack in the seatbelts to maximize the initial restraint on the driver
and passengers at the moment of the crash.
SEAT BELTS
A seat belt or seatbelt, sometimes called a safety belt, is a safety harness designed
to secure the occupant of a vehicle against harmful movement that may result from
a collision or a sudden stop. As part of an overall automobile passive safety
system, seat belts are intended to reduce injuries by stopping the wearer from
hitting hard interior elements of the vehicle, or other passengers (the so-called
second impact), are in the correct position for the airbag to deploy and prevent the
passenger from being thrown from the vehicle. Seat belts also absorb energy by
being designed to stretch during any sudden deceleration, so that there is less speed
differential between the passenger's body and their vehicle interior, and also to
spread the loading of impact on the passengers body.

The final, so-called 'third impact' after a passenger's body hits the car interior,
airbag or seat belts, is that of the internal organs hitting the ribcage or skull. The
force of this impact is the mechanism through which car crashes cause disabling or
life threatening injury. The sequence of energy dissipating and speed reducing
technologies - crumple zone - seat belt - airbags - padded interior, are designed to
work together as a system, to reduce the force of this final impact.

Lap

A lap ("2-point") belt in an airplane

An adjustable strap that goes over the waist. This type of belt is frequently found in
older cars, and has been used, until recently, on some newer vehicles in rear or rear
middle seats. These types of belt are also found on some coaches. Passenger
aircraft seats also use lap seat belts to help prevent injuries while still allowing
passengers to adopt a brace position.

Sash

An adjustable strap that goes over the shoulder. Used mainly in vehicles during the
1960(1959), however they had limited benefit because it was very easy to slip out
of them in a collision.

Three-point

A 3-point seat belt

Similar to the lap and sash belts, but has one single continuous length of belt. Both
three-point and lap-and-sash belts help spread out the energy of the moving body
in a collision over the chest, pelvis, and shoulders. Volvo introduced the first
production three-point belt in 1959.[1] The first car with three point belt was a
Volvo PV 544 that was delivered to a dealer in Kristianstad on August 13, 1959.
The first car to feature the three point seat belt however was the 1959 Volvo 122
The three point belt was developed by Nils Bohlin who had earlier also worked on
ejection seats at Saab.[2]

Until the 1980s, three-point belts were commonly available only in the front seats
of cars; the back seats were only often fitted with lap or sash belts. Evidence of the
potential of lap belts to cause separation of the lumbar vertebrae and the sometimes
associated paralysis, or "seat belt syndrome", led to a revision of passenger safety
regulations in nearly all developed countries, requiring that all seats in a vehicle
have to be equipped with three-point belts. Since September 1, 2007, all new cars
sold in the U.S. require a lap and shoulder belt in the center rear seat.[3]

Besides regulatory changes, "seat belt syndrome" has led to tremendous liability
for vehicle manufacturers. One Los Angeles case resulted in a $45 million jury
verdict against the Ford Motor Company; the resulting $30 million judgment (after
deductions for another defendant who settled prior to trial) was affirmed on appeal
in 2006.

Belt-in-Seat (BIS)

A 5-Point harness belt-in-seat on a quad bike.

The BIS is a three-point where the shoulder belt attachment is to the backrest, not
to the b pillar.[5] The first car using this system in the United States was the 1990
Mercedes-Benz SL.[6] Some cars like the Renault Vel Satis use this system for the
front seats. This system allegedly is safer in case of rollover, especially with 4–8
years old children,[7] though other sources dispute this claim.[8]
Advantages

Seat belts are responsible for saving thousands of lives each year by restraining
passengers from being thrown out of their seat or even out of the vehicle. Seat belts
are made from a special material designed to be very durable but also to stretch just
enough to disperse the energy from a sudden collision, softening the effect of the
sudden impact.

Of all the automobile-accident-related deaths, an estimated 60 percent were people

who were not wearing their seat belt. Oftentimes, the most serious injuries are a
result of the collision that occurs once a body is thrown from the seat as opposed to
the primary collision the vehicle is involved in. With a seat belt, this second
collision is easily preventable.

Disadvantages

Although they greatly reduce the incidence of death and serious injuries, seat
belts are not perfect. Often, they contribute to accident-related injuries, as is
described by the term "seat belt syndrome." In many cases, the fibers of the seat
belt can cause harm to the chest and abdominal areas. This may include severe cuts
and bruises where the seat belt lies across you, as well as more serious damage to
the internal organs like tearing of the colon or diaphragm. In some cases the
lumbar vertebrae may even be fractured or dislocated.

Children are at the highest risk for seat-belt-related injuries and should be closely
monitored after a car crash even if they appear unharmed at first glance.
AIRBAGS

An airbag is a vehicle safety device. It is an occupant restraint consisting of a

flexible envelope designed to inflate rapidly during an automobile collision, to
prevent vehicle occupants from striking interior objects such as the steering wheel
or a window. Modern vehicles may contain multiple airbags in various side and
frontal locations of the passenger seating positions, and sensors may deploy one or
more airbags in an impact zone at variable rates based on the type and severity of
impact; the airbag is designed to only inflate in mild to severe frontal crashes.
Airbags are normally designed with the intention of supplementing the protection
of an occupant who is correctly restrained with a seatbelt. Most designs are inflated
through pyrotechnic means and can only be operated once.

The first commercial designs were introduced in passenger automobiles during the
1970s with limited success. Broad commercial adoption of airbags occurred in
many markets during the late 1980s and early 1990s with two airbags for the front
occupants, and many modern vehicles now include four or more units.

History

The air bag traces its origin to air-filled bladders outlined as early as 1941 and first
patented in the 1950s. Early air bag systems

A typical driver's-side air bag fits neatly on the steering wheel column. In case of a
collision, the crash sensor sends an electric spark to the inflator canister, setting off
a chemical readion that produces nitrogen gas. The gas expands, inflating the air
bag and protecting the driver

were large and bulky, primarily using tanks of compressed or heated air,
compressed nitrogen gas (N 2 ), freon, or carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). Some of the early
systems created hazardous byproducts. One particular system used gun-powder to
heat up freon gas, producing phosgene gas (COCl 2 )—an extremely poisonous gas.
.

One of the first patents for automobile air bags was awarded to industrial engineer
John Hetrick on August 18, 1953. Conceived by Hetrick after a near accident in
1952, the design called for a tank of compressed air under the hood and inflatable
bags on the steering wheel, in the middle of the dash-board, and in the glove
compartment to protect front seat occupants, and on the back of the front seat to
protect rear seat passengers. The force of a collision would propel a sliding weight
forward to send air into the bags. Many other inventors and researchers followed
suit, all exploring slightly different designs, so that the exact technical trail from
the early designs to the present system is impossible to note with certainty.

In 1968, John Pietz, a chemist for Talley Defense Systems, pioneered a solid
propellant using sodium azide (NaN 3 ) and a metallic oxide. This was the first
nitrogen-generating solid propellant, and it soon replaced the older, bulkier
systems. Sodium azide in its solid state is toxic if ingested in large doses, but in
automotive applications is carefully sealed inside a steel or aluminum container
within the air bag system.
Since the 1960s, air bag-equipped cars in controlled tests and everyday use have
demonstrated the effectiveness and reliability. The Insurance Institute For
Highway Safety conducted a study of the federal government's Fatal Accident
Reporting System using data from 1985 to 1991, and concluded that driver
fatalities in frontal collisions were lowered by 28 percent in automobiles equipped
with air bags. According to

Preparation of the propellant, the first step in air bag manufacture, involves
combining sodium azide and an oxidizer. The propellant is then combined with the
metal initiator canister and various filters to form the inflator assembly.

another study conducted in 1989 by General Motors, the combination of

lap/shoulder safety belts and air bags in frontal collisions reduced driver fatalities
by 46 percent and front passenger fatalities by 43 percent.

In response to consumers' increased safety concerns and insurance industry

pressure, the federal government has forced automobile manufacturers to upgrade
their safety features. First, Department of Transportation (DOT) regulations require
all cars, beginning with model year 1990, sold in the United States to be equipped
with a passive restraint system. (Passive restraint systems—requiring no activation
by the occupant—involve the use of automatic seat belts and/or the use of air
bags.) If car manufacturers choose an air bag, then regulations require only a
driver' s-side system until model year 1994, when air bag-equipped cars must
include passive protection on the passenger's side as well. A 1991 law requires
driver and passenger air bags in all cars by the 1998 model year and in light trucks
and vans by 1999.

Raw Materials

As stated above, an air bag system consists of an air bag module, crash sensors, a
diagnostic monitoring unit, a steering wheel connecting coil, and an indicator
lamp. Both this section and the next ("The Manufacturing Process") will focus on
the air bag module itself.

An air bag module has three main parts: the air bag, the inflator, and the propellant.
The air bag is sewn from a woven nylon fabric and can come in different shapes
and sizes depending on specific vehicle requirements. The driver's-side air bag
material is manufactured with a heat shield coating to protect the fabric from
scorching, especially near the inflator assembly, during deployment. Talcum
powder or corn starch is also used to coat the air bag; either substance prevents the
fabric from sticking together and makes it easier to assemble. Newer silicone and
urethane coated air bag materials require little or no heat shield coating, although
talcum powder or corn starch will probably still be used as a processing aid.

The inflator canister or body is made from either stamped stainless steel or cast
aluminum. Inside the inflator canister is a filter assembly consisting of a stainless
steel wire mesh with ceramic material sandwiched in between. When the inflator is
assembled, the filter assembly is surrounded by metal foil to maintain a seal that
prevents propellant contamination.

The propellant, in the form of black pellets, is primarily sodium azide combined
with an oxidizer and is typically located inside the inflator canister between the
filter assembly and the initiator.
The Manufacturing Process

Air bag production involves three different separate assemblies that combine to
form the finished end product, the air bag module. The propellant must be
manufactured, the inflator components must be assembled, and the air bag must be
cut and sewn. Some manufacturers buy already-made components, such as air bags
or initiators, and then just assemble the complete air bag module. The following
description of the manufacturing process is for driver-side air bag module
assembly. Passenger-side air bag module assemblies are produced slightly
differently.

Propellant

 1 The propellant consists of sodium azide mixed together with an oxidizer, a

substance that helps the sodium azide to burn when ignited. The sodium
azide is received from outside vendors and inspected to make sure it
conforms to requirements. After inspection it is placed in a safe storage
place until needed. At the same time, the oxidizer is received from outside
vendors, inspected, and stored. Different manufacturers use different
oxidizers.
 2 From storage, the sodium azide and the oxidizer are then carefully blended
under sophisticated computerized process control. Because of the possibility
of explosions, the powder processing takes place in isolated bunkers. In the
event safety sensors detect a spark, high speed deluge systems will douse
whole rooms with water. Production occurs in several redundant smaller
facilities so that if an accident does occur, production will not be shut down,
only decreased.
 3 After blending, the propellant mixture is sent to storage. Presses are then
used to compress the propellant mixture into disk or pellet form.

Inflator assembly

 4 The inflator components, such as the metal canister, the filter assembly—
stainless steel wire mesh with ceramic material inside—and initiator (or
 igniter) are received from outside vendors and inspected. The components
are then assembled on a highly automated production line.
 5 The inflator sub-assembly is combined with the propellant and an initiator
to form the inflator assembly. Laser welding (using CO 2 gas) is used to join
stainless steel inflator sub-assemblies, while friction inertial welding is used
to join aluminum inflator sub-assemblies. Laser welding entails using laser
beams to weld the assemblies together, while friction inertial welding
involves rubbing two metals together until the surfaces become hot enough
to join together.
 6 The inflator assembly is then tested and sent to storage until needed.

Air bag

 7 The woven nylon air bag fabric is received from outside vendors and
inspected for any material defects. The air bag fabric is then die cut to the
proper shapes and sewn, internally and externally, to properly join the two
sides. After the air bag is sewn, it is inflated and checked for any seam
imperfections.

Final assembly of air bag module

 8 The air bag assembly is then mounted to the tested inflator assembly.
Next, the air bag is folded, and the breakaway plastic horn pad cover is
installed. Finally, the completed module assembly is inspected and tested.
 9 The module assemblies are packaged in boxes for shipment and then sent
to customers.

Other components

 10 The remaining components of the air bag system—the crash sensors, the
diagnostic monitoring unit, the steering wheel connecting coil, and the
indicator lamp—are combined with the air bag module during vehicle
assembly. All the components are connected and communicate through a
wiring harness.
The air bag parts are die-cut out of woven nylon, sewn together, and riveted. The
bag is then carefully folded so that it will fit inside the plastic module cover.

As a supplement to seat belts

Airbags for passenger cars were introduced in the United States in the mid-1970s,
when seat belt usage rates in the country were quite low. Ford built an
experimental fleet of cars with airbags in 1971, followed by General Motors in
1973 on Chevrolet vehicles. The early fleet of experimental GM vehicles equipped
with airbags experienced seven fatalities, one of which was later suspected to have
been caused by the airbag.

In 1974, GM made the ACRS or "Air Cushion Restraint System" available as a

regular production option (RPO code AR3) in some full-size Buick, Cadillac and
Oldsmobile models. The GM cars from the 1970s equipped with ACRS have a
driver side airbag, a driver side knee restraint (which consists of a padded lower
dashboard) and a passenger side airbag. The passenger side airbag, protects both
front passengers and unlike most newer ones, it integrates a knee cushion, a torso
cushion and it also has dual stage deployment which varies depending on the force
of the impact. The cars equipped with ACRS have lap belts for all seating positions
but they do not have shoulder belts. These were already mandatory equipment in
the United States on closed cars without airbags for the driver and outer front
passenger seating positions.

The automotive industry's first passenger side knee airbag (not separate) was
already used on the 1970s General Motors cars, it was integrated in the passenger
airbag that had a knee cushion and a torso cushion.

The development of airbags coincided with an international interest in automobile

safety legislation. Some safety experts advocated a performance-based occupant
protection standard rather than a standard mandating a particular technical solution,
which could rapidly become outdated and might not be a cost-effective approach.
As countries successively mandated seat belt restraints, there was less emphasis
placed on other designs for several decades.[8]

Manufacturers emphasize that an airbag is not, and can not be an alternative to

seatbelts. They emphasize that they are only supplemental to a seatbelt. Hence the
commonly used term "Supplemental Restraint System" or SRS. It is vitally
important that drivers and passengers are aware of this. In the majority of cases of
death caused by air bags, seat belts were not worn

As a supplemental restraint

Frontal airbag

The auto industry and research and regulatory communities have moved away
from their initial view of the airbag as a seat belt replacement, and the bags are
now nominally designated as Supplemental Restraint System (SRS) or
Supplemental Inflatable Restraints.

In 1981, Mercedes-Benz introduced the airbag in Germany as an option on its

high-end S-Class (W126). In the Mercedes system, the sensors would
automatically pre-tension the seat belts to reduce occupant's motion on impact
(now a common feature), and then deploy the airbag on impact. This integrated the
seat belts and airbag into a restraint system, rather than the airbag being considered
an alternative to the seat belt.
In 1987, the Porsche 944 turbo became the first car in the world to have driver and
passenger airbags as standard equipment. The Porsche 944 and 944S had this as an
available option. The same year also saw the first airbag in a Japanese car, the
Honda Legend.[10]

Airbags became common in the 1980s, with Chrysler and Ford introducing them in
the mid-1980s; it was Chrysler that made them standard equipment across its entire
line in 1990 (except for trucks until 1994).

Audi was relatively late to offer airbag systems on a broader scale; until the 1994
model year, for example, the 80/90, by far Audi's 'bread-and-butter' model, as well
as the 100/200, did not have airbags in their standard versions. Instead, the German
automaker until then relied solely on its proprietary procon-ten restraint system.

In Europe, airbags were almost entirely absent from family cars until the early
1990s, except for Saab, who made them standard on the 900 Turbo in 1989 and on
all models in 1990. The first European Ford to feature an airbag was the facelifted
Escort MK5b in 1992; within a year, the entire Ford range had at least one airbag
as standard. By the mid 1990s, European market leaders such as Vauxhall/Opel,
Rover, Peugeot, Renault and Fiat had included airbags as at least optional
equipment across their model ranges. By the end of the decade, it was very rare to
find a mass market car without an airbag, and some late 1990s products, such as
the Volkswagen Golf Mk4 also featured side airbags. The Peugeot 306 was a
classical example of how commonplace airbags became on mass market cars
during the 1990s. On its launch in early 1993 most of the range did not even have
driver airbags as an option. By 1999 however, side airbags were available on
several variants.

During the 2000s side airbags were commonplace on even budget cars, such as the
smaller-engined versions of the Ford Fiesta and Peugeot 206, and curtain airbags
were also becoming regular features on mass market cars. The Toyota Avensis,
launched in 1998, was the first mass market car to be sold in Europe with a total of
nine airbags. Although in some countries, such as Russia, airbags are still not
standard equipment on all cars, such as those from Lada.

Variable force deployment front airbags were developed to help minimize injury
from the airbag itself.
Shaped airbags

The Citroën C4 provides the first "shaped" driver airbag, made possible by this
car's unusual fixed hub steering wheel.

Side airbag

Side airbag inflated permanently for display purposes

A deployed curtain airbag in a Opel Vectra

There are essentially two types of side airbags commonly used today, the side torso
airbag and the side curtain airbag.

Most vehicles equipped with side curtain airbags also include side torso airbags.
However some exceptions such as the Chevrolet Cobalt,[12] 2007-09 model
Chevrolet Silverado/GMC Sierra, and 2009-10 Dodge Ram[13] do not feature the
side torso airbag.
Side torso airbag

Side-impact airbags or side torso airbags are a category of airbag usually located in
the seat, and inflate between the seat occupant and the door. These airbags are
designed to reduce the risk of injury to the pelvic and lower abdomen regions.
Some vehicles are now being equipped with different types of designs, to help
reduce injury and ejection from the vehicle in rollover crashes.

The Swedish company Autoliv AB, was granted a patent on side airbags, and they
were first offered as an option in 1994 on the 1995 model year Volvo 850, and as
standard equipment on all Volvo cars made after 1995.

Side tubular or curtain airbag

In late 1997 the 1998 model year BMW 7-series and E39 5-series were fitted with
a tubular shaped head side airbags, the "Head Protection System (HPS)" as
standard equipment. This is an industry's first in offering head protection in side
impact collisions.[14] This airbag also maintained inflation for up to seven seconds
for rollover protection. However, this tubular shaped airbag design has been
quickly replaced by an inflatable 'curtain' airbag for superior protection.

In May 1998 Toyota began offering a side curtain airbag deploying from the roof
on the Progrés.

In 1998 the Volvo S80 was given seat-mounted curtain airbags to protect both
front and rear passengers later made standard equipment on all new Volvo cars
from 1998 and while initially seat-mounted later versions deployed from the roof.

Roll-sensing side curtain airbags found on vehicles more prone to rollovers such as
SUV's and pickups will deploy when a rollover is detected instead of just when an
actual collision takes place. Often there is a switch to disable the feature in case the
driver wants to take the vehicle offroad.

Curtain airbags have been said to reduce brain injury or fatalities by up to 45% in a
side impact with an SUV. These airbags come in various forms (e.g., tubular,
curtain, door-mounted) depending on the needs of the application.[16] Many recent
SUVs and MPVs have a long inflatable curtain airbag that protects all 3 rows of
seats.
Knee airbag

The second driver's side and separate knee airbag was used in the 1996 model Kia
Sportage vehicle and has been standard equipment since then. The airbag is located
beneath the steering wheel.[17] The Toyota Avensis became the first vehicle sold in
Europe equipped with a driver's knee airbag.[18][19] The EuroNCAP reported on the
2003 Avensis, "There has been much effort to protect the driver's knees and legs
and a knee airbag worked well."[20] Since then certain models have also included
front passenger knee airbags, which deploy near or over the glove compartment in
a crash. Knee airbags are designed to reduce leg injury. The knee airbag has
become increasingly common in the 2000s, with a large minority of cars featuring
them on the driver side by 2010. Passenger knee airbags remain extremely rare.

Rear curtain airbag

In 2008, the Toyota iQ launched featuring the first production rear curtain shield
airbag to protect the rear occupants' heads in the event of an rear end impact.[21]

Center airbag

In 2009, Toyota developed the first production rear-seat center airbag designed to
reduce the severity of secondary injuries to rear passengers in a side collision. This
system deploys from the rear center console first appearing in on the redesigned
Crown Majesta.[22]

Seat belt airbag

In 2009, the S-class ESF safety concept car showcased seatbelt airbags. They will
be included standard on the production Lexus LFA in late 2010, and the 2011 Ford
Explorer will offer rear seatbelt airbags as an option. Cessna Aircraft also now
feature seatbelt airbags. They are now standard on the 172, 182, and 206.
On motorcycles

Various types of airbags were tested on motorcycles by the UK Transport Research

Laboratory in the mid 1970s. In 2006 Honda introduced the first production
motorcycle airbag safety system on its Gold Wing motorcycle. Honda claims that
sensors in the front forks can detect a severe frontal collision and decide when to
deploy the airbag, absorbing some of the forward energy of the rider and reducing
the velocity at which the rider may be thrown from the motorcycle.[23]

Airbag suits have also been developed for use by Motorcycle Grand Prix riders.
They are connected to the motorcycle by a cable and deploy when the cable
becomes detached from its mounting clip, inflating to protect the back.[24]
How airbag works

The design is conceptually simple; a central "Airbag control unit"[25] (ACU) (a

specific type of ECU) monitors a number of related sensors within the vehicle,
including accelerometers, impact sensors, side (door) pressure sensors,[26] wheel
speed sensors, gyroscopes, brake pressure sensors, and seat occupancy sensors.
When the requisite 'threshold' has been reached or exceeded, the airbag control unit
will trigger the ignition of a gas generator propellant to rapidly inflate a nylon
fabric bag. As the vehicle occupant collides with and squeezes the bag, the gas
escapes in a controlled manner through small vent holes. The airbag's volume and
the size of the vents in the bag are tailored to each vehicle type, to spread out the
deceleration of (and thus force experienced by) the occupant over time and over
the occupant's body, compared to a seat belt alone.

The signals from the various sensors are fed into the Airbag control unit, which
determines from them the angle of impact, the severity, or force of the crash, along
with other variables. Depending on the result of these calculations, the ACU may
also deploy various additional restraint devices, such as seat belt pre-tensioners,
and/or airbags (including frontal bags for driver and front passenger, along with
seat-mounted side bags, and "curtain" airbags which cover the side glass). Each
restraint device is typically activated with one or more pyrotechnic devices,
commonly called an initiator or electric match. The electric match, which consists
of an electrical conductor wrapped in a combustible material, activates with a
current pulse between 1 to 3 amperes in less than 2 milliseconds. When the
conductor becomes hot enough, it ignites the combustible material, which initiates
the gas generator. In a seat belt pre-tensioner, this hot gas is used to drive a piston
that pulls the slack out of the seat belt. In an airbag, the initiator is used to ignite
solid propellant inside the airbag inflator. The burning propellant generates inert
gas which rapidly inflates the airbag in approximately 20 to 30 milliseconds. An
airbag must inflate quickly in order to be fully inflated by the time the forward-
traveling occupant reaches its outer surface. Typically, the decision to deploy an
airbag in a frontal crash is made within 15 to 30 milliseconds after the onset of the
crash, and both the driver and passenger airbags are fully inflated within
approximately 60-80 milliseconds after the first moment of vehicle contact. If an
airbag deploys too late or too slowly, the risk of occupant injury from contact with
the inflating airbag may increase. Since more distance typically exists between the
passenger and the instrument panel, the passenger airbag is larger and requires
more gas to fill it.

Front airbags normally do not protect the occupants during side, rear, or rollover
accidents.[27] Since airbags deploy only once and deflate quickly after the initial
impact, they will not be beneficial during a subsequent collision. Safety belts help
reduce the risk of injury in many types of crashes. They help to properly position
occupants to maximize the airbag's benefits and they help restrain occupants during
the initial and any following collisions.

In vehicles equipped with a rollover sensing system, accelerometers and

gyroscopes are used to sense the onset of a rollover event. If a rollover event is
determined to be imminent, side-curtain airbags are deployed to help protect the
occupant from contact with the side of the vehicle interior, and also to help prevent
occupant ejection as the vehicle rolls over.

Triggering conditions

Airbags are designed to deploy in frontal and near-frontal collisions more severe
than a threshold defined by the regulations governing vehicle construction in
whatever particular market the vehicle is intended for: U.S. regulations require
deployment in crashes at least equivalent in deceleration to a 23 km/h (14 mph)
barrier collision, or similarly, striking a parked car of similar size across the full
front of each vehicle at about twice the speed.[28] International regulations are
performance based, rather than technology-based, so airbag deployment threshold
is a function of overall vehicle design.

Unlike crash tests into barriers, real-world crashes typically occur at angles other
than directly into the front of the vehicle, and the crash forces usually are not
evenly distributed across the front of the vehicle. Consequently, the relative speed
between a striking and struck vehicle required to deploy the airbag in a real-world
crash can be much higher than an equivalent barrier crash. Because airbag sensors
measure deceleration, vehicle speed is not a good indicator of whether an airbag
should have deployed. Airbags can deploy due to the vehicle's undercarriage
striking a low object protruding above the roadway due to the resulting
deceleration.

The airbag sensor is a MEMS accelerometer, which is a small integrated circuit

with integrated micro mechanical elements. The microscopic mechanical element
moves in response to rapid deceleration, and this motion causes a change in
capacitance, which is detected by the electronics on the chip that then sends a
signal to fire the airbag. The most common MEMS accelerometer in use is the
ADXL-50 by Analog Devices, but there are other MEMS manufacturers as well.

Initial attempts using mercury switches did not work well. Before MEMS, the
primary system used to deploy airbags was called a "rolamite". A rolamite is a
mechanical device, consisting of a roller suspended within a tensioned band. As a
result of the particular geometry and material properties used, the roller is free to
translate with little friction or hysteresis. This device was developed at Sandia
National Laboratories. The rolamite, and similar macro-mechanical devices were
used in airbags until the mid-1990s when they were universally replaced with
MEMS.

Nearly all airbags are designed to automatically deploy in the event of a vehicle
fire when temperatures reach 150-200 °C (300-400 °F).[29] This safety feature,
often termed auto-ignition, helps to ensure that such temperatures do not cause an
explosion of the entire airbag module.

Today, airbag triggering algorithms are becoming much more complex. They try to
reduce unnecessary deployments and to adapt the deployment speed to the crash
conditions. The algorithms are considered valuable intellectual property.
Experimental algorithms may take into account such factors as the weight of the
occupant, the seat location, seatbelt use, and even attempt to determine if a baby
seat is present.]

Inflation

When the frontal airbags are to deploy, a signal is sent to the inflator unit within
the airbag control unit. An igniter starts a rapid chemical reaction generating
primarily nitrogen gas (N2) to fill the airbag making it deploy through the module
cover. Some airbag technologies use compressed nitrogen or argon gas with a
pyrotechnic operated valve ("hybrid gas generator"), while other technologies use
various energetic propellants. Propellants containing the highly toxic sodium azide
(NaN3) were common in early inflator designs. However, propellants containing
sodium azide were widely phased out during the 1990s in pursuit of more efficient,
less expensive and less toxic alternatives.[citation needed]
The azide-containing pyrotechnic gas generators contain a substantial amount of
the propellant. The driver-side airbag would contain a canister containing about 50
grams of sodium azide. The passenger side container holds about 200 grams of
sodium azide.[30]

The alternative propellants may incorporate, for example, a combination of

nitroguanidine, phase-stabilized ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) or other nonmetallic
oxidizer, and a nitrogen-rich fuel different than azide (e.g. tetrazoles, triazoles, and
their salts). The burn rate modifiers in the mixture may be an alkaline metal nitrate
(NO3-) or nitrite (NO2-), dicyanamide or its salts, sodium borohydride (NaBH4),
etc. The coolants and slag formers may be e.g. clay, silica, alumina, glass, etc.[31]
Other alternatives are e.g. nitrocellulose based propellants (which have high gas
yield but bad storage stability, and their oxygen balance requires secondary
oxidation of the reaction products to avoid buildup of carbon monoxide), or high-
oxygen nitrogen-free organic compounds with inorganic oxidizers (e.g., di or
tricarboxylic acids with chlorates (ClO3-) or perchlorates (HClO4) and eventually
metallic oxides; the nitrogen-free formulation avoids formation of toxic nitrogen
oxides).

From the onset of the crash, the entire deployment and inflation process is about
0.04 seconds. Because vehicles change speed so quickly in a crash, airbags must
inflate rapidly to reduce the risk of the occupant hitting the vehicle's interior.
Variable-force deployment

Advanced airbag technologies are being developed to tailor airbag deployment to

the severity of the crash, the size and posture of the vehicle occupant, belt usage,
and how close that person is to the actual airbag. Many of these systems use multi-
stage inflators that deploy less forcefully in stages in moderate crashes than in very
severe crashes. Occupant sensing devices let the airbag control unit know if
someone is occupying a seat adjacent to an airbag, the mass/weight of the person,
whether a seat belt or child restraint is being used, and whether the person is
forward in the seat and close to the airbag. Based on this information and crash
severity information, the airbag is deployed at either a high force level, a less
forceful level, or not at all.

Adaptive airbag systems may utilize multi-stage airbags to adjust the pressure
within the airbag. The greater the pressure within the airbag, the more force the
airbag will exert on the occupants as they come in contact with it. These
adjustments allow the system to deploy the airbag with a moderate force for most
collisions; reserving the maximum force airbag only for the severest of collisions.
Additional sensors to determine the location, weight or relative size of the
occupants may also be used. Information regarding the occupants and the severity
of the crash are used by the airbag control unit, to determine whether airbags
should be suppressed or deployed, and if so, at various output levels.

Post-deployment view of a SEAT Ibiza airbag

Post-deployment

A chemical reaction produces a burst of nitrogen to inflate the bag. Once an airbag
deploys, deflation begins immediately as the gas escapes through vent(s) in the
fabric (or, as it's sometimes called, the cushion) and cools. Deployment is
frequently accompanied by the release of dust-like particles, and gases in the
vehicle's interior (called effluent). Most of this dust consists of cornstarch, french
chalk, or talcum powder, which are used to lubricate the airbag during deployment.

Newer designs produce effluent primarily consisting of harmless talcum

powder/cornstarch and nitrogen gas. In older designs using an azide-based
propellant (usually NaN3), varying amounts of sodium hydroxide nearly always are
initially present. In small amounts this chemical can cause minor irritation to the
eyes and/or open wounds; however, with exposure to air, it quickly turns into
sodium bicarbonate (baking soda). However, this transformation is not 100%
complete, and invariably leaves residual amounts of hydroxide ion from NaOH.
Depending on the type of airbag system, potassium chloride (often used as a table
salt substitute) may also be present.

For most people, the only effect the dust may produce is some minor irritation of
the throat and eyes. Generally, minor irritations only occur when the occupant
remains in the vehicle for many minutes with the windows closed and no
ventilation. However, some people with asthma may develop a potentially lethal
asthmatic attack from inhaling the dust.

The dust-like particles and gases can cause irreparable cosmetic damage the
dashboard and upholstery, so minor collisions which result in the deployment of
airbags can be costly accidents, even if there are no injuries and there is only minor
damage to the vehicle exterior.

Maintenance

Inadvertent airbag deployment while the vehicle is being serviced can result in
severe injury, and an improperly installed or defective airbag unit may not operate
or perform as intended. Some countries impose restrictions on the sale, transport,
handling, and service of airbags and system components. In Germany, airbags are
regulated as harmful explosives; only mechanics with special training are allowed
to service airbag systems. Under German Federal Law, used but intact airbags are
to be detonated under secure conditions, must not be passed on to third parties in
any way, and no untrained person is permitted to handle airbags. Purchase is
restricted to buying a new replacement unit for immediate installation by the
seller's qualified personnel.

Some automakers (such as Mercedes-Benz) call for the replacement of undeployed

airbags after a certain period of time to ensure their reliability in an accident. One
example is the 1992 S500 which has an expiry date sticker attached to the door
pillar. Škoda vehicles say 14 years from the date of manufacture. In this case
replacement would be uneconomic as the car would have negligible value at 14
years old, far less than the cost of fitting new airbags. Volvo, on the other hand,
has stated "airbags do not require replacement during the lifetime of the vehicle,"
though this cannot be taken as a guarantee on the device.

Injuries and fatalities

Airbags can injure or kill vehicle occupants. To provide crash protection for
occupants not wearing seat belts, U.S. airbag designs trigger much more forcefully
than airbags designed to the international ECE standards used in most other
countries. Recent airbag controllers can recognize if a belt is used, and alter the
bag deployment parameters accordingly.[36]
Injuries such as abrasion of the skin, hearing damage from the extremely loud 165-
175 dB deployment explosion, head injuries, eye damage, and broken nose,
fingers, hands or arms can occur as the airbag deploys. Most vehicle airbags are
inflated using hot gas generated by a chemical process. Using hot gas allows the
required pressure to be obtained with a smaller mass of gas than would be the case
using lower temperatures. However, the hot gas can pose a risk of thermal burns if
it comes in contact with the skin during deployment and occupant interaction.
Burns are most common to the arms, face and chest. These burns are often deep
dermal or second-degree burns that take longer to heal and risk scarring.

In 1990, the first automotive fatality attributed to an airbag was reported,[37] with
deaths peaking in 1997 at 53 in the United States. TRW produced the first gas-
inflated airbag in 1994, with sensors and low-inflation-force bags becoming
common soon afterwards. Dual-depth (also known as dual-stage) airbags appeared
on passenger cars in 1998. By 2005, deaths related to airbags had declined, with no
adult deaths and two child deaths attributed to airbags that year. Injuries remain
fairly common in accidents with an airbag deployment.

Serious injuries are less common, but severe or fatal injuries can occur to vehicle
occupants very near an airbag or in direct contact when it deploys. Such injuries
may be sustained by unconscious drivers slumped over the steering wheel,
unrestrained or improperly restrained occupants who slide forward in the seat
during pre-crash braking, and properly belted drivers sitting very close to the
steering wheel.

The increasing use of airbags may actually make rescue work for firefighters,
emergency medical service and police officers more dangerous because of the risk
of deployment while the emergency responder is assisting or extracting vehicle
occupants. As a result of this, along with the risk of fuel fires, emergency
responders will cut the battery cables to prevent any un-detonated airbags from
inflating after impact.

Improvements in sensing and gas generator technology have allowed the

development of third generation airbag systems that can adjust their deployment
parameters to size, weight, position and restraint status of the occupant. These
improvements have demonstrated a reduced injury risk factor for small adults and
children who had an increased risk of injury with first generation airbag systems.
Airbag fatality statistics

From 1990 to 2008, the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
identified 175 fatalities caused by air bags. Most of these (104) have been children,
while the rest are adults. About 3.3 million air bag deployments have occurred and
the agency estimates more than 6,377 lives saved and countless injuries prevented.

A rear-facing infant restraint put in the front seat of a vehicle places an infant's
head close to the airbag, which can cause severe head injuries, or death if the
airbag deploys. Some modern cars include a switch to disable the front passenger
airbag (although not in Australia, where rear-facing child seats are prohibited in the
front where an airbag is fitted), in case a child-supporting seat is used there.

In vehicles with side airbags, it is dangerous for occupants to lean against the
windows, doors, and pillars, or to place objects between themselves and the side of
the vehicle. Articles hung from a vehicle's clothes hanger hooks can be hazardous
if the vehicle's side curtain airbags deploy.[40] A seat-mounted airbag may also
cause internal injury if the occupant leans against the door.[41]

Advantages

Air bags offer additional protection in car accidents, and when used in combination
with seat belts, they reduce the risk of head, neck and chest injuries by 75 percent.
Inflation is automatically triggered by sudden impacts, providing immediate
protection from striking the dashboard with your head in the case of a collision. Air
bags deflate immediately after the collision so as not to suffocate the victim.

Disadvantages

Despite the obvious benefits, there also are some risks associated with air bags.
Most prominently, the speed at which the air bag deploys can sometimes cause
whiplash, potentially fatal head and chest injuries or concussions. This is especially
true for drivers or passengers not wearing seat belts, as they may be thrown
forward before the actual collision if the breaks are slammed on.
Pedestrian safety through vehicle design

Almost two-thirds of the 1.2 million people killed in road traffic crashes worldwide
are pedestrians [1]. Despite the magnitude of the problem, most attempts at reducing
pedestrian deaths have focused solely on education and traffic regulation.
However, in recent years crash engineers have begun to use design principles that
have proved successful in protecting car occupants to develop vehicle design
concepts that reduce the likelihood of injuries to pedestrians in the event of a car-
pedestrian crash. These involve redesigning the bumper, hood (bonnet), and the
windshield and pillar to be energy absorbing (softer) without compromising the
structural integrity of the car.

Anatomy of a pedestrian crash

The sequence of events in a car-pedestrian accident

Most pedestrian crashes involve a forward moving car (as opposed to buses and
other vehicles with a vertical hood/bonnet). In such a crash, a standing or walking
pedestrian is struck and accelerated to the speed of the car and then continues
forward as the car brakes to a halt. Although the pedestrian is impacted twice, first
by the car and then by the ground, most of the fatal injuries occur due to the
interaction with the car. The vehicle designers usually focus their attention on
understanding the car-pedestrian interaction, which is characterized by the
following sequence of events: the vehicle bumper first contacts the lower limbs of
the pedestrian, the leading edge of the hood hits the upper thigh or pelvis, and the
head and upper torso are struck by the top surface of the hood and/or windshield .
Reducing pedestrian injuries

Most pedestrian deaths occur due to the traumatic brain injury resulting from the
hard impact of the head against the stiff hood or windshield [2]. In addition,
although usually non-fatal, injuries to the lower limb (usually to the knee joint and
long bones) are the most common cause of disability due to pedestrian crashes. A
Frontal Protection System (FPS) is a device fitted to the front end of a vehicle to
protect both pedestrians and cyclists who are involved in a front end collision with
a vehicle. Car design has been shown to have a large impact on the scope and
severity of pedestrian injury in car accidents.
While the lower limb is the most commonly injured body region, most pedestrian
fatalities are due to head injuries .

Protecting the head

The hood of most vehicles is usually fabricated from sheet metal, which is a
compliant energy absorbing structure and thus poses a comparatively small threat.
Most serious head injuries occur when there is insufficient clearance between the
hood and the stiff underlying engine components. A gap of approximately 10 cm is
usually enough to allow the pedestrian’s head to have a controlled deceleration and
a significantly reduced risk of death [3]. Creating room under the hood is not always
easy because usually there are other design constraints, such as aerodynamics and
styling. In some regions of the hood it can be impossible. These include along the
edges on which the hood is mounted and the cowl, where the hood meets the
windshield. Engineers have attempted to overcome this problem by using
deformable mounts, and by developing more ambitious solutions such as airbags
that are activated during the crash and cover the stiff regions of the hood [4]. The
2006 year model of Citroën C6 and Jaguar XK feature a novel pop-up bonnet
design, which adds 12 cm (5") extra clearance over the engine block if the bumper
senses a hit.

Protecting the limbs

Most limb injuries occur due to a direct blow from the bumper and the leading
edge of the hood. This leads to contact fractures of the femur and the tibia/fibula
and damage to the knee ligaments due to bending of the joint. Thus, attempts at
reducing these injuries involve reducing the peak contact forces by making the
bumper softer and increasing the contact area and by limiting the amount of knee
bending by modifying the geometry of the front end of the car. Computer
simulations and experiments with cadavers show that when cars have lower
bumpers, the thigh and leg rotate together causing the knee to bend less and thus
reducing the likelihood of ligament injuries. Deeper bumper profiles and structures
under the bumper (such as the air dam) can also assist in limiting the rotation of the
leg .
Euro NCAP

The European New Car Assessment Programme (Euro NCAP) is a European

car safety performance assessment programme founded in 1997 by the Transport
Research Laboratory for the UK Department for Transport and now the standard
throughout Western Europe.

Euro NCAP is a voluntary vehicle safety rating system which originated in the UK
but is now backed by the European Commission, seven European governments, as
well as motoring and consumer organisations in every EU country.[1][2]

Euro NCAP is modelled after the New Car Assessment Program (NCAP),
introduced 1979 by the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.[3]
Other areas with similar (but not identical) programmes include Australia and New
Zealand with ANCAP, Latin America with Latin NCAP and China with C-NCAP.

Euro NCAP publishes safety reports on new cars, and awards 'star ratings' based on
the performance of the vehicles in a variety of crash tests, including front, side and
pole impacts, and impacts with pedestrians. The top overall rating is five stars.

The frontal tests are performed at 64 km/h (40 mph) into an offset deformable
barrier. This is designed to represent an impact with a vehicle of similar mass and
structure as the car itself.[5] The side impact tests are performed at 50 km/h (31
mph), but the side impact pole test is performed at 29 km/h (18 mph). The
pedestrian safety tests are performed at 40 km/h (25 mph).

Euro NCAP adopted the rear-impact (whiplash) test as part of its new crash-test
regime from January 1, 2009. This new rating system also focused more of the
overall score on pedestrian protection; Euro NCAP were concerned that car
manufacturers were too fixed on occupant safety rather than the safety of those
outside the vehicle. Results of the first cars to be tested under the new scheme were
released in February 2009.

Over the years, European automakers' cars have become much safer, partly as a
result of the Euro NCAP standards. Test results are commonly presented by motor
press, and in turn greatly influence consumer demand for a vehicle. One notable
example of this is the Rover 100, which after receiving a one-star Adult Occupant
Rating in the tests in 1997, suffered from poor sales and was withdrawn from
production soon afterwards.[6] BMW's 2007 MINI, for example, had its bonnet
(hood) and headlamp fixture changed to meet the latest pedestrian safety
requirements.

Euro NCAP testing is not mandatory, with vehicle models either being
independently chosen by Euro NCAP or voluntarily tested by the manufacturers.[8].
In Europe, new cars are certified as legal for sale under the Whole Vehicle Type
Approval regimen that differs from Euro NCAP. According to Euro NCAP[9], "The
frontal and side impact crash tests used by Euro NCAP are based on those used in
European legislation. However, much higher performance requirements are used
by Euro NCAP. The frontal impact speed used by Euro NCAP is 64 km/h
compared 56 km/h for legislation." Euro NCAP also states that "Legislation sets a
minimum compulsory standard whilst Euro NCAP is concerned with best possible
current practice. Progress with vehicle safety legislation can be slow, particularly
as all EU Member States’ views have to be taken into account. Also, once in place,
legislation provides no further incentive to improve, whereas Euro NCAP provides
a continuing incentive by regularly enhancing its assessment procedures to
stimulate further improvements in vehicle safety."

Conclusion
The advantages of safety devices have proven to be an effective tool in automobile
industry. Safety Systems offer protection in car accidents, and they reduce the risk
of injuries by 75 percent. According to NHTSA, in 2006 over 15,000 lives were
saved by safety devices and as usage increases, traffic fatalities decrease.
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http://www.euroncap.com/about.aspx

D.C. Grabowski, M.A. Morrissey (2004) (journal article). Gasoline Prices and
Motor Vehicle Fatalities. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, Vol. 23, pp.
575-593.

L.S. Robertson (2007) (book). Injury Epidemiology (Third edition, pp. 186-194
ed.). Oxford University Press.
NHTSA Assessment of seat belt use
http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/research/BuckleUp/ii__trends.htm

An Investigation into the Relationship between Vehicle Colour and Crash Risk
http://www.monash.edu.au/muarc/reports/muarc263.pdf

The Seat Belt, Swedish Research and Development for Global Automotive Safety